Diamonds & Diamond Grading: Book 4

Diamonds &
Diamond Grading
BOOK 4
17. Estimating Weight, Recutting, and Polishing
18. Diamond Simulants
19. Laboratory-Grown Diamonds and Treatments
20. Succeeding in the Marketplace
6/2019
Diamonds and Diamond Grading
Book 4
Assignment 17 Estimating Weight, Recutting, and Repolishing . . . . 1
Assignment 18 Diamond Simulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Assignment 19 Laboratory-Grown Diamonds and Treatments . . . . 63
Assignment 20 Succeeding in the Marketplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
For Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

©
©2019 The Gemological Institute of America
All rights reserved: Protected under the Berne Convention.
No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, transferred, or
transmitted in any form or by any means whatsoever without the
express written permission of GIA.
Printed in the United States.
Cover photos (top to bottom):
DeBeers
Valerie Power/GIA
John Koivula/GIA
Nicholas DelRe/GIA
H. Armstrong Roberts/Harstock
Estimating Weight, Recutting,
and Repolishing
17
Grading Mounted Diamonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Evaluating Clarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Evaluating Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Evaluating Measurements and Cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Estimating Diamond Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Adjusting for Shape and Proportion Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Weight Estimation Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Repolishing and Recutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Repolishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Recutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Reasons to Recut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Deciding on the Recut Style. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Consulting with the Cutter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
A Happy Ending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1
Welcome to Diamonds and Diamond Grading Assignment 17.
With the knowledge you gain from this assignment, you’ll be able to:
• Understand the special challenges of grading mounted diamonds.

• Use estimation techniques to evaluate a mounted diamond’s clarity, color, cut,
and carat weight.
• Explain the advantages and disadvantages of recutting or repolishing a
diamond.
• Communicate effectively with a diamond cutter to get the best possible
recutting results.
2
ESTIMATING WEIGHT, R ECUTTING, AND R EPOLISHING
Hulton Archive
The famous Koh-i-Noor diamond was recut in the 1850s to improve its appearance.
Unfortunately, this caused the diamond to lose a lot of its historical value and almost
half its weight.
ESTIMATING WEIGHT, RECUTTING,

AND REPOLISHING
Stephanie had recently earned her Graduate Gemologist diploma from
GIA, and she was working for an independent jewelry store. One after-
noon, a woman came into the store with a diamond ring that she and her
husband had bought there several years earlier. The diamond was prong-
set in platinum, and both the stone and the setting were damaged. The
woman explained that her child had accidentally closed a car door on the
woman’s hand, and the diamond ring had taken the brunt of the damage.
Stephanie examined the ring with a 10X loupe and checked her store’s
records to confirm that the diamond was the same 1.12-ct. round brilliant
the couple had purchased. Stephanie then looked at the ring with the
store’s gemological microscope and invited the customer to do the same.
The woman gasped. The car door had bent the setting, ripped away a
prong, and taken a good-sized chip from the stone’s girdle.
3
DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND G RADING 17
The customer asked Stephanie if the size and beauty of her diamond
could be preserved, and the ring restored. Stephanie replied that restoring
the ring would be easy, but determining what to do about the damaged
diamond would require careful calculations and serious thought.
Stephanie asked the woman to leave the ring so she could thoroughly
assess it, and promised to call with suggestions the next day.
Stephanie’s solution to the situation—which you’ll read about later—
involves some of the things you’ll learn in this assignment.
Retail jewelers routinely take in mounted diamonds like this for repair.
Diamonds are tough, but they can
Increasingly—as you’ll learn later in this assignment—they also work
with cutters to repolish and recut stones. Dealers might also arrange for
be damaged. Chips like this one can
the recutting of poorly cut diamonds that aren’t selling. The more
sometimes be repaired with very little
marketable diamonds that result—with better proportions and improved

weight loss.
light return—are sometimes worth the loss of weight.
GRADING MOUNTED DIAMONDS

■ How do you judge the clarity, color, and cut of mounted
diamonds?
■ How do you estimate the weight of mounted diamonds?
Most diamonds that are bought or sold at the retail level, and most
diamonds that are taken in for cleaning, repair, or recutting, are mounted
in jewelry. Jewelers and consumers rarely deal in loose stones.
A mounting almost always makes it difficult to assess a diamond. It’s
impossible to accurately weigh a mounted diamond, and the mounting can
Ke y C o n c e p t s
A mounting almost always limits your
ability to assess a diamond.
Barry Block/The Jewelry Judge
Most of the diamonds that jewelry professionals examine are mounted. It’s important
to know how to modify grading techniques to accommodate the limitations that
mountings create.
4
cover some parts of a stone and make measuring a challenge. It can also
hide a diamond’s imperfections and affect its apparent color. That’s why
estimation plays an important part in the grading of mounted diamonds.
Because they involve estimates and value judgments, grades for mounted
diamonds are never as accurate or consistent as grades for loose stones. For
this reason, the GIA Laboratory only issues diamond grading reports for
loose stones.
EVALUATING CLARITY
The techniques for grading clarity are basically the same for loose and
mounted diamonds, with some added considerations for mountings. For
example, mountings can limit the number of viewing angles and make it
difficult to find inclusions.
A mounting can interfere with proper lighting, and it might also Valerie Power/GIA
produce confusing reflections. A fiber-optic lighting system can help, Fiber-optic lighting can help you examine
because the light’s brightness and focus are adjustable and the lamp’s
a mounted diamond. You can direct the
flexible pipe allows the light to be directed where it’s needed.

concentrated light into areas that other
types of lighting might not be able to
Prongs often hide blemishes and inclusions. You can see what’s under
reach.
a prong by finding the prong’s reflection in the opposite side of the

pavilion, then carefully examining the area around it. Rocking the stone
back and forth can make the reflection of a hidden inclusion visible.
With higher-clarity diamonds, you might have to remove the diamond Ke y C o n c e p t s
from the mounting to obtain accurate grading results. Under those circum-
stances, be aware that the difference between IF and VVS can have a
A grader can use reflections to see
dramatic effect on a diamond’s value, so it’s also a good idea to submit
inclusions hidden by prongs.
the diamond to a laboratory for grading.
Plots of mounted diamonds (above) include the metalwork that holds the diamonds
in place. The locations of the prongs are indicated by black dashed lines on a plot
(right).
5
For mounted diamonds, appraisers usually state a single clarity grade

for large diamonds and a range of two possible grades for small ones.
They also state that the diamonds are mounted. On plots, prongs and other
metal appear as dashed black outlines.
EVALUATING COLOR
A mounting can inhibit accurate color grading because it interferes with a
clear pavilion view and makes it difficult to accurately compare the diamond
to a masterstone.
The metal can also influence the diamond’s apparent color. Diamonds
that look light yellow face-up are usually set in yellow gold because it helps
to mask any yellowish color. Platinum and white gold would make the color
more apparent.
You evaluate the color of mounted diamonds under 10X magnification.
Your observation methods can vary, depending on the type of mounting and
Color-grading mounted diamonds can
the equipment available to you, but you will still be comparing the diamond
be especially difficult because the color
to masterstones against a non-reflective white background, using a daylight-

of the metal can mask diamond color. A
equivalent overhead light source.

grader will estimate the color as closely
as possible, then note on the report that
Use one of these observation methods for diamonds in the D-to-Z color
the grade’s accuracy was limited by the
range:
mounting.
• If the diamond is in a solitaire setting, you can use the same method as for
loose stones, holding the mounting so the diamond is in the table-down
position as you move it along the row of masters.
• Another method is to hold the masterstone in tweezers, with its table close
to the table of the mounted diamond. You then compare the diamond to
one masterstone at a time by observing their corresponding crown areas.
Repeat the process until you find the closest match.
• If the crown is not visible in the profile view, another option is to hold the
diamond and the masterstone side-by-side to perform a face-up color
comparison.
Large stones are assigned a single color grade, but the smaller the
mounted stone, the more difficult the color-grading task becomes. When
you examine them side-by-side, the colors of two small mounted stones can
look similar, even if they differ by two or three color grades. To compensate,
appraisers generally give small mounted stones—generally those under
0.20 ct.—a range of two possible color grades. In all cases, you should note
that the stone was graded under the limitations imposed by a mounting.
EVALUATING MEASUREMENTS AND CUT

The process of evaluating a mounted diamond’s measurements, propor-
tions, and finish is essentially the same as for loose stones, with some
minor differences and considerations. The mounting might allow you to
Denise Conrad/GIA
measure the stone’s dimensions with a millimeter gauge. However, if the

You evaluate the color of a mounted
diamond under 10X magnification, using
mounting covers the girdle edge, you’ll have to estimate the stone’s diameter
a daylight-equivalent light source against
or length and width.

a non-reflective white background, such
as a sheet of paper.
6
When a bezel or channel setting hides the edge of the girdle, you have
to estimate its location. On a brilliant cut, this involves following the
edges of opposing bezel facets down to the rim of the setting and esti-
mating where they would come to a point under the metal. Then, you can
measure between those points.
If the diamond is round, measure across all four pairs of bezels, record
the minimum and maximum, then calculate the average diameter. With
most brilliant fancy cuts, you only need to take two measurements—
length and width. With a bezel setting, you have to estimate
As you learned in Assignment 14, you can either measure or estimate

diamond diameter. The dotted line shows
table size. Direct measurement is most accurate, but estimation techniques

the approximate position of this diamond’s
girdle under the mounting.
can save time and be fairly accurate.
Estimating the crown angle of a mounted diamond is probably easier
with the face-up method than with the profile method. This is because it’s
usually easier to get a clear view of some of the bezel facets face-up than
it is in the profile view. For round brilliants, you can use the estimated
crown angle and table percentage to find the crown height percentage
on the Estimated Crown Height Percentage chart in the back of this
assignment.
When a bezel setting conceals the girdle, you can assess the girdle’s
thickness and condition by checking its reflection in the pavilion. On
brilliant cuts, be sure to judge the thickness between the upper and lower
Pedro Padua/GIA
half facets rather than between the bezel facets and pavilion mains. The
Most mountings allow you to use a
table gauge to measure a diamond’s
reflection of a bruted girdle looks like a uniform gray streak, while a
table. It’s a direct and accurate method
rough, dirty girdle has a speckled reflection. To see the reflection of a

for determining table size.
faceted girdle, look carefully for images of the facet junctions.

If a stone is prong-set, you can judge the girdle’s thickness and condition
by observing the visible areas, then assessing the areas that are hidden by
the prongs. You do this by tilting the stone, looking through the table, and
observing the girdle’s reflection in the pavilion.
Both by Pedro Padua/GIA
To judge the girdle of a prong-set diamond, examine the areas that aren’t covered
(left). You can judge hidden girdle areas by observing their reflections through the
table (right).
7
You can calculate girdle thickness percentage the same as you would for
loose stones: by subtracting the crown height percentage and pavilion depth
percentage from the total depth percentage. When it is not possible to
measure the diamond’s depth or calculate its total depth percentage, you can
estimate girdle thickness percentage by referring to the Estimated Girdle
Thickness Percentage chart in the back of this assignment.
Judging the pavilion depths and pavilion angles of rounds is the same
with loose and mounted stones. In Assignment 15, you learned how to use
the table reflections in the face-up view to judge the depth of the pavilion.
If you know the crown height percentage, you can estimate pavilion depth
percentage by multiplying the crown height percentage by your visual esti-
mation of the relationship between the pavilion depth and the crown height.
For example, if a diamond’s crown height percentage is 14.4 percent
and its pavilion is about three times as deep as its crown, you can calculate
Eric Welch/GIA
its pavilion depth by multiplying 14.4 percent times three:

If the mounting is open in the back,
14.4% × 3 = 43.2% pavilion depth, rounded to 43%

you can measure the diamond’s depth
directly with a millimeter gauge.
You can also estimate a round diamond’s pavilion depth if you know
its total depth percentage, crown height percentage, and girdle thickness
percentage. Simply add the crown height percentage to the girdle thickness
percentage and subtract that total from the total depth percentage. The
result is the diamond’s estimated pavilion depth percentage.
On fancy cuts, you might be able to visually judge pavilion depth and
pavilion bulge if the mounting allows you to see the stone’s profile. The
pavilions of most well-made diamonds are between 2.5 and 4.5 times the
depths of their crowns.
You can determine total depth percentage if you can get the measuring
device to contact the diamond’s culet. You’ll have to convert the millimeter
figure to a percentage to use in the calculation for pavilion depth percentage.
You do this by dividing the diamond’s depth by its width if it’s a fancy
shape, or by its average girdle diameter if it’s a round, then multiplying by
100 and rounding to the nearest tenth of a percent.
There will always be times when you can’t see or measure the pavilion.
Under those circumstances, just make the best estimation you can.
You can judge culet size by looking through the table, just as for loose
diamonds. Judge polish and symmetry as you would on a loose stone, but
use reflections to see areas hidden by the mounting.
If you have internet access, you can use the online GIA Facetware®
Cut Estimator to estimate the cut grade of a mounted round brilliant
diamond. If you do not have access to the internet, the visual estimation
techniques explained in Assignments 14 and 15 are good alternatives.
ESTIMATING DIAMOND WEIGHT

Diamond professionals use mathematical formulas to estimate the weights
Todd Flashner/Whitney Boin Inc.
Weight has to be estimated for mounted

of mounted round and fancy-cut diamonds. The formulas—which you’ll
find on pages 10 and 11—assume fairly standard, modern proportions and
diamonds like these. It’s not practical to
basically symmetrical designs.

remove them from their mountings to
find their actual weights.
8
When you use weight estimation formulas, you should also use what
you know about the proportion variations that might affect your results.
No single formula can apply to every variation in shape and proportion,
especially at the precise levels required for diamonds. Be aware that
extreme variations can affect the accuracy of your weight estimation.
It’s important to use the correct weight estimation formula. Watch for
proportion variations that require adjustments, and pay attention to the
placement of decimal points. It’s easy to make a mistake when writing
down measurements or doing calculations. When you’re finished, take a
last look at the stone to see if your weight estimate is reasonable. Keep in
mind that these formulas work only for diamonds, not other gems.
As with so many other aspects of grading, the key to accurate weight
estimation is experience. Practice with loose stones, first estimating and Barry Block/The Jewelry Judge
then weighing to check your results. See where you go wrong, and refine Mountings make grading difficult. With
your adjustments.
care and patience, appraisers and
other jewelry professionals can still
With careful measurements and adjustments, skilled graders can consis-

make very accurate decisions about a
tently estimate weight within 10 percent. Thus, a stone with an estimated

diamond’s clarity, color, cut, and carat
weight of 1.00 ct. might actually weigh between 0.90 ct. and 1.10 cts. It’s
weight.
important for your customers or clients to understand that your estimate is

not an exact weight. On appraisals or other business forms, use a qualifying
statement like “weight estimated by formula from measurements.”
ADJUSTING FOR SHAPE AND PROPORTION VARIATIONS
A thick girdle adds weight at the widest part of the diamond so, of all the
possible proportion variations, girdle thickness has the greatest effect on Ke y C o n c e p t s
estimated weight. This is especially true if the girdle is thicker than Practice is the key to accurate
medium. To allow for this, use the Weight Correction Factors for Thicker
Girdles chart in the back of this assignment. Be careful not to confuse it
weight estimation.
with the Estimated Girdle Thickness Percentage chart you use to estimate
total depth percentage.
Proportion variations like thick girdles
Diamonds of all shapes require weight corrections—which range from

can affect the accuracy of estimated
1 to 12 percent—for girdle thickness. But fancy cuts also need weight
weights.
corrections for girdle outline variations like high shoulders on pear shapes
and ovals; bulged wings on pears, hearts, and marquises; or pavilion bulge The weight correction factors for
on emerald cuts. fancy cuts allow for variations that
Depending on how obvious the variations are, you should select a
aren’t seen in rounds.
weight correction factor from 1 to 10 percent. Add this to any correction
for girdle thickness. For example, with a 3 percent adjustment for girdle
thickness and a 5 percent correction for girdle outline, the total weight
correction is 8 percent. Use this sum of the two percentages—added to
100 percent—in your weight estimation formula. In this example, you
would use 108 percent, or 1.08. When there’s no correction for girdle
thickness or outline shape or symmetry, simply drop the weight correction
from the formula.
9
Diamond Weight Estimation Formulas

ROUND BRILLIANT
2
Estimated weight = average girdle diameter * × depth ×
0.0061 × weight correction
*This means you should take the average girdle diameter

and multiply it by itself (AGD×AGD).
OVAL BRILLIANT
2
Estimated weight = average girdle diameter * × depth ×
0.0062 × weight correction
*This means you should take the average girdle diameter and
multiply it by itself (AGD×AGD).
AGD = (L + W) ÷ 2
HEART
Estimated weight = length × width × depth × 0.0059 ×
weight correction
TRIANGULAR BRILLIANT
weight correction
SQUARE OR RECTANGULAR PRINCESS CUT

weight correction
10
BAGUETTE
Estimated weight = length × width × depth × 0.00915
TAPERED BAGUETTE
Estimated weight = length × width × depth × 0.00915
(Width = the average of the two parallel edges)
EMERALD AND RADIANT CUTS

Estimated weight = length × width × depth × adjustment
factor × weight correction
Adjustment factors for emerald and radiant cuts:
L-to-W Ratio Adjustment Factor
1.00:1.00 0.0080
1.50:1.00 0.0092
2.00:1.00 0.0100
2.50:1.00 0.0106
MARQUISE
Adjustment factors for marquises:
1.50:1.00 0.00565
2.00:1.00 0.00580
2.50:1.00 0.00585
3.00:1.00 0.00595
PEAR
Adjustment factors for pears:
1.25:1.00 0.00615
1.50:1.00 0.00600
1.66:1.00 0.00590
2.00:1.00 0.00575
All by Peter Johnston/GIA
11
WEIGHT ESTIMATION PROCEDURES
To estimate the weight of a round brilliant, you have to know its average
diameter and depth in millimeters and its overall girdle thickness.
If the stone is prong-set, find the average diameter by measuring the
girdle diameter in as many places between the prongs as you can. If it’s
bezel-set, estimate the diameter across all four pairs of bezel facets.
Record the smallest and largest measurements or estimates, add them, and
divide by two. Then round the result to the nearest hundredth (0.01) of a
millimeter.
As you learned earlier, you can measure the depth directly if you can
get one jaw of the measuring device on the culet and the other on the table.
Otherwise, you have to estimate.
Wilson Valentin/iStockphoto
If a stone is prong-set, you can still find
To estimate the weights of fancy cuts, you have to know length and
the average girdle diameter by measuring
across as many of the exposed areas as
width. For most fancy cuts, length is the longest dimension and width is
you can.
the longest of the dimensions that are perpendicular to the length.

If a triangle’s sides are about equal, any side can be the width. If one
side is noticeably longer or shorter than the other two, use that one as the
width. Length is the distance from the center of the side you use as the
width to the opposite point. So a triangle’s length can be shorter than its
width. On hearts, length is the distance from the point to an imaginary line
across the tops of the lobes.
The points on marquises, pears, hearts, and triangles are vulnerable to
chipping, so settings often have V-corners or prongs covering these areas.
If metal covers the girdle along the length or width, you have to estimate
where the edge is and measure from there.
There’s a figure that’s part of all weight estimation formulas. It’s an
adjustment factor that was derived through trial and error while working
with thousands of diamonds of certain dimensions and known weights.
For round brilliants, it’s 0.0061. There are similar adjustment factors for
other shapes. These are included as part of the weight estimation formulas
on pages 10 and 11.
There’s no universal adjustment factor for elongated cuts, so emerald
cuts, radiant cuts, marquises, and pears require an additional calculation
for weight estimation: length-to-width ratio. As you learned in Assignment
16, you calculate length-to-width ratio by first dividing length by width,
then rounding the result to the nearest hundredth (0.01) of a millimeter.
That value represents length in the ratio. Assign a value of 1.00 to width
and record the length-to-width ratio as x:1.00, replacing x with the rounded
length value.
Once you know the length-to-width ratio, you can use the small charts
that assign different adjustment factors to different length-to-width ratios
for each shape. Use the adjustment factors from the charts in the weight
estimation formulas.
12
Estimating Weights of Mounted Baguettes and Small Rounds

Baguettes and small, round diamonds are among
the most common accent stones used in diamond
jewelry. But they’re often channel-set, making
them difficult to measure. Many jewelers use
clear plastic templates with cutouts or printed
outlines that represent various weights.
For baguettes, a template can give a rough
idea of a stone’s weight, but the outlines rarely
match stones exactly, so you usually have to FULL CUTS SINGLE CUTS
estimate between the closest outlines to get
reasonable weight estimates. To complicate
Diameter Approx. Wt. Diameter Approx. Wt.
matters even more, a mounting might keep

1.3 0.010 1.0 0.005
you from placing the template over a stone.

1.7 0.020 1.1 0.007
1.8 0.023 1.2 0.009
You can estimate the weights of small,

1.9 0.027 1.3 0.010
round diamonds with the following charts.

2.0 0.030 1.4 0.013
2.1 0.035 1.5 0.015
Since a millimeter gauge might not fit right

2.2 0.040 1.6 0.017
up against the girdle of a small stone, many

2.3 0.045 1.7 0.020
people use a table gauge and magnification to

2.4 0.050 1.8 0.025
measure the diameters of very small mounted

2.5 0.055 1.9 0.030
2.6 0.060 2.0 0.035
diamonds. A very thick girdle might require a

2.7 0.070
slight upward adjustment, but otherwise, the

2.8 0.080 (Single cuts larger than
figures are close enough.

2.9 0.090 0.035 ct. are rare.)
3.0 0.100
To find the total estimated weight of a cluster

3.1 0.110
of small diamonds, measure all the stones and,

3.2 0.125
3.3 0.140
if possible, sort them into size categories. Then

3.4 0.150
figure the total weight of each category and add

3.5 0.160
the category weights together.

3.6 0.170
3.7 0.180
Example: A cluster-style ring is set with 17

3.8 0.200
full-cut rounds; eight measure 2.00 mm in diam-

4.1 0.250
eter, five measure 2.20 mm, and four measure

5.2 0.500
6.5 1.000
2.50 mm.
7.4 1.500
It’s not unusual to encounter
Individual weights from table:
8.2 2.000
jewelry set with many small
2.0 mm, 0.03 ct.

baguettes. You can estimate
their weights by using tem-
2.2 mm, 0.04 ct.

plates, or get more accurate
2.5 mm, 0.055 ct.

figures by direct measurement
and calculation.
Total weight = (8 × 0.03) + (5 × 0.04)

+ (4 × 0.055)
= 0.24 cts. + 0.20 cts. + 0.22 ct.
To estimate the weights of
very small mounted diamonds,
= 0.66 ct.
determine if the stones are
single or full cuts, measure
their diameters, then refer to
the charts for corresponding
weights.
Both by Peter Johnston/GIA
13
Real Weight Estimations Using Formulas on Pages 10 & 11

STATISTICS
• Emerald-cut center stone: 7.75 mm × 4.94 mm × 3.58 mm, medium girdle
• First emerald-cut side stone: 5.01 mm × 3.85 mm × 2.75 mm, thick girdle
• Second emerald-cut side stone: 4.90 mm × 3.67 mm × 2.40 mm, thin girdle
CENTER STONE CALCULATIONS

Length-to-width ratio = (7.75 ÷ 4.94):1.00
= 1.5688:1.00, round to 1.57:1.00
Since that’s close to 1.50:1.00, you can use a 0.0092 adjustment factor. This
stone needs no girdle thickness correction factor because the girdle is medium.
Estimated weight = 7.75 × 4.94 × 3.58 × 0.0092
Joel Beeson/GIA
= 1.2609, round to 1.26 cts.
FIRST SIDE STONE CALCULATIONS

L-to-W ratio = (5.01 ÷ 3.85):1:00
= 1.3013:1.00, round to 1.30:1.00
Since this is between the ratios of 1.00:1.00 and 1.50:1.00, find those ratios
on the emerald-cut adjustment factor chart and interpolate between them. In
this case, take the adjustment factor for a 1.00:1.00 ratio and the factor for
a 1.50:1.00 ratio and average them.
(0.0080 + 0.0092) ÷ 2 = 0.0086
Since the girdle is thick and the width of the stone is 3.85 mm, the weight
correction from the chart should be 4 percent.
Estimated weight = 5.01 × 3.85 × 2.75 × 0.0086 × 1.04
= 0.4744, round to 0.47 ct.
SECOND SIDE STONE AND TOTAL WEIGHT CALCULATIONS

L-to-W ratio = (4.90 ÷ 3.67):1:00
= 1.3351:1.00, round to 1.34:1.00
Since this is between the ratios of 1.00:1.00 and 1.50:1.00, find those ratios
on the emerald-cut adjustment factor chart and interpolate between them. In
this case, 0.0086 would work. This stone needs no girdle thickness correction
factor because the girdle is thin.
= 0.3712, round to 0.37 ct.
The ring’s total estimated weight = 1.26 + 0.47 + 0.37 = 2.10 cts.
14
STATISTICS
• Oval center stone: 7.90 mm × 5.60 mm × 3.69 mm, thick girdle
• First pear-shaped side stone: 7.10 mm × 4.80 mm × 2.90 mm, thick
girdle
• Second pear-shaped side stone: 7.08 mm × 4.78 mm × 2.67 mm,
medium girdle

Average girdle diameter = (7.90 + 5.60) ÷ 2
= 6.75
Because the stone has a thick girdle, it will require a 3 percent correction Joel Beeson/GIA
factor, as taken from the Weight Correction Percentage Chart.

= 1.0737, round to 1.07 cts.

L-to-W ratio = (7.10 ÷ 4.80):1:00
= 1.4792:1.00, round to 1.48:1.00
Since this is very close to the 1.50:1.00 ratio, you can use 0.00600 as the
adjustment factor.
Because the stone has a thick girdle, it will require a 3 percent correction
factor, as taken from the Weight Correction Percentage Chart.
Estimated weight = 7.10 × 4.80 × 2.90 × 0.00600 × 1.03
= 0.6107, round to 0.61 ct.

L-to-W ratio = (7.08 ÷ 4.78):1:00
= 1.4812:1.00, round to 1.48:1.00
Since this is very close to the 1.50:1.00 ratio, you can use 0.00600
as the adjustment factor.
This stone needs no girdle thickness correction factor because the
girdle is medium.
= 0.5421, round to 0.54 ct.
The ring’s total estimated weight = 1.06 + 0.61 + 0.54 = 2.21 cts.
continued...
15
STATISTICS
• Radiant-cut center stone: 7.95
mm × 6.75 mm × 4.63 mm,
thin to medium girdle
• First trilliant-cut side stone:
6.95 mm × 6.73 mm × 3.00
mm, thin to medium girdle
• Second trilliant-cut side stone:
6.92 mm × 6.71 mm × 2.98
mm, thin to medium girdle
Joel Beeson/GIA

L-to-W ratio = (7.95 ÷ 6.75):1.00
= 1.1778:1.00, round to 1.18:1.00
This falls between the ratios 1.00:1.00 and 1.50:1.00, so you can
interpolate between the corresponding adjustment factors 0.0080
and 0.0092. In this case, 0.0086 will work.
= 2.1367, round to 2.14 cts.

