Communication Systems

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January 26, 2014

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Contents
0.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1

Communications Basics
1.1 Wideband vs Narrowband . .
1.2 Frequency Spectrum . . . . .
1.3 Time Division Multiplexing .
1.4 Zero Substitutions . . . . . .
1.5 Benets of TDM . . . . . . .
1.6 Synchronous TDM . . . . . .
1.7 Statistical TDM . . . . . . .
1.8 Packets . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9 Duty Cycles . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 Introduction . . . . . . . . . .
1.11 What is FDM? . . . . . . . .
1.12 Benets of FDM . . . . . . .
1.13 Examples of FDM . . . . . .
1.14 Orthogonal FDM . . . . . . .
1.15 Voltage Controlled Oscillators
1.16 Phase-Locked Loops . . . . .
1.17 Purpose of VCO and PLL . .
1.18 Varactors . . . . . . . . . . .
1.19 Further reading . . . . . . . .
1.20 What is an Envelope Filter? .
1.21 Circuit Diagram . . . . . . .
1.22 Positive Voltages . . . . . . .
1.23 Purpose of Envelope Filters .
1.24 Denition . . . . . . . . . . .
1.25 Types of Modulation . . . . .
1.26 Why Use Modulation? . . . .
1.27 Examples . . . . . . . . . . .
1.28 non-sinusoidal modulation . .
1.29 further reading . . . . . . . .
1.30 What are They? . . . . . . .
1.31 What are the Pros and Cons?
1.32 Sampling and Reconstruction
1.33 further reading . . . . . . . .
1.34 Twisted Pair Wire . . . . . .
1.35 Coaxial Cable . . . . . . . . .
1.36 Fiber Optics . . . . . . . . . .
1.37 Wireless Transmission . . . .
1.38 Receiver Design . . . . . . . .

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1
3
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10
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32

III

Contents
1.39
1.40
1.41
1.42
2

IV

The Simple Receiver .

The Optimal Receiver
Conclusion . . . . . . .
further reading . . . .

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32
32
33
33

Analog Modulation
2.1 Analog Modulation Overview . .
2.2 Types of Analog Modulation . .
2.3 The Breakdown . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 How we Will Cover the Material
2.5 Amplitude Modulation . . . . . .
2.6 AM Demodulation . . . . . . . .
2.7 AM-DSBSC . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8 AM-DSB-C . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9 AM-SSB . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.10 AM-VSB . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.11 Frequency Modulation . . . . . .
2.12 FM Transmission Power . . . . .
2.13 FM Transmitters . . . . . . . . .
2.14 FM Receivers . . . . . . . . . . .
2.15 Phase Modulation . . . . . . . .
2.16 Wrapped/Unwrapped Phase . . .
2.17 PM Transmitter . . . . . . . . .
2.18 PM Receiver . . . . . . . . . . .
2.19 Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.20 Instantaneous Phase . . . . . . .
2.21 Instantaneous Frequency . . . . .
2.22 Determining FM or PM . . . . .
2.23 Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.24 The Bessel Function . . . . . . .
2.25 Carson's Rule . . . . . . . . . . .
2.26 Demodulation: First Step . . . .
2.27 Filtered Noise . . . . . . . . . . .
2.28 Noise Analysis . . . . . . . . . .

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35
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92

Transmission
3.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum
3.2 Radio Waves . . . . . . .
3.3 Fading and Interference .
3.4 Reection . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Diraction . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Path Loss . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Rayleigh Fading . . . . . .
3.8 Rician Fading . . . . . . .
3.9 Doppler Shift . . . . . . .
3.10 Types of Noise . . . . . .
3.11 Noise Temperature . . . .
3.12 Noise Figure . . . . . . . .

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95
95
95
101
105
106
106
106
106
106
106
111
111

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Contents
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22
3.23
3.24
4

Receiver Sensitivity . . . . .
Cascaded Systems . . . . .
Transmission Line Equation
The Frequency Domain . .
Characteristic Impedance .
Isotropic Antennas . . . . .
Directional Antennas . . . .
Link-Budget Analysis . . .
Further reading . . . . . . .
Technical categorisations . .
Multipathing . . . . . . . .
Application systems . . . .

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114
114
115
122
126
126
128
129
130
130
130
130

Digital Modulation
4.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Square Wave . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Other pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Sinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 slew-rate-limited pulses . . . . . .
4.7 Raised-Cosine Rollo . . . . . . . .
4.8 Binary symmetric pulses . . . . . .
4.9 Asymmetric Pulses . . . . . . . . .
4.10 Asymmetric Correlation Receiver .
4.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.12 What is "Keying?" . . . . . . . . .
4.13 Amplitude Shift Keying . . . . . .
4.14 Frequency Shift Keying . . . . . .
4.15 Phase Shift Keying . . . . . . . . .
4.16 Binary Transmitters . . . . . . . .
4.17 Binary Receivers . . . . . . . . . .
4.18 Pronunciation . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.19 Example: 4-ASK . . . . . . . . . .
4.20 Bits Per Symbol . . . . . . . . . .
4.21 QPSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.22 CPFSK (MSK) . . . . . . . . . . .
4.23 DPSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.24 For further reading . . . . . . . . .
4.25 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.26 Constellation Plots . . . . . . . . .
4.27 Benets of QAM . . . . . . . . . .
4.28 For further reading . . . . . . . . .
4.29 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.30 Constellation Plots . . . . . . . . .
4.31 Benets of QAM . . . . . . . . . .
4.32 For further reading . . . . . . . . .
4.33 Line Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.34 Non-Return to Zero Codes (NRZ) .

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131
131
131
132
132
132
132
132
133
133
133
133
134
134
135
136
137
137
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138
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139
139
139
140
140
141
141
141
144

Introduction
4.35
4.36
4.37
4.38

Manchester . . . .
Dierential Codes .
Comparison . . . .
further reading . .

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146
146
147
148

Analog Networks

149

Digital Networks

151

Hybrid Networks

153

Advanced Internet
8.1 Purpose . . . . . . .
8.2 Connection methods
8.3 Data format . . . . .
8.4 FTP return codes . .
8.5 Anonymous FTP . .
8.6 Commands . . . . .

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Coding and Security

10 Appendices

155
155
155
157
158
158
159
161
163

11 Further reading
165
11.1 Wikibooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.2 Wikipedia Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.3 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
12 Contributors

167

List of Figures

171

13 Licenses
13.1 GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 GNU Free Documentation License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 GNU Lesser General Public License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

177
177
178
179

Current Status:

0.1 Introduction
This book will eventually cover a large number of topics in the eld of electrical communications. The reader will also require a knowledge of Time and Frequency Domain representations, which is covered in-depth in the Signals and Systems1 book. This book will, by
necessity, touch on a number of dierent areas of study, and as such is more than just a
text for aspiring Electrical Engineers. This book will discuss topics of analog communication schemes, computer programming, network architectures, information infrastructures,
1

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Signals%20and%20Systems

Contents
communications circuit analysis, and many other topics. It is a large book, and varied,
but it should be useful to any person interested in learning about an existing communication scheme, or in building their own. Where previous Electrical Engineering books were
grounded in theory (notably the Signals and Systems2 book), this book will contain a lot of
information on current standards, and actual implementations. It will discuss how current
networks and current transmission schemes work, and may even include information for the
intrepid engineer to create their own versions of each.
This book is still in an early stage of development. Many topics do not yet have pages, and
many of the current pages are stubs. Any help would be greatly appreciated.

