Distortion

What causes distortion?

Because welding involves highly localised heating of joint edges to fuse the material, non-uniform
stresses are set up in the component because of expansion and contraction of the heated material.
Initially, compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent metal when the weld pool
is formed due to the thermal expansion of the hot metal (heat affected zone) adjacent to the weld
pool. However, tensile stresses occur on cooling when the contraction of the weld metal and the
immediate heat affected zone is resisted by the bulk of the cold parent metal.
The magnitude of thermal stresses induced into the material can be seen by the volume change in
the weld area on solidification and subsequent cooling to room temperature. For example, when
welding CMn steel, the molten weld metal volume will be reduced by approximately 3% on
solidification and the volume of the solidified weld metal/heat affected zone (HAZ) will be reduced by
a further 7% as its temperature falls from the melting point of steel to room temperature.
If the stresses generated from thermal expansion/contraction exceed the yield strength of the parent
metal, localised plastic deformation of the metal occurs. Plastic deformation causes a permanent
reduction in the component dimensions and distorts the structure.
Main types of distortion
Distortion occurs in six main forms:
Longitudinal shrinkage
Transverse shrinkage
Angular distortion
Bowing and dishing
Buckling
Twisting
The principal features of the more common forms of distortion for butt and fillet welds are shown.
Contraction of the weld area on cooling, results in both transverse & longitudinal shrinkage. Nonuniform contraction (through thickness) produces angular distortion in addition to above said
shrinkage.

For example, in a single V butt weld, the first weld run produces longitudinal and transverse
shrinkage and rotation. The second run causes the plates to rotate using the first weld deposit as a

fulcrum. Hence, balanced welding in a double side V butt joint can be used to produce uniform
contraction and prevent angular distortion.
Similarly, in a single side fillet weld, non-uniform contraction produces angular distortion of the
upstanding leg. Double side fillet welds can therefore be used to control distortion in the upstanding
fillet but because the weld is only deposited on one side of the base plate, angular distortion will now
be produced in the plate.
Longitudinal bowing in welded plates happens when the weld center is not coincident with the
neutral axis of the section so that longitudinal shrinkage in the welds bends the section into a curved
shape. Clad plate tends to bow in two directions due to longitudinal and transverse shrinkage of the
cladding; this produces a dished shape. Dishing is also produced in stiffened plating. Plates usually
dish inwards between the stiffeners, because of angular distortion at the stiffener attachment welds
In plating, long-range compressive stresses can cause elastic buckling in thin plates, resulting in
dishing, bowing or rippling.
Distortion due to elastic buckling is unstable: if you attempt to flatten a buckled plate, it will probably
'snap' through and dish out in the opposite direction.
Twisting in a box section is caused by shear deformation at the corner joints This is caused by
unequal longitudinal thermal expansion of the abutting edges. Increasing the number of tack welds
to prevent shear deformation often reduces the amount of twisting.
Allowance for weld shrinkage
It is almost impossible to predict accurately the amount of shrinking. Nevertheless, a 'rule of thumb'
has been composed based on the size of the weld deposit. When welding steel, the following
allowances should be made to cover shrinkage at the assembly stage.
Transverse Shrinkage
Fillet Welds 0.8mm per weld where the leg length does not exceed 3/4 plate thickness
Butt weld 1.5 to 3mm per weld for 600 V joint, depending on number of runs
Longitudinal Shrinkage
Fillet Welds 0.8mm per 3m of weld
Butt Welds 3mm per 3m of weld
Increasing the leg length of fillet welds, in particular, increases shrinkage.
Factors affecting distortion
If a metal is uniformly heated and cooled there would be almost no distortion. However, because the
material is locally heated and restrained by the surrounding cold metal, stresses are generated
higher than the material yield stress causing permanent distortion. The principal factors affecting the
type and degree of distortion, are:

Parent material properties

Amount of restraint
Joint design
Part fit-up
Welding procedure

Parent material properties

Parent material properties, which influence distortion are coefficient of thermal expansion & specific
heat per unit volume. As distortion is determined by expansion and contraction of the material, the
coefficient of thermal expansion of the material plays a significant role in determining the stresses
generated during welding and, hence, the degree of distortion. For example, as stainless steel has a
higher coefficient of expansion than plain carbon steel, it is more likely to suffer from distortion.
Restraint
If a component is welded without any external restraint, it distorts to relieve the welding stresses. So,
methods of restraint, such as 'strong-backs' in butt welds, can prevent movement and reduce
distortion. As restraint produces higher levels of residual stress in the material, there is a greater risk
of cracking in weld metal and HAZ especially in crack-sensitive materials.
Joint design
Both butt and fillet joints are prone to distortion. It can be minimised in butt joints by adopting a joint
type, which balances the thermal stresses through the plate thickness.( For eg, a double-sided in
preference to a single-sided weld ). Double-sided fillet welds should eliminate angular distortion of
the upstanding member, especially if the two welds are deposited at the same time.
Part fit-up
Fit-up should be uniform to produce predictable & consistent shrinkage. Excessive joint gap can also
increase the degree of distortion by increasing the amount of weld metal needed to fill the joint. The
joints should be adequately tacked to prevent relative movement between the parts during welding.
Welding procedure
This influences the degree of distortion mainly through its effect on the heat input. As welding
procedure is usually selected for reasons of quality and productivity, the welder has limited scope for
reducing distortion. As a general rule, weld volume should be kept to a minimum. Also, the welding
sequence and technique should aim to balance the thermally induced stresses around the neutral
axis of the component.