= 0.7998, round to 0.80 ct.

= 0.7887 round to 0.79 ct.
The ring’s total estimated weight = 2.14 + 0.80 + 0.79
= 3.73 cts.
16
STATISTICS
• Oval center stone: 8.68 mm ×
5.78 mm × 3.74 mm, medium
girdle
• First princess-cut side stone:
4.01 mm × 2.51 mm × 2.21 mm
• Second princess-cut side stone:
4.00 mm × 2.57 mm × 2.22 mm
• Round accent stones: 4.10-mm
diameter and 4.15-mm diameter Joel Beeson/GIA

Average girdle diameter = (8.68 + 5.78) ÷ 2
= 7.23
Estimated weight = 7.23 × 3.74 × 0.0062
2
= 1.2121, round to 1.21 cts.

= 0.1846, round to 0.18 ct.
SECOND SIDE STONE CALCULATIONS

= 0.1894, round to 0.19 ct.
ACCENT STONE AND TOTAL WEIGHT CALCULATIONS

The rounds are full cut, so according to the chart on page 13, they
each weigh approximately 0.25 ct.
The ring’s total estimated weight = 1.21 + 0.18 + 0.19 + 0.25 + 0.25
= 2.08 cts.
17
Diamonds in jewelry are vulnerable to
damage.
Repolishing—Refinishing a
polished diamond to correct minor
faults in its clarity or finish.
Recutting—Repairing damage or
refashioning a polished diamond
to improve its clarity, proportions,
or color, or to modernize an old-
style cut.
Eric Welch/GIA
Diamonds are not indestructible. They can be damaged during cutting, setting, or
repair work, or while they’re being worn.
REPOLISHING AND RECUTTING

■ What are the reasons to repolish or recut a diamond?
■ How can recutting change a diamond’s cutting style?
■ What are some cautions about recutting diamonds?
Despite the fact that diamond is the hardest substance found in nature,
diamonds in jewelry can be damaged. Someone who wears a diamond
every day might abrade its facet junctions. A bench jeweler might
knock a corner off while repairing a prong. A manufacturer might chip
a girdle while mounting a diamond. Although shapes with points are
more prone to damage, diamonds of any shape in jewelry are vulnerable
to damage.
Repolishing and recutting have the same purpose—to restore the
appearance of a damaged diamond. In the scenario at the beginning of this
18
Eric Welch/GIA
A skilled cutter can often repair a damaged diamond and restore its appearance and value. Sometimes, very little weight is lost
in this process.
assignment, Stephanie had to consider the best way to restore her customer’s
diamond to its pre-accident state. She knew that the diamond’s condition
was too poor for simple repolishing. It had to be recut.
REPOLISHING
Repolishing usually involves simply refinishing a diamond to correct minor
faults in its clarity or finish. A cutter repolishes a diamond to eliminate
nicks, abrasions, or small chips that might detract from its appearance and
that might affect its clarity grade. For example, a cutter might replace
some nicks or chips with extra facets.
Some diamonds are judged to be potentials or improvables, usually by
Potentials—Diamonds that can be
repolished to improve their clarity
a diamond-grading lab like the GIA Laboratory. The lab grades and plots to an Internally Flawless grade.
the stone and specifies how its clarity grade might be improved by repol-
ishing. The clarity of potentials can be raised to Internally Flawless (IF), Improvables—Diamonds that can
while improvables can be raised to a VVS1 or VVS2 grade, usually with be repolished to improve their
minor repolishing of surface characteristics. clarity to a VVS1 or VVS2 grade.
19
Occasionally, the color of a diamond

can be improved slightly by polishing or
faceting its girdle.
•552 A DIAMOND SINGLE STONE RING

Set with a marquise–cut diamond weighing approximately 8.94 cts., flanked on each
side by a tapered baguette–cut diamond, mounted in platinum.
With certificate 10189609 from the Gemological Institute of America stating that the diamond
is D color (colorless) and VS1, accompanied by a working diagram indicating that the
stone may be improvable.
Christie’s Images Inc.
When the clarity grade of a diamond might be improved by minor repolishing, some
grading laboratories issue reports that make note of that fact. The auction house
accompanied this 8.94-ct. marquise with a statement of its lab-declared improvability.
Three factors determine the effect of a clarity-improving repolish on a

diamond’s value: the stone’s color, its old and new clarity grades, and the
finished weight. For example, a stone in the D to G color grades that
moved from VS1 or VS2 up to VVS2, or from VVS1 to IF, would increase
more in value than a diamond below H or I color that improved comparably
in clarity.
A repolishing operation that can improve a diamond’s color involves
polishing or faceting a previously bruted girdle. Grime, grease, and bits of
metal from tweezers can become embedded in a bruted girdle. Polishing
or faceting the girdle removes foreign matter and creates a smooth surface.
It might also lighten the diamond’s color. Creating a very thin girdle can
sometimes have a similar effect.
20
RECUTTING
Full recutting involves the refashioning of a polished diamond to improve
its clarity, proportions, or color, or to modernize an old-style cut.
Repairing damage to a diamond doesn’t always require a complete
recutting. For example, a cutter might have to repair just the crown or
just the pavilion.
A damaged round might be recut as a round, or a damaged fancy cut
might be recut as a different fancy cut. A poorly made modern cut might
be recut to improve its proportions. Or an old-style cut might be com-
pletely recut in a modern style.
The bottom line in any diamond recutting consideration is the value
of the resulting finished diamond. Weight plus beauty equals value. A
diamond owner rarely sacrifices weight for the sake of beauty alone. The
decision is usually a compromise between the two factors, with weight
being primary.
When deciding whether or not to recut a diamond, it’s important to
know what the recut diamond will weigh. But recut weights are only
Both by Kay Morrow
estimates. You can never really be sure what a stone will weigh until the
This recut pear shows that a damaged
recutting is complete. Still, the better your measurements and calculations,

diamond (top) can often be restored to
the closer your prediction will be. Other considerations are the current and
its original shape (bottom). If more of
expected future appearance and value of the diamond, as well as the cost
the point had been broken off, however,
this stone might have been recut to a
of recutting it.
round brilliant.
REASONS TO RECUT
As you know, a diamond’s proportions determine its brightness, fire, and
scintillation. Most stones are recut to improve their brightness and their
balance between brightness and fire. The recut often makes the stone
more attractive, but unless it can be done with a minimum loss of weight
and apparent size, it might not be worth doing.
The degree of improvement and the recut weight both depend on the
specific problem the recut is intended to solve. Each stone has its own
combination of challenges and opportunities. The cutter’s opinion is
valuable and should be carefully considered. Cutters might advise against
recutting if they feel it might damage the stone.
Diamonds are sometimes recut to improve their clarity. However,
recutting to eliminate an inclusion can be extremely expensive because it
involves weight loss and labor costs. It’s likely that if a previous cutter left
The ultimate recutting consideration
an inclusion in a diamond, it’s because it was too costly to remove it. is the value of the finished diamond.
Depending on the nature and depth of the clarity characteristic, laser
drilling and bleaching can be a less expensive alternative.
One technique cutters can use to improve, or lighten, color in a
diamond is to remove color zoning. If a cutter can remove color zoning
without sacrificing an unacceptable amount of weight, the result can be an
improvement in the diamond’s color. It’s a technique that cutters rarely
use, however.
21
Sylvia Bissonette/J. Grahl Design
The radiant cut’s deep pavilion can concentrate and strengthen diamond color.
Rarely, a colored diamond might be recut into a radiant in an attempt to intensify
its color.
A more common method used to improve a diamond’s color involves

recutting to increase rather than diminish color. The cutter can sometimes
produce a Fancy Intense yellow radiant by recutting a Fancy Light yellow
round brilliant. If the color improves, it’s evident face-up. But this method
often sacrifices 20 to 25 percent of a diamond’s weight. Since a cutter
cannot guarantee color improvement, the weight loss makes it risky for
the diamond’s owner.
22
Ralph Gabriner/Claire Bersani
While some old-mine and old European-cut diamonds are recut to modern propor-
tions, many are used in up-to-date jewelry designs (right) or as replacements for
missing diamonds in antique jewelry (above).
Diamonds are sometimes recut to update old cutting styles, such as

old European and old-mine cuts. However, increasing interest in older
jewelry styles has revived these cuts, and they’re no longer automatically
Today, there’s equal interest in
recut as modern brilliants. In fact, interest in the older styles is so great
maintaining or creating old-style
that consumer demand now has cutters creating historical cuts directly cuts and in recutting them as
from rough. modern brilliants.
23
There are four categories of round or near-round diamonds that can

usually be recut effectively into modern brilliants: those with high crowns
and deep pavilions, those with shallow crowns and shallow pavilions,
those with high crowns and shallow pavilions, and those with shallow
crowns and deep pavilions.
Diamonds with high crowns and deep pavilions, like many old-style
cuts, can be recut to more modern proportions without much loss in
diameter. By decreasing crown angle and increasing table size, the cutter can
improve the efficiency of the crown’s light return. Decreasing the pavilion
angle eliminates the diamond’s dark center and also reduces the size of its
large culet. If the girdle is damaged or out of round, the cutter can usually
repolish it. Because most of a diamond’s weight is concentrated in the girdle
area, these diamonds lose very little weight in the recutting process.
Cutters often have to compensate for very shallow rough by cutting
shallow crown and pavilion angles and large girdle diameters with large
tables. These diamonds are unattractive and difficult to sell. To recut them
Older diamonds aren’t always recut.
with acceptable and saleable proportions, the cutter has to reduce the
Most of the time, repolishing can
remove scratches, abrasions, and
diameter of the diamond while maintaining its original depth.
other signs of wear.
Unfortunately, cutting away such a large portion of the girdle diameter

results in significant weight loss, so it’s rarely done.
Diamonds with very high crowns and shallow pavilions are almost
always old-style cuts, and not very symmetrical. To improve them, the
cutter makes the pavilion angle steeper, cuts away part of the crown and
girdle, and relocates the girdle plane. This reduction in diameter and depth
Diamonds with high crowns and deep Recutting a diamond that has a shallow Recutting a diamond with a high crown
pavilions can be recut without much crown and pavilion can greatly reduce and a shallow pavilion reduces both
loss of girdle diameter. girdle diameter and result in significant diameter and depth.
weight loss.
24
also causes considerable weight loss. Only by recutting with a fairly high
crown, a small table, a thick girdle, and a minimum pavilion depth of
about 42 percent, can the cutter attain the largest possible stone.
Diamonds with shallow crowns and deep pavilions are usually modern
styles. If the crown angle, table size, girdle thickness, and symmetry are
acceptable, it’s possible to improve a gem’s appearance by keeping the
original diameter and crown height and decreasing the pavilion angle.
This results in little weight loss, and the stone will appear the same size
face-up because there was no change in its diameter. If the crown is very
thin, this usually demands a recut of the entire stone.
DECIDING ON THE RECUT STYLE
A diamond’s recut style is largely determined by its original cut. For

example, it’s highly unlikely that a round brilliant would be recut as an
emerald cut or vice versa. The conversion would require far too much loss
of weight and value to be practical. But sometimes a radical change in
cutting style is the only way to salvage a stone.
In the trade, the difference between the original value and the recut
value will always be the primary consideration. But this isn’t always the
case with consumers. A diamond’s value and its appearance carry different
importance for different people. An individual might have damaged a
diamond with sentimental value and want to maintain its appearance as
much as possible, even if it means a loss of weight.
Peter Johnston/GIA
The pavilion of a diamond with a shallow
If a diamond is going to be recut into a new style, it’s important to think

crown and deep pavilion can be recut
about what the trade considers acceptable proportions for that cutting
with very little loss of weight (top).
Recutting the entire stone (bottom)
style. For example, with round brilliants, proportions can affect bright-
would reduce both diameter and depth.
ness, scintillation, and fire, while fancy cuts are often appreciated for their
pleasing girdle outlines. The decision to recut a diamond into a particular
style is limited by the condition and shape of the original stone, and
whether or not the recut stone can be fashioned into proportions that are
acceptable for its new shape.
Fancy cuts are usually recut only when they’re broken. Planning the
recutting of a broken fancy cut often calls for creative thinking. A marquise
with a broken point, for example, might offer several options. The broken
A diamond’s original cutting style
end could be recut to a new point and the opposite end recut to match.
largely governs its style when recut.
Both ends might be rounded for an oval, or only the broken point could be
rounded and the stone cut as a pear. Or the broken end might be flattened
to produce a semi-navette.
To decide, you would calculate the estimated recut weight for each
alternative, consider any possible clarity improvements, and think about
the appeal of the new shape. Perhaps the jeweler would design and
manufacture a piece of jewelry to accommodate the recut stone.
In the end, the diamond’s owner has to decide how, or if, to proceed
with a recut. A retail consumer usually seeks advice from a jeweler, who
normally asks the cutter’s advice.
25
This broken diamond started as a marquise. The nature of This damaged princess cut needs its broken side recut and
the damage and the shape of the remaining portion make a its table and culet recentered by repolishing. The result will be
pear shape the logical choice for recutting. The new shape a more rectangular shape and slightly smaller size.
is represented here by a red line.
This diamond was damaged by years of wear. The cutter This diagram shows what was left of a round brilliant diamond
would probably clean up the damage with a combination of after it was damaged in a garbage disposal. Repairing a stone
repolishing and minor recutting. with this much damage usually results in a great deal of
weight loss.
If you’re considering recutting a stone you own or plan to sell, there’s

another consideration in addition to the cost and the effect on the value
of the diamond: You should also be aware of market conditions. You
should know what’s selling and what shapes and colors are rising or
falling in popularity. If you have an F-color marquise with a broken
point, you might have to choose between recutting it as a pear or an oval.
But it might not make sense to invest in recutting it as an oval if ovals
aren’t selling.
CONSULTING WITH THE CUTTER
When they’re planning to recut a diamond, some jewelers rely totally on

There can be several possible options
for repairing a marquise with a broken
the cutter’s judgment. This is not necessarily an unwise business practice,
point. Consultation with a cutter can
but unless you explain what you want, you might be disappointed. Most
help to determine the most practical
and economical choice.
26
Eric Welch/GIA
It’s important to discuss your expectations with the cutter. As a skilled professional, the cutter can give you an accurate idea of
what a diamond will look like after it’s been repaired or repolished.
cutters aim for the most beautiful diamond possible, consistent with
maximum weight retention.
Before recutting a diamond for sale,
Your position is much like that of a jewelry designer working with a you should know what the market
bench jeweler. The designer plans and designs a ring, then consults the
bench jeweler on the practicality of making it. Even an experienced designer
demand for the new shape will be.
takes suggestions to make an idea more practical. But if a suggested change
fails to meet the design’s objectives, the designer might disregard it.
Cutters usually work with angles
Work with your cutter the same way. Explain the proportions you want,
rather than percentages, so that’s
the weight recovery you anticipate, and your expectations, if any, about
what jewelers should provide.
the clarity grade. Listen to the cutter’s analysis and opinions carefully.
Cutters usually work with angles rather than percentages, so it’s better
to explain the pavilion angle you want, rather than the percentage. Use the
conversion table on the next page.
27
Clear communication is important when you’re working with a cutter and also when
you’re informing your customer about what to expect after a recut.
Many cutters will ask you to sign a form that releases them from
Pavilion Depth % Pavilion Angle liability if they break a stone. If you offer a recutting service to your
(Approx.) customers, have them sign a similar statement, but be tactful about it. The
< 37.5% < 37.0°
chance that a diamond will break is remote. It survived its original cutting,
and it’s likely to survive recutting.
37.5% 37.0°
38.0% 37.4°
38.5% 37.8°
39.0% 38.0°
39.5% 38.4° A HAPPY ENDING
40.0% 38.8°
40.5% 39.0°
In the scenario at the beginning of this assignment, Stephanie began by
earning her customer’s confidence. Then, as promised, she called her
41.0% 39.4°
customer the following day and reported that she had carefully calculated
41.5% 39.8°
the measurements and weight of the resulting diamond if it were recut to

42.0% 40.0°
eliminate the damage and retain its round brilliant shape and approximate
42.5% 40.4°
43.0% 40.8°
proportions. Stephanie also relayed her estimate of the repaired stone’s
43.5% 41.0°
value. She emphasized that while she had been as precise as possible, her
44.0% 41.4°
results were estimates.

44.5% 41.8°
45.0% 42.0°
Stephanie asked her customer’s permission to remove the stone from

45.5% 42.4°
its mounting and send it to her associate, an expert diamond cutter. The
46.0% 42.8°
cutter would analyze the stone and report back on what could be done.
46.5% 43.0°
47.0% 43.4°
Stephanie said that if her customer gave permission, Stephanie could call
47.5% 43.8°
her in a week with the cutter’s analysis and suggestions. The customer
48.0% 44.0°
agreed.
48.5% 44.4°
> 48.5% > 44.4°
28
Jon Riley/Stone/Getty Images
Repairing a cherished diamond can be challenging for you and your cutter, but the experience is also
rewarding and profitable.
A week later, Stephanie called and reported that the cutter’s analysis
was that, although the damage was fairly serious, the stone could be recut
and retain more than 90 percent of its weight, thereby keeping it above
one carat. Stephanie gave her customer the projected dimensions and
weight of the recut stone and quoted the cost of recutting the diamond and
restoring the ring. The customer replied that she would discuss the quote
with her insurance company and call back.
The next day, the customer’s insurance company approved the re-
cutting. Two weeks later, the customer and her husband returned to
Stephanie’s store to pick up the restored diamond ring. They were
delighted with the result, and thanked Stephanie for saving the ring, a
deeply emotional symbol of their bond. And while they were in the store,
they bought a pair of half-carat diamond-stud earrings that coordinated
with the ring.
Stephanie’s expertise and excellent communication and public relations
skills helped her make the situation less stressful for her customer, solved
a serious problem, and brought repair income to her store. She made
another sale, retained two customers, and created goodwill that they’ll
probably pass on by telling their friends. These are the benefits of being a
true professional.
29
A mounting almost always limits your ability to The ultimate recutting consideration is the value of
assess a diamond. the finished diamond.
A grader can use reflections to see inclusions Today, there’s equal interest in maintaining or
hidden by prongs. creating old-style cuts and in recutting them as
modern brilliants.
Practice is the key to accurate weight estimation.
A diamond’s original cutting style largely governs
Proportion variations like thick girdles can affect its style when recut.
the accuracy of estimated weights.
Before recutting a diamond for sale, you should
The weight correction factors for fancy cuts allow know what the market demand for the new shape
for variations that aren’t seen in rounds. will be.
Diamonds in jewelry are vulnerable to damage. Cutters usually work with angles rather than
percentages, so that’s what jewelers should provide.
Key Terms
Improvables—Diamonds that can be Recutting—Repairing damage or refashion-
repolished to improve their clarity to a VVS1 ing a polished diamond to improve its
or VVS2 grade. clarity, proportions, or color, or to modernize
an old-style cut.
Potentials—Diamonds that can be repolished
to improve their clarity to an Internally Repolishing—Refinishing a polished diamond
Flawless grade. to correct minor faults in its clarity or finish.
30
ESTIMATED G IRDLE THICKNESS PERCENTAGE

You can usually calculate mounted stones’ girdle thickness percentages the
same as you would for loose stones: by subtracting the crown height percentage
and pavilion depth percentage from the total depth percentage. However,
sometimes a mounting makes it impossible to measure the diamond’s depth or
calculate its total depth percentage. In those cases, you can estimate girdle
thickness percentage using this table.
Select an estimated girdle thickness percentage from the typical range shown
in the row that most closely matches the diamond’s overall girdle thickness.
Overall Girdle Thickness Estimated Girdle

Thickness Percentage*
ETN 1.5%
VTN 2.0%
THN 2.5%
MED 3.0% to 3.5%
STK 4.0% to 4.5%
THK 5.0% to 6.0%
VTK 6.5% to 8.0%
*The estimated percentages listed here

represent the typical ranges for overall girdle
thickness descriptions. Actual girdle thickness
ETK 8.0% or larger percentage is the average girdle thickness,
measured at the eight bezel-to-main “hill”
positions and expressed as a percentage of
average girdle diameter.
31
ESTIMATED CROWN H EIGHT PERCENTAGE

To estimate the crown height percentage, you have to know the diamond’s table percentage and its crown
angle. Once you’ve determined these figures, find the appropriate table percentage in the chart and follow that
row across to the correct average crown angle column.
Average Crown Angle

20.5° 21° 21.5° 22° 22.5° 23° 23.5° 24° 24.5° 25° 25.5° 26° 26.5° 27° 27.5° 28° 28.5° 29° 29.5° 30° 30.5°
48 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.0 14.5 14.5 15.0 15.5
49 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.0 14.5 14.5 15.0
50 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.0 14.5 14.5
51 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.0 14.5
52 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.0
53 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0
54 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.5 13.5
55 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.5
56 8.0 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 13.0
57 8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5
58 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5
59 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0
Table %
60 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0
61 7.5 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5
62 7.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0
63 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 10.5 11.0
64 6.5 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5
65 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5
66 6.5 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0
67 6.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 9.5
68 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.5
69 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.0
70 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 9.0
71 5.5 5.5 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5
72 5.0 5.5 5.5 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0
73 5.0 5.0 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0
74 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.5 7.5 7.5
75 4.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.5
32
Average Crown Angle

31° 31.5° 32° 32.5° 33° 33.5° 34° 34.5° 35° 35.5° 36° 36.5° 37° 37.5° 38° 38.5° 39° 39.5° 40° 40.5°
15.5 16.0 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.0 17.5 18.0 18.0 18.5 19.0 19.0 19.5 20.0 20.5 20.5 21.0 21.5 22.0 22.0 48
15.5 15.5 16.0 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.0 17.5 18.0 18.0 18.5 19.0 19.0 19.5 20.0 20.5 20.5 21.0 21.5 22.0 49
15.0 15.5 15.5 16.0 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.0 17.5 18.0 18.0 18.5 19.0 19.0 19.5 20.0 20.0 20.5 21.0 21.5 50
14.5 15.0 15.5 15.5 16.0 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.0 17.5 18.0 18.0 18.5 19.0 19.0 19.5 20.0 20.0 20.5 21.0 51
14.5 14.5 15.0 15.5 15.5 16.0 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.0 17.5 18.0 18.0 18.5 19.0 19.0 19.5 20.0 20.0 20.5 52
14.0 14.5 14.5 15.0 15.5 15.5 16.0 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.0 17.5 17.5 18.0 18.5 18.5 19.0 19.5 19.5 20.0 53
14.0 14.0 14.5 14.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.0 16.5 16.5 17.0 17.5 17.5 18.0 18.5 18.5 19.0 19.5 19.5 54
13.5 14.0 14.0 14.5 14.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.0 16.5 16.5 17.0 17.5 17.5 18.0 18.0 18.5 19.0 19.0 55
13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.5 14.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 15.5 16.0 16.5 16.5 17.0 17.0 17.5 18.0 18.0 18.5 19.0 56
13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 15.5 16.0 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.0 17.5 17.5 18.0 18.5 57
12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.0 14.5 14.5 15.0 15.5 15.5 16.0 16.0 16.5 16.5 17.0 17.5 17.5 18.0 58
12.5 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.0 14.5 14.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 15.5 16.0 16.5 16.5 17.0 17.0 17.5 59
Table %
12.0 12.5 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.5 14.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 15.5 16.0 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.0 60
11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.0 14.5 14.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.0 16.5 16.5 61
11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.0 14.5 14.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 15.5 16.0 16.0 62
11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.0 14.5 14.5 15.0 15.5 15.5 16.0 63
11.0 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.0 14.5 14.5 15.0 15.0 15.5 64
10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.0 14.5 14.5 15.0 65
10.0 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.0 14.5 14.5 66
10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 14.0 14.0 67
9.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.5 13.5 68
9.5 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 13.0 13.0 13.0 69
9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 12.5 13.0 70
8.5 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 11.5 12.0 12.0 12.5 71
8.5 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 11.5 12.0 72
8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 11.5 11.5 73
8.0 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 10.5 11.0 11.0 74
7.5 7.5 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.5 8.5 8.5 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.0 9.5 9.5 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.5 10.5 10.5 75
33
WEIGHT CORRECTION FACTORS FOR THICKER G IRDLES
These weight corrections apply to round and fancy-shape diamonds with slightly thick or thicker
girdles.
To determine the weight correction percentage:

1. In the row that matches the diamond’s overall girdle thickness, find the column containing
the closest average girdle diameter for round shapes, or width for fancy shapes.
• ≥ means greater than or equal to
• ≤ means less than or equal to
2. Add this number to 100%, then convert the percentage to a decimal.
Example:
A round brilliant diamond has an overall girdle thickness of thick and an average girdle diameter
of 4.75 mm.
Weight correction % = 3%
Correction factor = 100 + 3 = 103% = 1.03
Overall Weight Correction %

Girdle AGD or Width (mm)
Thickness 12% 11% 10% 9% 8% 7% 6% 5% 4% 3% 2% 1%
STK ≤4.10 4.15-6.90 ≥6.95

THK ≤4.65 4.70-6.55 ≥6.60
VTK ≤4.15 4.20-4.70 4.75-5.50 5.55-6.55 6.60-8.10 ≥8.15
ETK ≤4.15 4.20-4.55 4.60-5.10 5.15-5.75 5.80-6.55 6.60-7.65 ≥7.70
34
Diamond Simulants 18
Separating Diamonds from Simulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Comparing Diamonds and Simulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Past and Present Diamond Simulants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Early Diamond Simulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Foilbacks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Doublets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Flame-Fusion Simulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Zircon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Modern Diamond Simulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Synthetic Rutile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Strontium Titanate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
YAG and GGG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Synthetic Cubic Zirconia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Synthetic Moissanite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Dealing in Diamond Simulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Simulant Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Mistakes and Deceptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
False Advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Staying Alert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
35
• Understand the role of diamond simulants in today’s marketplace.