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Signals%20and%20Systems

1 Communications Basics
It is important to know the dierence between a baseband signal, and a broad band signal.
In the Fourier Domain, a baseband signal is a signal that occupies the frequency range from
0Hz up to a certain cuto. It is called the baseband because it occupies the base, or the
lowest range of the spectrum.
In contrast, a broadband signal is a signal which does not occupy the lowest range, but
instead a higher range, 1MHz to 3MHz, for example. A wire may have only one baseband
signal, but it may hold any number of broadband signals, because they can occur anywhere
in the spectrum.
w: Baseband1

1.1 Wideband vs Narrowband

in form of frequency modulation. wideband fm has been dened as that in which the
modulation index normally exceeds unity.

1.2 Frequency Spectrum

A graphical representation of the various frequency components on a given transmission
medium is called a frequency spectrum.
Consider a situation where there are multiple signals which would all like to use the same
wire (or medium). For instance, a telephone company wants multiple signals on the same
wire at the same time. It certainly would save a great deal of space and money by doing
this, not to mention time by not having to install new wires. How would they be able to
do this? One simple answer is known as Time-Division Multiplexing.

1.3 Time Division Multiplexing

w:Time-division_multiplexing2
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a convenient method for combining various digital signals onto a single transmission media such as wires, ber optics or even radio. These
signals may be interleaved at the bit, byte, or some other level. The resulting pattern may
1
2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%20Baseband
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-division_multiplexing

Communications Basics
be transmitted directly, as in digital carrier systems, or passed through a modem to allow
the data to pass over an analog network. Digital data is generally organized into frames for
transmission and individual users assigned a time slot, during which frames may be sent.
If a user requires a higher data rate than that provided by a single channel, multiple time
slots can be assigned.
Digital transmission schemes in North America and Europe have developed along two
slightly dierent paths, leading to considerable incompatibility between the networks found
on the two continents.
BRA (basic rate access) is a single digitized voice channel, the basic unit of digital multiplexing.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Time Division Multiplexing

1.3.1 North American TDM

The various transmission rates are not integral numbers of the basic rate. This is because
additional framing and synchronization bits are required at every multiplexing level.

Figure 3

In North America, the basic digital channel format is known as DS-0. These are grouped
into frames of 24 channels each. A concatenation of 24 channels and a start bit is called a
frame. Groups of 12 frames are called multiframes or superframes. These vary the start bit
to aid in synchronizing the link and add signaling bits to pass control messages.
w:Digital_Signal_13

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Signal_1

Communications Basics

Figure 4

S Bit Synchronization
The S bit is used to identify the start of a DS-1 frame. There are 8 thousand S bits per
second. They have an encoded pattern, to aid in locating channel position within the frame.

Figure 5

This forms a regular pattern of 1 0 1 0 1 0 for the odd frames and 0 0 1 1 1 0 for the even
frames. Additional synchronization information is encoded in the DS-1 frame when it is
used for digital data applications, so lock is more readily acquired and maintained.
For data customers, channel 24 is reserved as a special sync byte, and bit 8 of the other channels is used to indicate if the remaining 7 bits are user data or system control information.
Under such conditions, the customer has an eective channel capacity of 56 Kbps.
To meet the needs of low speed customers, an additional bit is robbed to support sub-rate
multiplexer synchronization, leaving 6 x 8 Kbps = 48 Kbps available. Each DS-0 can be
utilized as:
5 x 9.6 Kbps channels or
10 x 4.8 Kbps channels or
20 x 2.48 Kbps channels.

Time Division Multiplexing

In the DS-2 format, 4 DS-1 links are interleaved, 12 bits at a time. An additional 136 Kbps
is added for framing and control functions resulting in a total bit rate of 6.312 Mbps.
Signaling
Signaling provides control and routing information. Two bits, called the A and B bits,
are taken from each channel in frames 6 and 12 in the multiframe. The A bit is the least
signicant bit in each channel in frame 6, and the B bit is the least signicant bit in each
channel in frame 12. This provides a signaling rate of 666 2/3 bps per channel.
The quality of voice transmission is not noticeably aected when 2% of the signal is robbed
for signaling. For data, it may be a dierent story. If the data is encoded in an analog
format such as FSK or PSK, then robbing bits is of no consequence, but if the data is
already in digital form, then robbing bits results in unacceptable error rates. It is for this
reason that in North America, a 64 Kbps clear channel cannot readily be switched through
the PSTN. This means that data customers are limited to 56 Kbps clear channels. This
simple condition has a profound eect on the development of new services such as ISDN.
In most facilities, the A and B bits represent the status of the telephone hook switch, and
correspond to the M lead on the E&M interface of the calling party.
ESF
CCITT has modied the North American digital hierarchy for the deployment of ISDN, by
means of recommendation G.704. ESF consists of 24 DS-0 channels in a frame, but groups
them into a 24-frame multiframe instead of the usual 12-frame multiframe.
The S bit is renamed the F bit, but only 1/4 of them are used for synchronization. This
is possible because of improvements in frame search techniques and allows more signaling
states to be dened.
Bit robbing is still used for signaling over an ESF link, but with the advent of ISDN, it will
not be permitted. Instead, channel 24 is used to support a D channel.

Figure 6

Communications Basics
Typical T1 CPE Application
The large telecom carriers are not the only ones who deploy high-speed TDM facilities. In
many cases, heavy users of voice or data services can reduce their transmission costs by
concentrating their numerous low speed lines on to a high speed facility.
There are many types of T1 multiplexers available today. Some are relatively simple devices,
while others allow for channel concatenation, thus supporting a wide range of data rates.
The ability to support multiple DS-0s allows for easy facilitation of such protocols as the
video teleconferencing standard, Px64.

Figure 7

Multiplexers
Multiplexing units are often designated by the generic term Mab wherea is input DS level
and b is the output DS level. Thus, an M13 multiplexer combines 28 DS1s into a single
DS3 and an M23 multiplexer combines 7 DS2s into a single DS3.

Time Division Multiplexing

Figure 8

ZBTSI
ZBTSI (zero byte time slot interchange) is used on DS4 links. Four DS-1 frames are loaded
into a register, and renumbered 196. If there are any empty slots [all zeros], the rst framing
bit is inverted and all blank slots are relocated to the front of the frame. Channel 1 is then
loaded with a 7-bit number corresponding to the original position of the rst empty slot.
Bit 8 used to indicate whether the following channel contains user information or another
address for an empty slot.
If there is a second vacancy, bit 8 in the previous channel is set, and the empty slot address
is placed in channel 2. This process continues until all empty positions are lled.
The decoding process at the receiver is done in reverse. Borrowing 1 in 4 framing bits for
this system is not enough to cause loss of synchronization and provides a 64 Kbps clear
channel to the end-user.

1.3.2 European TDM Carriers

European systems were developed along slightly dierent principles. The 64 Kbps channel
is still the basic unit, but signaling is not included in each channel. Instead, common
channel signaling is used. In a level 1 carrier, channels 0 and 16 are reserved for signaling

Communications Basics
and control. This subtle dierence means that European systems did not experience the
toll fraud and 56 k bottlenecks common to North American systems, and they experience
a much larger penetration of ISDN services.