Distortion - prevention by design

General guidelines are given below as 'best practice' for limiting distortion when considering the
design of arc welded structures.
Design principles
At the design stage, welding distortion can often be prevented, or at least restricted, by considering:
elimination of welding
weld placement
reducing the volume of weld metal
reducing the number of runs
use of balanced welding
Elimination of welding
As distortion and shrinkage are an inevitable result of welding, good design requires that not only the
amount of welding is kept to a minimum, but also the smallest amount of weld metal is deposited.
Welding can often be eliminated at the design stage by forming the plate or using a standard rolled
section, as shown in Fig 1.

Fig. 1 Elimination of welds by: a) forming the plate; b) use

of rolled or extruded section
If possible, the design should use intermittent welds rather
than a continuous run, to reduce the amount of welding. For
example, in attaching stiffening plates, a substantial reduction
in the amount of welding can often be achieved whilst
maintaining adequate strength.
Weld placement
Placing and balancing of welds are important in designing for
minimum distortion. The closer a weld is positioned to the
neutral axis of a fabrication, the lower the leverage effect of the shrinkage forces and the final
distortion. Examples of poor and good designs are shown in Fig 2.
Fig. 2 Distortion may be reduced by placing the welds
around the neutral axis
As most welds are deposited away from the neutral axis,
distortion can be minimised by designing the fabrication so
the shrinkage forces of an individual weld are balanced by
placing another weld on the opposite side of the neutral axis.
Whenever possible, welding should be carried out
alternately on opposite sides, instead of completing one side
first. In large structures, if distortion is occurring
preferentially on one side, it may be possible to take
corrective actions. for eg, by increasing welding on the other side to control the overall distortion.
Reducing the volume of weld metal
To minimise distortion, as well as for economic reasons, the volume of weld metal should be limited
to the design requirements. For a single-sided joint, the cross-section of the weld should be kept as
small as possible to reduce the level of angular distortion, as illustrated in Fig 3.
Fig. 3 Reducing the amount of angular distortion and lateral
shrinkage by: a) reducing the volume of weld metal; b) using
single pass weld
Joint preparation angle and root gap should be minimised
providing the weld can be made satisfactorily. To facilitate access,
it may be possible to specify a larger root gap and smaller
preparation angle. By cutting down the difference in the amount
of weld metal at the root and the face of the weld, the degree of
angular distortion will be correspondingly reduced. Butt joints
made in a single pass using deep penetration have little angular
distortion, especially if a closed butt joint can be welded (Fig 3). For example, thin section material
can be welded using plasma and laser welding processes and thick section can be welded, in the
vertical position, using electrogas and electroslag processes. Although angular distortion can be
eliminated, there will still be longitudinal and transverse shrinkage.
In thick section material, as the cross sectional area of a double-V joint preparation is often only half
that of a single-V preparation, the volume of weld metal to be deposited can be substantially
reduced. The double-V joint preparation also permits balanced welding about the middle of the joint
to eliminate angular distortion.

As weld shrinkage is proportional to the amount of weld metal, both poor joint fit-up and overwelding will increase the amount of distortion. Angular distortion in fillet welds is particularly affected
by over-welding. As design strength is based on throat thickness, over-welding to produce a convex
weld bead does not increase the allowable design strength but it will increase the shrinkage and
distortion.
Reducing the number of runs
There are conflicting opinions on whether it is better to deposit a given volume of weld metal using a
small number of large weld passes or a large number of small passes. Experience shows that for a
single-sided butt joint, or a single-side fillet weld, a large single weld deposit gives less angular
distortion than if the weld is made with a number of small runs. Generally, in an unrestrained joint,
the degree of angular distortion is approximately proportional to the number of passes.
Completing the joint with a small number of large weld deposits results in more longitudinal and
transverse shrinkage than a weld completed in a larger number of small passes. In a multi-pass
weld, previously deposited weld metal provides restraint, so the angular distortion per pass
decreases as the weld is built up. Large deposits also increase the risk of elastic buckling
particularly in thin section plate.
Use of balanced welding
Balanced welding is an effective means of controlling angular distortion in a multi-pass butt weld by
arranging the welding sequence to ensure that angular distortion is continually being corrected and
not allowed to accumulate during welding. Comparative amounts of angular distortion from balanced
welding and welding one side of the joint first are shown schematically in Fig 4. The balanced
welding technique can also be applied to fillet joints.
Fig. 4 Balanced welding to reduce the amount of
angular distortion
If welding alternately on either side of the joint is not
possible, or if one side has to be completed first, an
asymmetrical joint preparation may be used with more weld
metal being deposited on the second side. The greater
contraction resulting from depositing the weld metal on the
second side will help counteract the distortion on the first
side.