• Use simple instruments and techniques to separate diamonds from most
simulants.
• Recognize a variety of early as well as modern diamond simulants.
• Communicate honestly with consumers about diamond simulants.
36
DIAMOND SIMULANTS
Diamond simulants make designer-look jewelry affordable enough for everyday wear. This fashionable necklace features synthetic
moissanite.
DIAMOND SIMULANTS
Diamond is one of the world’s most popular gemstones. Its dazzling
appearance and universal appeal have inspired a wide variety of less-
Diamond simulant—Any material
that is not diamond or lab-grown
expensive look-alike materials. Some of them come from the ground, diamond, but which imitates a
and some from the lab. The imitations are called simulants, and many of diamond’s appearance and is
the more-successful ones are quite attractive. Even so, no simulant has used in its place.
come close to matching the combined effect of a diamond’s brilliance,
fire, scintillation, and luster.
One thing that makes simulants important to the jewelry industry is that
they can be manufactured in quantity. This means they’re more plentiful
and readily available—and less expensive—than diamonds.
Simulants can make fashionable jewelry available to people who
want the look of diamonds without the high price. Jewelry designers and
manufacturers know that magnificent diamond jewelry is out of reach
for many people. They can reduce the cost of a stylish ring or necklace
simply by using simulants instead of diamonds.
37
Leo de Wys
Knowledge and careful inspection are your best protection against mistaking
diamond for one of its simulants.
You’ll seldom have problems with simulants if you identify and market
them properly. You’ll only have problems if you allow yourself to accept
a simulant as a diamond. It doesn’t matter whether the simulant comes
Most problems with simulants arise
when you accept or represent them from someone who is unaware of its origins or from a swindler who is
as diamonds. deliberately trying to cheat you. Once you accept a simulant as a diamond,
you’re committed—and in trouble. And that trouble multiplies if you
represent the simulant as a diamond and sell it to someone else.
Knowledge and caution are essential tools for protecting yourself and
your reputation. In this assignment, you’ll learn about the common
simulants as well as some that aren’t so common. You’ll also learn how
to recognize diamond simulants and how to protect yourself and your
clients against misrepresentation and misconceptions about them.
38
DIAMOND SIMULANTS
Diamond simulants can be either
natural or manufactured, and they
don’t have any of diamond’s physical
or chemical properties.
Tino Hammid/GIA
Simulants like these only look like diamonds. They can be made of any natural or
manufactured material. Technology has brought improvements in simulant appearance
and durability.
SEPARATING DIAMONDS FROM SIMULANTS

■ How are simulants different from laboratory-grown and natural
diamonds?
■ What characteristics do most simulants have in common?
Simulants are not lab-grown diamonds. Lab-grown (synthetic) diamonds

are manufactured with essentially the same chemical composition and
crystal structure as natural diamonds. (You’ll learn more about them in
the next assignment.) Simulants, on the other hand, can be either natural
or manufactured.
Simulants don’t have any of diamond’s physical or chemical proper-
ties, and the properties they do have vary widely. Some have uniform
39
Ke y C o n c e p t s crystal structure, while others have no crystal structure at all. Their

only connection with diamonds is that they look like them. In fact, any
colorless transparent material can be used as a diamond simulant.
Diamonds have lower SG and
Simulants are not lab-grown diamonds, and lab-grown diamonds are
higher thermal conductivity than
most simulants. not simulants.
In the jewelry industry, awareness is the best protection against expensive
mistakes. Every time you determine the identity of a stone, you call on
every bit of gemological knowledge you have. Gemologists call this
process “making a separation.”
Some differences between natural diamonds and simulants are easy to
spot, others take more advanced knowledge and equipment. This assign-
ment covers some of the most basic differences. Knowing them can help
you recognize a “diamond” that looks “not quite right,” which can save
you a lot of headaches later.
Separation—Process of COMPARING DIAMONDS AND SIMULANTS

distinguishing natural minerals Diamond is not only harder than any other natural gem, it’s also a lot harder
and gems from each other as than any natural or manufactured simulant. As you’ve learned, diamond’s
well as from lab-grown gems, exceptional hardness makes it possible to achieve very sharp facet junctions
simulants, and treated gems. and superior polish.
A simulant’s comparative softness means that its facet junctions always
appear more rounded than a diamond’s. And most simulants quickly show
Thermal tester—An instrument
signs of wear, with scratches and visible abrasions.

that measures thermal conduc-
tivity to help separate natural and
lab-grown diamonds from most Diamond’s capacity for a superior polish gives it much higher luster
simulants. than a simulant. Even a new, well-polished simulant can’t equal the luster
of a clean diamond in good condition.
You should be able to see these differences in appearance under
magnification, but you might even notice them with your unaided eye. If
you notice these differences in a stone you’re looking at, you should
examine the stone more closely.
Each diamond simulant has its own characteristics that distinguish it
from diamond as well as from other simulants, but there are a couple of
features that most simulants share: high specific gravity (SG) and low
thermal conductivity when compared to diamond. (You learned about
these properties in Assignment 7.)
Diamond’s SG is 3.52, which is lower than the SG of most simulants.
This means that if you compare a diamond and a simulant that have the
same dimensions and cut, most simulants will weigh more.
A gem’s thermal conductivity is the rate at which its surface temperature
changes in response to a specific amount of heat. Diamond has higher
thermal conductivity than almost any simulant. This means diamond stays
cool longer when exposed to heat, so a diamond feels cooler to the touch
than a simulant.
There’s a mechanical test for this property that’s easy enough for
someone without advanced training to do, and it takes just a few seconds.
40
DIAMOND SIMULANTS
See-Through Simulants
In Assignment 8, you learned
that the size of the critical angle
affects the amount of light that
leaves the stone without return-
ing to the crown.
Many diamond simulants have
much larger critical angles than
diamond. In those simulants, a
lot of the light that strikes the
pavilion falls within the critical
Eric Welch/GIA
angle cone and leaks out. This

Most simulants have a lower refractive
index and a larger critical angle than
means that you can see right
diamond, leading to light leakage
through many simulants.

through the pavilion. This makes it
possible to read text through many
The difference is easy to
round brilliant simulants. The diamond
observe. Place a round brilliant

is at the far left. The simulants (left
diamond table-down on a printed

to right) are synthetic moissanite,
page beside almost any simulant.

synthetic cubic zirconia, synthetic
rutile, strontium titanate, zircon, GGG,
You’ll see the print through the
and YAG.
simulant, but not through the diamond, unless it’s very poorly
proportioned. This test is only reliable for modern round brilliants.
The thermal tester (also called a diamond tester or diamond probe) is the
instrument used for this test. It provides a quick, easy, and reliable thermal
conductivity measurement on mounted or loose stones.
You operate most thermal testers by holding the tip of the tester’s
probe against a facet. The tester applies heat to the stone and detects how
quickly the stone draws the heat away. Based on this measurement, a
reading on the dial indicates whether the sample is a diamond or a simulant.
As you’ll learn later, if it reads “diamond,” there’s a possibility that it’s
actually a manmade material called synthetic moissanite.
The results are easy to interpret in most cases, but there are a few cautions.
You must repeat the test if the tip of the probe touches metal. The mounting,
the temperature of the room, and the identity or size of the stone can also
sometimes affect the results. Once you’re aware of these conditions, it’s easy
to adjust for them.
Many jewelers depend on a thermal tester to help make diamond iden-
tification faster and more efficient. New personnel can learn to use it, but This tester identifies, detects, and
it’s also an important tool for people with more diamond experience. Even
separates diamond from moissanite and
experienced jewelers know that identification of a diamond by sight alone

other diamond simulants. Not all thermal
is very risky.
testers can identify synthetic moissanite.
41
Diamond’s Special Properties

Natural diamond has its own
special combination of physical and
optical properties. Recognizing
them can help you decide if some-
thing’s a diamond or if it might be
something else.
Some of these properties are
easy to learn and detect, while
others can be measured only by a
trained gemologist with advanced
equipment. Many were described
in the Diamond Essentials course
and in earlier Diamonds &
Pedro Padua Jr./GIA
Diamond Grading assignments.

There’s a big difference in dispersion
between diamond and some of its simu-
lants. If you see a strong display of fire,
it’s a good idea to double-check a gem’s
identity. (The diamond is on the left.)
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
Refractive index (RI): 2.417
Dispersion: 0.044 (lower than most
simulants)
Luster: Adamantine
Transparency: Exceptional
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Specific gravity (SG): 3.52
Hardness: 10 (Mohs scale)
Vincent Cracco/GIA
Fracture: Typically step-like, with

alternating straight cleavages
Included crystals: Typically angular,
Many simulants have curved, or con-
choidal, fractures (above). The step-like
unique in type and appearance
fractures in a diamond (left) look very
different.
FINISH DETAILS
Polish: Superior
Facet edges: Sharp
Girdle: Normally waxy to granular;
sometimes faceted or polished;
bearding possible
Naturals: Might be present
42
DIAMOND SIMULANTS
Both by Shane McClure
The facet junctions on a synthetic moissanite (left) are much more rounded than the facet junctions on a diamond (right).
The girdle of a simulant, like this CZ (left), shows a pattern of striations. A bruted diamond’s girdle (right) has a granular
appearance.
OTHER PROPERTIES
Wetability: Difficult (a drop of water “beads up” on a diamond)
Fluorescence: If present, usually blue (to longwave ultraviolet)
43
PAST AND PRESENT DIAMOND SIMULANTS

■ What are some historical simulants?
■ What are the major diamond simulants today?
■ How do simulant properties differ?
■ How have simulants improved?
Since the first diamond simulants—made from glass—appeared in the

1700s, researchers have discovered a variety of ways to imitate diamond.
Every time a new—and better—simulant came along, it tended to replace
the ones that came before it. This created challenges for the industry as
well as for the experts who had to come up with a new separation method
for each simulant.
EARLY DIAMOND SIMULANTS

Some of the oldest diamond simulants are no longer manufactured for
jewelry use, but they still exist. You might find them at estate sales or in
jewelry taken in for resale or repair. If you work in these areas, it’s important
to know how to recognize these older, less-common simulants.
Glass has been an effective diamond imitation since the 1700s, when
GLASS
European glassmakers discovered that adding lead oxide to glass made it

much more dispersive and brilliant. The process resulted in a convincing
diamond simulant, just when diamonds began to gain popularity. Even
now, it’s used in less-expensive fashion jewelry.
This type of glass is called “stras” or “strass” glass, after Georges
Strass, a well-known French jeweler of the day. Another name for it is
“paste,” from the Italian word “pasta.” Apparently, early Italian glass-
workers thought the molten glass looked like boiling pasta when they
stirred it.
Both by Jane H. Clark
Glass jewels can add dazzle to fashion jewelry without adding to its cost. And
they’re versatile: They can imitate diamonds as well as colored stones.
44
DIAMOND SIMULANTS
Glass has much lower brilliance, luster, and hardness than diamond, so Foilback—Gemstone or
it’s fairly easy to recognize. Also, it has a lower refractive index (RI) than simulant with a thin metallic
diamond, so you can see through a faceted glass jewel. This is virtually foil or mirroring film applied to
impossible with a well-proportioned, brilliant-cut diamond. its pavilion.
Rhinestone—A foilbacked,
colorless, lead-glass diamond
Stones backed with metal foil—called foilbacks—are not necessarily imi-
FOILBACKS
imitation.
tations. Before the eighteenth century, almost all transparent gems,
including diamonds, were routinely backed with foil to provide color or
improve brilliance.
Even today, gemstones and simulants are sometimes foilbacked. A
modern method for making foilbacks involves application of a mirroring
film rather than metal foil.
Rhinestone is a common term for a foilbacked or colorless lead-glass
diamond imitation. The word originally referred to simulants made from
a colorless quartz from the Rhine River Valley.
Eric Welch/GIA
Foilbacks are fairly common in estate jewelry. The colored gems in the 1760s brooch (left) are actually near-colorless diamonds
with colored foil backings. The bracelet (right) features glass foilbacks.
Robert Weldon Eric Welch/GIA
Foil backing adds a lot of brilliance to glass imitations (above). Rhinestones are made of foilbacked glass. They’re commonly used
in glamorous, sparkling jewelry that’s also affordable (right).
45
Valerie Power/GIA
Colorless garnet-and-glass doublets

were used as simulants in the late 1800s.
This one’s green color makes it easy to
see the difference in luster between its
two layers.
John Koivula/GIA
This modern doublet has a durable synthetic spinel crown that protects the base of
soft, very dispersive strontium titanate. The place where the two materials are joined
is easily visible.
Jewelers began using garnet-and-glass doublets as diamond simulants in

DOUBLETS
Doublet—Two separate pieces
of material fused or cemented the mid-1840s. The doublets consisted of a reddish garnet top fused to a
together to form a single glass base. The garnet layer’s hardness allowed the doublet to be polished
assembled stone. to an attractive-looking luster. At the same time, the garnet layer was thin
enough to allow the face-up jewel to take on the color—or lack of color—
of the glass bottom.
For quick detection of most garnet-and-glass doublets, rock the jewel
back and forth under a light. Because of its construction, you’ll be able to
see a difference in luster between the garnet top and the glass base.
While garnet-and-glass doublets appear in estate and antique jewelry
collections, you’ll hardly ever find one in modern jewelry. Newer doublets
have synthetic spinel or synthetic sapphire crowns and strontium titanate
bases. Others—designed to be more deceptive—have diamond crowns
cemented to bases of some other material. The properties of these newer
doublets depend on each one’s components, but most of them have a lot
more fire than diamond.
FLAME-FUSION SIMULANTS
In the late 1800s, French chemist Auguste Verneuil developed the flame-
fusion process of synthetic crystal growth for commercial use. The process
involved melting powdered materials over a flame and then cooling them
until they crystallized. Rubies and sapphires were the first gem materials
synthesized with flame fusion.
One of Verneuil’s students modified the method to produce flame-fusion
synthetic spinel. Colorless synthetic sapphires and synthetic spinels some-
times served as diamond simulants. Neither material had as much brilliance
46
DIAMOND SIMULANTS
Eric Welch/GIA
Synthetic spinel and other flame-fusion

synthetics can be effective and afford-
able diamond alternatives.
Tino Hammid/GIA
In the 1990s, dealers sold both natural and synthetic colorless sapphires as
diamond substitutes.
or fire as diamond, but both were much harder, and more durable, than
previous simulants. Synthetic spinel is inexpensive to produce, and you’ll
still find it in class rings and imitation birthstone jewelry.
ZIRCON
Zircon is a natural gem that occurs in a variety of colors. It’s more brilliant
than glass and it has medium fire. Its colorless form was rare until the early
twentieth century, when heat-treating methods made it more common.
Zircon is doubly refractive, so when you look through the stone from one
side to the other, you’ll see double images of the facets on the opposite side.
Tino Hammid/GIA
In contrast, diamond is singly refractive, so all its opposing facets look clear
Heat treatment turned zircon to a
and distinct.
colorless gem that was used as a
diamond simulant.
47
Zircons chip and scratch easily, and the heat treatment makes them
brittle, so they’re rarely used today. However, they dominated the simulant
market for awhile. Many people still use the word “zircon” to mean
imitation diamond.
MODERN DIAMOND SIMULANTS

The second half of the 1900s brought a parade of diamond simulants to
the jewelry market, and some were more successful than others. Each one
had its own unique properties, and some vanished from the market almost
Tino Hammid/GIA
as suddenly as they appeared.
Scientists searching for a better paint whitener discovered synthetic rutile

SYNTHETIC RUTILE
by accident in 1948. (There is a natural rutile, but it’s rarely used as a

gemstone.) In spite of its yellowish bodycolor, synthetic rutile served
briefly as a diamond simulant. It’s no longer produced, but you might find
it in some estate jewelry.
As a simulant, synthetic rutile is quite brilliant, but not as brilliant as
diamond. It also has very high dispersion: Even to the untrained eye, its
rainbow colors are obvious. They’re so obvious that they actually detract
from its brilliance. Another serious drawback to its use as a simulant is its
low hardness—it quickly shows signs of wear.
Pedro Padua Jr./GIA
Synthetic rutile (top) has high dispersion,
Synthetic rutile is doubly refractive, so you’ll see double images of its oppo-
yellowish bodycolor, and strong double
site facets when you look through it under magnification.

refraction. These properties help separate
the diamond on the left from the
synthetic rutile on the right (bottom).
Strontium titanate (a compound of the elements strontium and titanium)

STRONTIUM TITANATE
first appeared as a simulant in 1953. It had no known natural counterpart

until scientists identified the mineral tausonite in the 1980s. Like diamond,
it’s singly refractive. It’s closer to colorless and much less dispersive than
synthetic rutile, but still noticeably more dispersive than diamond. It has
low hardness, so it’s not very durable.
In the late 1960s, scientists developed a number of lab-grown crystals

YAG AND GGG
with garnet-like (cubic) crystal structure. One of them, yttrium aluminum

garnet, or YAG, was the first to be used as a diamond simulant.
Aggressive promotion boosted YAG’s commercial success. One of the
most famous promotions was its use for Cartier’s replica of the 69.42-ct.
Tino Hammid/GIA
Taylor-Burton diamond.
Strontium titanate was developed as a
simulant in the 1950s. It was fairly
attractive, but it wasn’t very durable for
Because it has relatively good hardness (about 8 1/4 on the Mohs scale)
and brilliance, YAG was the most popular diamond simulant for many
use in jewelry.
years. But still, it lacked the distinct fire of diamond. As newer and better
simulants appeared, YAG lost its popularity.
48
DIAMOND SIMULANTS
Tino Hammid/GIA Pedro Padua Jr./GIA
As a simulant, YAG has relatively good Simulants like YAG (right) were
hardness and brilliance, but nowhere developed to imitate diamond (left)
near the same fire as diamond. and act as affordable alternatives. But
no simulant has come close to matching
all of diamond’s extraordinary qualities.
GGG and diamond have almost the same amount of fire, but GGG scratches fairly
easily.
Gadolinium gallium garnet, or GGG, was the next garnet-like material

to be used as a diamond simulant. It’s a little more brilliant and dispersive
than YAG. In fact, its dispersion is almost the same as diamond’s, so it
shows similar fire. GGG’s major drawback is its lower hardness: It scratches
fairly easily. It also has high SG, so it’s much heavier than a diamond of
the same size.
Although both are manmade and have garnet-like structure, YAG and
GGG are not synthetic garnets. They don’t have the chemistry of any garnets
known in nature.
49
CZ is a fairly modern and very popular

diamond simulant. Its appearance is fairly
close to diamond’s and it’s also durable.
Compared to diamond, CZ has slightly higher dispersion and high specific gravity.
This impressive set of colorless CZ was fashioned to simulate diamonds cut from
the Cullinan rough.
SYNTHETIC CUBIC ZIRCONIA

Synthetic cubic zirconia (CZ) is a modern simulant that entered the
market in the early 1970s. It has since become the most common of all
CZ is the most common of all the
diamond simulants. the diamond simulants. It’s called “synthetic” cubic zirconia because it
does have a very rare natural counterpart. (Some people confuse CZ
and zircon because they have similar names, but they’re not the same
material.)
CZ is almost as brilliant and lustrous as diamond, and it has slightly
higher dispersion. It’s also quite durable, with a Mohs hardness of 8 1/4
50
DIAMOND SIMULANTS
Nicholas DelRe
Faced with large assortments of rough (above), a diamond dealer must be on the
lookout for artfully fashioned simulants like these CZ, which were shaped to look
like diamond crystals (right). This takes knowledge and a lot of practice.
to 8 1/2. However, its SG is 5.80, so when you weigh it, you’ll find it’s
heavier than a diamond (SG 3.52) of the same dimensions.
Because CZ’s appearance is fairly close to diamond’s, thieves have
adopted it as a good counterfeit. In mid-1993, for example, a wholesaler
in India found CZ baguettes and round brilliants mixed in with natural
diamonds with similar shapes and dimensions. In that same year, a dealer
discovered a CZ in a parcel of rough diamonds. The counterfeiter had
shaped it into an octahedron and carved triangular depressions on its
surface that were similar to those found on natural diamond rough.
51
Both by Tino Hammid/GIA
The production of colored CZ was inspired by strong public interest in fancy-

colored diamonds (left). The simulant is now produced in many colors, including
pink (above).
Shane McClure/GIA
Colored CZ (left) has the look of fancy-colored diamonds (above) at a fraction of

the cost. It’s also set in jewelry and marketed as CZ under several brand names.
52
DIAMOND SIMULANTS
Eric Welch/GIA
CZ rough is widely available and inexpensive, and it comes in a variety of colors.
While CZ is the most popular diamond simulant, it’s also important

as a jewel in its own right. It comes in a variety of colors and it’s very
reasonably priced. It’s attractive in its colorless as well as colored
forms, and has been set into fashionable but affordable earrings,
bracelets, rings, necklaces, and more.
Synthetic moissanite is silicon carbide with a natural counterpart that

SYNTHETIC MOISSANITE
occurs as tiny grains in rocks and meteorites. (It can also occur as inclu-
sions in natural diamonds, but this is rare.) It gets its name from Dr. Henri
Moissan, a Nobel-Prize-winning chemist. Dr. Moissan discovered the
Dave Hargett
natural mineral in 1893 while analyzing an ancient meteorite in Arizona.

CZ isn’t just an effective simulant for
He noted its diamond-like qualities, but there was never enough of it to

colorless diamonds. Without close
make commercial use possible.

inspection, a dealer might mistake this
10-ct. yellow princess-cut CZ for a
Synthetic moissanite was first developed for industrial use. Because of
fancy-colored diamond.
its superior hardness—about 9 1/4 on the Mohs scale—it served as an abra-

sive. It was introduced as a diamond simulant in the late 1990s.
Although it tends to be slightly yellowish or greenish, synthetic
moissanite is a convincing diamond simulant. It’s slightly less brilliant
than diamond, and it has more fire than diamond and CZ, and less fire
than synthetic rutile. This balance between brilliance and fire gives it an
53
Maha Tannous/GIA
Synthetic moissanite is a fairly convincing diamond simulant. These round brilliants

and square cuts range in weight from 0.74 cts. to 1.12 cts.
Synthetic moissanite is very effective as a diamond simulant when it’s set in jewelry.
It’s also marketed as a jewel in its own right.
attractive appearance. Like CZ, synthetic moissanite is marketed as a jewel

in its own right.
Some standard gemological tests can separate synthetic moissanite
from diamond. For one thing, synthetic moissanite is doubly refractive
while diamond is singly refractive. Under magnification, if you tilt it to
the side and look through the bezel facets to the culet, you’ll see double
images of the facet junctions. As you’ve learned, this is called doubling.
You have to tilt it to see this because it’s usually cut so the doubling isn’t
obvious through the table.
54
DIAMOND SIMULANTS
Amouyal Edmond Amnon
Manufacturers usually cut synthetic moissanite so you have to tilt it to see doubling.
In this view, you can see double images of the pavilion’s facet junctions.
Unlike most other simulants, synthetic moissanite’s SG (3.21) is lower

than diamond’s. That means it’s lighter, rather than heavier, than a diamond
of the same size. Also, you won’t see bearding or naturals around the
girdle of a faceted synthetic moissanite. These are fairly common in natural
diamonds.
One feature of synthetic moissanite shocked the jewelry industry: It’s
the first—and only—simulant that can actually fool some thermal
testers. Its heat-conducting properties are so close to diamond’s that the
thermal tester registers synthetic moissanite as “diamond” instead of
“non-diamond.”
To positively identify synthetic moissanite after it passes the diamond
tester, examine the stone further for highly visible dispersion, and for
doubling under 10X magnification. Also, several testing devices exist to
identify synthetic moissanite based on its optical properties or its thermal
and electrical conductivity.
DEALING IN DIAMOND SIMULANTS

■ Is there a place for simulants in the diamond trade?
■ What are some common trade names for simulants?
■ What problems can arise when you buy and sell simulants?
You might be wondering where simulants fit into the diamond trade. Some
jewelers feel they have no place in a fine jewelry store. Others carry them
without apology, believing that they add to the variety of merchandise
available in the store and, in the long run, increase natural diamond sales.
Those jewelers give simulants their own display area, and when they show
them to a client, they handle them as they would valuable gems.
55
Gemological Detectives
Gem identification is a fascinating
challenge. Trained gemologists
have a whole arsenal of tests
and instruments at their disposal.
They draw on a wide range of
knowledge concerning diamonds,
colored stones, simulants, and
laboratory-grown gems.
Gem identification profes-
sionals never assume anything.
The more experienced ones
can identify some stones by
sight, but they still perform
all the required tests, and the
procedures are rigorous and
demanding.
It’s a process of elimination.
Like detective work, it involves
gathering clues and evaluating
evidence until there’s conclusive
proof of a stone’s identity.
The ability to identify gems
is the mark of a true jewelry
industry professional. The GIA
Gem Identification course gives
you the theory and practice you
need to develop this ability. The
Eric Welch/GIA
course is available in residence

Hands-on gemological training is the
as well as in distance education.

best way to learn how to separate
diamonds and colored stones from
The expertise you gain will
simulants and lab-grown gems.
increase your prestige and

enhance your professional image with your clients or customers, and
among your colleagues.
There are times when simulants actually attract customers, especially in

a retail setting. People on limited budgets are more likely to visit a jewelry
store if they know they’ll find something beautiful at a price they can afford.
Many people who appreciate the beauty and rarity of a fine diamond really
cannot afford one.
Sometimes, a customer’s first piece of jewelry is a simulant. Since
most simulant material is relatively inexpensive to manufacture, it can be
cut for maximum beauty without concern for weight loss.
56
DIAMOND SIMULANTS
When they’re used in finished jewelry, the best simulants usually have
high-quality settings. Semi-mounts—jewelry mountings preset with
small diamonds and a large central area for one or more large stones—
can also be set with attractive simulants. Security-minded jewelry sales
representatives often use this method to show off a line of jewelry or a
selection of mountings.
In a retail setting, a semi-mount set with a simulant can help a customer
imagine what the piece will look like when it’s set with a diamond. The
customer might even buy one as is with the intention of later replacing the
simulant with a diamond.
At all levels of the industry, the right attitude on your part will help
your clients or customers feel good about buying simulants. At the
retail level, you shouldn’t praise simulants so highly that they over-
Semi-mounts have a central opening for
shadow the desirability of diamonds, and you shouldn’t give customers

one or more large stones. They can be
the impression that they’re looking at anything more than a pretty look-
preset with diamond or simulant accent
alike. On the other hand, you shouldn’t make people feel they have
stones.
poor taste if they choose a simulant. If you handle the sale properly,
you can plant the seeds that will bring them back for diamonds when
they can afford them.
SIMULANT NAMES
Manufacturers of diamond simulants have given their products a number
of trade names over the years. Some of them are as fanciful as “Rainbow
Magic Diamond” for synthetic rutile and “Diamontina” for strontium
titanate. While many names have fallen out of use along with the
simulants they identify, some might still turn up on old documents or in
estate jewelry listings. If, in reviewing such materials, you see a jewel
name you don’t recognize, it might be because it’s an invented name for
a diamond simulant.
Because synthetic cubic zirconia is popular and heavily promoted—
especially on home-shopping television networks—it has a few names,
Marketers of simulants often come up
besides CZ, that you might recognize. Some of those names are Absolute,
with fanciful names for their jewels. The
Diamonair, Diamonesque, and Diamonique III.