Figure 9

Figure 10

1.4 Zero Substitutions

In order to prevent transmission systems from loosing lock on the data stream, it is necessary
to avoid long strings of zeros. One of the most eective ways of doing this is to replace the
zeros with a predetermined code. This substitution must be done in such a way that the
receiver can identify it and strip it o before passing the data stream to the client.
AMI provides a simple means of detecting substitutions. In the normal course of events,
alternate marks are inverted. Therefor, deliberately inducing a bipolarvariation at the
transmitter can alert the receiver of a substitution. However, a single violation is indistinguishable from a transmission error. Consequently, some additional condition must also
occur.
There are two common methods to create a second condition:

10

Zero Substitutions
Create a second bipolar violation in the opposite direction, within a specied time. This
has the eect of keeping the average signal level at zero.
Count the number of marks from the last substitution to predict the next type of violation

1.4.1 B6ZS
B6ZS (binary six zero substitution) is used on T2 AMI transmission links.
Synchronization can be maintained by replacing strings of zeros with bipolar violations.
Since alternate marks have alternate polarity, two consecutive pulses of the same polarity
constitute a violation. Therefore, violations can be substituted for strings of zeros, and the
receiver can determine where substitutions were made.
Since the last mark may have been either positive (+) or negative (-), there are two types
of substitutions:

Figure 11

These substitutions force two consecutive violations. A single bit error does not create this
condition.

Figure 12

1.4.2 B8ZS
This scheme uses the same substitution as B6ZS.

11

Communications Basics

Figure 13

1.4.3 B3ZS
B3ZS is more involved than B6ZS, and is used on DS3 carrier systems. The substitution
is not only dependent on the polarity of the last mark, but also on the number of marks
since the last substitution.

Figure 14

Figure 15

1.4.4 HDB3
HDB3 (high density binary 3) introduces bipolar violations when four consecutive zeros
occur. It can therefore also be called B4ZS. The second and thirds zeros are left unchanged,

12

Zero Substitutions
but the fourth zero is given the same polarity as the last mark. The rst zero may be
modied to a one to make sure that successive violations are of alternate polarity.

Figure 16

HDB3 is used in Europe. Violation, or V pulses are injected after three consecutive zeros.
The fourth zero is given the same polarity as the last mark. In the event of long strings
of zeros occurring, a succession of single polarity pulses would occur, and a dc oset would
build-up.
To prevent this, the rst zero in a group of 4, may be modied to a 1. This B or balancing
pulse assures that successive violations are of alternate polarity.

Figure 17

1.4.5 Block Code Substitution

These schemes operate on bytes rather than a bit at a time. Some transmit the signal as
binary levels, but most use multi-level pulses. Some authors categorize these as line codes.
A binary block code has the designation nBmB, where n input bits are encoded into m
output bits. The most common of these is the 3B4B code.

13

Communications Basics

Figure 18

In Europe 4B3T, which encodes 4 binary bits into 3 ternary levels, has been selected as the
BRA for ISDN. In North America, 2B1Q which encodes 2 binary bits into 1 quaternary
level has been selected for BRA.

14

Benets of TDM

Figure 19

Some block codes do not generate multilevel pulses. For example, 24B1P or 24B25B simply
adds a P or parity bit to a 24 bit block.

1.5 Benets of TDM

TDM is all about cost: fewer wires and simpler receivers are used to transmit data from
multiple sources to multiple destinations. TDM also uses less bandwidth than FrequencyDivision Multiplexing (FDM) signals, unless the bitrate is increased, which will subsequently
increase the necessary bandwidth of the transmission.

1.6 Synchronous TDM

Synchronous TDM is a system where the transmitter and the receiver both know exactly
which signal is being sent. Consider the following diagram:
Signal A ---> |---| |A|B|C|A|B|C|
|------| ---> Signal A
Signal B ---> |TDM| --------------> |De-TDM| ---> Signal B
Signal C ---> |---|
|------| ---> Signal C

In this system, starting at time-slice 0, every third time-slice is reserved for Signal A; starting
at time-slice 1, every third time-slice is reserved for Signal B; and starting at time-slice 2,
every third time-slice is reserved for Signal C. In this situation, the receiver (De-TDM)
needs only to switch after the signal on each time-slice is received.

15

Communications Basics
The data ow of each input connection is divided into units where each input occupies one
input time slot. Each input connection has a time slot alloted in the output irrespective of
the fact whether it is sending data or not.
A -----|A3|A2|A1|---> |---| .............|C3|B3|A3|C2|B2|A2|C1|B1|A1|
|------| ---> A
| | | |
|
|
|
B -----|B3|B2|B1|---> |MUX| -------------|--------|--------|---------->
|De-MUX| ---> B
| | | |
|
|
|
C -----|C3|C2|C1|---> |---|
|
|
|
|------| ---> C
<-->
<-------->
Bit Interval
Frame (x seconds)

Sync TDM is inecient when one or more input lines have no data to send. Thus, it is used
with lines with high data trac.
Sampling rate is same for all signals. Maximum sampling rate = twice the maximum
frequency all the signals.

1.7 Statistical TDM

Synchronous TDM is benecial because the receiver and transmitter can both cost very
little. However, consider the most well-known network: the Internet. In the Internet, a
given computer might have a data rate of 1kbps when hardly anything is happening, but
might have a data rate of 100kbps when downloading a large le from a fast server. How
are the time-slices divided in this instance? If every time slice is made big enough to hold
100Kbps, when the computer isn't downloading any data, all of that time and electricity will
be wasted. If every time-slice is only big enough for the minimum case, the time required
to download bigger les will be greatly increased.
The solution to this problem is called Statistical TDM, and is the solution that the
Internet currently uses. In Statistical TDM, each data item, known as the payload (we
used time-slices to describe these earlier), is appended with a certain amount of information
about who sent it, and who is supposed to receive it (the header). The combination of a
payload and a header is called a packet. Packets are like envelopes in the traditional "snail
mail" system: Each packet contains a destination address and a return address as well as
some enclosed data. Because of this, we know where each packet was sent from and where
it is going.
The downside to statistical TDM is that the sender needs to be smart enough to write a
header, and the receiver needs to be smart enough to read the header and (if the packet is
to be forwarded,) send the packet toward its destination.

16

Statistical TDM

1.7.1 Link Utilization

w:Queuing_theory4
Statistical multiplexing attempts to maximize the use of a communication path. The study
of this is often called queuing theory. A queue is simply a line of customers or packets waiting
to be served. Under most circumstances, the arrival rate is unpredictable and therefor
follows a random or Poisson distribution pattern, whereas the service time is constant.
The utilization or fraction of time actually used by a packet multiplexing system to process
packets is given by:

Figure 20

The queue length or average number of items waiting to be served is given by:

q=

2
+
2 (1 )

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queuing_theory

17

Communications Basics

Figure 21

Example
A T1 link has been divided into a number of 9.6 Kbps channels and has a combined
user data rate of 1.152 Mbps. Access to this channel is oered to 100 customers, each
requiring 9.6 Kbps data 20% of the time. If the user arrival time is strictly random nd
the T1 link utilization.
Solution
The utilization or fraction of time used by the system to process packets is given by:

N R 0.2 100 9.6 103

=
= 0.167
M
1.152 106

A 24 channel system dedicated to DATA, can place ve 9.6 Kbps customers in each of 23
channels, for a total of 115 customers. In the above statistical link, 100 customers created
an average utilization of 0.167 and were easily tted, with room to spare if they transmit
on the average 20% of the time. If however, the customer usage were not randomly
distributed, then the above analysis would have to be modied.