Best practice
The following design principles can control distortion:
eliminate welding by forming the plate and using rolled or extruded sections
minimise the amount of weld metal
do not over weld
use intermittent welding in preference to a continuous weld pass
place welds about the neutral axis
balance the welding about the middle of the joint by using a double-V joint in preference to a
single-V joint

Adopting best practice principles can have surprising cost benefits. For example, for a design fillet
leg length of 6mm, depositing an 8mm leg length will result in the deposition of 57% additional weld
metal. Besides the extra cost of depositing weld metal and the increase risk of distortion, it is costly

to remove this extra weld metal later. However, designing for distortion control may incur additional
fabrication costs. For example, the use of a double-V joint preparation is an excellent way to reduce
weld volume and control distortion, but extra costs may be incurred in production through
manipulation of the workpiece for the welder to access the reverse side

Distortion - Prevention by pre-setting, pre-bending or use of restraint

Distortion may be prevented by one of the following methods
pre-setting of parts
pre-bending of parts
use of restraint
The technique chosen will be influenced by the size and
complexity of the component or assembly, the cost of any
restraining equipment and the need to limit residual stresses.
Fig. 1 Pre-setting of parts to produce correct alignment
after welding

a) Pre-setting of fillet joint to prevent angular distortion

b) Pre-setting of butt joint to prevent angular distortion
c) Tapered gap to prevent closure
Pre-setting of parts
The parts are pre-set and left free to move during welding (see Fig 1). In practice, the parts are preset by a pre-determined amount so that distortion occurring during welding is used to achieve overall
alignment and dimensional control.
The main advantages compared with the use of restraint are that there is no expensive equipment
needed and there will be lower residual stress in the structure.
Unfortunately, as it is difficult to predict the amount of pre-setting needed to accommodate
shrinkage, a number of trial welds will be required. For example, when MMA or MIG welding butt
joints, the joint gap will normally close ahead of welding; when submerged arc welding; the joint may
open up during welding. When carrying out trial welds, it is also essential that the test structure is
reasonably representative of the full size structure in order to generate the level of distortion likely to
occur in practice. For these reasons, pre-setting is a technique more suitable for simple components
or assemblies.
Fig. 2 Pre-bending, using strongbacks and wedges, to accommodate angular distortion in
thin plates

Pre-bending of parts
Pre-bending, or pre-springing the parts before welding is a
technique used to pre-stress the assembly to counteract
shrinkage during welding. As shown in Fig 2, pre-bending by
means of strongbacks and wedges can be used to pre-set a
seam before welding to compensate for angular distortion. Releasing the wedges after welding will
allow the parts to move back into alignment. The main photograph shows the diagonal bracings and

centre jack used to pre-bend the fixture, not the component. This counteracts the distortion
introduced though out-of-balance welding.
Use of restraint
Because of the difficulty in applying pre-setting & pre-bending, restraint is the more widely practised
technique. The basic principle is that the parts are placed in position and held under restraint to
minimise any movement during welding. When removing the component from the restraining
equipment, a relatively small amount of movement will occur due to locked-in stresses. Either
applying a small amount of pre-set or stress relieving before removing the restraint can cure this.
When welding assemblies,all component parts should be held in the correct position until completion
of welding and a suitably balanced fabrication sequence used to minimise distortion.Welding with
restraint will generate additional residual stresses in the weld, which may cause cracking. When
welding susceptible materials, a suitable welding sequence & the use of preheating will reduce this.
Restraint is relatively simple to apply using clamps, jigs & fixtures to hold the parts during welding.
Welding jigs and fixtures
Jigs and fixtures are used to locate the parts and to ensure that dimensional accuracy is maintained
whilst welding. They can be of a relatively simple construction, as shown in Fig 3a, but the welding
engineer will need to ensure that the finished fabrication can be removed easily after welding.
Flexible clamps
A flexible clamp (Fig 3b) can be effective not only in applying restraint but also in setting up and
maintaining the joint gap (it can also be used to close a gap that is too wide). A disadvantage is that
as the restraining forces in the clamp will be transferred into the joint when the clamps are removed,
the level of residual stress across the joint can be quite high.
Fig. 3 Restraint techniques to prevent distortion

a) Welding jig

b) Flexible clamps

c) Strongbacks with wedges

d) Fully welded strongbacks

Strongbacks (and wedges)

Strongbacks are a popular means of applying restraint especially for site work. Wedged
strongbacks, Fig.3c, will prevent angular distortion in plate and help to prevent peaking in welding
cylindrical shells. As these types of strongback will allow transverse shrinkage, the risk of cracking
will be greatly reduced compared with fully welded strongbacks.
Fully welded strongbacks (welded on both sides of the joint) Fig 3d, will minimise both angular
distortion and transverse shrinkage. As significant stresses can be generated across the weld, which
will increase any tendency for cracking, care should be taken in the use of this type of strongback.
Best practice
Adopting the following assembly techniques will help to control distortion:
Pre-set parts so that welding distortion will achieve overall alignment and dimensional control
with the minimum of residual stress
Pre-bend joint edges to counteract distortion and achieve alignment and dimensional control
with minimum residual stress.
Apply restraint during welding by using jigs and fixtures, flexible clamps, strongbacks and
tack welding but consider the risk of cracking which can be quite significant, especially for
fully welded strongbacks.
Use an approved procedure for welding and removal of welds for restraint techniques which
may need preheat to avoid forming imperfections in the component surface.