Internet is a marketing arena for simu-
lants as well as for natural gemstones.
MISTAKES AND DECEPTIONS

Most problems arise when you accept or sell a simulant as a natural stone.
There are many ways this can happen, and many solutions and preventive
measures as well. It’s important to remember that, in the final analysis,
The right attitude on your part will
there’s no substitute for up-to-date knowledge and a watchful eye.
help your clients or customers feel
You should never sell a gem—wholesale or retail—without knowing
good about simulants.
exactly what it is. If you’re not 100 percent positive, get help from a quali-
fied gemologist or gemological laboratory to establish its identity. Never sell a gem unless you’re
In a retail setting, simulants can be especially difficult to identify. If absolutely sure of its identity.
you can’t positively identify the material a piece of jewelry contains when
you accept it from a customer for repair or cleaning, use a neutral descrip-
tion: Words like “near-colorless emerald cut” are best.
57
Simulants and the FTC

Professionals in the jewelry industry use the terms “stone” and “gem” to refer only to
products of nature, not to manufactured synthetics or imitations. In the US, the Federal
Trade Commission (FTC) limits the use of these terms. Worldwide practice follows
similar standards.
The FTC’s publication, Guides for the Jewelry, Precious Metals, and Pewter
Industries, contains the following rules concerning the representation and marketing of
simulants and synthetics. The Guides are designed to protect jewelry professionals and
the public against unfair trade practices.
These regulations also provide the basis for many state and local ordinances. For this
reason, everyone who deals with diamonds or simulants, especially in the US, should be
familiar with them.
SECTION 23.12—DEFINITION AND MISUSE OF THE WORD “DIAMOND”
a) A diamond is a mineral consisting essentially of pure carbon crystallized in the
isometric system. It is found in many colors. Its hardness is 10; its specific gravity is
approximately 3.52; and it has a refractive index of 2.42.
(b) It is unfair or deceptive to use the unqualified word “diamond” to describe or
identify any object or product not meeting the requirements specified in the definition of
diamond provided above, or which, though meeting such requirements, has not been
symmetrically fashioned with at least seventeen (17) polished facets.
Note to Paragraph (b): It is unfair or deceptive to represent, directly or by implica-
tion, that industrial grade diamonds or other non-jewelry quality diamonds are of
jewelry quality.
(c) The following are examples of descriptions that are not considered unfair or
deceptive:
(1) The use of the words “rough diamond” to describe or designate uncut or
unfaceted objects or products satisfying the definition of diamond provided above; or
(2) The use of the word “diamond” to describe or designate objects or products
satisfying the definition of diamond but which have not been symmetrically fashioned
with at least seventeen (17) polished facets when, in immediate conjunction with the
word “diamond,” there is either a disclosure of the number of facets and shape of the
diamond or the name of a type of diamond that denotes shape and that usually has less
than seventeen (17) facets (e.g., “rose diamond”).
(3) The use of the word “cultured” to describe laboratory-created diamonds that
have essentially the same optical, physical, and chemical properties as mined diamonds
if the term is qualified by a clear and conspicuous disclosure (for example, the words
“laboratory-created,” “laboratory-grown,” “[manufacturer name]-created,” or some
other word or phrase of like meaning) conveying that the product is not a mined stone.
23.25 MISUSE OF THE WORDS “RUBY,” “SAPPHIRE,” “EMERALD,”
“TOPAZ,” “STONE,” “BIRTHSTONE,” “GEM,” “GEMSTONE,” ETC.
(a) It is unfair or deceptive to use the unqualified words “ruby,” “sapphire,”
“emerald,” “topaz,” or the name of any other precious or semi-precious stone to
describe any product that is not in fact a mined stone of the type described.
58
DIAMOND SIMULANTS
(b) It is unfair or deceptive to use the word “ruby,” “sapphire,” “emerald,” “topaz,” or
the name of any other precious or semi-precious stone, or the word “stone,” “birthstone,”
“gem,” “gemstone,” or similar term to describe a laboratory-grown, laboratory-
created, [manufacturer name]-created, synthetic, imitation, or simulated stone, unless
such word or name is immediately preceded with equal conspicuousness by the word
“laboratory-grown,” “laboratory-created,” “[manufacturer name]-created,” or some
other word or phrase of like meaning, or by the word “imitation” or “simulated,” so as
to disclose clearly the nature of the product and the fact it is not a mined gemstone.
Note 1 to paragraph (b): The use of the word “faux” to describe a laboratory-created
or imitation stone is not an adequate disclosure that the stone is not a mined stone.
Note 2 to paragraph (b): Marketers may use the word “cultured” to describe labora-
tory-created gemstone products that have essentially the same optical, physical, and
chemical properties as the named stone if the term (e.g., “cultured ruby”) is qualified by
a clear and conspicuous disclosure (for example, the words “laboratory-created,”
“laboratory-grown,” “[manufacturer name]-created,” or some other word or phrase of
like meaning) conveying that the product is not a mined stone. Additional guidance
regarding the use of “cultured” to describe a laboratory-created diamond is set forth in
§23.12(c)(3).
(c) It is unfair or deceptive to use the word “laboratory-grown,” “laboratory-
created,” “[manufacturer name]-created,” “synthetic,” or other word or phrase of like
meaning with the name of any natural stone to describe any industry product unless such
product has essentially the same optical, physical, and chemical properties as the stone
named.
(d) It is unfair or deceptive to describe products made with gemstone material and
any amount of filler or binder, such as lead glass, in the following way:
(1) With the unqualified word “ruby,” “sapphire,” “emerald,” “topaz,” or name of
any other precious or semi-precious stone;
(2) As a “treated ruby,” “treated sapphire,” “treated emerald,” “treated topaz,” or
“treated [gemstone name]”;
(3) As a “laboratory-grown [gemstone name],” “laboratory-created [gemstone
name],” “[manufacturer name]-created [gemstone name],” or “synthetic [gemstone
name];” or
(4) As a “composite [gemstone name],” “hybrid [gemstone name],” or
“manufactured [gemstone name],” unless the term is qualified to disclose clearly and
conspicuously that the product: (A) Does not have the same characteristics as the named
stone; and (B) requires special care. It is further recommended that the seller disclose
the special care requirements to the purchaser.
SECTION 23.27—MISUSE OF THE WORDS “REAL,” “GENUINE,” “NATURAL,”
“PRECIOUS,” ETC.
It is unfair or deceptive to use the word “real,” “genuine,” “natural,” “precious,”
“semi-precious,” or similar terms to describe any industry product that is manufactured
or produced artificially.
59
DIAMOND SIMULANTS AND THE

MOHS SCALE
Diamond 10
Diamond
Synthetic Moissanite 9 1/4
Synthetic Sapphire 9
H A R D E R
CZ 8 1/2
YAG 8 1/4
Synthetic Moissanite
Synthetic Spinel 8
Zircon 7 1/2
GGG 6 1/2
Synthetic Sapphire
Synthetic Rutile 6 1/2
Strontium Titanate 6
Glass 5 1/2
Synthetic Spinel
CZ
YAG
Synthetic Rutile
Strontium Titanate
Zircon
GGG
S O F T E R
Glass
10 MOHS RANKING 5 1/2
Peter Johnston/GIA
Gem hardness, as measured by the Mohs scale, is relative. It might seem as if CZ

and synthetic moissanite should be almost as hard as diamond, but they’re not. In
fact, they don’t even come close. The lowest simulant on the scale, glass, scratches
fairly easily.
Promotions for diamond simulants are sometimes full of false or exagger-

FALSE ADVERTISING
ated claims. The best way to avoid becoming part of the problem—and to
impress clients or customers with your honesty and expertise—is to arm
The best defense against false
yourself with the facts.
claims about simulants is thorough
An example of a false claim is one that’s sometimes made for CZ: that
knowledge and up-to-date skills.
it’s “almost as hard as diamond.” The claim takes advantage of the
You should never take the identity of common misconception that the Mohs scale represents actual hardness
a gem or the contents of a parcel for measurements. But as you’ve learned, the scale is comparative. It simply
shows which materials will scratch which others. The numbers look close,
with CZ between 8 1/4 and 8 1/2, and diamond at 10, but the actual difference
granted.
in hardness between the two is enormous.
This is just one example of a simulant claim that sounds great but is
actually misleading because it doesn’t tell the whole story. As a jewelry
professional, you must draw on your own knowledge and appreciation of
gems to dispel the myths that surround diamond simulants. This is not just
a matter of ethics: The entire industry benefits from better understanding
of fine gems and simulants.
60
DIAMOND SIMULANTS
Always be aware that, no matter how careful you are, outside influences
STAYING ALERT
can affect your judgment. Most people who walk into a dealer’s office or
jewelry store are legitimate, but a few are not. Dishonest people have
ways of encouraging you to accept simulants as natural diamonds.
Wholesalers must be watchful for simulants hidden in parcels of rough or
finished diamonds.
You should never take the identity of a gem or the contents of a parcel
for granted. The important thing is to know what to look for—fire or
luster variations, worn or sharp facet junctions, differences in thermal
reaction, and more—when trying to tell the difference between diamond
simulants and diamonds. The more obvious signs are easy to learn. Once
you’ve learned them, you can quickly tell if a particular stone is (or isn’t)
a diamond—even when you’re being deliberately distracted. Then, a
quick check with the diamond tester can confirm your suspicions and
Joel Beeson/GIA
prevent an expensive mistake.

Never take the contents of a parcel
for granted. Just because a stone is
A swindler is called a “con artist” because his primary method is to
professionally wrapped in diamond
gain the victim’s confidence. To do this, he (or she) might pose as a

papers doesn’t mean that it’s a
customer or pretend to be someone who fits the scheme he has in mind.

diamond. (These aren’t.)
You can protect yourself by being careful and avoiding greed. It’s easier
for a con artist to trick you if you’re eager to make a big sale.
Your ability to remain objective and rational is tested every time you
accept jewelry or diamonds from someone else. Even when deliberate fraud
is out of the question, it’s still dangerous to take anyone’s word regarding a
stone’s identity. Sometimes a person honestly believes that a jewel that has
been in their family for years is a diamond, and nothing will persuade them
that it is not.
Before accepting responsibility for any parcel or stone, check it care-
fully. If possible, do this in the client’s or customer’s presence. That way,
their sincere but mistaken belief in the parcel’s contents or the stone’s
authenticity remains their problem, not yours. (Use tact to break the news
to them, though.)
Diamond simulants can cause problems and present challenges, but
they can also be profitable. Retail stores that handle them often find that
they boost sales volume and increase customer desire for the real thing.
Wholesalers that specialize in them promote them proudly, knowing they
have a rightful place in the jewelry industry.
Knowledge is power. Learn as much as you can about diamonds, and
you’ll rarely have a problem with simulants. How diamond simulants
affect you depends on two things: your attitude and your expertise.
Simulants can help build your reputation, or they can involve you in Synthetic moissanite, a manmade
expensive and embarrassing mistakes. If you stay alert and informed, you
material, shows up in beautiful designer-
have everything to gain and nothing to fear from diamond simulants.

look pieces that many people are proud
to own and wear.
61
Most problems with simulants arise when you The right attitude on your part will help your
accept or represent them as diamonds. clients or customers feel good about simulants.
Diamond simulants can be either natural or Never sell a gem unless you’re absolutely sure of
manufactured, and they don’t have any of its identity.
diamond’s physical or chemical properties.
The best defense against false claims about
Diamonds have lower SG and higher thermal simulants is thorough knowledge and up-to-date
conductivity than most simulants. skills.
CZ is the most common of all the diamond You should never take the identity of a gem or the
simulants. contents of a parcel for granted.
Key Terms
Diamond simulant—Any material that is Rhinestone—A foilbacked, colorless, lead-
not diamond or lab-grown diamond, but glass diamond imitation.
which imitates a diamond’s appearance and
is used in its place. Separation—Process of distinguishing
natural minerals and gems from each other
Doublet—Two separate pieces of material as well as from lab-grown gems, simulants,
fused or cemented together to form a and treated gems.
single assembled stone.
Thermal tester—An instrument that
Foilback—Gemstone or simulant with a thin measures thermal conductivity to help
metallic foil or mirroring film applied to its separate natural and lab-grown diamonds
pavilion. from most simulants.
62
Laboratory-Grown Diamonds
and Treatments
19
Laboratory-Grown Diamonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Early Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Success and Progress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Applications in Industry and Jewelry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Chemical Vapor Deposition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Detecting HPHT Synthetic Diamonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Detecting CVD Synthetic Diamonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Color Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Irradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Heat and Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Coatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Recognizing Color Modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Clarity Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Laser Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Internal Laser Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Fracture Filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Detecting Fracture Filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Disclosing Fracture Filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Treated Diamonds and the Marketplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
63
• Understand the history and current role of laboratory-grown diamonds in the

market.
• Identify the basic characteristics of modern lab-grown diamonds.
• Explain the ways diamond color can be changed or enhanced.
• Recognize the presence of a variety of diamond clarity treatments.
64
LABORATORY-G ROWN DIAMONDS AND TREATMENTS
©1998 Tino Hammid
The diamonds in this stunning brooch and earring suite are all natural, but they
feature both treated and natural colors.
LABORATORY-GROWN DIAMONDS
AND TREATMENTS
People have revered the diamond as a precious product of nature for
thousands of years. By now, you’ve learned about its progress from
simple carbon atoms to rough diamond to finished gem. You understand
Diamond’s beauty, rarity, and value
how diamond’s rarity gives it exceptional value in the gem world. Is it inspire research into synthesis and
any wonder that, through the ages, alchemists and researchers have made treatment.
countless attempts to duplicate and enhance diamond’s unique properties
and structure?
Through careful research, scientists have discovered ways to make
natural diamond “better”—to hide its imperfections or to make it a more
attractive color.
Benvenuto Cellini, the sixteenth-century Italian goldsmith and gem
historian, wrote about early gemstone color treatments. He described the
heating of sapphire, topaz, amethyst, and other gem minerals in fire until
they lost their color—and imitated diamond.
Those early searches for diamond look-alikes later developed into
searches for techniques to make diamonds. Researchers tried to find just
65
the right combination of ingredients, temperature, and pressure that

would allow technology to do nature’s work. In the 1950s, scientists began
making laboratory-grown (synthetic) diamonds. Now they’re widely used
in industry, mostly in cutting instruments and abrasives. A few have been
produced for the gem market.
In this assignment, you’ll learn about lab-grown diamonds and about
color and clarity treatments, along with some basic detection skills. Now
that lab-grown diamonds and treatments have become part of the diamond
industry, gem professionals who can detect them will be in demand at
every level. By the end of this assignment, you’ll have gained valuable
knowledge to help you meet that demand.
LABORATORY-GROWN DIAMONDS
■ When was synthetic diamond first successfully grown?
■ How do lab-grown diamonds fit into industry and the
jewelry market?
■ What are some basic detection methods for lab-grown
diamonds?
As you learned in Assignment 18, there’s an important difference between

Michael Nicholson/Corbis
lab-grown diamonds and simulants. Lab-grown (synthetic) diamonds are

Sixteenth-century Florentine sculptor
made in the laboratory, and they have essentially the same chemical
and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini wrote
some of the earliest descriptions of
composition and crystal structure as natural diamonds—or at least as
gemstone treatments.
close as researchers can make them. Their physical and optical properties
are nearly the same as natural diamonds. Simulants, on the other hand, only
look like diamonds. They can be natural or made in a lab from a variety of
materials, and their chemical compositions and physical and optical
properties are different from those of diamond.
Lab-grown diamond—
Manufactured (synthetic) diamond
with essentially the same physical,
chemical, and optical properties as
natural diamond.
Joseph Schubach
Although this manmade material—synthetic moissanite—imitates the look of diamond,

it doesn’t share its properties.
66
It wasn’t until the development of giant presses, like this one at GE, that scientists were
able to create the high levels of heat and pressure needed to synthesize diamonds.
EARLY RESEARCH
In 1797, English chemist Smithson Tennant demonstrated that diamond
was nothing more than a very dense form of pure carbon. The fact that
carbon was plentiful inspired researchers to explore the possibility of
turning some of it into much rarer diamond.
Through the 1800s and early 1900s, many researchers and chemists
tried to create synthetic diamond from a variety of carbon-containing com-
pounds. Early technical realities stopped them from making much progress:
They knew they needed high levels of heat and pressure for diamond
formation, but didn’t have the technology to produce the right conditions.
SUCCESS AND PROGRESS

Then, in 1941, Dr. Percy W. Bridgman, an American researcher who
specialized in high-pressure physics, came to an agreement with the General
Electric Corporation (GE) and other commercial parties. GE assigned
67
Hulton-Deutsch Collection/Corbis
Percy Williams Bridgman was one of the pioneers of diamond synthesis research.
Bridgman to design a laboratory especially for the production of synthetic

diamonds. Before World War II interrupted the project, Bridgman and his
colleagues made important advances in high-pressure technology—but no
diamonds.
In 1951, GE formed another research group to expand on Bridgman’s
work. By 1953, they had designed equipment capable of reaching and
maintaining extreme pressures and temperatures. After that, the only
modifications they made were to the apparatus that actually held and
compressed the raw materials.
Finally, a belt-type apparatus designed by team member Dr. Tracy Hall
succeeded. GE scientists created their first batch of lab-grown industrial
diamonds in December 1954. After careful testing of the products and
successful repetition of the process, they announced the achievement to
the world on February 15, 1955.
68
Research into diamond synthesis
began before 1800, but producers
didn’t succeed until the 1950s.
Bettmann/Corbis
Although Swedish researchers also succeeded in synthesizing diamonds, GE was

the first to document the process. These tiny diamonds represent that first success.
A Swedish electric company—Allmana Svenska Elektriska

Aktiebolaget—had actually made diamonds two years earlier. Their
scientists started some diamond-making projects in the 1940s, then
abandoned them. They began again in the early 1950s. In February 1953,
they made several tiny synthetic diamonds. Even better, they were able
to repeat their success in May and November of the same year.
But the Swedish scientists decided that their method was too difficult,
too slow, and too costly to be commercially feasible. They didn’t announce
their accomplishment until two years after GE’s success. By then, it was
too late for them to be recognized as the first diamond makers.
Today, almost all lab-grown diamonds are grown using the process
developed by the diamond synthesis pioneers. This process is called high
pressure, high temperature, or HPHT.
GE began marketing lab-grown diamond grit in late 1957. They kept
their process secret for the next two years under federally enforced
secrecy regulations. GE filed worldwide patents in 1959, and the team
published details of its procedures. De Beers soon followed with their
own patent for diamond synthesis.
You might think that the step from growing experimental batches of
High pressure, high temperature
tiny synthetic diamond crystals to creating large, high-quality crystals

(HPHT)—Diamond synthesis
would be a relatively small one. But progress was limited. Larger crystals
method that mimics the pressure
take a lot longer to form than tiny ones. The challenge for researchers
and temperature conditions that
lead to natural diamond formation.
69
carbon
source
anvil
heating
element
high-pressure
cell
metal flux
seed crystal
Both by Peter Johnston/GIA
There’s a container—or high-pressure cell—at the center of the All diamond presses work on the same principle: extremely
diamond press. Within the cell, carbon atoms are subjected to high pressures and temperatures applied to the necessary
intense heat and pressure. The atoms travel though the growth ingredients. This illustration shows the six anvils in a modern
medium—a metal flux—and crystallize on the seed crystal as diamond press. They’re pushed inward by pistons—that aren’t
synthetic diamond. shown here—and exert enormous pressures on a tiny central
container where crystal growth takes place.
was to increase crystal size and, at the same time, control the quality of the
crystals. The size of the necessary equipment was also a limiting factor.
The GE research team worked on solving these problems and, in 1970,
announced the creation of the first cuttable, gem-quality lab-grown
diamonds. In 1970 and 1971, Lazare Kaplan and Sons of New York cut
some of those first gem-quality lab-grown diamonds, which weighed
about 1 ct. each in rough form. Fashioned stones cut from those crystals
ranged from 0.26 ct. to 0.46 ct. in weight, and from F to J in color. There
were also some yellows and blues, and the highest clarity was VS.
Over the next 14 years, a few lab-grown gem-quality diamonds were
used for research and for special scientific uses. During this period, re-
searchers solved the technical problems preventing large-scale manufacture.
70
Robert Weldon/GIA
Most lab-grown diamonds are small and yellow in color. These specimens—produced
in Russia—range from 0.14 ct. to 0.88 ct.
In 1985, Japan’s Sumitomo Electric Industries began commercial produc-

tion of large, high-quality lab-grown diamonds.
Sumitomo produces mostly yellow Type Ib diamonds, which contain
isolated nitrogen atoms as trace elements. They add the chemical element
boron to provide electrically conductive blue Type IIb diamonds for
certain applications. They’ve also been able to produce some Type IIa
colorless diamonds. Sumitomo markets its synthetics only for industrial
and high-technology applications.
The lab-grown industrial diamond market is dominated by two of its
originators: De Beers and GE. Production consists mostly of lab-grown
industrial diamond grit. Its superior cutting and polishing abilities make it
ideal for use in a variety of tools, including drills, saws, and polishers.
71
Lowell Georgia/Corbis
Rob Crandall/Stock Connection/PictureQuest
The properties of lab-grown and natural diamonds make them ideal for use in industrial cutting tools. They’re embedded into
drill bits, machining tools, and saws. They’re also used as scalpels for delicate surgeries, and to engrave fine glassware
(facing page).
72
Lab-grown diamonds are better for
many industrial applications than
natural diamonds.
APPLICATIONS IN INDUSTRY AND JEWELRY

Diamond’s properties of hardness, high thermal conductivity, optical
transparency, and high electrical resistance make it uniquely suited for
many high-technology applications. Industrial tools embedded with
natural or lab-grown diamonds are used for machining alloy engine
blocks and other automotive components. Some are designed for cutting
natural hardwoods, granite, and marble.
Scientific advances have made lab-grown diamonds better than natural
diamonds for many industrial uses. One advantage of synthetics is that
manufacturers can control the growth process. Unlike natural diamonds,
which nature fashions randomly, synthetics can be turned out in predictable
shapes and sizes. Manufacturers can also control impurities and other
aspects of quality. In many cases, synthetic diamond grit outlasts natural
diamond grit because of its uniformity.
Type IIa diamond—natural or lab-grown—conducts heat more than five
times more efficiently than copper. This high thermal conductivity allows
it to take away the heat caused by the friction between moving parts. This
makes it possible for a tool to operate under severe conditions without
overheating. “Slices” of large single-crystal lab-grown diamonds are used
73
Lab-grown diamonds have many high-

tech applications for the electronics
and optics industries. Some large,
high-quality lab-grown diamonds are
sliced for use as laser windows and
heat sinks.
Tino Hammid/GIA
GE has produced gem-quality lab-grown diamonds for experimental purposes—

including some grayish blue and near-colorless stones—but they’ve never offered
them for commercial sale.
for industrial and surgical tools, laser windows, and heat sinks, among
other things. (A heat sink draws unwanted heat away from an electronic
device.)
The use of lab-grown diamonds in
Because of the extraordinary equipment and energy requirements, most
jewelry is limited by high production
production of large lab-grown diamond crystals in the 1990s was for
costs.
experimental and research purposes only. Their presence in the jewelry
market was limited by the high expense of producing colorless, cuttable
diamonds. Bulk production of larger diamonds was limited because larger
crystals take longer to grow.
74
Most HPHT synthetic diamonds are
yellow or brown because they contain
nitrogen impurities.
Shane McClure/GIA Tino Hammid/GIA
Most HPHT synthetic diamonds are Russian scientists have successfully

yellow because it’s difficult to keep grown near-colorless synthetic diamonds,
nitrogen out during the growth process. but the stones have not appeared in
These three platinum rings contain the commercial gem market in large
yellow Russian lab-grown diamonds. quantities.
They range from 0.30 ct. to 0.40 ct.,
and are some of the few lab-grown
diamonds that appear in jewelry.
In 1990, De Beers announced that the largest synthetic diamond grown

to date was a 14.20-ct., industrial-quality yellow crystal, which took 500
hours to grow. By 1993, the largest reported crystal weighed 34.80 cts.
and took 600 hours—25 days—to reach that size. By 2000, De Beers
indicated that it was possible to grow crystals larger than 30 cts. in less
time, but only some areas of the manmade crystals were gem quality.
In spite of these obstacles, a few companies around the world spent
the late 1990s preparing for full production of colorless, gem-quality,
marketable cut diamonds. The challenge was that most HPHT synthetic
diamonds were either yellow or brown because it was difficult to keep
nitrogen out of the growing crystals.
By 1990, GE had grown near-colorless Type IIa diamonds of 1.00 ct.
and larger with no detectable nitrogen by using a metal flux. A flux is a
solid material that, when melted, dissolves other materials. Special com-
pounds added to the flux prevented nitrogen from entering the growing
crystal’s structure. De Beers also grew some colorless synthetic diamonds
experimentally for industrial applications. Some manufacturers were able
to produce synthetic blue diamonds by allowing crystals to grow in the
presence of boron.
GE and De Beers haven’t yet released their experimental diamonds into
the gem market. Russian scientists grew near-colorless synthetic diamonds
for the gem market, but never reached commercial production levels.
However, during the 1990s, small quantities of colored lab-grown
diamonds reached the gem market, distributed by a Thai-Russian joint
venture in Bangkok, Thailand.
75
Chemical vapor deposition

(CVD)—An industrial process
adapted to allow growth of
synthetic diamond from carbon-
rich gas in thin layers onto a
silicon or diamond surface.
Maha Tannous/GIA
These lab-grown diamonds, with their natural-looking colors, are from Chatham
Created Gems.
In the early 2000s, a US company called Gemesis Corporation began

manufacturing and selling yellow and orange-yellow HPHT synthetic
diamonds for jewelry use. The company is working on techniques to
produce colorless synthetic diamonds in commercial quantities.
An important supplier of HPHT synthetic diamonds for jewelry is
Chatham Created Gems. The company introduced a line of colored lab-
grown diamonds in yellows, blues, pinks, and greens. Their colors are
less saturated than most colored lab-grown diamonds, making them more
natural-looking.
Maha Tannous/GIA
CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION

In 2003, Apollo Diamond Inc., a US manufacturer, announced successful
growth of jewelry-size synthetic diamonds by a technique that doesn’t
require high pressure and uses relatively modest temperatures of 1346°F to
2066°F (730°C to 1130°C). The method—called chemical vapor deposition
(CVD)—was already in use for many industrial applications, including the
production of high-purity thin films for semiconductors. Apollo adapted CVD
James Shigley/GIA
to allow the deposition of synthetic diamond from a carbon-rich gas onto a