18

Packets
This example shows the potential for statistical multiplexing. If channels were assigned on
a demand basis (only when the customer had something to send), a single T1 may be able
to support hundreds of low volume users.
A utilization above 0.8 is undesirable in a statistical system, since the slightest variation
in customer requests for service would lead to buer overow. Service providers carefully
monitor delay and utilization and assign customers to maximize utilization and minimize
cost.

1.8 Packets
Packets will be discussed in greater detail once we start talking about digital networks
(specically the Internet). Packet headers not only contain address information, but may
also include a number of dierent elds that will display information about the packet.
Many headers contain error-checking information (checksum, Cyclic Redundancy Check)
that enables the receiver to check if the packet has had any errors due to interference, such
as electrical noise.

1.9 Duty Cycles

Duty cycle is dened as " the time that is eectively used to send or receive the data,
expressed as a percentage of total period of time." The more the duty cycle , the more
eective transmission or reception.
We can dene the pulse width, , as being the time that a bit occupies from within its total
alloted bit-time Tb . If we have a duty cycle of D, we can dene the pulse width as:
= DTb
Where:
0 < Tb
The pulse width is equal to the bit time if we are using a 100% duty cycle.

1.10 Introduction
It turns out that many wires have a much higher bandwidth than is needed for the signals
that they are currently carrying. Analog Telephone transmissions, for instance, require only
3 000 Hz of bandwidth to transmit human voice signals. Over short distances, however,
twisted-pair telephone wire has an available bandwidth of nearly 100000 Hz!
There are several terrestrial radio based communications systems deployed today. They
include:

19

Communications Basics
Cellular radio
Mobile radio
Digital microwave radio
Mobile radio service was rst introduced in the St. Louis in 1946. This system was essentially a radio dispatching system with an operator who was able to patch the caller to
the PSTN via a switchboard. Later, an improved mobile telephone system, IMTS, allowed
customers to dial their own calls without the need for an operator. This in turn developed
into the cellular radio networks we see today.
The long haul PSTNs and packet data networks use a wide variety of transmission media
including

Terrestrial microwave
Satellite microwave
Fiber optics
Coaxial cable

In this section, we will be concerned with terrestrial microwave systems. Originally, microwave links used FDM exclusively as the access technique, but recent developments are
changing analog systems to digital where TDM is more appropriate.

1.10.1 Fixed Access Assignment

Three basic methods can be used to combine customers on to xed channel radio links:
FDMA - (frequency division multiple access) analog or digital
TDMA - (time division multiple access) three conversation paths are time division multiplexed in 6.7 mSec time slots on a single carrier.
CDMA - (code division multiple access) this uses spread spectrum techniques to increase
the subscriber density. The transmitter hops through a pseudo-random sequence of frequencies. The receiver is given the sequence list and is able to follow the transmitter. As
more customers are added to the system, the signal to noise will gradually degrade. This
is in contrast to AMPS where customers are denied access once all of the frequencies are
assigned code division multiple access [digital only]

Figure 22

20

What is FDM?

1.11 What is FDM?

w: Frequency-division_multiplexing5
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) allows engineers to utilize the extra space in
each wire to carry more than one signal. By frequency-shifting some signals by a certain
amount, engineers can shift the spectrum of that signal up into the unused band on that
wire. In this way, multiple signals can be carried on the same wire, without having to divy
up time-slices as in Time-Division Multiplexing schemes.In analog transmission, signals are
commonly multiplexed using frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), in which the carrier
bandwidth is divided into subchannels of dierent frequency widths, each carrying a signal
at the same time in parallel

Broadcast radio and television channels are separated in the frequency spectrum
using FDM. Each individual channel occupies a nite frequency range, typically some
multiple of a given base frequency.
Traditional terrestrial microwave and satellite links employ FDM. Although FDM in
telecommunications is being reduced, several systems will continue to use this technique,
namely: broadcast & cable TV, and commercial & cellular radio.

1.11.1 Analog Carrier Systems

The standard telephony voice band [300 3400 Hz] is heterodyned and stacked on high
frequency carriers by single sideband amplitude modulation. This is the most bandwidth
ecient scheme possible.

Figure 23

The analog voice channels are pre-grouped into threes and heterodyned on carriers at 12,
16, and 20 kHz. The resulting upper sidebands of four such pregroups are then heterodyned
on carriers at 84, 96, 108, and 120 kHz to form a 12-channel group.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%20Frequency-division_multiplexing

21

Communications Basics
Since the lower sideband is selected in the second mixing stage, the channel sequence is
reversed and a frequency inversion occurs within each channel.

Figure 24

This process can continue until the available bandwidth on the coaxial cable or microwave
link is exhausted.

Figure 25

In the North American system, there are:

12 channels per group

5 groups per supergroup
10 super groups per mastergroup
6 master groups per jumbogroup

In the European CCITT system, there are:

12 channels per group

5 groups per supergroup
5 super groups per mastergroup
3 master groups per supermastergroup

There are other FDM schemes including:

L600 - 600 voice channels 602788 kHz
U600 - 600 voice channels 5643084 kHz
L3 - 1860 voice channels 3128284 kHz, comprised of 3 mastergroups and a supergroup

22

Benets of FDM
L4 - 3600 voice channels, comprised of six U600s

1.12 Benets of FDM

FDM allows engineers to transmit multiple data streams simultaneously over the same
channel, at the expense of bandwidth. To that extent, FDM provides a trade-o: faster
data for less bandwidth. Also, to demultiplex an FDM signal requires a series of bandpass
lters to isolate each individual signal. Bandpass lters are relatively complicated and
expensive, therefore the receivers in an FDM system are generally expensive.

1.13 Examples of FDM

As an example of an FDM system, Commercial broadcast radio (AM and FM radio) simultaneously transmits multiple signals or "stations" over the airwaves. These stations each
get their own frequency band to use, and a radio can be tuned to receive each dierent
station. Another good example is cable television, which simultaneously transmits every
channel, and the TV "tunes in" to which channel it wants to watch.

1.14 Orthogonal FDM

w:Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing6
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a more modern variant of FDM
that uses orthogonal sub-carriers to transmit data that does not overlap in the frequency
spectrum and is able to be separated out using frequency methods. OFDM has a similar
data rate to traditional FDM systems, but has a higher resilience to disruptive channel
conditions such as noise and channel fading.

1.15 Voltage Controlled Oscillators (VCO)

w:Voltage-controlled_oscillator7
A voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is a device that outputs a sinusoid of a frequency
that is a function of the input voltage. VCOs are not time-invariant, linear components. A
complete study of how a VCO works will have to be relegated to a more detailed section
based on feedback and oscillators. This page will, however, attempt to answer some of the
basic questions about VCOs.
A basic VCO has input/output characteristics as such:

6
7

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_frequency-division_multiplexing
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage-controlled_oscillator

23

Communications Basics

v(t) ----|VCO|----> sin(a[f + v(t)]t + O)

VCOs are often implemented using a special type of diode called a "Varactor". Varactors,
when reverse-biased, produce a small amount of capacitance that varies with the input
voltage.

1.16 Phase-Locked Loops

w:Phase-locked_loop8
If you are talking on your cellphone, and you are walking (or driving), the phase angle of
your signal is going to change, as a function of your motion, at the receiver. This is a fact of
nature, and is unavoidable. The solution to this then, is to create a device which can "nd"
a signal of a particular frequency, negate any phase changes in the signal, and output the
clean wave, phase-change free. This device is called a Phase-Locked Loop (PLL), and can
be implemented using a VCO.

