CHAPTER 5

DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In destructive testing, or (Destructive Physical Analysis DPA) tests are
carried out to the specimen's failure, in order to understand a specimen's structural
performance or material behavior under different loads. These tests are generally
much easier to carry out, yield more information, and are easier to interpret than
NDT. Destructive testing is most suitable, and economic, for objects which will be
mass-produced, as the cost of destroying a small number of specimens is
negligible. It is usually not economical to do destructive testing where only one or
very few items are to be produced. These tests are usually carried out to analyse the
mechanical behavior and the mechanical properties of the materials being tested.
There are many type of destructive testing, but we have used only three type
of methods, those are
1. Tensile testing
2. Izod (Impact) testing
3. Hardness testing

5.2 TENSILE TESTING

Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials

science test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure.

Fig 5.1 standard tensile testing specimen

The tensile test specimen is cut in the form of T-section and it should
have the standard recognized measurements for the various sections. A standard
specimen is prepared in a round or a square section along the gauge length,
depending on the standard used. Both ends of the specimens should have sufficient
length and a surface condition such that they are firmly gripped during testing.
The most common testing machine used in tensile testing is the universal
testing machine. This type of machine has two crossheads; one is adjusted for the
length of the specimen and the other is driven to apply tension to the test specimen.
The machine must have the proper capabilities for the test specimen being
tested. There are three main parameters: force capacity, speed, and precision and
accuracy. Force capacity refers to the fact that the machine must be able to
generate enough force to fracture the specimen. The machine must be able to apply
the force quickly or slowly enough to properly mimic the actual application.
Finally, the machine must be able to accurately and precisely measure the gauge
length and forces applied; for instance, a large machine that is designed to measure

long elongations may not work with a brittle material that experiences short
elongations prior to fracturing.
Alignment of the test specimen in the testing machine is critical, because if
the specimen is misaligned, either at an angle or offset to one side, the machine
will exert a bending force on the specimen.
Universal testing machine
Specifications
Machine Name

: Tensile testing machine

Testing load range

: Max 5 Ton

Make

: Associated Scientific Engg. Works,

New delhi.

Digital Encoder

make

: Auto Instruments - Kholapur

Gear rotation speed (for gradual loading)

:1.25. 1.5 & 2.5 mm /min

Software details

: FIE make India

The specimen is placed in the machine between the grips and an

extensometer if required can automatically record the change in gauge length
during the test. However, this method not only records the change in length of the
specimen but also all other extending / elastic components of the testing machine
and its drive systems including any slipping of the specimen in the grips.
Once the machine is started it begins to apply an increasing load on
specimen. Throughout the tests the control system and its associated software
record the load and extension or compression of the specimen.

Fig. 5.2 TENSILE TESTING MACHINE

5.2.2 TESTING PRINCIPLES

For each composites there should be three specimens are to be prepared for
finding the tensile strength ,so that we could get the nearest exact tensile strength
of a specimen. After testing each of the specimens we could find 3 strengths using
the stress - strain graph. The stress-strain graph is based on the Hookes law.

5.2.2.1 Hooke's Law

The relationship between the applied force, or load, and the elongation the
specimen exhibits is linear. In this linear region, the line obeys the relationship
defined as "Hooke's Law" where the ratio of stress to strain is a constant, or E is
the slope of the line in this region where stress () is proportional to strain () and
is called Modulus of Elasticity.

5.2.2.2 Yield Strength

A value called yield strensth of a material is defined as the stress applied to
the material at which plastic deformation starts to occur while the material is
loaded.

5.2.2.3 Ultimate Tensile Strength

This is the maximum load the specimen sustains during the test. The UTS
may or may not equate to the strength at break. This all depends on what type of
material you are testing. . .brittle,ductile, or a substance that even exhibits both
properties. And sometimes a material may be ductile when tested in a lab, but,

when placed in service and exposed to extreme cold temperatures, it may transition
to brittle behavior.

Fig 5.3 Stress-Strain Graph

Fig. 5.5 Tensile Testing Specimens

5.3 CHARPY IMPACT TESTING

The Charpy impact test, also known as the Charpy V-notch test, is a
standardized high strain rate test which determines the amount of energy absorbed
by a material during fracture.. This absorbed energy is a measure of a given
material's notch toughness and acts as a tool to study temperature-dependent
ductile-brittle transition.
An impact is a high force or shock applied over a short time period when
two or more bodies collide. Such a force or acceleration usually has a greater effect
than a lower force applied over a proportionally longer time period of time.

Fig. 5.6 charpy impact machine

The apparatus consists of a pendulum of known mass and length that is
dropped from a known height to impact a notched specimen of material. The
energy transferred to the material can be inferred by comparing the difference in
the height of the hammer before and after the fracture (energy absorbed by the
fracture event).
The notch in the sample affects the results of the impact test, thus it is
necessary for the notch to be of regular dimensions and geometry. The size of the
sample can also affect results, since the dimensions determine whether or not the
material is in plane strain.

According to ASTM A370, the standard specimen size for Charpy impact
testing is 10 mm 10mm 55mm. Subsize specimen sizes are: 10 mm 7.5 mm
55mm, 10 mm 6.7 mm 55 mm, 10 mm 5 mm 55 mm, 10 mm 3.3 mm
55 mm, 10 mm 2.5 mm 55 mm. Details of specimens as per ASTM A370
(Standard Test Method and Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel Products).

Fig. 5.7 impact test specimens

For a specimen to be tested in the charpy impact machine,its should have

standard dimensions as per the ASTM.

Fig. 5.8 standard specimen dimensions

5.4 HARDNESS TESTING

Hardness is a characteristic of material, not a fundamental physical property.
It is defined as the resistance to indentation and it is determined by measuring the
permanent depth of the indentation. More simply put, when using a fixed force
(load) and a given indenter, the smaller the indentation, the harder the material.
The Vickers test is often easier to use than other hardness tests since the
required calculations are independent of the size of the indenter, and the indenter
can be used for all materials irrespective of hardness. The basic principle, as with
all common measures of hardness, is to observe the questioned material's ability to
resist plastic deformation from a standard source. The Vickers test can be used for
all metals and has one of the widest scales among hardness tests. The unit of
hardness given by the test is known as the Vickers Pyramid Number (HV) or
Diamond Pyramid Hardness (DPH). The hardness number can be converted into
units of Pascal. The hardness number is determined by the load over the surface
area of the indentation and not the area normal to the force, and is therefore not a
pressure.

The Vickers method is based on an optical measurement system. The micro

hardness test procedure, ASTM E-384, specifies a range of light loads using a
diamond indenter to make an indentation which is measeured and converted to a
hardness value. It is very useful for testing on a wide type of materials as long as
test samples are carefully prepared. A square base pyramid shaped diamond is used
for testing in the Vickers scale. Typically loads are very light, ranging from a few
grams to one or several kilograms. The microhardness methods are used to test on
metals, ceramics, and composites- almost any type of material.
The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with
a diamond indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle
of 136 degrees between opposite faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf. The full
load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The two diagonals of the indentation
left in the surface of the material after removal of the load are measured using a
microscope and their average calculated. The area of the sloping surface of the

indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by dividing

the kgf load by the square mm area of indentation.

Sample preparation is usuallu=y necessary with a microhardness test in order to

provide a small enogh specimen that can fit into the tester. Additionally, the sample
preparation will need to make the specimens surface smooth to permit regular
indentation shape and good measurement, and to ensure the sample can be held
perpendicular to the indenter. Usually the prepared samples are mounted in the
plastic medium to facilitate the preparation and testing. The indentations should be
made as large as possible to maximize the measurement resolution.