In the early 2000s, the Gemesis
silicon or diamond surface. The synthetic diamond grows in thin layers, and
Corporation began synthesizing yellow
its final thickness depends on the amount of time allowed for growth.
to orange diamonds for jewelry use (top).
Many contain small metallic flux inclusions
At first, the synthetic diamond produced by CVD wasn’t thick enough to

that can help with identification (bottom).
yield fashioned stones. However, the manufacturer later displayed some

fashioned gems over 1 ct. in size.
76
Robert Weldon/GIA
Advances in CVD synthetic diamond

growth have led to production of some
attractive gem-quality stones.
Peter Johnston/GIA
In the CVD growth process, a microwave beam causes carbon to precipitate out of
a plasma cloud and deposit onto a surface of diamond or silicon. As the carbon
deposits build, synthetic diamond forms.
In 2011, Apollo sold its technology and patent to SCIO Diamond

Technology. Today, SCIO grows CVD diamonds for both industrial and
jewelry use. Other manufacturers, including Gemesis and Washington
Diamond Corp., also produce commercial gem-quality CVD synthetics.
DETECTING HPHT SYNTHETIC DIAMONDS

While researchers develop new and better production methods, the main
challenges for the jewelry professional are detection and disclosure. A
trained gemologist can identify some HPHT synthetic diamonds using
standard gemological instruments and three basic procedures:
• Examining the diamond with a microscope, looking for inclusions,
color zoning, and graining
• Checking the diamond’s fluorescence under ultraviolet (UV) radiation
• Checking the diamond’s reaction to a magnet
HPHT synthetic diamonds don’t contain any of the characteristics that
occur during natural diamond growth, including mineral crystals like
Both by John Koivula/GIA
garnet, diopside, or even other diamonds; twinning wisps, natural radiation

As they grow, HPHT synthetic diamonds
staining, or etch channels. The only inclusions an HPHT synthetic diamond

can trap metallic bits of the flux that
surrounds them. The bits become
might contain are dark, opaque remnants of the metallic flux it grew in.
inclusions that are usually opaque and
These inclusions need to be examined closely. You can use fiber-optic light
highly reflective (top). They occur in a
range of angular shapes, although the
to determine if they’re highly reflective or metallic looking. An inclusion of
square shape (bottom) is fairly unusual.
metallic flux can be conclusive evidence that the diamond is lab-grown.
77
Inclusions of highly reflective metallic The included mineral crystals in natural

flux indicate this diamond’s manmade diamonds are more transparent and
origin. (19X) less obvious than the flux in lab-grown
diamonds.
Natural diamond inclusions like these The transparent, octahedral diamond

can resemble the flux in lab-grown crystals in this fashioned diamond look
diamonds. very different from the metallic dark or
shiny flux particles that decorate the
interiors of many lab-grown diamonds.
Lab-grown diamonds won’t always have inclusions. One of the best

ways to distinguish natural from lab-grown diamonds is related to how
they grow, and to the shape of their crystals. Although a cutter can
remove the exterior of a crystal during polishing, crystal growth struc-
tures like graining and color zoning remain in the fashioned stone. These
features can help you identify the gem as lab-grown or natural.
As you learned in Assignment 4, diamonds grow deep in the earth,
under a range of temperature and pressure conditions. The temperatures
for natural diamond crystal growth are higher than those used to grow
78
NATURAL DIAMOND HPHT SYNTHETIC DIAMOND
seed crystal
A vertical cross section of an HPHT

cross section cross section synthetic diamond shows its upward
and outward growth from the tiny seed
crystal. Its characteristic zoned pattern
forms when nitrogen atoms, which are
present as impurities during crystal
growth, are concentrated parallel to
certain crystal faces.
Blue fluorescence, concentric Yellow or greenish yellow

growth pattern fluorescence, cross-shaped
growth pattern
Natural and HPHT synthetic diamonds have different shapes and crystal growth
structures. Of the natural diamonds that fluoresce, most show consistent growth in
all directions from a central core, so a cross section through a crystal (left) reveals a
concentric pattern like the layers of an onion. HPHT synthetic diamonds (right) grow
quite differently: A cross section shows strongly zoned growth that creates a cross-
shaped fluorescence pattern.
HPHT synthetic diamonds in the laboratory. At high temperatures,

diamonds grow as octahedral crystals, but in the lower temperatures of the
laboratory, they grow as crystals with both octahedral and cubic faces.
Natural diamond crystals grow relatively equally in all directions from
a small central core. HPHT synthetic diamond crystals grow upward and
outward from a tiny seed crystal that’s placed on a flat surface. This leads
to an entirely different crystal shape, which looks like a broad-based,
tapered pyramid terminated by a small flat face. This is a shape you’ll
never see in a natural diamond.
79
Tino Hammid/GIA
These Sumitomo HPHT synthetics (left) show the usual mixture of sharp-edged cubic
and octahedraI faces. They’re very different from the typical rounded octahedral
shapes of natural diamond crystals (above).
John Koivula/GIA
This 0.78-ct. HPHT synthetic diamond has a flattened base where it grew upward
from a seed crystal, which is visible at the center. This feature is typical of HPHT
synthetics, but it’s never seen in natural diamonds, which grow by building layers
from the inside out in all directions.
Because the shapes of natural and HPHT synthetic diamond crystals

are different, their internal growth patterns also differ dramatically. These
growth patterns can be among the most reliable ways to separate natural
from HPHT synthetic diamond.
80
John Koivula/GIA Shane McClure/GIA
Even after an HPHT synthetic diamond is fashioned, it retains crystal growth struc- Because HPHT synthetic diamonds
tures that proclaim its origin to the trained gemologist. An example is the surface grow in an iron-based flux, they contain
graining on the table facet of this Sumitomo synthetic. many metallic inclusions. Some have so
many metallic inclusions that they
respond to a magnet.
For example, the growth patterns related to the cubic and octahedral Ke y C o n c e p t s
crystal faces of the HPHT synthetic can make an hourglass-shaped
graining pattern. Hourglass graining is often visible with magnification
HPHT synthetic diamonds can be
through a fashioned HPHT synthetic diamond’s pavilion. Color zoning in
identified by their metallic flux
synthetic diamonds also follows the stone’s growth patterns. Natural inclusions, growth structures, and
diamonds won’t show hourglass-shaped growth zoning. fluorescence.
If you can’t find any inclusions, graining, or color zoning, test the
diamond’s reaction to UV radiation. This is particularly useful if you need
to test an entire parcel of diamonds at the same time.
Natural diamonds that fluoresce typically display blue fluorescence
under longwave UV, and a weaker, often yellow fluorescence under
shortwave UV. Some HPHT synthetic diamonds fluoresce yellow to
greenish yellow under both longwave and shortwave UV, and the reaction
is usually brighter under shortwave UV. The lab-grown diamond’s different
crystal growth structures often show up as a distinctive cross-shaped
pattern to both longwave and shortwave UV.
In addition, some HPHT synthetic diamonds are phosphorescent:
Their fluorescent glow remains for a short time after the UV radiation is
turned off. This feature makes it possible to examine several diamonds
side by side. It’s unusual for a natural diamond to show phosphorescence.
Some HPHT synthetic diamonds are attracted to magnets because of the
tiny metallic inclusions left behind from the flux metal used for diamond
81
C. Welbourn John Koivula/GIA
Besides its distinctive blue fluorescence, which is typical of many natural diamonds,
this 0.30-ct. fashioned gem (left) shows concentric bands of octahedral growth. By
contrast, under longwave UV, this Russian HPHT synthetic diamond (right) glows a
greenish yellow color and has a distinctive cross-shaped fluorescence that reflects
its different crystal growth pattern.
Nicholas DelRe/GIA
HPHT synthetic diamonds show a variety of fluorescence patterns. Through the

crown, you’ll usually see a cross-shaped pattern (left), while from the side, an hour-
glass pattern (above) is typical.
growth. Although some of the inclusions might be too small to be visible

even under a microscope, you can test for their presence by suspending a
lab-grown diamond on a thread and holding a strong magnet near the stone.
The metallic inclusions are attracted to the magnet, so when the magnet
moves, the lab-grown diamond moves along with it. It’s extremely rare for
a natural diamond to have this property.
The magnet test isn’t as useful as it once was. For one thing, it’s imprac-
tical for mounted or very tiny lab-grown diamonds. For another, as technology
has improved, the quantity of metallic inclusions has decreased.
82
James Shigley/GIA Shane McClure/GIA
Some Gemesis lab-grown diamonds display distinctive colorless zoning (above).

They also might feature cloud-like masses of tiny pinpoints (right) that are more
scattered than the clouds in natural diamonds.
Gemesis developed its technology to the point where the visual charac-
teristics that distinguish its synthetics are generally less obvious than the
characteristics of other HPHT synthetic diamonds. The cutting process
eliminates many of the remaining characteristics. Magnification might
reveal color zoning and small opaque or reflective metallic inclusions, but
the inclusions are often cloud-like and difficult to distinguish. Metal flux
inclusions are often parallel to a rough crystal’s outer surface, or found
along boundaries between internal growth sectors.
Fluoresence varies more in Gemesis synthetic diamonds than it does in
other HPHT synthetics. Gemesis synthetics can be inert under both LWUV
and SWUV, or they might fluoresce a weak or very weak orange, possibly
with a green cross-shaped pattern superimposed over it. The intensity of the
SWUV reaction might be either slightly weaker or slightly stronger than the
intensity of the LWUV reaction.
De Beers researchers developed two diamond-verification instruments
in the mid-1990s for use in gemological laboratories: the DiamondSure™
and the DiamondView™. The DiamondSure can be used to test colorless
to near-colorless stones and identify the ones that require further testing. It
works because most natural colorless to near-colorless diamonds are Type
Ia—a type that shows a distinctive nitrogen absorption pattern that’s not
seen in Type IIa diamonds. Since all colorless HPHT synthetic diamonds
produced so far are Type IIa, the instrument doesn’t detect this pattern in
them. This result indicates the need for further testing to confirm the
diamond’s identity.
The DiamondView can help separate natural from lab-grown colorless
and near-colorless diamonds, including the ones that do not pass the
DiamondSure test. It’s a more complex, more expensive instrument that
displays a diamond’s crystal growth structure as a pattern of UV fluores-
cence, which is very different for HPHT synthetic diamonds than it is for
natural diamonds.
83
CVD synthetic diamonds lack the flux
metal inclusions that might be seen
in HPHT synthetic diamonds.
Eric Welch/GIA
De Beers’ DiamondView relies on the different fluorescence patterns of natural and

HPHT synthetic diamonds to separate them. The instrument consists of a fluorescence
imaging unit, a TV camera, and a specially programmed computer. A trained operator
evaluates the stone’s image to determine its origin.
DETECTING CVD SYNTHETIC DIAMONDS

CVD diamonds can be colorless, near-colorless, or colored (including
various shades of brown, blue, and pink). Most CVD synthetic diamonds
cannot be identified using standard gem-testing equipment and must be
submitted to a properly equipped gemological laboratory for identification.
There are some indications, however, that a diamond might be a CVD
synthetic.
CVD diamonds don’t contain the same inclusions as natural diamonds
or HPHT synthetics. For example, they might contain irregularly shaped,
dark, non-diamond carbon inclusions. As with HPHT synthetics, the
DiamondSure test will indicate the need for further testing.
The DiamondView might show a banded fluorescent pattern that is
different from what is seen in natural diamonds or HPHT synthetic
diamonds. Advanced testing reveals distinctive features in the absorption
spectra of CVD synthetics that separate them from other lab-grown
diamonds and—more importantly—from natural diamonds.
The presence of lab-grown diamonds in the marketplace will
challenge dealers and consumers to be more careful about diamonds in
general. Of course, disclosure should be the rule at every step of a lab-
grown diamond’s journey through the market, as well as during an
appraisal. But you might not always be told that a diamond is lab-grown.
Whenever you come across a diamond you think might be lab-grown,
examine it carefully, and consider sending it to a gemological laboratory
for further testing.
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Creative marketing of naturally colored

diamonds in the 1980s and 1990s
helped increase public awareness and
demand for these rare natural treasures.
©1998 Tino Hammid
These diamonds are natural, but they owe their beautiful colors to laboratory
treatments.
COLOR TREATMENTS
■ What factors encouraged development of diamond color
treatments?
■ How does heat affect treated diamond color?
■ How did a modern color-modification process evolve from
diamond synthesis?
■ What are some clues for detecting color treatments?
Even though most people think of diamonds as colorless, colored diamonds

are more popular than ever. Promotion of pink and brown diamonds
from Australia’s Argyle mine has probably done more to increase public
awareness of colored diamonds than any other factor. Increased interest
has led to new research into the causes of natural diamond color.
85
Irradiation—Exposure of a material As you learned in Assignment 12, diamond color comes from the
to radiation; causes color change presence of impurities or the effect of distortions or defects in a diamond’s
in diamonds. crystal lattice. Diamonds tend to be yellow when nitrogen is present as an
impurity and blue when the impurity agent is boron. Most green diamonds
Linear accelerator—A machine get their color when radiation displaces atoms from their normal positions
in the crystal lattice. And the color in pink and brown diamonds is due to
used to accelerate electrons to
graining, an irregularity or defect in the crystal that occurs during growth.
high energy along a straight path.
While studying the causes of natural color, scientists began to under-

stand how some of those color-causing conditions might be reproduced in
the lab. Since then, scientists have experimented with many ways to
change or modify diamond color. The value and rarity of naturally colored
diamonds have inspired many struggles to create their colors in the lab.
IRRADIATION
Natural radiation in the ground makes the diamonds near it turn green. In
the early 1900s, Sir William Crookes tried to duplicate nature’s process
and manufacture green diamonds in the laboratory. Crookes’ experiments
marked early research into color-treating diamonds by artificial irradia-
tion. He found that he could make diamonds turn green by burying them in
a radium compound for up to a year. Unfortunately, the treatment also
made the diamonds highly radioactive.
Atomic science researchers invented the cyclotron soon after World
War II for nuclear research. It was a large machine that accelerated
atomic particles around a circular path. Its introduction encouraged
major developments in irradiation, and made artificial irradiation of
Robert Weldon/GIA
All green diamonds get their color from exposure to radiation, whether natural or lab-
created. This 3.06-ct. diamond’s color treatment was disclosed, but the laboratory
process is so similar to natural irradiation that it would be otherwise impossible to
prove the origin of its color.
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Bettmann/Corbis Roger Ressmeyer/Corbis
The first irradiated diamonds were treated in a cyclotron, a large device developed
for atomic research (above). Today, most diamond treaters use more compact
equipment, like a linear accelerator (right).
diamonds in commercial quantities possible. But this treatment resulted Half-life—The length of time
in only shallow penetration of the atomic particles into the diamond, so required for half of a group of
it caused distinctive color zones. atoms of a particular type
Later in the 1900s, researchers developed the linear accelerator. It

(radioactive) to decay into
also accelerates atomic particles, but along a straight path rather than a
another type (non-radioactive).
circular one.
Today, penetration with high-energy electrons in a linear accelerator is
one of two frequently used irradiation techniques. Depending on the
material and treatment conditions, this process usually produces blue or
blue-green colors. The other technique involves bombardment with
neutrons, usually in a nuclear reactor. Diamonds treated this way usually
become green, blue-green, or dark green. Ke y C o n c e p t s
Both of these modern processes produce uniform color without zoning Modern diamond irradiation methods
because the electrons and neutrons penetrate very deeply. And the
radioactive atoms in diamonds treated with either process usually have
leave little or no color zoning and no
short half-lives, so the diamonds lose their radioactivity before they’re
radioactivity.
released into the market.
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After one half-life,

half of the radioactivity
remains.
one
half-life
four
half-lives
six
half-lives
ten
half-lives After ten half-lives,
only one thousandth
of the radioactivity
remains.
Peter Johnston/GIA
Half-life is a measure of the time it takes for half of the radioactivity in an object to break down.
It can be shorter than a second or as long as billions of years, depending on the radioactive
material. When each half-life ends, another begins.
88
Rade Lukovic/iStockphoto
The most common, and least expensive, radiation detector is a Geiger counter.
It converts radioactive waves to electrical pulses that trigger audible clicks. It’s a
valuable tool to have on hand, especially if you deal in estate jewelry, which is more
likely to contain potentially hazardous diamonds treated with radium salts.
Robert Weldon/GIA
Whether irradiated in a laboratory—like these two examples—or in the earth, green

diamonds can be very attractive.
Scientists use half-life to measure the long period of radioactivity in a

material. They define a half-life as the amount of time required for half
the radioactive atoms of a substance to become non-radioactive. Once the
first half decays in this way, the “clock” resets and half of what’s left
begins to decay. Then half of that must decay. This process continues until
half of what’s left is an undetectable amount. A half-life can vary from
less than a second to billions of years.
The Geiger counter is a fairly simple and affordable instrument that can
detect and measure moderate to high levels of radioactivity. At the other
end of the scale are complex instruments used by research labs.
89
Many countries have government agencies that regulate the amount of

radioactivity allowed in gemstones. In the US, the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC) regulates manmade radioactivity. At one time, their
regulations applied only to gems irradiated in a reactor. A law that passed
in 2005 and took effect in 2007 extended their control to gems irradiated
in accelerators, which includes most irradiated diamonds.
The Commission allows radioactive gemstones to be released to the
public only after they’re tested by an NRC-licensed organization. The
testing organization can assign a release date to a radioactive gem,
depending on when the radioactivity is expected to be at a safe level.
After the initial release, they can be resold without limit.
Sometimes, the release date is far in the future. Some gems irradiated
Shane McClure/GIA
This 0.55-ct. lab-grown diamond was

in the early to mid-1900s are still radioactive.
Color-modifying irradiation treatment usually comes after a diamond is
originally brownish. A combination of
cut and polished. Unfortunately, irradiated colors are sensitive to heat.

irradiation and heating turned it an
attractive red.
Technicians use cold running water to prevent color changes during the irra-
diation process, which generates a lot of heat. After the gem is set, the heat
from jewelry repairs, recutting, or repolishing might also change its color.
ANNEALING
A controlled heating and cooling process called annealing, which you
Ke y C o n c e p t s read about in Assignment 12, is another way to change diamond color.
When it follows irradiation in a two-step process, annealing modifies
irradiated colors to produce brown, orange, or yellow. Rarely, it can also
Heat can alter irradiated colors.
produce shades of pink, red, or purple.
The process changes diamond colors in a series—generally blue to green
Annealed diamond color can change
to brown to yellow—and the treatment is stopped when the desired color is
if it’s exposed to heat during routine
reached. In the early 1990s, treaters discovered it was possible to treat
repairs.
typical yellow to brown lab-grown diamonds to produce more marketable
reddish colors. Annealing can also be used alone to create black diamonds
by inducing large-scale graphitization within surface-reaching fractures.
As with irradiation, if heat is later applied to an annealed diamond dur-
ing routine repairs, it can alter its color.
HEAT AND PRESSURE

In the late 1990s, advances in diamond synthesis led scientists to experiment
with ways to modify diamond color using the same HPHT equipment.
Those experiments resulted in high-pressure, high-temperature color
treatment. Depending on the starting material, this treatment can improve
the color of brownish Type IIa and some very rare Type Ia diamonds,
making them almost colorless. It can also create green or yellowish green
diamonds from another category of brown Type Ia diamonds.
After HPHT treatments were developed for commercial use, the GIA
Laboratory and other gemological labs explored ways to detect their
presence.
90
Both by Phillip Hitz/Gübelin Gem Lab
HPHT can dramatically improve a

diamond’s color. Before treatment,
these Type IIa diamonds ranged from
N-color to Fancy Light brown (top).
After treatment, their color improved
significantly, and they received color
grades of D to H (bottom).
To produce or remove diamond color, HPHT treaters use essentially the same
equipment as manufacturers of lab-grown diamonds. Presses like this one produce
extremely high pressures and temperatures.
GE—the same company that pioneered diamond synthesis—selected

Type IIa diamonds for HPHT treatment. Type IIa diamonds are very rare
in nature: They make up less than 1 percent of diamonds mined. They
have a very pure chemical composition, and only very small amounts of
nitrogen or boron. Some very large diamonds—including the 530.20-ct.
Cullinan I—are Type IIa.
Shortwave UV radiation passes through Type IIa diamonds and not
through other types, so gemologists can take advantage of this property to
separate them.
91
The Deepdene: Treated, and Treated Again
Christie’s auction house sold the Deepdene diamond in 1997, set in a beautiful
cultured pearl and diamond choker necklace.
THE DEEPDENE
Weight: 104.88 cts., then 104.52 cts.
Cut: Cushion
Color: Light yellow to deep green to golden yellow (treated color)
The Deepdene is probably the most famous color-treated diamond in

existence. Gem historians believe that it came from a South African
mine in 1890 and that it was originally cut by the I.J. Asscher Co. in
Amsterdam. It appeared on the market as a light yellow, cushion-
shaped, 104.88-ct. diamond. Its first known owner was famed New
York diamond dealer Lazare Kaplan.
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In the early 1900s, Helena Bok,

a Pennsylvania socialite, bought
the diamond. She named it
Deepdene, which means “deep
valley” in old English, to honor
her family’s estate. The Bok family
loaned it to the Philadelphia
Academy of Sciences, which dis-
played it publicly in the 1940s.
The family sold the diamond to
Harry Winston in 1954, and
Winston sold it the following
year.
Sometime after that, the
Deepdene was irradiated in a
cyclotron, which turned it a hand-
some green color. The treaters
recut the culet and pavilion
slightly to eliminate the umbrella-
shaped color zoning left by the

In 1997, Christie’s photographed the
radiation treatment. That’s when

Deepdene diamond out of its setting.
its weight changed to 104.52 cts.

This side view shows its lovely treated
yellow color.
The diamond was sold again in 1971. By that time, the Deepdene
was yellow again. When questions arose about the origin of its
color, gemological expert Dr. Eduard Gübelin stepped forward. He
said that he had examined the diamond and determined that it was
annealed. It’s said that Dr. Gübelin also sent the diamond to Robert
Crowningshield at GIA, who agreed that its yellow color was the
result of heat treatment.
In November 1997, the Geneva branch of Christie’s auction
house sold the Deepdene at auction. GIA Laboratory had examined
it a few months earlier and pronounced it VS1 clarity. This time, the
gem was surrounded by four rows of cultured pearls and diamonds
in a magnificent choker necklace. The winning bid was $647,482.
Because of its color and weight changes, there was some contro-
versy over whether the modern diamond was indeed the original
Deepdene. Experts solved the mystery by obtaining a photograph of
the original gem from Helena Bok. They compared the photograph
to the actual diamond under a special microscope that magnified
them both 12.5 times and displayed the images side by side. The
proof was an identical natural, just above the girdle. It convinced
researchers that they held the original Deepdene diamond.
93
After HPHT treatment, some cleavages take on a granular, In some HPHT-treated diamonds, solid inclusions surrounded
reflective appearance. by stress cracks display a black inner area of graphite and a
brighter halo of outwardly radiating cracks. (40X)
Most Type IIa diamonds have very few clarity characteristics beyond
small fractures and tiny mineral inclusions. Many have clarity grades of
VVS or better, and HPHT doesn’t significantly affect most inclusions or
HPHT eliminates the structural
clarity grades. GE selects diamonds with the highest possible clarity for
distortions that cause brownish
coloring in some Type IIa diamonds. treatment.
As you learned in Assignment 12, some Type IIa diamonds are brown.
HPHT can dramatically improve The brown color is caused by internal, parallel grain lines, which are actu-
the color and value of brownish ally distortions of the diamond’s crystal structure. These are the diamonds
that GE treats with HPHT. High pressures and temperatures eliminate the
brown color by reducing or removing these structural irregularities.
diamonds.
The first commercial release of HPHT diamonds occurred in March

1999. The release was the result of a partnership between GE and major
diamond manufacturer Lazare Kaplan International (LKI). The companies
declared that the gems had been treated to improve color, brightness, and
brilliance and that the results were permanent and also irreversible.
At first, the stones were known as GE-POL or “Pegasus” diamonds
because they were marketed through Lazare Kaplan’s subsidiary, Pegasus
Graphitization—Graphite formation
Overseas Limited (POL). At present, they’re sold by LKI under the brand
around a diamond’s mineral inclu-
sions and feathers that results
from the extreme conditions of name “Bellataire.”
GE and Lazare Kaplan cooperated with GIA and other leading gem
HPHT treatment.
labs to help identify defining characteristics for HPHT-treated diamonds.
They supplied samples of diamonds both before and after treatment for the
labs to compare and analyze.
High temperatures and pressures are risky for some diamonds. Some
might break from thermal shock, while others might become chipped or
fractured. An effect that can help you recognize them is graphitization,
which is the formation of graphite around the diamond’s mineral inclu-
sions and feathers.
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Darren Rosario John Koivula/GIA
The Bellataire inscription on this diamond identifies it as one High pressures and temperatures can result in the formation
that has undergone HPHT treatment. of graphite around a diamond’s mineral inclusions. (40X)
Most diamonds need repolishing after HPHT treatment, but the

improvement in color and value can be dramatic. Brown diamonds of N
to O color, and even Fancy Light brown diamonds, can attain D to H
grades after HPHT treatment. Today, a combination of HPHT annealing
and irradiation, sometimes followed by repeated annealing, is used to cre-
ate an even wider range of colors, including pink and orange.
COATINGS
Coatings were one of the earliest methods of diamond color modification,
but they fell out of use when more advanced techniques like HPHT
emerged. This changed in recent years with the introduction of a new
coating method developed and marketed by Serenity Technologies. Jessica Arditi and Jian Xin (Jae) Liao
These modern silica coatings are applied to polished colorless or near- A new coating technique can produce a
colorless diamonds. The process results in a variety of natural-looking
variety of colors on polished diamonds.
fancy colors, including pinks, oranges, yellows, blues, and violets.