1.17 Purpose of VCO and PLL

VCO and PLL circuits are highly useful in modulating and demodulating systems. We
will discuss the specics of how VCO and PLL circuits are used in this manner in future
chapters.

1.18 Varactors
As a matter of purely professional interest, we will discuss varactors here.

1.19 Further reading

Clock and data recovery9 has detailed information about designing and analyzing PLLs.
(VCO)

1.20 What is an Envelope Filter?

If anybody has some images that they can upload, it would be much better then these
ASCII art things.

8
9

24

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-locked_loop
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Clock%20and%20data%20recovery

Circuit Diagram
The envelope detector is a simple analog circuit that can be used to nd the peaks in a
quickly-changing waveform. Envelope detectors are used in a variety of devices, specically
because passing a sinusoid through an envelope detector will suppress the sinusoid.

1.21 Circuit Diagram

In essence, an envelope lter has the following diagram:
o------+------+------o
+
|
|
+
\
(c)
vin
/R
|
vout
\
|
|
|
o------+------+------o

Where (c) represents a capacitor, and R is a resistor. Under zero input voltage (vin = 0),
the capacitor carries no charge, and the resistor carries no current. When vin is increased,
the capacitor stores charge until it reaches capacity, and then the capacitor becomes an
open circuit. At this point, all current in the circuit is owing through the resistor, R. As
voltage decreases, the capacitor begins to discharge it's stored energy, slowing down the
state change in the circuit from high voltage to low voltage.

1.22 Positive Voltages

By inserting a diode at the beginning of this circuit, we can negate the eect of a sinusoid,
dipping into negative voltage, and forcing the capacitor to discharge faster:
diode
o-->|--+------+------o
+
|
|
+
\
(c)
vin
/R
|
vout
\
|
|
|
o------+------+------o

1.23 Purpose of Envelope Filters

Envelope lters help to nd the outer bound of a signal that is changing in amplitude.

Envelope Filters are generally used with AM demodulation, discussed later.

(Envelope Detectors)

25

Communications Basics
Modulation is a term that is going to be used very frequently in this book. So much in fact,
that we could almost have renamed this book "Principals of Modulation", without having
to delete too many chapters. So, the logical question arises: What exactly is modulation?

1.24 Denition
Modulation is a process of mixing a signal with a sinusoid to produce a new signal. This
new signal, conceivably, will have certain benets over an un-modulated signal, especially
during transmission. If we look at a general function for a sinusoid:
f (t) = A sin(t + )
we can see that this sinusoid has 3 parameters that can be altered, to aect the shape of
the graph. The rst term, A, is called the magnitude, or amplitude of the sinusoid. The
next term, is known as the frequency, and the last term, is known as the phase angle.
All 3 parameters can be altered to transmit data.
The sinusoidal signal that is used in the modulation is known as the carrier signal, or
simply "the carrier". The signal that is used in modulating the carrier signal(or sinusoidal
signal) is known as the "data signal" or the "message signal". It is important to notice that
a simple sinusoidal carrier contains no information of its own.
In other words we can say that modulation is used because the some data signals are not
always suitable for direct transmission, but the modulated signal may be more suitable.

1.25 Types of Modulation

There are 3 basic types of modulation: Amplitude modulation, Frequency modulation, and
Phase modulation.
amplitude modulation
a type of modulation where the amplitude of the carrier signal is modulated (changed) in
proportion to the message signal while the frequency and phase are kept constant.
frequency modulation
a type of modulation where the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated (changed) in
proportion to the message signal while the amplitude and phase are kept constant.
phase modulation
a type of modulation where the phase of the carrier signal is varied accordance to the low
frequency of the message signal is known as phase modulation.

26

Why Use Modulation?

1.26 Why Use Modulation?

Clearly the concept of modulation can be a little tricky, especially for the people who
don't like trigonometry. Why then do we bother to use modulation at all? To answer this
question, let's consider a channel that essentially acts like a bandpass lter: both the lowest
frequency components and the highest frequency components are attenuated or unusable in
some way, with transmission only being practical over some intermediate frequency range.
If we can't send low-frequency signals, then we need to shift our signal up the frequency
ladder. Modulation allows us to send a signal over a bandpass frequency range. If every
signal gets its own frequency range, then we can transmit multiple signals simultaneously
over a single channel, all using dierent frequency ranges.
Another reason to modulate a signal is to allow the use of a smaller antenna. A baseband
(low frequency) signal would need a huge antenna because in order to be ecient, the
antenna needs to be about 1/10th the length of the wavelength. Modulation shifts the
baseband signal up to a much higher frequency, which has much smaller wavelengths and
allows the use of a much smaller antenna.

1.27 Examples
Think about your car radio. There are more than a dozen (or so) channels on the radio
at any time, each with a given frequency: 100.1MHz, 102.5MHz etc... Each channel gets a
certain range (usually about 0.22MHz), and the entire station gets transmitted over that
range. Modulation makes it all possible, because it allows us to send voice and music (which
are essential baseband signals) over a bandpass (or "Broadband") channel.

1.28 non-sinusoidal modulation

A sine wave at one frequency can be separated from a sine wave at another frequency (or
a cosine wave at the same frequency) because the two signals are "orthogonal".
There are other sets of signals, such that every signal in the set is orthogonal to every other
signal in the set.
A simple orthogonal set is time multiplexed division (TDM) -- only one transmitter is active
at any one time.
Other more complicated sets of orthogonal waveforms -- Walsh codes and various pseudonoise codes such as Gold codes and maximum length sequences -- are also used in some
communication systems.
The process of combining these waveforms with data signals is sometimes called "modulation", because it is so very similar to the way modulation combines sine waves are with
data signals.

27

Communications Basics

1.29 further reading

Data Coding Theory/Spectrum Spreading10

Wikipedia:Walsh code11
Wikipedia:Gold code12
Wikipedia:pseudonoise code13
Wikipedia:maximum length sequence14

There is lots of talk nowadays about buzzwords such as "Analog" and "Digital". Certainly,
engineers who are interested in creating a new communication system should understand
the dierence. Which is better, analog or digital? What is the dierence? What are the
pros and cons of each? This chapter will look at the answers to some of these questions.

1.30 What are They?

What exactly is an analog signal, and what is a digital signal?
Analog
Analog signals are signals with continuous values. Analog signals are continuous in both
time and value. Analog signals are used in many systems, although the use of analog
signals has declined with the advent of cheap digital signals.
Digital
Digital signals are discrete in time and value. Digital signals are signals that are represented
by binary numbers, "1" or "0". The 1 and 0 values can correspond to dierent discrete
voltage values, and any signal that doesn't quite t into the scheme just gets rounded o.
Digital signals are sampled, quantized & encoded version of continuous time signals which
they represent. In addition, some techniques also make the signal undergo encryption to
make the system more tolerent to the channel.