Distortion - Prevention by fabrication techniques

Assembly techniques
In general, the welder has little influence on the choice of welding procedure but assembly
techniques can often be crucial in minimising distortion. The principal assembly techniques are:
tack welding
back-to-back assembly
stiffening
Tack welding
Tack welds are ideal for setting and maintaining the joint gap but can also be used to resist
transverse shrinkage. To be effective, thought should be given to the number of tack welds, their
length and the distance between them. With too few, there is the risk of the joint progressively
closing up as welding proceeds. In a long seam, using MMA or MIG, the joint edges may even
overlap. It should be noted that when using the submerged arc process, the joint might open up if
not adequately tacked.
The tack welding sequence is important to maintain a uniform root gap along the length of the joint.
Three alternative tack welding sequences are shown in Fig 1:
tack weld straight through to the end of the joint (Fig 1a). It is necessary to clamp the plates
or to use wedges to maintain the joint gap during tacking
tack weld one end & then use a back stepping technique for tacking the rest of the joint(F-1b)
tack weld the center and complete the tack welding by back stepping (Fig 1c).
Fig. 1 Alternative procedures used for tack welding to
prevent transverse shrinkage
a)

tack weld straight through to end of joint

b) tack weld one end, then use back-step technique for

tacking the rest of the joint

c) tack weld the centre, then complete the tack welding by the back-step technique

Directional tacking is a useful technique for controlling the joint gap, for example closing a joint gap,
which is (or has become) too wide. When tack welding, it is important that tacks which are to be
fused into the main weld, are produced to an approved procedure using appropriately qualified
welders. The procedure may require preheat and an approved consumable as specified for the main
weld. Removal of the tacks also needs careful control to avoid causing defects in the component
surface.
Back-to-back assembly
By tack welding or clamping two identical components back-to-back, welding of both components
can be balanced around the neutral axis of the combined assembly (Fig 2a). It is recommended that
the assembly is stress relieved before separating the components. If stress relieving is not done, it
may be necessary to insert wedges between the
components (Fig 2b) so when the wedges are removed, the
parts will move back to the correct shape or alignment.
Fig. 2 Back-to-back assembly to control distortion when
welding two identical components
a) assemblies tacked together before welding
b) use of wedges for components that distort
on separation after welding

Stiffening
Fig. 3 Longitudinal stiffeners prevent
bowing in butt welded thin plate
joints
Longitudinal shrinkage in butt welded seams
often results in bowing, especially when
fabricating thin plate structures. Longitudinal
stiffeners in the form of flats or angles, welded
along each side of the seam (Fig 3) are
effective in preventing longitudinal bowing.
Stiffener location is important: they must be
placed at a sufficient distance from the joint so
they do not interfere with welding, unless
located on the reverse side of a joint welded
from one side.

Welding procedure
A suitable welding procedure is usually determined by productivity and quality requirements rather
than the need to control distortion. Nevertheless, the welding process, technique and sequence do
influence the distortion level.
Welding process

General rules for selecting a welding process to prevent angular distortion are:
1. deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible
2. use the least number of runs to fill the joint
Unfortunately, selecting a suitable welding process based on these rules may increase longitudinal
shrinkage resulting in bowing and buckling.
In manual welding, MIG, a high deposition rate process, is preferred to MMA. Weld metal should be
deposited using the largest diameter electrode (MMA), or the highest current level (MIG), without
causing lack-of-fusion imperfections. As heating is much slower and more diffuse, gas welding
normally produces more angular distortion than the arc process.
Mechanised techniques combining high deposition rates and high welding speeds have the greatest
potential for preventing distortion. As the distortion is more consistent, simple techniques such as
presetting are more effective in controlling angular distortion.
Welding technique
General rules for preventing distortion are:
keep the weld (fillet) to the minimum specified size
use balanced welding about the neutral axis
keep the time between runs to a minimum

Fig. 4 Angular distortion of the joint as determined by the

number of runs in the fillet weld
In the absence of restraint, angular distortion in both fillet and butt
joints will be a function of the joint geometry, weld size and the
number of runs for a given cross section. Angular distortion
(measured in degrees) as a function of the number of runs for a
10mm leg length fillet weld is shown in Fig 4.
If possible, balanced welding around the neutral axis should be
done, for example on double sided fillet joints, by two people welding
simultaneously. In butt joints, the run order may be crucial in that
balanced welding can be used to correct angular distortion as it
develops.
Fig. 5 Use of welding direction to control distortion
a) Back-step welding
b) Skip welding

Welding sequence
The sequence, or direction, of welding is important and should be
towards the free end of the joint. For long welds, the whole of the
weld is not completed in one direction. Short runs, for example
using the back-step or skip welding technique, are very effective in
distortion control (Fig 5).
Back-step welding involves depositing short adjacent weld
lengths in the opposite direction to the general progression
(Fig.5a).
Skip welding is laying short weld lengths in a predetermined, evenly spaced, sequence along
the seam (Fig 5b). Weld lengths and the spaces between them are generally equal to the
natural run-out length of one electrode. The direction of deposit for each electrode is the
same, but it is not necessary for the welding direction to be opposite to the direction of
general progression.