These stones range from 0.01 to 0.70 ct.
These coatings are fairly durable, but not permanent. They can be dam-
aged by the heat and chemicals used during jewelry repairs and polishing.
They also scratch fairly easily. This means that detection and disclosure
are vital when handling coated color-treated diamonds.
RECOGNIZING COLOR MODIFICATIONS

Most color treatments are difficult to detect. It’s best to send diamonds
you suspect of being treated to a gemological laboratory, because sophis-
ticated laboratory equipment provides the most reliable origin-of-color
identifications. A spectrophotometer, for example, is a complex and
expensive instrument that reads a gem’s light absorption across the
visible, UV, and infrared ranges. Experienced technicians can interpret
that information and usually turn it into an origin-of-color judgment.
95
Both by Phillip Hitz/Gübelin Gem Lab
Before HPHT, this pear-shaped diamond’s color was Fancy Light brown (left). After
treatment (right), the diamond received a color grade of D.
Shane Elen/GIA
After HPHT, this diamond’s surface displayed etching and pitting. This stone will
require repolishing before it can be sold. (10X)
Both by Maha Tannous/GIA
Some of these brown diamond crystals (above) turned a more desirable greenish
yellow (left) after HPHT treatment.
96
Most origin-of-color tests should be
done by a gemological laboratory.
Shane McClure/GIA Vincent Cracco/GIA
Irradiation and heating resulted in the distinct color zone at this diamond’s culet
(left). Irradiation can also result in uneven distribution of color, as seen in the pink
and yellow zones in this 0.43-ct. diamond (right).
There are some clues to color treatments that you can detect under
magnification, with fairly simple equipment. As you’ve learned, color
zoning parallel to facet junctions is one sign of a cyclotron-irradiated
diamond. If a brilliant cut is irradiated from the pavilion, the color zone is
an umbrella-shaped area around the culet. If it was treated from the crown,
the zone is a dark-colored ring just inside the girdle. You’ll see it if you
place the stone on a white surface and look at it through the pavilion. If
you see either type of color zoning, you should send the diamond to a
gemological laboratory for further testing.
Whether green diamonds came by their color naturally or artificially is

almost impossible to determine, even with sophisticated laboratory tests.
That’s because all green diamonds are irradiated. Some are irradiated
naturally in the earth, and some by scientists in the lab.
Identifying HPHT-treated diamonds involves specialized laboratory

Since this is a rough crystal, it’s easy to
techniques like spectroscopy and photoluminescence. But it might be

assume that its green color is natural,
but rough can also be irradiated in the
possible to detect some signs of HPHT with microscope examination.
laboratory.
Those signs include damage caused by the extreme heat and pressure con-
ditions, like etched or frosted naturals and fractures that appear frosted or
that converted to graphite. You’ll see graphitization in the form of darkened
areas in fractures and around feathers.
For near-colorless to colorless diamonds, the DTC DiamondSure will

indicate the need, based on diamond type, for advanced testing to determine
color origin.
You can often recognize the signs of color coatings with simple 10X
magnification. You’ll often see scratches and other surface features, such as
areas with uncoated spots or patches. Looking through the table can make
it easier to see these features on the pavilion. Coating irregularities can
make a diamond look like it needs cleaning, but they won’t wipe off with
the gemcloth.
97
CLARITY TREATMENTS
■ How can laser drilling improve a diamond’s marketability?
■ What are some benefits and disadvantages of fracture filling?
■ What is the flash effect?
Very few diamonds are perfect when they come out of the ground. As
you’ve learned, some clarity characteristics can be cut away during the
manufacturing process. And some can be positioned within the finished
diamond so they don’t detract from its appearance or durability. But some
require more than that. The late 1900s brought many advances in diamond
clarity treatments.
LASER DRILLING
Since the early 1970s, diamond manufacturers have used lasers to drill
tiny tunnels—thinner than a human hair—into diamonds to reach dark
inclusions. The process uses a carbon dioxide laser to heat a tiny area of
the diamond until it evaporates, producing a tiny tube that the operator can
Before laser drilling, dark included
direct toward an unsightly inclusion.

crystals stand out in high relief against
the rest of the diamond (top). After the
The laser drill-hole makes it possible to vaporize the inclusion with the
diamond is laser drilled and the crystals
laser, bleach it, or etch it out with acid. This lightens a dark inclusion,
are bleached with acid, they’re much
which can make the diamond more marketable.

less obvious (bottom).
In spite of the fact that it disguises an existing inclusion, laser drilling

often doesn’t improve the clarity grade. In fact, the drill-hole itself
Laser drilling—Using a concen-
becomes a clarity characteristic. The drill-hole shouldn’t cause a durability

trated beam of laser light to reach
problem, but if it fills with foreign material, it becomes more visible.

a diamond’s dark inclusions and
disguise or eliminate them.
You might be able to detect a laser drill-hole with careful examination
under 10X magnification, but higher magnification is often necessary. You
can distinguish laser drill-holes from etch channels—natural, hollow, tube-
Ke y C o n c e p t s like features present in some diamonds—by the fact that laser drill-holes
are circular in cross section, while etch channels are square, triangular, or
hexagonal.
Laser drilling can make a diamond
more marketable by improving its
appearance.
Because laser drill-holes are

permanent, gem labs report them
as clarity characteristics.
Fracture filling makes a diamond’s

fractures less reflective by using a Vincent Cracco/GIA
high-RI glass filler. In this close-up of a laser-drilled diamond, Some diamonds contain natural features
you can clearly see the drill-hole between called etch channels, which are angular
the surface and the inclusion, which was and can display growth marks. By con-
Fracture filling is the most common bleached to be less visible. (63X) trast, laser drill-holes are cylindrical and
lack any features resembling growth
diamond treatment. marks.
98
It’s difficult to see a laser drill-hole if it’s very short or covered by a

prong in a setting. Once drilled, the hole is a permanent characteristic of
the diamond, so all major gem labs grade laser-drilled stones and report
the drill-hole as a clarity characteristic.
At one time, some industry professionals considered laser drilling a
part of the cutting process, and didn’t think it required any special
disclosure or description. But now, there’s industry-wide agreement that
laser-drilled diamonds should be clearly disclosed all the way from
wholesaler to consumer.
Vincent Cracco/GIA
Internal laser drilling resulted in the

unnatural, irregular, wormhole-like
channels in this diamond. (63X)
INTERNAL LASER DRILLING
A variation on laser drilling is called internal laser drilling (ILD). It’s a Internal laser drilling (ILD)—A
technique that uses a laser to expand an existing cleavage or create a new clarity treatment that uses a laser
cleavage between an inclusion and the surface. This allows the introduction to expand an existing cleavage or
of a bleaching solution. The result is the lightening of a dark inclusion, create a new one, allowing the
making it less visible.
introduction of a bleaching
The cleavage created by this procedure is more natural-looking than a

solution.
traditional laser drill-hole. When you examine a diamond treated with

ILD under the microscope, you’ll see a step-like series of tiny cleavages.
These wormhole-like channels are definite signs of ILD treatment.
FRACTURE FILLING
The first fracture filling treatment for diamonds was introduced in the
1980s. Since then, many manufacturers of filling materials have emerged.
The exact composition of the fillers varies from manufacturer to manufac-
turer, but they’re all based on the same idea: A molten glass substance is
infused into a diamond’s fractures.
As you learned in Assignment 8, the refractive index (RI) of diamond
makes light behave in a predictable way. When a diamond has a fracture
that reaches the surface, the air in the fracture (with its lower RI) inter-
rupts light’s path through the diamond and makes the fracture reflective
and easier to see. The filling’s RI is closer to diamond’s than to the RI of
the air it replaces, so it makes the filled fracture almost invisible to the
casual observer.
Fracture filling has become a fact of life in the diamond industry—
many more diamonds are subjected to this treatment than to irradiation,
coating, heating, or pressure. Diamonds that once were considered unsuit-
able for gem use can now be treated and made attractive and affordable to
Both by Vincent Cracco/GIA
a wider range of consumers.

The white feathers in this 1.39-ct. Fancy
Intense pink emerald-cut diamond (top)
Those who never thought they could afford a diamond over a carat
detracted from the stone’s color. After
suddenly find they can own a larger fracture-filled diamond. This is also
the diamond was fracture filled (bottom),
an advantage to the affluent customer who is looking for a “fun” diamond—

most of the feathers became transparent,
one that’s flashy but not necessarily expensive. Fracture filling might also
and the stone revealed a more highly
saturated pink color.
benefit a customer who accidentally cracks a diamond and is looking for
a way to make that diamond look almost new again.
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Both by Shane McClure/GIA
Before treatment (left), this 0.20-ct. diamond’s fractures are large, reflective, and obvious.
After fracture filling (right), the same diamond is more attractive. The filler refracts
light almost as well as the surrounding diamond, so the fractures are less apparent.
Diamonds as small as melee have been filled, but because of the cost
of the treatment, most filled diamonds are over one carat. This is because
the marketability of larger stones takes a higher leap with an improvement
in apparent clarity.
Fracture filling has its advantages—it makes a diamond look better—
but it also has some disadvantages. For one thing, the filler sometimes
lowers a diamond’s color slightly.
Fracture filling can last for years with proper care, but it’s important to
know that the fillers can sometimes be damaged by common jewelry
repair procedures. Damaging conditions include the high temperatures
created during recutting or repolishing and the torch heat generated during
retipping or repair. Over time, repeated cleaning can also harm fillers,
especially when the method involves steam, acid, or ultrasonics. Prolonged
John Koivula/GIA
exposure to UV radiation—even sunlight—can discolor a filler and make

Jewelry repair procedures can damage
it look cloudy over time.

diamond fillers. The heat from a jeweler’s
torch caused tiny beads of melted filler
Some damage is reversible, some is not. It’s possible to replace the filler
to leak out of this diamond’s fracture.
if it melts and leaks out, but if it turns dark, there’s no way to make it
(50X)
colorless again. The only solution is to remove it and replace it with new
filler. Many major manufacturers of fracture fillings offer lifetime guaran-
tees on their treatments for just this reason. But those assurances of quality
are not enough for everyone. While some jewelry stores carry a selection
of filled diamonds, others refuse to accept them from their suppliers.
DETECTING FRACTURE FILLING
The ability to identify filled diamonds is always essential. It’s important

if you have to take jewelry in for repair because everyday repair and
cleaning procedures can damage treated stones. And it’s obviously important
when you buy or sell diamond jewelry. Your firm’s reputation suffers if
you sell a fracture-filled diamond without disclosing the treatment. This
100
Some signs of fracture filling are the
flash effect, trapped bubbles, and a
crackled texture.
Vincent Cracco/GIA
This diamond has multiple laser drill-holes and a pinkish purple flash effect that
shows it’s also fracture-filled. (37X)
This diamond’s fracture wasn’t completely filled, so it contains large bubbles of In some fracture-filled diamonds, the filler
trapped gas. This is one of the features to look for when you suspect the presence has a crackled texture. It’s very obvious
of fracture filling. (35X) when the filled fracture is fairly thick.
is true even if you didn’t know about the treatment. In extreme cases,
nondisclosure can leave you open to a possible lawsuit.
As you learned in Assignment 10, the most obvious evidence of
fracture filling is called the flash effect, which is a flash of changing color
that shows up with proper lighting under magnification. The flash effect
results because glass fillers don’t precisely match diamond’s RI for all
wavelengths of light. To see it, you must look parallel to the fracture and
rock the diamond back and forth.
Other signs of fracture filling include gas bubbles trapped in the fracture
or in the filler itself. The injected filler can also have a crackled texture.
When you see these features under magnification, it’s obvious that they’re
not part of the diamond’s original internal structure.
101
Ke y C o n c e p t s A few things can make detection a little more difficult. One small filled
fracture is more difficult to see than several, and requires more careful
examination. If the filled fracture is in a less-visible part of the diamond,
Disclosure of fracture filling is an
detection is even more of a challenge. Always make sure you examine the
industry requirement.
diamond from many different angles. Fiber-optic illumination makes the
flash effect more evident.
Because fracture fillings can be semi-permanent, most gemological
laboratories, including the GIA Laboratory, don’t grade filled diamonds.
They do, however, report the presence of fracture filling. Its only function
is to make a diamond more marketable by disguising its inclusions.
If you’re ever unsure about the presence of fracture filling in a diamond,
send it to a gemological laboratory for identification. Your reputation could
depend on proper identification and disclosure of this or any other treatment.
DISCLOSING FRACTURE FILLING
Since its introduction, the industry has debated methods of disclosing

fracture filling without alarming the customer. An early solution was the
term “clarity enhancement,” which had a more positive sound than “fracture
filling.” But the US Federal Trade Commission and others in the industry
consider the words “clarity enhancement” misleading. It was soon followed
by the term “clarity treatment,” which was adopted by many industry
professionals as the preferred—and more correct—term.
International diamond professionals and regulatory agencies demand
disclosure of fracture filling every time a diamond changes hands. You
must tell your clients that they’re buying a fracture-filled diamond and
inform them of its special care requirements. They must also understand
Nicholas DelRe/GIA
It’s always important to be aware of the presence of fracture filling because ordinary
jewelry repair procedures can damage the filler. This 3.02-ct. diamond was mounted
in a ring. During the repair process, the heat from the jeweler’s torch darkened the
filling and dramatically affected the diamond’s appearance.
102
how to inform anyone else who might handle their diamond in the future.
That way, they can avoid the damage that’s sometimes associated with the
repair or cleaning of fracture-filled diamonds.
The issue of the disclosure of fracture filling came to the public’s atten-
tion in 1993 when a televised consumer program exposed some jewelers
who were selling undisclosed fracture-filled diamonds. The shocking
news set the trade buzzing, not only in the city where the deception
occurred, but all over the US. Since then, consumers have become better
informed about diamond treatments.
Many manufacturers of diamond fillers have prepared informative
videos and printed materials to help with treatment disclosure. The videos
serve a dual purpose. Besides educating customers, they also teach retailers
and suppliers about this technology.
TREATED DIAMONDS AND THE MARKETPLACE

In the last 10 years, diamond treatments have become much more of an
issue in the jewelry trade. As modern clarity and color treatment
techniques make many diamonds more marketable, the need for positive,
ethical disclosure grows. Most gem professionals, in an effort to preserve
their customers’ trust, have been much more careful about detecting and
disclosing treatments of all kinds.
There are far more treated diamonds in the market than there are lab-
grown diamonds. Although synthetics are widely used in industry, it’s still
costly and time consuming to produce and market them for jewelry use.
Even so, it’s important to be aware that the number of lab-grown diamonds
in the market is likely to increase as production methods are refined and
marketing efforts succeed in promoting them.
In 1993, a US television news program exposed jewelers who were selling fracture-
filled diamonds without disclosure. The uproar that followed made consumers more
aware of treated diamonds in the marketplace.
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Tino Hammid/GIA
Even the most expensive jewelry might be set with treated diamonds. This piece,
which was offered at a high-end auction, contains a large irradiated brown pear-
shaped diamond.
Because diamond treatments and lab-grown diamonds are already part

of the industry, it’s important for you to learn as much as you can about
them. Stay up to date by reading trade journals, and refer to GIA’s Gems
& Gemology for the latest scientific news and detection techniques. And
always remember that disclosure is not only ethical, it’s good for business.
104
Diamond’s beauty, rarity, and value inspire research into Annealed diamond color can change if it’s exposed to heat
synthesis and treatment. during routine repairs.
Research into diamond synthesis began before 1800, but HPHT eliminates the structural distortions that cause brownish
producers didn’t succeed until the 1950s. coloring in some Type IIa diamonds.
Lab-grown diamonds are better for many industrial applications HPHT can dramatically improve the color and value of
than natural diamonds. brownish diamonds.
The use of lab-grown diamonds in jewelry is limited by high Most origin-of-color tests should be done by a gemological
production costs. laboratory.
Most HPHT synthetic diamonds are yellow or brown because Laser drilling can make a diamond more marketable by
they contain nitrogen impurities. improving its appearance.
HPHT synthetic diamonds can be identified by their metallic Because laser drill-holes are permanent, gem labs report
flux inclusions, growth structures, and fluorescence. them as clarity characteristics.
CVD synthetic diamonds lack the flux metal inclusions that Fracture filling makes a diamond’s fractures less reflective by
might be seen in HPHT synthetic diamonds. using a high-RI glass filler.
Modern diamond irradiation methods leave little or no color Fracture filling is the most common diamond treatment.
zoning and no radioactivity.
Some signs of fracture filling are the flash effect, trapped
Heat can alter irradiated colors. bubbles, and a crackled texture.
Disclosure of fracture filling is an industry requirement.
105
Key Terms
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)—An industrial Internal laser drilling (ILD)—A clarity treatment that
process adapted to allow growth of synthetic uses a laser to expand an existing cleavage or
diamond from carbon-rich gas in thin layers onto a create a new one, allowing the introduction of a
silicon or diamond surface. bleaching solution.
Graphitization—Graphite formation around a Irradiation—Exposure of a material to radiation;

diamond’s mineral inclusions and feathers that causes color change in diamonds.
results from the extreme conditions of HPHT
treatment. Laser drilling—Using a concentrated beam of laser
light to reach a diamond’s dark inclusions and
Half-life—The length of time required for half of a disguise or eliminate them.
group of atoms of a particular type (radioactive) to
decay into another type (non-radioactive). Linear accelerator—A machine used to accelerate
electrons to high energy along a straight path.
High pressure, high temperature (HPHT)—
Diamond synthesis method that mimics the Lab-grown diamond—Manufactured (synthetic)
pressure and temperature conditions that lead to diamond with essentially the same physical,
natural diamond formation. chemical, and optical properties as natural diamond.
106
Succeeding in the Marketplace 20
Working in the Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Tools for Handling, Sorting, and Measuring Diamonds . . . . . . . . . 113
Tools for Weighing Diamonds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Matching Diamonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Turning Information into Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Diamond Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Polished Diamonds and Diamond Jewelry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Wholesale Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Wholesale Price Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Parcel Pricing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
The Journey Ends…and Begins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
107
• Identify and use the basic tools for measuring, handling, sorting, and weighing
diamonds.
• Understand which appearance factors are important when matching diamonds.
• Communicate the factors that make diamond pricing structures unique.
• Apply parcel and stone pricing skills to your success in the marketplace.
108
SUCCEEDING IN THE MARKETPLACE
Peter Johnson/DPS
The late William Goldberg, who founded one of the world’s most successful diamond firms, casually displayed a fortune in
diamonds on the back of his hand.

You’re nearing the end of your journey through Diamond Essentials and
Diamonds & Diamond Grading. You’ve seen how diamond quality, rarity,
and value are related. You’ve visited diamond fields in South Africa,
Australia, Russia, and Canada, and learned about the almost magical
combination of forces and circumstances required to produce a glittering
diamond. You’ve explored the fascinating realm of diamonds and light. And
you also know how treatments and laboratory-grown diamonds fit into the
modern market.
Your journey through these two courses is part of a larger adventure—
one that takes place every day in the evolving, exciting, and rewarding
diamond business. In this final assignment, you’ll see how everything
you’ve learned can contribute to your success.
No matter what your position—employer or employee, wholesaler or
retailer—a lot of what you’ve learned can help you perform everyday
tasks like reading price lists and dealing with suppliers and customers.
This assignment will focus on the details of those tasks. You’ll learn about
the important tools of the trade. And you’ll read about diamond prices, the
109
Michael S. Yamashita/Corbis
110
Donald Stampfli/AP Wide World Photos
There’s plenty of glamour in the diamond

industry, even if you’re not involved in
international trading in the Manhattan
diamond district (left) or selling $500,000
necklaces at exciting high-end auctions
(above).
111
Andy Lucas/GIA
Success in the diamond industry requires an understanding of the business on many levels, from sources and marketing
(below) to the careful evaluation of diamond parcels (above).
different ways dealers sell their merchandise, and how to make informed
buying decisions.
You might be just starting out in the gem and jewelry business. Or you
might be an industry veteran who enrolled in these courses to further
your knowledge. Either way, your newly acquired skills and knowledge
will be the keys to your success in the rapidly changing environment of
the jewelry trade.
WORKING IN THE TRADE

■ What are some tools for measuring diamonds?
■ What tools are useful for quickly sorting large numbers of small
diamonds?
■ Why is matching an important skill?
Many of the industry’s foremost diamond professionals—diamantaires—

started out sorting and matching small diamonds. The skills they gained
early in their careers are still important parts of their business lives. At a
glance, they can assess the quality of parcels of diamonds, matched suites
of diamond jewelry, or single prestigious diamonds.
112
To succeed in the diamond trade, you need to be able to check diamond

quality rapidly and accurately. If you’re a buyer for a retail jewelry chain,
for example, you might have to compare two three-stone diamond
anniversary rings. The rings are from different suppliers, but they’re very
closely priced and contain similar-quality diamonds.
One ring stands out above the other. Its diamonds are very well
matched, so each stone returns a similar pattern of reflections. In the other
ring, you notice that one side stone has a slightly smaller table than the
other, and that it sits somewhat higher in the mounting. These factors help
you choose the first ring as the better-quality product.
Your ability to make this decision comes from the fact that you’ve
learned about the factors that determine diamond quality—clarity, color,
cut, and carat weight. This assignment will help you consider these quality
factors confidently and successfully, no matter what position you hold in
the diamond industry.
TOOLS FOR HANDLING, SORTING, AND MEASURING

DIAMONDS Joel Beeson/GIA
As with many other professions, the diamond trade has its own traditional
The ability to quickly assess diamond
tools and working methods. To be an effective diamond professional, you

quality is essential to your success, no
need to make use of the industry’s special equipment and be aware of its
matter what your position in the trade.
procedures. What you’ll learn in this section—how to handle, sort, and

match diamonds—forms the basis of every top diamantaire’s expertise.
Diamantaire—A knowledgeable,
experienced, and successful
person, usually a dealer or manu-
facturer, in the diamond trade.
Parcel—A quantity of stones,

sometimes of similar size and
quality, packaged together for
sale or storage.
Joel Beeson/GIA
A true diamond professional has the ability to select and use the right tools for
each task.
113
Handling Stone Papers

If you’re in wholesale, you deal mainly in loose diamonds and
you’re probably already familiar with stone papers. Stone papers are
folded paper parcels that come in standard sizes to fit into stock
boxes. Most diamond dealers use them to organize their inventories.
Detailed information about the diamonds inside—size, weight, cost,
and so on—is written on the front of each paper.
Stone papers come in a variety of sizes and colors. They usually
consist of two or three layers of paper, folded together. The outside
layer is usually white and opaque, while the innermost layer is a thin,
translucent liner called a flute.
The color of the flute affects the apparent color of the diamonds it
holds. Light blue flatters colorless and near-colorless diamonds, but
makes the color of light yellow ones more obvious. Off-white or light
Joel Beeson/GIA yellow flutes make yellowish or brownish diamonds look better.
It’s important for you to learn to handle stone papers skillfully. It
Diamond professionals store loose
takes a little practice, but it’ll enhance your professional image. The
diamonds in stone papers. Information
instructions and illustrations show the proper sequences for unfolding

about the diamonds inside, written on
and folding stone papers.

the outside of each paper, helps with
inventory organization.
UNFOLDING
1. Hold the paper in both hands, slip your thumb under the top flap,
and lift it up.
1&2
Peter Johnston/GIA
114
2. Feel for the location of the stone or

stones. You might want to gently tap one
4&5
edge of the paper to shift the contents into

the center. If the paper contains a large
number of small stones, tap one edge to
move them to the side opposite the one
you’re opening.
3. Fold the bottom flap down and carefully
open one of the side flaps. Be careful with
parcels of small stones because a few might
be caught on the wrong side of the fold.
6
4. Tilt the paper slightly away from you and

sideways, toward the unopened side flap.
Slip a finger inside the unfolded flap and
slightly open the pocket.
5. Hold the paper more nearly level and open
the flap on the other side.
6. Open the bottom crease toward you, expos-
ing the diamonds. Be careful not to flip the
stones out.
FOLDING
1. Place the stone or stones in the middle of the second fold from the bottom.
2. Fold the bottom flap up at this crease.
3. Fold the sides toward the middle, making sure you don’t trap any stones on the
wrong side of the fold.
4. Fold the bottom up and the top down.
5. Feel the paper to be sure the diamonds are still inside.
After a while, papers get worn and dirty. With repeated folding and refolding,
some creases can become worn, and the contents might fall out. Make sure to
replace papers as soon as they show any signs of wear.
115
H. Armstrong Roberts/Harstock
Specialized equipment makes handling, sorting, measuring, and grading diamonds

easier and more accurate.
A pair of tweezers and a cleaning cloth are essential. Choose tweezers that
feel comfortable to you. Fine-pointed tweezers are ideal for handling
small stones, but they’re less useful for large ones because they don’t
provide enough contact with their girdles. Tweezers with medium points
are probably best for most purposes.
116
Scoop—A small shovel made of

thin metal, used for picking up
gems.
Sorting pad—A pad of white

paper for sorting and showing
gems.
There are many tweezer styles to choose from. Select a pair that feels comfortable
in your hand and has points that fit the diamonds you usually handle.
VCL/FPG International
A scoop makes it easy to handle parcels of diamonds.
You need a scoop and a sorting pad if you deal in parcels. A scoop is a
small metal shovel that’s thin enough to slide easily under tiny stones. A
sorting pad is a white pad of heavy paper that serves as a background for
sorting parcels of gems. Once the top sheet gets dirty, you simply tear it
off and expose a clean one. Most people who deal in loose diamonds have
one sorting pad for themselves and one for their customers.
117
A color-corrected, distortion-free 10X
loupe is essential in the diamond
trade.
Joel Beeson/GIA
A matching tray helps keep diamonds organized when you’re sorting them into pairs
or sets.
A matching tray is another convenient piece of equipment—and not

just for parcels. It’s usually a small, white, plastic tray indented with
grooves for various diamond sizes. It provides a very convenient surface
for comparing and matching gems and making up sets of stones.
You also need a consistent source of light for examining and grading
diamonds. The most widely accepted and available lighting for color-
grading diamonds is daylight-equivalent fluorescent light. The best
fluorescent lights simulate balanced, diffused, full-spectrum daylight.
You should have a good-quality 10X triplet loupe that’s corrected for
color and distortion. You’ll also need an electronic calculator to calculate
Joel Beeson/GIA
profit margins, selling prices, and average gem weights, and a memo pad
The millimeter gauge is an essential tool
for recording your calculations.