1.31 What are the Pros and Cons?

Each paradigm has its own benets and problems.
Analog
Analog systems are less tolerant to noise, make good use of bandwidth, and are easy
to manipulate mathematically. However, analog signals require hardware receivers and
transmitters that are designed to perfectly t the particular transmission. If you are

10
11
12
13
14

28

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Data%20Coding%20Theory%2FSpectrum%20Spreading
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walsh%20code
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold%20code
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pseudonoise%20code
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/maximum%20length%20sequence

Sampling and Reconstruction

working on a new system, and you decide to change your analog signal, you need to
completely change your transmitters and receivers.
Digital
Digital signals are more tolerant to noise, but digital signals can be completely corrupted
in the presence of excess noise. In digital signals, noise could cause a 1 to be interpreted as
a 0 and vice versa, which makes the received data dierent than the original data. Imagine
if the army transmitted a position coordinate to a missile digitally, and a single bit was
received in error? This single bit error could cause a missile to miss its target by miles.
Luckily, there are systems in place to prevent this sort of scenario, such as checksums and
CRCs, which tell the receiver when a bit has been corrupted and ask the transmitter to
resend the data. The primary benet of digital signals is that they can be handled by
simple, standardized receivers and transmitters, and the signal can be then dealt with in
software (which is comparatively cheap to change).
Discreet Digital and Analogue
Discreet data has a xed set of possible values.
Digital data is a type of Discreet data where the xed value can either be 1 or 0.
Analogue data can take on any real value.

1.32 Sampling and Reconstruction

The process of converting from analog data to digital data is called "sampling". The process
of recreating an analog signal from a digital one is called "reconstruction". This book will
not talk about either of these subjects in much depth beyond this, although other books on
the topic of EE might, such as A-level Physics (Advancing Physics)/Digitisation15 .

1.33 further reading

Electronics/Digital to Analog & Analog to Digital Converters16
Signals need a channel to follow, so that they can move from place to place. These Communication Mediums, or "channels" are things like wires and antennae that transmit the
signal from one location to another. Some of the most common channels are listed below:

15
16

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A-level%20Physics%20%28Advancing%20Physics%29%
2FDigitisation
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Electronics%2FDigital%20to%20Analog%20%26%20Analog%20to%
20Digital%20Converters

29

Communications Basics

1.34 Twisted Pair Wire

w:Twisted Pair17 Twisted Pair is a transmission medium that uses two conductors that
are twisted together to form a pair. The concept for the twist of the conductors is to
prevent interference. Ideally, each conductor of the pair basically receives the same amount
of interference, positive and negative, eectively cancelling the eect of the interference.
Typically, most inside cabling has four pairs with each pair having a dierent twist rate.
The dierent twist rates help to further reduce the chance of crosstalk by making the pairs
appear electrically dierent in reference to each other. If the pairs all had the same twist
rate, they would be electrically identical in reference to each other causing crosstalk, which
is also referred to as capacitive coupling. Twisted pair wire is commonly used in telephone
and data cables with variations of categories and twist rates.
w:Shielded Twisted Pair18 Other variants of Twisted Pair are the Shielded Twisted Pair
cables. The shielded types operate very similar to the non-shielded variety, except that
Shielded Twisted Pair also has a layer of metal foil or mesh shielding around all the pairs or
each individual pair to further shield the pairs from electromagnetic interference. Shielded
twisted pair is typically deployed in situations where the cabling is subjected to higher than
normal levels of interference.

1.35 Coaxial Cable

w:Coaxial Cable19 Another common type of wire is Coaxial Cable. Coaxial cable (or
simply, "coax") is a type of cable with a single data line, surrounded by various layers of
padding and shielding. The most common coax cable, common television cable, has a layer
of wire mesh surrounding the padded core, that absorbs a large amount of EM interference,
and helps to ensure a relatively clean signal is transmitted and received. Coax cable has a
much higher bandwidth than a twisted pair, but coax is also signicantly more expensive
than an equal length of twisted pair wire. Coax cable frequently has an available bandwidth
in excess of hundreds of megahertz (in comparison with the hundreds of kilohertz available
on twisted pair wires).
Originally, Coax cable was used as the backbone of the telephone network because a single coaxial cable could hold hundreds of simultaneous phone calls by a method known as
"Frequency Division Multiplexing" (discussed in a later chapter). Recently however, Fiber
Optic cables have replaced Coaxial Cable as the backbone of the telephone network because
Fiber Optic channels can hold many more simultaneous phone conversations (thousands at
a time), and are less susceptible to interference, crosstalk, and noise then Coaxial Cable.

17
18
19

30

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twisted%20Pair
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shielded%20Twisted%20Pair
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coaxial%20Cable

Fiber Optics

1.36 Fiber Optics

w:Glass Fibers20 Fiber Optic cables are thin strands of glass that carry pulses of light
(frequently infrared light) across long distances. Fiber Optic channels are usually immune
to common RF interference, and can transmit incredibly high amounts of data very quickly.
There are 2 general types of ber optic cable: single frequency cable, and multi-frequency
cable. single frequency cable carries only a single frequency of laser light, and because
of this there is no self-interference on the line. Single-frequency ber optic cables can
attain incredible bandwidths of many gigahertz. Multi-Frequency ber optics cables allow
a Frequency-Division Multiplexed series of signals to each inhabit a given frequency range.
However, interference between the dierent signals can decrease the range over which reliable
data can be transmitted.

1.37 Wireless Transmission

In wireless transmission systems, signals are propagated as Electro-Magnetic waves
through free space. Wireless signals are transmitted by a transmitter, and received by a
receiver. Wireless systems are inexpensive because no wires need to be installed to transmit
the signal, but wireless transmissions are susceptible not only to EM interference, but also
to physical interference. A large building in a city, for instance can interfere with cell-phone
reception, and a large mountain could block AM radio transmissions. Also, WiFi internet
users may have noticed that their wireless internet signals don't travel through walls very
well.
There are 2 types of antennas that are used in wireless communications, isotropic, and
directional.

1.37.1 Isotropic
People should be familiar with isotropic antennas because they are everywhere: in your
car, on your radio, etc... Isotropic antennas are omni-directional in the sense that they
transmit data out equally (or nearly equally) in all directions. These antennas are excellent
for systems (such as FM radio transmission) that need to transmit data to multiple receivers
in multiple directions. Also, Isotropic antennas are good for systems in which the direction
of the receiver, relative to the transmitter is not known (such as cellular phone systems).

1.37.2 Directional
Directional antennas focus their transmission power in a single narrow direction range.
Some examples of directional antennas are satellite dishes, and wave-guides. The downfall
of the directional antennas is that they need to be pointed directly at the receiver all the
time to maintain transmission power. This is useful when the receiver and the transmitter
are not moving (such as in communicating with a geo-synchronous satellite).
20

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass%20Fibers

31

Communications Basics

1.38 Receiver Design

It turns out that if we know what kind of signal to expect, we can better receive those
signals. This should be intuitive, because it is hard to nd something if we don't know
what precisely we are looking for. How is a receiver supposed to know what is data and
what is noise, if it doesnt know what data looks like?
Coherent transmissions are transmissions where the receiver knows what type of data is
being sent. Coherency implies a strict timing mechanism, because even a data signal may
look like noise if you look at the wrong part of it. In contrast, noncoherent receivers don't
know exactly what they are looking for, and therefore noncoherent communication systems
need to be far more complex (both in terms of hardware and mathematical models) to
operate properly.
This section will talk about coherent receivers, rst discussing the "Simple Receiver" case,
and then going into theory about what the optimal case is. Once we know mathematically
what an optimal receiver should be, we then discuss two actual implementations of the
optimal receiver.
It should be noted that the remainder of this book will discuss optimal receivers. After all,
why would a communication's engineer use anything that is less than the best?