Best practice
The following fabrication techniques are used to control distortion:
using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap
identical components welded back to back so welding can be balanced about the neutral axis
attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal bowing in butt welds of thin plate
structures
where there is choice of welding procedure, process and technique should aim to deposit the
weld metal as quickly as possible; MIG in preference to MMA or gas welding and
mechanised rather than manual welding
in long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one direction; back-step or skip
welding techniques should be used

Distortion - corrective techniques

Local heating of the flange edges to produce
curved beams for a bridge structure
Every effort should be made to avoid distortion at the design
stage and by using suitable fabrication procedures. As it is
not always possible to avoid distortion during fabrication,
several well-established corrective techniques can be
employed. However, reworking to correct distortion should
not be undertaken lightly as it is costly & needs considerable
skill to avoid damaging the component. In this issue, general
guidelines are provided on 'best practice' for correcting
distortion using mechanical or thermal techniques.
Mechanical techniques
The principal mechanical techniques are hammering and
pressing. Hammering may cause surface damage and work
hardening.
In cases of bowing or angular distortion, the complete
component can often be straightened on a press without the
disadvantages of hammering. Packing pieces are inserted
between the component and the platens of the press. It is
important to impose sufficient deformation to give overcorrection so that the normal elastic spring-back will allow the
component to assume its correct shape.

Fig. 1 Use of press to correct bowing in T butt joint

Pressing to correct bowing in a flanged plate is illustrated in Fig. 1. In long components, distortion is
removed progressively in a series of incremental pressings; each one acting over a short length. In
the case of the flanged plate, the load should act on the flange to prevent local damage to the web
at the load points. As incremental point loading will only produce an approximately straight
component, it is better to use a former to achieve a straight component or to produce a smooth
curvature.
Best practice for mechanical straightening

The following should be adopted when using pressing techniques to remove distortion:
Use packing pieces which will over correct the distortion so that spring-back will return the
component to the correct shape
Check that the component is adequately supported during pressing to prevent buckling
Use a former (or rolling) to achieve a straight component or produce a curvature
As unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the following safe practice must be
adopted:
- bolt the packing pieces to the platen
- place a metal plate of adequate thickness to intercept the 'missile'
- clear personnel from the hazard area
Thermal techniques
The basic principle behind thermal techniques is to create sufficiently high local stresses so that, on
cooling, the component is pulled back into shape.
Fig. 2 Localised heating to correct distortion
This is achieved by locally heating the material to a temperature
where plastic deformation will occur as the hot, low yield strength
material tries to expand against the surrounding cold, higher yield
strength metal. Cooling to room temperature the heated area will
attempt to shrink to a smaller size than before heating. Stresses
generated thereby pull the component into required shape
Local heating is, therefore, a relatively simple but effective means of correcting welding distortion.
Size, number, location and temperature of the heated zones determine shrinkage level. Thickness
and plate size determines the area of the heated zone. Number and placement of heating zones are
largely a question of experience. For new jobs, tests will often be needed to quantify the level of
shrinkage.
Spot, line, or wedge-shaped heating techniques can all be used in thermal correction of distortion.
Spot heating
Fig. 3 Spot heating for correcting buckling
Spot heating (Fig. 3), is used to remove buckling, for
example when a relatively thin sheet has been welded to
a stiff frame. Distortion is corrected by spot heating on
the convex side. If the buckling is regular, the spots can
be arranged symmetrically, starting at the centre of the
buckle and working outwards.

Line heating
Fig. 4 Line heating to correct angular distortion in a fillet weld
Heating in straight lines is often used to correct angular distortion, for
example, in fillet welds (Fig. 4). The component is heated along the line of
the welded joint but on the opposite side to the weld so the induced
stresses will pull the flange flat.

Wedge-shaped heating
To correct distortion in larger complex fabrications it may be necessary to heat whole areas in
addition to employing line heating. The pattern aims at shrinking one part of the fabrication to pull
the material back into shape.
Fig. 5 Use of wedge shaped heating to straighten plate
Apart from spot heating of thin panels, a wedge-shaped
heating zone should be used, (Fig. 5) from base to apex and
the temperature profile should be uniform through the plate
thickness. For thicker section material, it may be necessary to
use two torches, one on each side of the plate.
As a general guideline, to straighten a curved plate (Fig. 5)
wedge dimensions should be:
1. Length of wedge - two-thirds of the plate width
2. Width of wedge (base) 1/6th of its length (base to
apex)
The degree of straightening will typically be 5mm in a 3m
length of plate.
Wedge-shaped heating can be used to correct distortion in a variety of situations, (Fig. 6):
1. Standard rolled section which needs correction in two planes,(Fig. 6a)
2. Buckle at edge of plate as an alternative to rolling (Fi.g 6b)
3. Box section fabrication which is distorted out of plane (Fig. 6c)
Fig. 6 Wedge shaped heating to correct distortion

a) standard rolled
steel section

b) buckled edge of plate

c) box fabrication

General precautions
The dangers of using thermal straightening techniques are the risk of over-shrinking too large
an area or causing metallurgical changes by heating to too high a temperature. As a general
rule, when correcting distortion in steels the temperature of the area should be restricted to
approximately to 60 - 650C - dull red heat.
If the heating is interrupted or heat lost, the operator must allow the metal to cool & then
begin again.
Best practice for distortion correction by thermal heating
The following should be adopted when using thermal techniques to remove distortion:

use spot heating to remove buckling in thin sheet structures

other than in spot heating of thin panels, use a wedge-shaped heating technique
use line heating to correct angular distortion in plate
restrict the area of heating to avoid over-shrinking the component
limit the temperature to 60 to 650C (dull red heat) in steels to prevent metallurgical
damage
in wedge heating, heat from the base to the apex of the wedge, penetrate evenly
through the plate thickness and maintain an even temperature