for measuring diamond proportions.
As you learned in Diamond Essentials, the millimeter gauge is used for

measuring diamond dimensions. When you close its jaws around a
diamond’s girdle, the gauge registers the diameter to the nearest 0.01 mm.
You can also use a millimeter gauge to measure a stone’s depth, as long
as the stone is unmounted or in a mounting with a hole in the back. The
Matching tray—A grooved, white, gauge comes with a set of tables to help you estimate the weights of some
non-reflective tray used for mounted diamonds.
Because it’s time consuming, it doesn’t make sense to use a millimeter
matching sets of stones.
gauge to check large numbers of stones that measure less than 3.00 mm—
except to check sizes for matching. A sieve set is a useful tool for sorting
Sieve set—Set of circular plates,
large quantities of small, round diamonds. Sieve sets are usually made up
each punched with precisely sized
of a holder and a series of interchangeable plates, perforated with holes in

holes, used for sorting small,
round gems by size.
specific sizes.
118
Both by Joel Beeson/GIA
Sieve sets are useful for sorting small, round diamonds (left). The interchangeable plates have holes that allow diamonds of
specific sizes to pass through (right).
Dealers use sieves to sort small diamonds—especially small single

cuts in sizes like 150, 180, and 200 to the carat. It’s the most rapid and
efficient way to sort such tiny stones. For example, if the holes are 2.00
mm in diameter, then only stones of that size or less will pass through the
sieve plate. Stones 2.10 mm or larger can’t pass through the sieve, so
they stay on top of the plate. Each successive sieve plate has increasingly
smaller holes.
Many retailers use hole gauges to measure small gems. They’re
templates pierced with differently sized holes that represent different
diamond girdle diameters. Although hole gauges can be useful, they’re not
accurate enough for jobs that call for precision, like measuring small
diamonds for a channel setting. Because the setting limits the dimensions
of the diamonds that will fit, the measurements must be accurate. The best
Joel Beeson/GIA
Some hole gauges have round tabs in

tool for this job is a millimeter gauge.
various sizes. The stone setter can match
a tab to the opening in a mounting to
determine what size stone would fit.
TOOLS FOR WEIGHING DIAMONDS
You already know that, with diamonds, each tiny increase in weight
represents an increase in value. Inaccurate weighing costs money, and
might even lead you to deceive customers without meaning to.
Gram scales—like the ones used to weigh gold—aren’t accurate enough
for gemstone weights. You should weigh diamonds to at least the nearest
hundredth (0.01) of a carat, or preferably even to a thousandth (0.001) of
a carat.
119
Sieve Sizes
Diamond Weight (cts.) Sieve Size (SS) Millimeter Size (mm)
180 to the carat +00 — 0 ~1 mm
150 to the carat +0 — 1.5 ~1 mm
130 to the carat +1.5 — 2 ~1 mm
120 to the carat +1.5 — 2 ~1 mm
0.01 ct. +2 — 3 1.30 mm
0.02 ct. +5.5 — 6.5 1.70 mm
0.03 ct. +7 — 7.5 2.00 mm
0.04 ct. +8 — 8.5 2.20 mm
0.05 ct. +8.5 — 9.5 2.30 mm
0.06 ct. +9.5 — 10 2.50 mm
0.07 ct. +10 — 11 2.70 mm
0.08 ct. +11 — 11.5 2.80 mm
0.09 ct. +11.5 — 12 2.90 mm
0.10 ct. +12 — 12.5 3.00 mm
Joel Beeson/GIA
Dealers use a variety of tools in different combinations to weigh and sort diamonds.
Today, there’s really only one tool suitable for weighing diamonds: An
electronic scale is quick, reliable, and easy to use. And it’s equally useful
for individual stones or large parcels. Most dealers have large scales that
can handle hundreds or even thousands of carats. They’re helpful for people
who have to process large parcels quickly.
120
Electronic scales can be extremely
accurate, but they must be set up
carefully for best results.
Joel Beeson/GIA
Most diamond dealers use electronic scales on a regular basis to check diamond
weights when they’re received and sent out. This helps to verify the identities of
diamonds in inventory.
There are also small, portable, battery-powered scales that are great
to use for traveling. One drawback of the smaller scales is that they’re
usually only accurate to 0.01 carat.
A scale should have a leveling mechanism. This usually consists of
adjustable feet and a liquid-filled capsule with a gas bubble inside. As
you adjust the scale’s feet, the bubble moves. The scale is level when the
bubble is centered.
Once you’ve leveled the scale, it also has to be calibrated. Most scales
come with a calibration weight. If the scale is knocked or moved, you
should level and calibrate it again or it won’t weigh gems correctly. It’s
also a good idea to have a scale serviced regularly—once a year is usually
enough—by an authorized service agent.
Make sure the scale is set to zero each time you use it. If you use a
weighing pan, make sure it’s on the scale before you set it. This protects
you from including the weight of the pan in the diamond weight. Large
weighing pans are better than small ones because they can hold small
stones up to large parcels. Electronic scales are the most accurate
Keep the scale on a firm, vibration-free surface, away from drafts and
tools for weighing diamonds, but they
heat sources such as windows, heating ducts, cooling fans, and passage-
require regular maintenance and a con-
ways with constant foot traffic. Even direct sunlight can make enough of
trolled environment to remain accurate.
an air current to affect the scale’s accuracy. Most scales have sliding glass
doors to protect the sensitive weighing mechanism from drafts.
121
Careful matching is important to the
appearance of jewelry that contains
more than one diamond.
Eric Welch/GIA
Weighing a diamond is simple and precise with an electronic scale. Always clean
the diamond before placing it on the scale, and handle it carefully with tweezers
because oils from your fingers can affect the diamond’s weight.
For the most accurate results when weighing a diamond, place it in the
center of the pan, then close the dust-cover doors and wait for the
electronic reading to register. Many dealers place individual stones on the
flat handle of the pan. This increases speed, as it’s easier to pick a gem up
from there than from inside the pan, but it results in a reading that is
slightly less accurate.
MATCHING DIAMONDS
Consistency is very important when you’re matching diamonds, especially
for good-quality jewelry. Weight, color, clarity, and cut are all considera-
tions in matching. Diamonds must be well matched because the human
The diamonds in this three-stone ring
eye easily detects inconsistencies like slight differences in face-up color,

are very well matched. This adds to the
value of the ring.
differently sized table facets, or different girdle diameters. For example,
when you rock and tilt a pavé-set ring, you should see very similar table
reflections from all the stones.
When you match diamonds for jewelry, the most important characteristics
to match are color and face-up appearance. Color is usually the easiest thing
to match: Just compare the diamonds face-up against a neutral background.
Matching face-up appearance means making sure that table size and
reflection patterns are the same. Use the flash method to compare table
sizes, and check the reflection patterns through each gem’s crown. If a set
of diamonds is destined for a channel mounting, you’ll also have to
measure each gem’s girdle diameter accurately to within 0.01 mm.
There’s a wider range of proportion variations with small diamonds
than with large ones. Girdles are often thicker, and pavilions and crowns
might also be deeper. You’ll often encounter nailheads and fisheyes in less
expensive melee and other small diamonds.
122
Proportion variations are less noticeable

on tiny diamonds, so dealers don’t spend
as much time matching the proportions
of small diamonds used in pavé-set
pieces. A quick visual examination is
usually enough.
Joel Beeson/GIA
Careful matching is vital to the appearance of jewelry that’s set with a few large
stones. The diamonds should be matched according to size, color, clarity, proportions,
and finish.
Joel Beeson/GIA
To sort parcels of small diamonds, dealers start by separating out the stones with
noticeable proportion variations, like thick girdles and deep pavilions. Then they sort
the rest based on features like color, table size, and girdle diameter.
Clarity matters when you’re matching large diamonds in the “I” clarity
range. In that range, you’ll see much more variation in appearance among
individual diamonds, simply because there’s a greater variety of possible
clarity characteristics.
The smaller the diamonds, the less matching you’ll have to do. The
function of very small diamonds of 0.01 ct. or less is usually to add
sparkle, and they’re too small for the unaided eye to judge individually.
You only need to make sure they’re all the same size and flip them onto
their tables to compare girdle diameters.
123
Joel Beeson/GIA
When these diamonds are placed side-

by-side, it’s easy to detect the slight
differences in their table sizes.
Joel Beeson/GIA
Matching brightness and pattern is

important. These diamonds look different
Eric Welch/GIA
enough to make them unsuitable for use
together in jewelry. Properly matched diamonds are essential for use in jewelry that contains multiple
gems. Even slight differences can affect the appearance of a jewelry piece.
With gems of about 0.025 ct. and larger, you’ll probably have to look
at them face-up on a matching tray and compare table sizes and reflection
patterns. Diamonds of 0.05 ct. and above require more precise matching.
Joel Beeson/GIA Look at individual stones’ color and clarity characteristics.
By looking at the profiles of face-down If you work with a wholesaler, the parcels are probably already sorted
for size and general quality, but there can be a wider range of goods in
diamonds, you can detect differences in
them than within specific GIA grades. For example, a large jewelry
their crown and pavilion depths as well
manufacturer’s grade for a popular quality might contain H-color gems

as in their girdle thicknesses.
that range from VS to SI in clarity, so you can expect a wider range of

appearance than with more closely graded goods.
The diamond-grading concepts you’re learning will help you match

TURNING INFORMATION INTO ACTION
diamonds quickly and effectively. They’ll also help you check the quality
of diamond jewelry. Whether you buy and sell loose stones or jewelry,
these skills are vital to your success.
If you work for a jewelry manufacturer, for example, you might have
to select stones from a parcel to set into twenty rings, each with five
0.05-ct. round brilliant diamonds. The independent retailer who ordered
the rings is very concerned with quality, so you know she’ll examine
each finished ring carefully with a loupe before she accepts it. If the
diamonds you select aren’t well matched, the finished jewelry won’t
meet her standards.
First, you open a parcel and pour the contents gently onto your sorting
pad. Then—because there’s such a large quantity of stones—you divide
out a small group of diamonds with your tweezers. Because some of the
stones are face-up and some face-down, you hold the diamonds between
the insides of your tweezers and—keeping the length of the tweezers in
124
contact with the sorting pad—gently move the diamonds from side to side
until they’re all face-down. Once the diamonds are oriented in the same
way, you can check girdle diameters and proportions.
Next, separate out the well-proportioned diamonds—avoid thick girdles
and deep pavilions, which are common in small diamonds—and check
each stone face-up. If a particular diamond looks good, place it in one of
the grooves of your matching tray. Don’t look for any one particular set
of proportions—you’re just looking for diamonds of the right size that
Manufacturers often sort and set aside
look attractive face-up.

several sets of matched stones for use
in popular jewelry designs.
Don’t expect to start matching until you’ve picked twenty or more

individual diamonds. Use these diamonds as the basis for your sets. When
you start working through the parcel to find matching diamonds, you have
a better chance of success because you have twenty possibilities that the
next stone you pick will match at least one of your initial choices. You’ll
also be able to accommodate some of the proportion variations in the
parcel. For example, you can group stones with small tables or with
slightly steep crowns together.
It helps to make up more sets than you need. Occasionally, a diamond
breaks during setting, and it’s good to have a replacement handy. Or your
customer might re-order the same item. Many manufacturers set aside sets
in small bags for styles they know are popular.
If you’re matching a set of accent stones with a large center stone, it’s
best to pick the center stone first. That’s simply because there will be
more diamonds in the parcel of smaller gems, offering more choices for
matching. If you match the accent stones first, you might find that it’s
difficult to make a match from the smaller number of large stones. Don’t
separate the pair of accent stones, either. Keep them together at one side
of the center stone: It’s the best way to make sure they match each other.
When you match diamonds for a

ring with a large center stone and
smaller accent diamonds, it helps
to pick the center stone first and then
select smaller stones that match its
appearance.
It’s worthwhile to spend time sorting and matching diamonds for jewelry. Each finished
piece will reflect your efforts with its quality appearance and corresponding value.
125
The overall quality of a piece of
multi-diamond jewelry is reflected in
how well its diamonds match.
Reed Saxon/AP Wide World Photos
At the House of Harry Winston, these exceptionally rare diamonds—a 31.00-ct. D-

color Flawless emerald cut and an 80.00-ct. Fancy Intense yellow cushion shape—
are valued at several million dollars each. Diamond prices are directly related to the
rarity of size, color, and other quality features.
Careful matching pays off for both the manufacturer and the retailer.
Well-matched stones signal a quality product and attention to detail. If
you’re selling a well-finished piece of jewelry containing precisely
matched diamonds, it’s easy to justify its price.
DIAMOND PRICES
■ What makes the diamond market unique?
■ What factors influence the ultimate price of a polished diamond?
■ How do payment terms affect price?
126
Although De Beers has revised its business model, it still maintains its role as an
important supplier of the world’s diamonds.
Throughout this course, you’ve read about the things that make diamonds
unique, including hardness, brilliance, and range of color. You’ve also
learned that the diamond market is just as unique.
For years, De Beers worked to keep diamond supplies and prices stable.
As you learned in Assignment 3, the company’s role in the diamond
business has changed radically, allowing the emergence of major suppliers
in Canada, Australia, and Russia.
In the years since the dawn of the twenty-first century, mines have opened
and closed, cutting centers have changed their focus, markets have shifted,
and world events have caused huge fluctuations in the diamond market.
127
Price Fluctuations of 1.00-ct. D-Flawless Diamond

$80,000
$70,000
$60,000
$50,000
$40,000
$30,000
Value, in US Dollars
$20,000
$10,000
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
Present
Sources: JCK Diamond Price Index, June 1981, and Rapaport Diamond Report, July 1981 to March 2006
In the early 1980s, the value of a 1.00-ct. D-Flawless diamond rocketed to over $60,000 as people
sought the gems for investment purposes. When the investment boom ended, prices fell rapidly back into
“normal” ranges. After fluctuating with market conditions in the late 2000s, prices stabilized and since
then have continued on a gradual upward trend.
One of those market shifts occurred in the 1970s, when speculators began
buying diamonds for investment purposes. The rampant speculation drove
the price of a 1.00-ct. D-Flawless diamond from below $10,000 to over
World events can cause changes in
$60,000 in a period of about 5 years. When the investment boom ended,
the diamond market, so it’s important
to stay informed. prices plummeted and finally reached a more reasonable level. After
remaining relatively stable through the early 2000s, prices plunged during
the global financial crisis of 2008 and 2009. They had recovered by 2012,
and long-term trends show that they’re on a stable but gradual upward trend.
These events and many others illustrate why it’s important to stay
informed about what’s happening in all segments of the industry, and why
you need to know how the market operates. Earlier assignments gave you
an idea of the industry’s development and current state. This section will
introduce you to the basic day-to-day realities of the diamond trade.
POLISHED DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND JEWELRY

One of the first things you learned in Diamond Essentials was that the
value of a polished diamond is determined by the Four Cs. That’s true, but
the Four Cs are just part of the picture.
128
It takes many steps for a diamond to reach the ring on a consumer’s

finger, and the value of the diamond rises at each step. Some organization
Handmade Designer Mounting
or individual has to profit every time the diamond is bought and sold.
There are many factors that determine the value of a finished piece of
jewelry. In a 14K gold three-stone ring, for example, there are costs related
to the mining, refining, and alloying of the gold. There are also costs
associated with designing and manufacturing the ring, and the labor
associated with buying and setting the stones. Also included are the costs
of shipping the jewelry from the manufacturer to the dealer, and from the
dealer to the retail store.
matched proprietary cuts
The value rises even more if the ring is from a recognized designer.
And if the center stone is a branded cut, and the two side stones are well Peter Johnston/GIA
cut and carefully matched, there’s a lot of value packed into a very small
object.
WHOLESALE PRICES
There are many elements that determine what a dealer might charge for a
diamond. Many of these elements concern the way diamonds are purchased
and paid for. Customers who pay immediately usually get the best price.
Many factors beyond the price of the
The reason is relatively simple. Dealers usually borrow money from

diamonds contribute to the value of a
banks to finance their own purchases. If a customer takes a long time to

finished jewelry item. There are costs
pay, the dealer has to pay extra interest to the bank while waiting for the
for purchasing the metal, designing
and manufacturing the ring, buying and
customer to settle the account.
setting stones, and shipping the piece
Dealers and manufacturers often charge higher prices if they’re selling

from manufacturer to dealer to retail
outlet.
on credit, consignment, or memo. Different people have different defini-
tions for these terms, but their basic meanings are the same: A supplier
sends goods to a client without requiring immediate payment.
Dealers usually offer better prices for
immediate payment.
Consignment—A selection
of goods loaned to a dealer
by another wholesaler or
manufacturer.
Memo—Buying agreement where

a dealer entrusts merchandise
to a customer for inspection and
approval without requiring imme-
Joel Beeson/GIA
diate payment.
Wholesalers sometimes provide diamonds on consignment. If the stones don’t sell,
they’re returned. If they do sell, the wholesaler can often collect a higher price than
if the diamonds were purchased outright.
129
To some people, memo—which is short for memorandum—means that

the supplier sends the goods with the expectation that either the gems or
a payment will be returned quickly.
Gems in memo transactions are sometimes said to be “on approval.” A
custom jeweler who’s designing a special piece for a customer might
plan on a large, fancy-cut diamond for the centerpiece. Few independent
jewelers have the financial resources to keep a large inventory of such
stones on hand.
A good relationship with a supplier makes it possible for the jeweler to
get a selection of different diamonds on memo. That way, the jeweler can
offer the customer a choice, then quickly return the other gems along with
the payment for the selected one.
For many people, consignment transactions are much more open-
ended. A supplier might offer a dealer a parcel of halves, for example, and
request payment or a return of the unsold goods in one or two months.
Some jewelry manufacturers offer finished jewelry on consignment,
too. It might be a small designer offering one or two custom pieces, or a
major manufacturer offering dozens of mass-produced items.
It’s important to know how the people you do business with define
these two terms. A quick way to ruin a relationship with a supplier is to
fail to send payment or return goods as expected.
©Greg Kinch
Trust between jewelry designer and

wholesaler is important. A designer
might request a stone from a wholesaler
Price lists that estimate wholesale diamond prices are important elements
with the understanding that either pay- WHOLESALE PRICE LISTS
ment or the diamond will be returned
of today’s diamond industry. The methods for arriving at these estimated
by a specific date.
prices vary.
Joel Beeson/GIA
Published wholesale price lists are valuable tools that many dealers use to help
determine diamond value.
130
©Greg Kinch
The prices that dealers pay for diamonds are based on a combination of factors, including market conditions and price guide
information.
Some price lists are based on actual recent transactions, while some are
based on what dealers agree is a price at which any of them would sell,
called the high asking price. The first successful price sheet, the Rapaport
Diamond Report, lists the “approximate high asking price” in New York.
Other price lists use the selling prices from computer-trading networks,
and some are based on the prices paid in a bourse, or diamond exchange.
The publisher of each list usually states which market the prices are based
on and how the figures were derived.
Cut plays a role in published price lists. Dealers know they will have to
pay a premium for high-quality cutting. The proportions and finish of a
diamond are not shown on most price lists, but there’s usually a suggested
premium for top-quality makes and a suggested discount for below-
average ones.
Most price lists quote per-carat prices. Some state them as whole
numbers, so that “3600” means $3,600 per carat, while others list it in
Per-carat price—The price of a
hundreds, so that “36” means the same thing.

gem divided by its carat weight.
Just because a price is listed on a price sheet, it doesn’t mean that all
diamonds of the same size and quality will sell for that price. A price sheet
131
Ke y C o n c e p t s is, at best, somebody’s educated estimate of wholesale prices in some

specified market at a given time. Regional preferences, local market
conditions, and payment terms all affect the price you might pay or charge.
Price lists estimate wholesale diamond
You have to understand how your market compares to the prices stated in
prices in a specific market—you need
to know how those estimates relate any given price list, and that’s an understanding that comes from experience.
Many dealers quote prices based on a percentage of the published price
to prices in your market.
list. It’s common to hear terms like, “20 back of Rap,” or “10 off Rap.” Rap
is industry shorthand for the Rapaport Diamond Report. When someone
says “20 back of Rap” they mean 20 percent off the price listed in that pub-
lication. In the same way, “10 off Rap,” means 10 percent off the listed price.
PARCEL PRICING
Dealers often assemble loose diamonds into parcels and offer the parcels
at special per-carat prices. Parcels are carefully assembled and designed
to look attractive. They usually contain a mixture of diamonds that vary
in color, clarity, and cut.
Parcels are priced a little differently from large, mid- to high-quality
diamonds, which are usually sold individually. The lot price is a price for
Lot price—A discounted price for purchasing the entire parcel. Retailers or jewelry manufacturers who want
to select a portion of the parcel pay a higher pick price. The price for an
buying an entire parcel, or a sub-
individual stone, whether purchased singly or as part of a parcel, is the
stantial part of it.
Pick price—A premium price for unit price.

selecting stones from a parcel. The diamonds in a parcel vary slightly in size, even though the parcel
might be labeled with a specific size. For example, a parcel of halves—
50 pointers—might contain diamonds that range from 0.46 ct. to 0.59 ct. If
a dealer describes an inexpensive parcel as “white goods with clearly
visible inclusions,” the gems might represent H to I color and I2 to I3 clarity.
Often, some of the smaller stones in a parcel have fairly high color
grades, which might make the overall color of the parcel look better when
all the stones are grouped together. Larger stones in the same parcel are
likely to be lower in both color and clarity.
To accurately assess a parcel’s value, sort the diamonds by size, and
then assess their color, clarity, and proportions against graded goods of
similar size and quality. You can then compare the prices of the diamonds
in the parcel against a price list.
For example, suppose you have a parcel of 100 rounds, with a lot price
of $650 per carat. The parcel weighs 25.53 cts., so the lot price would be
$16,595. When you separate the diamonds by size, you find that they fall
into three different weight ranges:
34 stones around 0.20 ct. each, totaling 6.47 cts.
Your next step is to grade these three groups for clarity and color, and to
price each group by referring to a wholesale price list. Here’s what you find:
132
Sample Price List

Different price lists have different ways of listing the combination of quality factors
that determine a diamond’s price. In this sample price list, the text at the top of the
table tells you that these are prices for round diamonds that weigh between 1.00
and 1.49 cts. It also tells you that the prices are stated in hundreds of dollars per
carat in US currency. Within the table, color is listed on the left side and clarity is
along the top.
To find the wholesale price of a 1.32-ct., G, VS2 diamond, you’d look down the VS2
column until you find the number in the G row, which is 74. This list quotes the prices
in hundreds, so you’d have to multiply 74 by 100 to get the per-carat price of $7,400.
Then you just have to multiply the per-carat price by the weight of the stone (7,400 ×
1.32) to get a wholesale price of $9,768 for this particular diamond.
ROUNDS: 1.00-1.49 CT., PRICES IN HUNDREDS US$ PER CARAT. (MAY 2008)
IF VVS1 VVS2 VS1 VS2 SI1 SI2 I1 I2 I3

D 222 165 140 106 87 70 59 42 28 16
E 152 144 123 98 83 66 56 40 27 15
F 138 126 112 93 79 63 53 38 26 14
G 103 98 94 83 74 59 51 37 25 13
H 83 79 75 69 64 57 50 35 24 13
I 71 68 64 59 55 50 45 32 22 12
J 60 58 56 53 49 45 42 28 20 12
K 53 52 50 47 42 39 35 26 18 11
L 47 46 45 43 39 36 32 24 16 10
M 40 39 38 36 32 29 26 20 15 10
Noting Diamond Size in Quarters

Some price lists use a sort of shorthand to express carat weights between 0.25 ct. and
1.50 cts. This shorthand is based on multiples of four.
Shorthand 1/4 2/4 3/4 4/4 5/4 6/4

Approximate Ct. Wt. 0.25 ct. 0.50 ct. 0.75 ct. 1.00 ct. 1.25 cts. 1.50 cts.
133
Joel Beeson/GIA
Dealers separate diamonds into parcels based on size, quality, color, clarity, and cut ( left). Buyers can purchase entire parcels
at a discount, or they can select just a few stones and pay a premium (right).
Approx. Wt. Clarity Color Number Total Weight List Price per Carat
0.20 ct. VS G–H 17 3.03 cts. $1,130
0.20 ct. SI G–H 17 3.44 cts. $950
0.25 ct. SI I–J 17 4.04 cts. $970
0.25 ct. I1 I–J 17 4.66 cts. $770
0.33 ct. I1 K–L 32 10.36 cts. $800
For each group, you multiply the per-carat list price times the carat
weight. You then end up with these totals:
3.03 cts. × $1,130 per carat = $3,423.90
3.44 cts. × $950 per carat = $3,268.00
4.04 cts. × $970 per carat = $3,918.80
4.66 cts. × $770 per carat = $3,588.20
10.36 cts. × $800 per carat = $8,288.00
List price for entire parcel $22,486.90
Your next step is to compare this price with the lot price you were offered
in the first place—$16,595. You divide the lot price by the total list price:
$16,595 ÷ $22,487 = 0.7379 or about 74 percent
Using this number, you can calculate a per-carat price for each category
by simply multiplying the per-carat list price by the percentage. For exam-
ple: $1,130 × 0.74 = $836 per carat, and $950 × 0.74 = $703 per carat.
134
Industry Terms
The stones in parcels are often within a certain weight range. This
chart shows typical ranges, along with verbal descriptions.
Number of Stones per Carat: Size Ranges
Verbal Descriptions
Ten per carat 0.09 to 0.11 ct.
“10 pointers”
Eight per carat 0.12 to 0.14 ct.
Six per carat 0.15 to 0.17 ct.
Five per carat 0.18 to 0.22 ct.
“Fifths”
“20 pointers”
Four per carat 0.23 to 0.29 ct.
“Quarters”
“25 pointers”
Three per carat 0.30 to 0.37 ct.
“Thirds”
“40 pointers” 0.38 to 0.45 ct.
Two per carat 0.46 to 0.59 ct.
“Light halves” 0.46 to 0.49 ct.
“Halves” 0.50 to 0.59 ct.
“50 pointers”
If you can sell the diamonds in the parcel fairly quickly, the parcel
might be a good buy. Sorting and grading a large parcel might be time
consuming though, which means your actual costs, including time and
labor, might be a little higher. You should consider this when you calcu-
late a selling price for the stones.
Another way to evaluate the lot price is to calculate the difference
between the lot price and the list price. In this case, $22,487 – $16,595 =
$5,892. Divide that number by the list price to arrive at the percentage
difference between the list price and the lot price:
$5,892 ÷ $22,487 = 0.2620, or about 26 percent
Earlier in this assignment, you read that many dealers quote prices Ke y C o n c e p t s
based on percentages of the published price lists. In those terms, you’re
getting the stones in this parcel for 26 percent “back of” the price sheet.
Include the time and effort involved
You need to know price levels in your market to know whether or not this
in evaluating a parcel when you
is a good deal.
calculate the selling price of the
Finally, when you evaluate a parcel, consider how easily you can sell
stones.
the stones in groups or individually. Also decide whether or not you have
customers for the types of stones the parcel contains. You might decide
that your money would be better spent on a smaller, more suitable parcel.
135
Careers for the Twenty-First Century

The global economy not only affects the price of
goods, it also affects the career options of those who
work, or hope to work, in the diamond industry.
Some jobs have been altered significantly or spun
off into specialty areas. Some positions, while still in
existence, are open to fewer and fewer people. Other
jobs that never existed before have suddenly become
essential.
In spite of all the uncertainty, this much is certain:
there’s a future for gemologists. Because of the
growing popularity of diamond reports among
consumers, there’s a need for those who can grade
stones. Because of advances in treatments and lab
growth processes, there’s a need for those who can
tell the difference between treated and untreated
stones and between lab-grown and natural ones. And
because information is essential, the industry needs
people who know diamonds and can communicate
that knowledge to others. All these issues and more
should assure holders of Graduate Gemologist (G.G.)
diplomas from GIA that their skills will always be
in demand.
Here are some of the career possibilities in the
dynamic diamond jewelry industry:
• Jewelry business owner
• Retail jewelry store manager
• Jewelry designer
• Jewelry buyer
• Diamond wholesaler, dealer, or buyer
• Diamond grader
• Jewelry manufacturing production manager or
quality control (QC) expert
• Appraiser
• Auctioneer
• Gemologist or gemological laboratory technician
©Greg Kinch
Trade magazines often have articles on industry