1.39 The Simple Receiver

A simple receiver is just that: simple. A general simple receiver will consist of a low-pass
lter (to remove excess high-frequency noise), and then a sampler, that will select values at
certain points in the wave, and interpolate those values to form a smooth output curve. In
place of a sampler (for purely analog systems), a general envelope lter can also be used,
especially in AM systems. In other systems, dierent tricks can be used to demodulate an
input signal, and acquire the data. However simple receivers, while cheap, are not the best
choice for a receiver. Occcasionally they are employed because of their price, but where
performance is an issue, a better alternative receiver should be used.

1.40 The Optimal Receiver

Mathematically, Engineers were able to predict the structure of the optimal receiver. Read
that sentence again: Engineers are able to design, analyze, and build the best possible
receiver, for any given signal. This is an important development for several reasons. First,
it means that no more research should go into nding a better receiver. The best receiver
has already been found, after all. Second, it means any communications system will not be
hampered (much) by the receiver.

1.40.1 Derivation
here we will attempt to show how the coherent receiver is derived.

32

Conclusion

1.40.2 Matched Receiver

The matched receiver is the logical conclusion of the optimal receiver calculation. The
matched receiver convolves the signal with itself, and then tests the output. Here is a
diagram:

s(t)----->(Convolve with r(t))----->

This looks simple enough, except that convolution modules are often expensive. An alternative to this approach is to use a correlation receiver.

1.40.3 Correlation Receiver

The correlation receiver is similar to the matched receiver, instead with a simple switch:
The multiplication happens rst, and the integration happens second.
Here is a general diagram:
r(t)
|
v
s(t) ----->(X)----->(Integrator)--->

In a digital system, the integrator would then be followed by a threshold detector, while in
an analog receiver, it might be followed by another detector, like an envelope detector.

1.41 Conclusion
To do the best job of receiving a signal, we need to know the form of the signal that we
are sending. This should seem obvious, we can't design a receiver until after we've decided
how the signal will be sent. This method poses some problems however, in that the receiver
must be able to line up the received signal with the given reference signal to work the magic:
If the received signal and the reference signal are out of sync with each other, either as a
function of an error in phase or an error in frequency, then the optimal receiver will not
work.

1.42 further reading

w:demodulation21

21

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/demodulation

33

2 Analog Modulation
2.1 Analog Modulation Overview
Let's take a look at a generalized sinewave:
x (t) = A sin (t + )
It consists of three components namely; amplitude, frequency and phase. Each of which
can be decomposed to provide ner detail:
x(t) = As(t) sin(2[fc + kfm (t)]t + (t))

2.2 Types of Analog Modulation

We can see 3 parameters that can be changed in this sine wave to send information:
As(t). This term is called the "Amplitude", and changing it is called "Amplitude Modulation" (AM)
kfm (t) This term is called the "Frequency Shift", and changing it is called "Frequency
Modulation"
(t). this term is called the "Phase angle", and changing it is called "Phase Modulation".
The terms frequency and phase modulation are often combined into a more general group
called "Angle Modulation".

2.3 The Breakdown

Each term consists of a coecient (called a "scaling factor"), and a function of time that
corresponds to the information that we want to send. The scaling factor out front, A, is
also used as the transmission power coecient. When a radio station wants their signal to
be stronger (regardless of whether it is AM, FM, or PM), they "crank-up" the power of A,
and send more power out onto the airwaves.

2.4 How we Will Cover the Material

We are going to go into separate chapters for each dierent type of modulation. This
book will attempt to discuss some of the mathematical models and techniques used with

35

Analog Modulation
dierent modulation techniques. It will also discuss some practical information about how
to construct a transmitter/receiver, and how to use each modulation technique eectively.
Amplitude modulation is one of the earliest radio modulation techniques. The receivers
used to listen to AM-DSB-C are perhaps the simplest receivers of any radio modulation
technique; which may be why that version of amplitude modulation is still widely used
today. By the end of this module, you will know the most popular versions of amplitude
modulation, some popular AM modulation circuits, and some popular AM demodulation
circuits.

2.5 Amplitude Modulation

w:Amplitude_modulation1
Amplitude modulation (AM) occurs when the amplitude of a carrier wave is modulated, to
correspond to a source signal. In AM, we have an equation that looks like this:
Fsignal (t) = A(t) sin(t)
We can also see that the phase of this wave is irrelevant, and does not change (so we don't
even include it in the equation).

i Information
AM Radio uses AM modulation
AM Double-Sideband (AM-DSB for short) can be broken into two dierent, distinct types:
Carrier, and Suppressed Carrier varieties (AM-DSB-C and AM-DSB-SC, for short, respectively). This page will talk about both varieties, and will discuss the similarities and
dierences of each.

36

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation

Amplitude Modulation

Figure 26

2.5.1 Characteristics
Modulation Index
Amplitude modulation requires a high frequency constant carrier and a low frequency modulation signal.
A sine wave carrier is of the form ec = Ec sin (c t)
A sine wave modulation signal is of the form em = Em sin (m t)
Notice that the amplitude of the high frequency carrier takes on the shape of the lower
frequency modulation signal, forming what is called a modulation envelope.

37

Analog Modulation

Figure 27

The modulation index is dened as the ratio of the modulation signal amplitude to the
carrier amplitude.
mam =

Em
Ec

where 0 mam 1

The overall signal can be described by:

eam = (Ec + Em sin (m t)) sin (c t)
More commonly, the carrier amplitude is normalized to one and the am equation is written
as:
eam = (1 + mam sin (m t)) sin (c t)
In most literature this expression is simply written as:
e = (1 + m sin m t) sin c t
If the modulation index is zero (mam = 0) the signal is simply a constant amplitude carrier.
If the modulation index is 1 (mam = 1), the resultant waveform has maximum or 100%
amplitude modulation.

38

Amplitude Modulation

Figure 28

Sidebands
Expanding the normalized AM equation:
e = (1 + m sin m t) sin c t
we obtain:
m
e = sin c t + m
2 cos (c m ) t 2 cos (c + m ) t

where:
sin c t represents the carrier
m
2

cos (c m ) t represents the lower sideband

m
2

cos (c + m ) t represents the upper sideband

The sidebands are centered on the carrier frequency. They are the sum and dierence
frequencies of the carrier and modulation signals. In the above example, they are just
single frequencies, but normally the baseband modulation signal is a range of frequencies
and hence two bands are formed.

39

Analog Modulation

2.5.2 AM Modulator
The standard amplitude modulation equation is:
eam = (1 + m sin m t) sin c t
From this we notice that AM involves a multiplication process. There are several ways to
perform this function electronically. The simplest method uses a switch.
Switching Modulators
Switching modulators can be placed into two categories: unipolar and bipolar.
Bipolar Switching Modulator
The bipolar switch is the easiest to visualize. Note that an AM waveform appears to consist
of a low frequency dc signal whose polarity is reversing at a carrier rate.

Figure 29

The AM signal can be created by multiplying a dc modulation signal by 1.

40

Amplitude Modulation

Figure 30

However, since the square wave contains lots of harmonics, the resulting multiplication will
contain lots of extraneous frequencies. Mathematically, the spectrum of the square wave
signal (given by the Fourier Transform) is of the form:
F {f (t)} =

4
n=1

sin

n
n2t
cos
2
T

This seems complicated but, if the square wave switching function has a 50% duty cycle,
this simplies to:
(

4
1
n2t
F {f (t)} =
cos
n=1,3,5... n
T

This tells us that the square wave is actually composed of a series of cosines (phase shifted
sines) at odd multiples of the fundamental switching frequency. Therefore, using this signal
to multiply the baseband signal results in AM signals being generated at each of the odd
harmonics of the switching (carrier) frequencies. Since the amplitude of the harmonics
decreases rapidly, this technique is practical for only the rst few harmonics, and produces
an enormous amount of unwanted signals (noise).