Geometric shape imperfections - types & causes

Introduction
In the job knowledge series welding imperfections such as cracks, lack of fusion, penetration and
porosity have been discussed. This article looks at those imperfections related to poor geometric
shape and will concentrate on the following:
Excess weld metal
Undercut
Overlap

Linear misalignment
Incompletely filled groove
Such imperfections might be considered as anomalies in the joint and they will always be present to
some degree so that it becomes necessary to separate the acceptable from the unacceptable. PD
5500 Specification for unfired fusion welded pressure vessels.
BS 2640 Specification for Class II oxy-acetylene welding of carbon steel pipework for carrying fluids
BS EN 25817 Arc welded joints in steel - guidance on quality levels for imperfections
AWS D1.1 Structural welding code Steel

Excess weld metal

(Also called cap height, overfill or reinforcement)
This is weld metal lying outside the plane joining the weld toes. Note that the term 'reinforcement',
although used extensively in the ASME/AWS specifications is avoided in Europe as it implies it adds
strength to the welded joint, which is rarely the case.
Common causes
Fig.1. Excess weld metal
This is formed when excessive weld metal is
added to the joint, which is usually a result of
poor welder technique for manual processes
but may be due to poor parameter selection
when the process is mechanised. That is, too
much filler metal for the travel speed used. In
multi-run welding a poor selection of individual
bead sizes can result in a bead build-up pattern
that overfills the joint. Different processes and
parameters (eg voltage) can result in different
excess weld metal shapes.
Acceptance
The acceptability of this imperfection is very dependent on the application in which the product will
be used. Most standards have limit, related to material thickness (eg10%), but also have a maximum
upper limits. Both the ratio and the maximum may be related to the severity of service that the
component is expected to see. The following table gives examples taken from BS EN 25817.
An important reason for limiting the height of excess weld metal is that it represents a non-value
added cost. However, it must be remembered that the height of the weld cap influences the resultant
toe blend. A sharp transition causes a local stress concentration that can contribute to loss of
strength, which is particularly important in fatigue situations. As a result most specifications state that
'smooth transition is required'.
Avoidance
If the imperfection is a result of welder technique then welder retraining is required. For mechanised
techniques an increase in travel speed or voltage will help to reduce cap height.

Undercut
This is an irregular groove at the toe of a run in the parent metal.
The figure shows undercut at surface of a completed joint but it may also be found at the toes of
each pass of a multi-run weld. The latter can result in slag becoming trapped in the undercut region.
Common causes

Fig.2. Undercut

When arc and gas welding, undercut is

probably the most common shape imperfection.
With single-sided pipe welds it may also be
found at the bore surface. It may also be seen
on the vertical face of fillet welds made in the
horizontal vertical position.
A wide spreading arc (high arc voltage) with insufficient fill (low current or high travel speed) is the
usual cause. However, welder technique, especially when weaving, and the way the welding torch is
angled can both cause and be used to overcome undercutting (ie angled to push the weld metal to
fill the melted groove). High welding current will also cause undercut - this is generally associated
with the need for a high travel speed to avoid overfilling of the joint.
Acceptance
Largely because this imperfection is widespread, most standards permit some level of undercut
although they do require that a 'smooth transition is required. The limits in BS EN 25817 range from
0.5mm (stringent) to 1.5mm (moderate) while AWS D1.1 has a limit of 1mm. Standards may also
place limits on the length of the undercut. For example, BS 2640 says, 'not exceed a total of 25mm
in any 100mm length of weld'.
Measuring undercut can be a problem because of the small size of the imperfection compared with
the general environment where there can be mill scale, irregularities in the surface and spatter.
In critical applications the imperfection can be 'corrected' by blend grinding or by depositing an
additional weld bead.
Avoidance
This imperfection may be avoided by reducing travel speed and/or the welding current and by
maintaining the correct arc length.

Overlap (cold lapping)

This is an imperfection at a toe or root of a weld caused by metal flowing on to the surface of the
parent metal without fusing to it. It may occur in both fillet and butt welds.
Common causes
This is often caused by poor manipulation of
the electrode or welding gun, especially when
the weld pool is large and 'cold', where the
welder allows gravity to influence the weld
shape before solidification. Tightly adherent
oxides or scale on the metal surface can also
prevent the weld metal fusing with the parent
metal to cause the overlap imperfection.

Fig.3. Overlap

Avoidance
Avoidance is achieved through an acceptable level of welder skill and a reduction in weld pool size
(obtained by reducing current or increasing travel speed). Adequate cleaning of the parent plate is
also important.
Acceptance
Standards rarely allow the presence of this imperfection, unless the length is short (eg BS EN 25817
for moderate quality level D). Overlap can be very difficult to detect, especially if it is extremely small

Linear misalignment
(Also known in the USA as high-low).
This imperfection relates to deviations from the correct position/alignment of the joint.
Common causes
This is primarily a result of poor component fitup before welding, which can be compounded
by variations in the shape and thickness of
components (eg out of roundness of pipe).
Tacks that break during welding may allow the
components to move relative to one another,
again resulting in misalignment.