Educated and experienced diamond professionals can
choose from a wide variety of careers, including jewelry
trends, job requirements, and salaries. Job market
designer, jewelry manufacturer, wholesaler, retailer, auctioneer,
events, like the annual Career Fairs at GIA, can also

gemologist, diamond grader, and many more.
help in your search for career possibilities.
136
Denise Conrad/GIA Terri Weimer/GIA
Donald Stampfli/AP Wide World Photos
137
Eric Welch/GIA
As you finish this course, you can look

forward to an exciting and challenging
career as an educated diamond industry
professional.
Valerie Power/GIA
GIA hosts an annual Career Fair, where job seekers meet with representatives from
the nation’s top diamond and jewelry companies and organizations.
THE JOURNEY ENDS…AND BEGINS

The concepts in this course will help you succeed in the diamond industry
as a confident, effective, and ethical professional. They’ll help you
evaluate and compare suppliers’ goods and make informed buying
decisions. You might never grade a diamond yourself, but you know how
diamonds are graded. And you know how these grades relate to quality and
value. You share a language with diamond professionals all over the world.
This knowledge is a key component of your success as a diamond
professional. Whether you’re buying or selling, this course has prepared
you to set out into the exciting, dynamic diamond industry.
138
A color-corrected, distortion-free 10X loupe is World events can cause changes in the diamond
essential in the diamond trade. market, so it’s important to stay informed.
Electronic scales can be extremely accurate, but Dealers usually offer better prices for immediate
they must be set up carefully for best results. payment.
Careful matching is important to the appearance Price lists estimate wholesale diamond prices in a
of jewelry that contains more than one diamond. specific market—you need to know how those
estimates relate to prices in your market.
The overall quality of a piece of multi-diamond
jewelry is reflected in how well its diamonds Include the time and effort involved in evaluating a
match. parcel when you calculate the selling price of the
stones.
Key Terms
Consignment—A selection of goods loaned Parcel—A quantity of stones, sometimes of
to a dealer by another wholesaler or manu- similar size and quality, packaged together
facturer. for sale or storage.
Diamantaire—A knowledgeable, experienced, Per-carat price—The price of a gem divided

and successful person, usually a dealer or by its carat weight.
manufacturer, in the diamond trade.
Pick price—A premium price for selecting
Lot price—A discounted price for buying an stones from a parcel.
entire parcel, or a substantial part of it.
Scoop—A small shovel made of thin metal,
Matching tray—A grooved, white, non- used for picking up gems.
reflective tray used for matching sets of
stones. Sorting pad—A pad of white paper for
sorting and showing gems.
Memo—Buying agreement where a dealer
entrusts merchandise to a customer for Sieve set—Set of circular plates, each
inspection and approval without requiring punched with precisely sized holes, used
immediate payment. for sorting small, round gems by size.
139
DIAMONDS AND DIAMOND G RADING BOOK 4
PHOTO COURTESIES
The Gemological Institute of America gratefully acknowledges the following people and organizations for their assistance in gathering or producing some of the images used in this assignment book:
Apee Gems, Mumbai, India K.R. Gems & Diamond International

Ashton Mining Limited Kathryn Kimmel
Bellataire LLC Lauren Stomel Advertising
Benguela Concessions Lili Diamonds
Charles and Colvard Ltd., US. & Hong Kong
Jana Miyahira-Smith
Chatham Created Gems
Novatek
Diamond Information Center
Our Secret Creations
Diamond Promotion Service
Barry I. Rogoff
Diamond Trading Company
San Diego Museum of Art
Field’s Jewelers
GemOro Superior Instruments Superings
General Electric Research & Development Center Torrini G. S.r.l.–Firenze
The Institute for Diamond Studies, Israel Rose Tozer
Cathy Jonathan Clara Zink
140
FOR FURTHER R EADING
For Further Reading

Gems & Gemology (G&G), GIA’s professional journal, provides in-depth feature
articles on the latest gemological research, from gem treatments, lab-grown gems,
and the evaluation of gem quality to developments in gem production, market
sources, and more.
To give you the opportunity to learn more about the subjects you are studying
and enrich your gemological knowledge, a list of G&G articles relevant to each Scan the QR code above or go to
Diamonds & Diamond Grading assignment is provided below. It is important to https://www.gia.edu/library to
note that this reading is optional. You will not be tested on the content of these access articles for further reading.
articles.
All G&G articles are available for download free of charge on GIA’s website, www.gia.edu. Copies of these articles
are also available at your GIA campus location. Check with your instructor for access to them.
Assignment 17: Estimating Weight, Recutting, and Repolishing

Sucher S.D. et al. (2010) Possible “Sister” Stones of the Hope Diamond. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 46, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2010-sister-stones-hope-diamond-sucher
Farges F. et al. (2009) The French Blue and the Hope: New Data from the Discovery of a Historical Lead Cast.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 45, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2009-french-blue-hope-diamond-farges
Assignment 18: Diamond Simulants

Song Y. et al. (2016) Gem News International: Synthetic Moissanite Imitations of Synthetic Colored Diamonds.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2016-gemnews-synthetic-moissanite-imitations-synthetic-colored-
diamonds
Zhou J.Y. (2015) Lab Notes: Synthetic Moissanite Melee in a Colored Diamond Bracelet. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 51, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2015-labnotes-synthetic-moissanite-melee-colored-diamond
Choudhary G. (2013) Gem News International: Boron Carbide: A New Imitation of Black Diamond. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 49, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fa13-gni-boron-carbide-diamond-imitation
Shigley J.E. et al. (2012) Characterization of Colorless Coated Cubic Zirconia (Diamantine). Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 48, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2012-zirconia-diamantine-shigley
Kammerling R.C. (1991) An Examination of Nontransparent “CZ” from Russia. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 27, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-1991-cz-russia-kammerling
Hobbs J. (1981) A Simple Approach to Detecting Diamond Simulants. Gems & Gemology, Vol 17, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-1981-diamond-simulants-hobbs
Nassau K. et al. (1997) Synthetic Moissanite: A New Diamond Substitute. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 33, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-1997-synthetic-moissanite-nassau
Nassau K. (1981) Cubic Zirconia: An Update. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 17, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-1981-cubic-zirconia-nassau
141
Nassau K. (1978) Distinguishing Diamond from Cubic Zirconia. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 16, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/doc/winter_1978.pdf
Liddicoat R.T., Koivula J.I. (1978) Synthetic Cubic Stabilized Zirconia. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 16, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/doc/summer_1978.pdf
Benson L.B. (1957) Diamond Substitutes. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 9, No. 2
Assignment 19: Laboratory-Grown Diamonds and Treatments

General Articles
Eaton-Magaña S., Breeding C.M. (2016) An Introduction to Photoluminescence Spectroscopy for Diamond and
Its Applications in Gemology. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 52, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2016-photoluminescence-spectroscopy-diamond-applications-gemology
Dieck C. et al. (2016) Analysis of Yellow Diamond Melee for Color Treatment and Synthetics. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 52, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2016-labnotes-analysis-yellow-diamond-melee-color-treatment-synthetics
Shigley J.E. (2016) Identifying Lab-Grown Diamonds. Research News
https://www.gia.edu/identifying-lab-grown-diamonds
Wang W. et al. (2015) Lab Notes: Screening of Small Yellow Diamond Melee for Treatment and Synthetics.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2014-labnotes-small-yellow-diamond-melee
Renfro N. (2010) Synthetic Gem Materials in the 2000s: A Decade in Review. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 46, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2010-synthetic-diamonds-renfro
Kitawaki H. et al. (2008) Identification of Melee-Size Synthetic Yellow Diamonds in Jewelry. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 44, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2008-melee-size-synthetic-yellow-diamonds-kitawaki
Shigley J.E. et al. (2004) An Updated Chart on the Characteristics of HPHT-Grown Synthetic Diamonds.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2004-characteristics-hpht-grown-synthetic-diamonds-shigley
Koivula J.I. et al. (2000) Synthetic Gem Materials and Simulants in the 1990s. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 36, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2000-synthetic-gem-materials-simulants-1990s-koivula
Welbourn C.M. et al. (1996) De Beers Natural versus Synthetic Diamond Verification Instruments. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 32, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-1996-debeers-diamond-tools-welbourn
Fritsch E. et al. (1989) A Preliminary Gemological Study of Synthetic Diamond Thin Films. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 25, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-1989-diamond-thin-films-fritsch
CVD Synthetic Diamonds

Moe K.S. et al. (2017) Lab Notes: A Synthetic Diamond Overgrowth on a Natural Diamond. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 53, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2017-labnotes-synthetic-diamond-overgrowth-natural-diamond
Eaton-Magaña S., Shigley J.E. (2016) Observations on CVD-Grown Synthetic Diamonds: A Review.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2016-observations-CVD-grown-synthetic-diamonds-review
142
Poon T. et al. (2016) Lab Notes: Ring with a CVD Synthetic Melee Diamond. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 52, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2016-labnotes-ring-cvd-synthetic-melee-diamond
Ardon T., Eaton-Magaña S. (2014) Lab Notes: Two Fancy Dark Gray CVD Synthetic Diamonds. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 50, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2014-labnotes-two-fancy-fark-gray-cvd-synthetic-diamonds
Ardon T. (2014) Lab Notes: CVD Synthetic Diamond with Unusual Inclusions. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 50, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2014-labnotes-cvd-synthetic-diamond-with-unusual-inclusions
Moe K.S. et al. (2014) Lab Notes: Yellow CVD Synthetic Diamond. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 50, No.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2014-labnotes-yellow-cvd-synthetic-diamond
Eaton-Magaña S. (2014) Lab Notes: CVD Synthetic Diamond with Unusual DiamondView Image. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 50, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2014-labnotes-cvd-diamond-unusual
Lo C. et al. (2014) Lab Notes: Round CVD Synthetic Diamond Over 1 Ct Identified in Hong Kong Lab.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2014-labnotes-large-cvd-synthetic-diamond
Ardon T., Eaton-Magaña S. (2013) Lab Notes: Large Pinkish Brown CVD Synthetic Diamond. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 49, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/FA13-LN-pinkish-brown-CVD-synthetic
Kitawaki H. (2013) Gem News International: Undisclosed Samples of Large CVD Synthetic Diamond.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2013-gemnews-undisclosed-samples-large-cvd-diamond
D’Haenens-Johansson U. et al. (2013) Lab Notes: Three CVD Synthetic Diamonds Submitted to Mumbai Laboratory.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2013-labnotes-three-cvd-synthetic-diamonds
Ardon T. et al. (2013) Lab Notes: CVD-Grown Synthetic Diamond with Aggregated Nitrogen Impurities.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2013-labnotes-grown-synthetic-diamond-aggregated-nitrogen-impurities
Linares R. (2013) CVD-Grown Synthetic Diamonds, Part 1: History. Research News
https://www.gia.edu/news-research-CVD-grown-part1
Linares R. (2013) CVD-Grown Synthetic Diamonds, Part 2: Properties. Research News
https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research-CVD-grown-part2
Wang W. et al. (2012) CVD Synthetic Diamonds from Gemesis Corp. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 48, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2012-cvd-synthetic-diamonds-gemesis-corp-wang
Eaton-Magaña S., D’Haenens-Johansson U.F.S. (2012) Recent Advances in CVD Synthetic Diamond Quality.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2012-recent-advances-cvd-quality-eaton-magana
Willems B. et al. (2011) Exploring the Origin and Nature of Luminescent Regions in CVD Synthetic Diamond.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2011-cvd-synthetic-diamond-willems
Khan R.U.A. et al. (2010) Color Alterations in CVD Synthetic Diamond with Heat and UV Exposure:
Implications for Color Grading and Identification. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 46, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2010-synthetic-diamond-khan
143
Wang W. et al. (2010) Strongly Colored Pink CVD Lab-Grown Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 46, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2010-pink-cvd-diamonds-wang
Wang W. (2009) CVD-Grown Pink Diamonds. Research News
https://www.gia.edu/ongoing-research/cvd-grown-pink-diamonds
Wang W. et al. (2007) Latest-Generation CVD-Grown Synthetic Diamonds from Apollo Diamond Inc.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2007-cvd-grown-synthetic-diamonds-wang
Wang W. et al. (2005) Experimental CVD Synthetic Diamonds from LIMHP-CNRS, France. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 41, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2005-cvd-synthetic-diamond-france-wang
Martineau P.M. et al (2004) Identification of Synthetic Diamond Grown Using Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD).
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2004-identification-cvd-synthetic-diamond-martineau
Wang W. et al. (2003) Gem-Quality Synthetic Diamonds Grown by a Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Method.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 39, No 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2003-synthetic-diamonds-chemical-vapor-deposition-wang
Nassau K. (1990) Synthetic Gem Materials in the 1980s. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 26, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-1990-synthetic-gem-materials-nassau
HPHT Synthetic Diamonds

Johnson P., Myagkaya E. (2017) Lab Notes: HPHT Synthetic Diamond with Intense Green Color. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 53, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2017-labnotes-synthetic-diamond-intense-green-color
Poon T., Wang W. (2016) Lab Notes: Blue HPHT Synthetic Diamond Over 10 Carats. Gems & Gemology, Winter
2016, Vol. 52, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2016-labnotes-blue-HPHT-synthetic-diamond-over-10-carats
Kennedy L., Johnson P. (2016) Lab Notes: Yellow Synthetic Diamond with Nickel-Related Green Fluorescence.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2016-labnotes-yellow-synthetic-diamond-nickel-related-green-fluorescence
Moe K.S. et al. (2016) Lab Notes: Largest Blue HPHT Synthetic Diamond. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 52, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2016-labnotes-largest-blue-hpht-synthetic-diamond
Wang W., Moses T. (2016) Gem News International: Large Colorless HPHT Synthetic Gem Diamonds from China.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2016-gemnews-large-colorless-hpht-synthetic-gem-diamonds-china
D’Haenens-Johansson U.F.S. et al. (2015) Large Colorless HPHT Synthetic Diamonds from New Diamond
Technology. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 51, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2015-large-colorless-hpht-grown-synthetic-gem-diamond-technology-russia
Poon P.Y. (2015) Large HPHT-Grown Synthetic Diamonds Examined in GIA’s Hong Kong Laboratory. GIA
Research & News
https://www.gia.edu/gia-news-research-large-hpht-grown-synthetic-diamonds-examined-in-gia-hong-kong-laboratory
Soonthorntantikul W., Siritheerakul P. (2015) Lab Notes: Near-Colorless Melee-Sized HPHT Synthetic Diamonds
Identified in GIA Laboratory. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 51, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2015-labnotes-near-colorless-melee-HPHT-synthetic-diamond
144
D’Haenens-Johansson U.F.S. et al. (2014) Near-Colorless HPHT Synthetic Diamonds from AOTC Group.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2014-ulrika-hpht-synthetic-diamonds
Feral K. (2012) Detecting HPHT Synthetic Diamond Using a Handheld Magnet. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 48, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2012-hpht-diamond-feral
Dobrinets I.A., Zaitsev A.M. (2009) “Fluorescence Cage”: Visual Identification of HPHT-Treated Type I Diamonds.
Gems & Gemology, Volume 45, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2009-diamonds-hpht-treated-dobrinets
Shigley J.E. et al. (2004) An Updated Chart on the Characteristics of HPHT-Grown Synthetic Diamonds.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2004-characteristics-hpht-grown-synthetic-diamonds-shigley
Shigley J.E. et al. (2004) Lab-Grown Colored Diamonds from Chatham Created Gems. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 40, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2004-chatham-lab-grown-colored-diamonds-shigley
Shigley J.E. et al. (2002) Gemesis Laboratory-Created Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 38, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2002-gemesis-laboratory-created-diamonds-shigley
Shigley J.E. et al. (1997) Gemological Properties of Near-Colorless Synthetic Diamonds. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 33, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-1997-synthetic-diamond-properties-shigley
Shigley J.E. et al. (1995) A Chart for the Separation of Natural and Synthetic Diamonds. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 31, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-1995-synthetic-diamond-chart-shigley
Shigley J.E. et al. (1993) The Gemological Properties of Russian Gem-Quality Synthetic Yellow Diamonds.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-1993-russia-synthetic-diamond-shigley
Shigley J.E. et al. (1993) Two Near-Colorless General Electric Type-IIA Synthetic Diamond Crystals.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-1993-synthetic-diamond-shigley
Rooney M.T. et al. (1993) De Beers Near Colorless-to-Blue Experimental Gem-Quality Synthetic Diamonds.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-1993-debeers-synthetic-diamond-rooney
Shigley J.E. et al. (1987) An Update on Sumitomo Gem-Quality Synthetic Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 28, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-1992-sumitomo-synthetic-diamond-shigley
Shigley J.E. et al. (1987) The Gemological Properties of the De Beers Gem-Quality Synthetic Diamonds.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-1987-debeers-synthetic-diamond-shigley
Shigley J.E. et al. (1986) The Gemological Properties of the Sumitomo Gem-Quality Synthetic Yellow Diamonds.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-1986-synthetic-diamond-shigley
145
Koivula J.I., Fryer C.W. (1984) Identifying Gem-Quality Synthetic Diamonds: An Update. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 20, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-1984-synthetic-diamond-koivula
Rossman G., Kirschvink J.L. (1984) Magnetic Properties of Gem-Quality Synthetic Diamonds. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 20, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-1984-synthetic-diamonds-rossman
Nano-Polycrystalline Diamond (NPD) Synthetic Diamonds

Johnson P., Moe K.S. (2016) Lab Notes: Separation of Black Diamond from NPD Synthetic Diamond.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2016-labnotes-separation-synthetic-black-diamond-NPD
Johnson P., Moe K.S. (2014) Lab Notes: A Larger, Higher-Quality NPD Synthetic Diamond. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 50, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2014-labnotes-larger-higher-quality-npd-synthetic-diamond
Johnson P., Moe K.S. (2014) Lab Notes: Fancy Black NPD Synthetic Diamond. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 50, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2014-labnotes-fancy-black-npd-synthetic
Skalwold E.A. et al. (2012) Characterization of a Synthetic Nano-Polycrystalline Diamond Gemstone.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2012-diamond-synthetic-skalwold
Skalwold E.A (2012) Nano-Polycrystalline Diamond Sphere: A Gemologist’s Perspective. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 48, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2012-diamond-sphere-skalwold
Treatments
Moe K.S., Wang W. (2015) Lab Notes: Treated Pink Diamond with HPHT Synthetic Growth Structure.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2015-labnotes-treated-pink-diamond-hpht-synthetic-growth-structure
Eaton-Magaña S. (2016) Lab Notes: Treated Pink Type IIa Diamond Colored by Red Luminescence.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2016-labnotes-treated-pink-type-IIa-diamond-colored-red-luminescence
Chan S. (2015) Lab Notes: Yellow HPHT-Processed Rough Diamond. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 51, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2015-labnotes-yellow-hpht-processed-rough-diamond
Wang W. (2014) Lab Notes: Very Large Irradiated Yellow Diamond. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 50, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2014-labnotes-irradiated-yellow-diamond
Nazz M., Johnson P. (2013) Lab Notes: Green Diamond, Treated with Radioactive Salt. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 49, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2013-labnotes-green-radioactive-salt
Johnson P., Breeding C.M. (2009) Treated Fancy Red Diamond. Research News
https://www.gia.edu/ongoing-research/treated-fancy-red-diamond
Overton T.W., Shigley J.E. (2008) A History of Diamond Treatments. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 44, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2008-history-of-diamond-treatments-overton
Shen A.H. et al. (2007) Serenity Coated Colored Diamonds: Detection and Durability. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 43, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2007-serenity-coated-colored-diamonds-shen
146
Evans D.J.F. et al. (2005) Coated Pink Diamond — A Cautionary Tale. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 41, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2005-coated-pink-diamond-evans
McClure S.F., Smith C.P. (2000) Gemstone Enhancements and Detection in the 1990s. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 36, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2000-gemstone-enhancements-detection-1990s-mcclure
Overton T.W. (2004) Gem Treatment Disclosure and U.S. Law. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 40, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2004-gem-treatment-disclosure-us-law-overton
Smith C.P. et al. (2000) GE POL Diamonds: Before and After. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 36, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2000-ge-pol-diamonds-smith
Fisher D., Spits R.A. (2000) Spectroscopic Evidence of GE POL HPHT-Treated Natural Type IIA Diamonds.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2000-hpht-treated-type-iia-diamonds-fisher
Shigley J.E. et al. (2000) New Filling Material for Diamonds from Oved Diamond Company: A Preliminary Study.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2000-filling-material-diamonds-oved-shigley
McClure S. et al. (2000) A New Lasering Technique for Diamond. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 36, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2000-lasering-technique-diamond-mcclure
Reinitz I.M. et al. (2000) Identification of HPHT-Treated Yellow to Green Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 36, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2000-hpht-treated-yellow-green-diamonds-reinitz
Schmetzer K. (1999) Clues to the Process Used by General Electric to Enhance the GE POL Diamonds.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-1999-general-electric-enhanced-diamonds-schmetzer
McClure S.F., Kammerling R.C. (1995) A Visual Guide to the Identification of Filled Diamonds. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 31, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-1995-identification-filled-diamond-mcClure
Kammerling R.C. et al. (1994) An Update on Filled Diamonds: Identification and Durability. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 30, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-1994-diamond-treatment-kammerling
Moses T.M. et al. (1993) Two Treated-Color Synthetic Red Diamonds Seen in the Trade. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 29, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-1993-synthetic-red-diamond-moses
Kammerling R.C. et al. (1990) Gemstone Enhancement and its Detection in the 1980s. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 26, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-1990-gemstone-enhancement-kammerling
Fritsch E., Shigley J.E. (1989) Contribution to the Identification of Treated Colored Diamonds: Diamonds with
Peculiar Color-Zoned Pavilions. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 25, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-1989-color-treated-diamond-fritsch
Koivula J.I. et al. (1989) The Characteristics and Identification of Filled Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 25, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-1989-diamond-filling-koivula
Fritsch E., et al. (1988) Detection of Treatment in Two Unusual Green Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 24, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-1988-green-diamonds-fritsch
Scarratt K. (1982) The Identification of Artificial Coloration in Diamond. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 18, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-1982-diamonds-coloration-scarratt
147
Miles E.R. (1964) Coated Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 11, No. 6
Miles E.R. (1962) Diamond-Coating Techniques and Methods of Detection. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 10, No. 12
Schulke A.A. (1961) Artificial Coloration of Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 10, No. 8
Crowningshield G.R. (1957) Spectroscopic Recognition of Yellow Bombarded Diamonds. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 9, No. 4
Treated Synthetic Diamonds

Wang M. et al. (2017) Gem News International: Mixed-Type Treated Red HPHT Synthetic Diamond.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2017-gemnews-mixed-type-treated-red-synthetic-diamond
Zhou Y., Johnson P. (2016) Lab Notes: Treated Red and Green HPHT Synthetic Diamonds. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 52, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2016-labnotes-treated-red-green-HPHT-synthetic-diamonds
Moe K.S. et al. (2015) Lab Notes: Irradiated Green-Blue CVD Synthetic Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 51, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2015-labnotes-irradiated-green-blue-cvd-synthetic-diamonds
Moe K.S. et al. (2015) Lab Notes: LPHT-Annealed Pink CVD Synthetic Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 51, No. 2
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/summer-2015-labnotes-LPHT-annealed-pink-CVD-synthetic-diamonds
Ardon T., Wang W. (2014) Lab Notes: Heavily Irradiated CVD Synthetic Diamond. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 50, No. 3
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2014-labnotes-irradiated-cvd-synthetic-diamond
Moe K.S. (2013) Lab Notes: Large HPHT-Treated Fancy Pink Diamond. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 49, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2013-labnotes-hpht-fancy-pink
Wang W. et al. (2005) Treated-Color Pink-to-Red Diamonds from Lucent Diamonds Inc. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 41, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-2005-treated-color-diamonds-lucent-wang
Assignment 20: Succeeding in the Marketplace

Rockman H.B. (2003) Obtaining U.S. Copyright Registration for the Elara Square Cut-Cornered Brilliant Diamond.
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/fall-2003-copyright-registration-square-cut-cornered-brilliant-diamond-rockman
Overton T.W. (2002) Legal Protection for Proprietary Diamond Cuts. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 38, No. 4
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/winter-2002-legal-protection-proprietary-diamond-cuts-overton
Krashes L.S. (1983) Harry Winston: A Story Told in Diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 19, No. 1
https://www.gia.edu/gems-gemology/spring-1983-diamonds-krashes
148

Diamonds & Diamond Grading: Book 4

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Diamonds &

17. Estimating Weight, Recutting, and Polishing

18. Diamond Simulants

19. Laboratory-Grown Diamonds and Treatments

20. Succeeding in the Marketplace

Assignment 17 Estimating Weight, Recutting, and Repolishing . . . . 1

Assignment 18 Diamond Simulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Assignment 19 Laboratory-Grown Diamonds and Treatments . . . . 63

Assignment 20 Succeeding in the Marketplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

For Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Cover photos (top to bottom):

• Understand the special challenges of grading mounted diamonds.

ESTIMATING WEIGHT, RECUTTING,

marketable diamonds that result—with better proportions and improved

light return—are sometimes worth the loss of weight.

GRADING MOUNTED DIAMONDS

Barry Block/The Jewelry Judge

flexible pipe allows the light to be directed where it’s needed.

a prong by finding the prong’s reflection in the opposite side of the

For mounted diamonds, appraisers usually state a single clarity grade

to masterstones against a non-reflective white background, using a daylight-

equivalent overhead light source.

EVALUATING MEASUREMENTS AND CUT

measure the stone’s dimensions with a millimeter gauge. However, if the

or length and width.

As you learned in Assignment 14, you can either measure or estimate

table size. Direct measurement is most accurate, but estimation techniques

rough, dirty girdle has a speckled reflection. To see the reflection of a

faceted girdle, look carefully for images of the facet junctions.

Both by Pedro Padua/GIA

its pavilion depth by multiplying 14.4 percent times three:

14.4% × 3 = 43.2% pavilion depth, rounded to 43%

ESTIMATING DIAMOND WEIGHT

Weight has to be estimated for mounted

basically symmetrical designs.

With careful measurements and adjustments, skilled graders can consis-

tently estimate weight within 10 percent. Thus, a stone with an estimated

important for your customers or clients to understand that your estimate is

ADJUSTING FOR SHAPE AND PROPORTION VARIATIONS

Diamonds of all shapes require weight corrections—which range from

Diamond Weight Estimation Formulas

*This means you should take the average girdle diameter

SQUARE OR RECTANGULAR PRINCESS CUT

(Width = the average of the two parallel edges)

EMERALD AND RADIANT CUTS

WEIGHT ESTIMATION PROCEDURES

If a stone is prong-set, you can still find

the longest of the dimensions that are perpendicular to the length.

Estimating Weights of Mounted Baguettes and Small Rounds

matters even more, a mounting might keep

you from placing the template over a stone.

You can estimate the weights of small,

round diamonds with the following charts.

Since a millimeter gauge might not fit right

up against the girdle of a small stone, many

people use a table gauge and magnification to

measure the diameters of very small mounted

diamonds. A very thick girdle might require a

slight upward adjustment, but otherwise, the