Fig.4 Linear misalignment

Acceptance
The acceptability of this defect is related to the design function of the structure or pipe line either in
terms of the ability to take load across the misalignment or bcoz such step impedes the flow of fluid.
Acceptance varies with the application.
BS EN 25817 relates misalignment to wall thickness but sets maximum limits (eg linear
misalignment, for moderate limits of imperfections D, = 0.25 x material thickness in mm, with a
maximum of 5mm).
AWS D1.1 allows 10% of the wall thickness up to a maximum of 3mm
BS2640 gives limits for size and alignment as follows:

Outside diameter
Over
mm

Up to and
including
mm

Maximum permissible difference in

internal diameter
mm

Maximum out of alignment

at the bore
mm

42.2

1.0

1.0

42.4

114.3

2.0

1.0

114.3

3.0

2.0

The consequence of linear misalignment can, when welding is carried out from one side, be lack of
root or sidewall fusion to give a sharp continuous imperfection along the higher weld face toe. In
some situations linear misalignment in the bore of a pipe can lead to in-service problems where
turbulence of the carrier fluid in the pipe creates subsequent erosion.

Incomplete filled groove

This is a continuous, or intermittent, channel in the surface of a weld, running along its length, due to
insufficient weld metal.
Incomplete filled groove
Common causes
This problem arises when there has been
insufficient filler metal (current or wire feed too
low or too high a travel speed) so that the joint

has not been sufficiently filled. The result is that the thickness of weldment is less than that specified
in the design, which could lead to failure.
Acceptance
Most standards will not accept this type of imperfection, except perhaps over short lengths and even
then a smooth transition is required. The designer expects the joint to be adequately filled, but not
too much so (see excess weld metal).
Often the presence of this imperfection is an indication of poor workmanship and could suggest that
further training is required.
A general review of the causes and acceptance of shape imperfections - Part 2
This second article on shape imperfections refers mostly to fillet welds but there are two additional
butt weld imperfections that require some comment.

Excessive penetration (Excess penetration bead)

Excess weld metal protruding through the root of a fusion (butt) weld made from one side only.
With pipe welding this type of imperfection may cause effects in the fluid flow that can cause erosion
and/or corrosion problems.
Common causes
Fig.1. Excess penetration
Penetration becomes excessive when the joint
gap is too large, the root faces are too small,
the heat input to the joint is too high or a
combination of these causes.
Acceptance
The criteria which sets the level of acceptable
penetration depends primarily on the
application code or specification.
BS 2971 requires that the 'penetration bead shall not exceed 3mm for pipes up to and including
150mm bore or 6mm for pipes over 150mm bore'.
BS 2633 gives specific limits for smaller diameters pipes, eg for pipe size 25-50mm the maximum
allowed bore penetration is 2.5mm.
ASME B31.3 bases acceptability on the nominal thickness of the weld, for instance, allowing for a
thickness range of 13-25mm up to 4mm of protrusion. However, ASME notes that 'more stringent
criteria may be specified in the engineering design'.

BS EN 25817 relates the acceptable protrusion to the width of the under-bead as follows:
Severity of service

Moderate, D

Stringent, B

Limit (up to maximum)

h 1mm + 1.2 b

h 1mm + 0.3 b

Maximum

10 mm

3 mm

Where: h = height of excess & b = width of bead (see Fig.1)

Avoidance
It is important to ensure that joint fit-up is as specified in the welding procedure. If welder technique
is the problem then re training is required.

Root concavity (suck-back; underwashing)

Common causes
Root concavity is caused by shrinkage of the weld pool in the through-thickness direction of the
weld. Melting of the root pass by the second
Fig.2. Root concavity
pass can also produce root concavity.
This imperfection is frequently associated with
TIG welding with the most common cause
being poor preparation leaving the root gap
either too small or, in some cases, too large.
Excessively high welding speeds make the
formation of root concavity more likely.
Acceptance
The root concavity may be acceptable. This will depend on the relevant standard being worked to.
For example:
BS 2971 requires that:
a) there is complete root fusion
b) the thickness of the weld is not less than the pipe thickness.
ASME B31.3 requires that the 'total joint thickness, including weld reinforcement, must be greater
than the weld thickness'.
BS EN 25817 sets upper limits related to the quality level, eg Moderate, D, h 1.5mm and for
Stringent, B, h 0.5mm. Furthermore, a smooth transition is required at the weld toes.
In effect the standards require that the minimum design throat thickness of the finished weldment is
achieved. If the first two conditions of acceptance are met but the weld face does not have a
sufficiently high cap, additional weld metal may be deposited to increase the throat.
Avoidance
It is important to ensure that joint fit-up is as specified in the welding procedure and that the defined
parameters are being followed. If welder technique is the problem then retraining is required.
Fillet welded joints
This Section should be read in conjunction with Job Knowledge 66 Fillet welded joints - a review of
the practicalities.

Excess convexity
This feature is also covered by the definition for excess
weld metal, and may be described as weld metal lying
outside the plane joining the weld toes. Note that the
term 'reinforcement', although used extensively in the
ASME/AWS specifications is avoided in Europe as it
implies that excess metal contributes to the strength of
the welded joint. This is rarely the case.

Fig.3. Excess convexity

Common causes
Poor technique and the deposition of large volumes of 'cold' weld metal.
Acceptance
The idealised design requirement of a 'mitre' fillet weld is often difficult to achieve, particularly with
manual welding processes.
BS EN 25817 acceptance is based on a mitre fillet weld shape with a specific design throat and any
excess weld metal is measured in relation to this mitre surface. The limits for this imperfection relate
the height of the excess metal to the width of the bead with maximum values ranging from 3mm for a
stringent quality level to 5mm for a moderate quality level. Surprisingly, there is no reference to a
'smooth transition' being required at the weld toes for such weld shape.
AWS D1.1 also has limits relating width to acceptable excess as follows:
Width of weld face
Maximum convexity
W 8mm
2mm
W <8 to W<25mm
3mm
W 25mm
5mm
Avoidance
Welder technique is the major cause of this problem and training may be required. It is also
important to ensure that the parameters specified in the welding procedures specification are
adhered to.

Oversize fillet welds

(welds with a throat larger than required by the design)
As discussed in Job Knowledge 66, oversize fillet welds can represent a significant additional cost
and loss of productivity.
Common causes
Fig.4. Oversize fillet weld
There are some welding related causes, eg high welding
current, slow travel speeds, and some supervision
related (eg to be safe make this fillet bigger by x mm.)
Acceptance
BS EN 25817 notes that 'for many applications a throat
thickness greater than the nominal one may not be a
reason for rejection'.
Where called for this standard has limits related to the
actual throat (eg for stringent quality levels, the actual
weld throat [a] may exceed the nominal (design) weld
throat [h] by 1+0.15a with a maximum of 3mm. For the
moderate quality level the maximum limit for this feature
is 5mm.
Avoidance
Adhere to the specified welding procedure and parameters and do not add to the specified weld
size. Where possible mechanise the welding operation.

Undersized fillet welds

(fillet welds smaller than those specified)
Common causes

The welding related causes are associated with high

welding speeds and low welding currents.

Fig.5. Undersized fillet weld

Acceptance
It is normally assumed that fillet welds will be at least of
the size specified. BS EN 25817 states 'a fillet weld with
an apparent throat thickness smaller that that prescribed
should not be regarded as being imperfect if the actual
throat thickness with a compensating greater depth of
penetration complies with the nominal value'. That is if
we can be sure there is good penetration the smaller
fillet may be acceptable, however, this should be
discussed with the designer of the fabrication.

Quality levels
Imperfection: fillet weld
having a throat
thickness smaller than
the nominal value

Moderate D

Intermediate C

Long imperfections NOT permitted

Stringent B
NOT permitted

Short imperfections (see Fig.5) h 0.3mm+ 0.1 a

max 2mm

max 1mm

Relying upon deep penetration to provide the required minimum design throat thickness can be
difficult to justify. Penetration is a weld characteristic that is hard to measure directly and reliance
must be placed on the stringent control of both the welding process and the welder. Manual welding
can rarely be relied upon to provide the required consistency but it is an option with mechanised
welding systems.
Avoidance
Adhere to the specified welding procedure and parameters. Use sufficient current and appropriate
travel speed. Where possible mechanise the welding operation.

Asymmetric fillet weld

(a fillet weld where the legs are of unequal length) Fig.6. Asymmetric fillet weld
Common causes
Due to incorrect electrode positioning or to gravity
pulling the molten pool towards one face of the joint. It is
an mainly a problem with fillet welds made in the
horizontal/vertical (PB) position.
Acceptance

There are instances where asymmetry may be specified (eg to place the toe stress concentration in
a particular region).
BS EN 25817 would, for a 10mm leg length fillet weld (ie 7.1mm throat) allow a difference in leg
lengths of about 2.5mm at the stringent quality level and 3.4mm at the moderate quality level.
Acceptance is related to the throat thickness.
The consequence of this imperfection is a significant increase in weld volume. Provided the leg
length requirement is achieved there would not be a loss of strength. Perhaps this is why, in other
standards, a requirement is not specified and the acceptability is left to the inspection personnel to
make the 'engineering judgement'

Poor fit-up
Common causes
Poor workshop, Poor dimensioning & tolerance dimensions on drawings.
Acceptance
A major problem with fillet welds is ensuring the gap
between the components is within defined limits. ISO
5817 specifies the acceptance criteria as follows:

Fig.7. Poor fit-up

Quality levels
Moderate D

Intermediate C

Stringent B

h 1mm + 0.3 a

h 0.5mm + 0.2 a h 0.5mm + 0.1 a

max 4mm

max 3mm

max 2mm

Where h = fit-up gap and a = fillet weld design throat

Figure 7 shows that the gap results in a reduction in the leg length on the vertical plate and this, in
turn, results in a reduction in the throat thickness of the joint. A 10mm leg length fillet with a root gap
of 3mm gives an effective leg of 7mm (a throat of 4.9mm instead of the expected 7mm).
This discrepancy is addressed within AWS D1.1. which permits a root gap of up to 5mm for material
thickness up to 75mm. However, 'if the (joint) separation is greater than 2mm the leg of the fillet weld
shall be increased by the amount of the root opening, or the contractor shall demonstrate that the
effective throat has been obtained'.