Figure 31

41

Analog Modulation
A band pass lter can be used to select any one of the AM signals. The number of dierent
output frequencies can be signicantly reduced if the multiplier accepts sinewaves at the
carrier input.
w:Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission2
Removing the DC component from the input eliminates the carrier signal and creates
DSBSC modulation.
Physically this is done by reversing the signal leads:

Figure 32

The process of reversing the polarity of a signal is easily accomplished by placing two
switch pairs in the output of a dierential amplier. The Mc1496 Balanced Modulator3 is
an example of such a device.

2
3

42

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-sideband%20suppressed-carrier%20transmission
http://www.onsemi.com/pub_link/Collateral/MC1496-D.PDF

Amplitude Modulation

Figure 33

Unipolar Switching Modulator

As previously mentioned, an AM signal can be created by multiplying a dc modulation
signal by 0 & 1.

43

Analog Modulation

Figure 34

The spectrum of this signal is dened by:

(

1
2
n
n2t
F {f (t)} = +
sin
cos
2 n=1 n
2
T

Physically this is done by turning the modulation signal on and o at the carrier rate:

Figure 35

A high amplitude carrier can be used to turn a diode on and o. A dc bias is placed on
the modulation signal to make certain that only the carrier (not the modulation signal) can
reverse bias the diode.

44

Amplitude Modulation

Figure 36

45

Analog Modulation

Figure 37

It may not seem obvious, but the output of this circuit contains a series of AM signals. A
bandpass lter is needed to extract the desired one. Normally it is the 1st or 3rd harmonic
of the fundamental. (The 1st harmonic is the fundamental.)
Collector Modulator
The diode switching modulator is incapable of producing high power signals since it is a
passive device. A transistor can be used to overcome this limitation. A collector modulator
is used for high level modulation.

46

Amplitude Modulation

Figure 38

Square Law Modulator

The voltage-current relationship of a diode is nonlinear near the knee and is of the form:
i (t) = av (t) + bv 2 (t)
The coecient a and b are constants associated with the particular diode.

47

Analog Modulation

Figure 39

Amplitude modulation occurs if the diode is kept in the square law region when signals
combine.

48

Amplitude Modulation

Figure 40

Let the injected signals be of the form:

k = dcbias
em = Em sin m t = modulationsignal
ec = Ec sin c t = carriersignal
The voltage applied across the diode and resistor is given by:
v (t) = k + em + ec
The current in the diode and hence in the resistor is given by:
i (t) = a (k + em + ec ) + b (k + em + ec )2
Which expands to:

i (t) = k (a_bk) +
|

{z
dc

(a + 2bk) em
|

{z

originalmodulatingsignal

+ (a + 2bk) ec + 2bem ec +
|

{z

carrier

be2

| {z }

m
|{z}

2sidebands

2xmodulatingfrequency

be2

c
|{z}
2xcarrierfrequency

49

Analog Modulation
Modulation Index Measurement
It is sometimes dicult to determine the modulation index, particularly for complex signals.
However, it is relatively easy to determine it by critical observation. There are two practical
methods to derive the modulation index. 1)By representing a AM wave as it is in time
domain.(using maxima - minima terms.) 2)By Trapezoidal method.

Figure 41

The trapezoidal oscilloscope display can be used to determine the modulation index.

Figure 42

AM modulation index: m =

50

Emax Emin
Emax +Emin

Amplitude Modulation
The trapezoidal display makes it possible to quickly recognize certain types of problems,
which would reduce the AM signal quality.

Figure 43

The highest authorized carrier power for AM broadcast in the US is 50 kilowatts, although
directional stations are permitted 52.65 kilowatts to compensate for losses in the phasing
system. The ERP can be much higher
C-QUAM
The basic idea behind the C-Quam modulator is actually quite simple. The output stage is
an ordinary AM modulator however; the carrier signal has been replaced by an amplitude
limited vector modulator. Therefore, the limiter output is really a phase-modulated signal.

Figure 44

A standard AM receiver will detect the amplitude variations as L+R. A stereo receiver will
also detect the phase variations and to extract L-R. It will then process these signals to
separate the left and right channels.
To enable the stereo decoder, a 25 Hz pilot tone is added to the L-R channel.

51

Analog Modulation

2.5.3 AM Receivers
The most common receivers in use today are the super heterodyne type. They consist of:

Antenna
RF amplier
Local Oscillator and Mixer
IF Section
Detector and Amplier

The need for these subsystems can be seen when one considers the much simpler and
inadequate TRF or tuned radio frequency amplier.
TRF Amplier
It is possible to design an RF amplier to accept only a narrow range of frequencies, such
as one radio station on the AM band.

Figure 45

By adjusting the center frequency of the tuned circuit, all other input signals can be excluded.

52

Amplitude Modulation

Figure 46

The AM band ranges from about 500 kHz to 1600 kHz. Each station requires 10 kHz of
this spectrum, although the baseband signal is only 5 kHz.
Recall that for a tuned circuit: Q = fBc . The center or resonant frequency in an RLC
network is most often adjusted by varying the capacitor value. However, the Q remains
approximately constant as the center frequency is adjusted. This suggests that as the
bandwidth varies as the circuit is tuned.
For example, the Q required at the lower end of the AM band to select only one radio
station would be approximately:
fc 500kHz
=
= 50
B
10kHz
As the tuned circuit is adjusted to the higher end of the AM band, the resulting bandwidth
is:
Q=

B=

fc 1600kHz
=
= 30kHz
Q
50

A bandwidth this high could conceivably pass three adjacent stations, thus making meaningful reception impossible.
To prevent this, the incoming RF signal is heterodyned to a xed IF or intermediate frequency and passed through a constant bandwidth circuit.

53

Analog Modulation
Superheterodyne Receiver

Figure 47

The RF amplier boosts the RF signal into the mixer. It has broad tuning and amplies
not just one RF station, but many of them simultaneously. It also amplies any input noise
and even contributes some of its own.
The other mixer input is a high frequency sine wave created by a local oscillator. In AM
receivers, it is always 455 kHz above the desired station carrier frequency. An ideal mixer
will combine the incoming carrier with the local oscillator to create sum and dierence
frequencies. .
A real mixer combines two signals and creates a host of new frequencies:
A dc level
The original two frequencies
The sum and dierence of the two input frequencies
Harmonics of the two input frequencies
Sums and dierences of all of the harmonics
Since the RF amplier passes several radio stations at once, the mixer output can be very
complex. However, the only signal of real interest is the dierence between the desired
station carrier frequency and the local oscillator frequency. This dierence frequency, also
called the IF (intermediate frequency) will alway be 455 kHz. By passing this through a 10
kHz BPF (band pass lter) centered at 455 kHz, the bulk of the unwanted signals can be
eliminated.
Local Oscillator Frequency

54

Amplitude Modulation
Since the mixer generates sum and dierence frequencies, it is possible to generate the 455
kHz IF signal if the local oscillator is either above or below the IF. The inevitable question
is which is preferable.
Case I The local Oscillator is above the IF. This would require that the oscillator
tune from (500 + 455) kHz to (1600 + 455) kHz or approximately 1 to 2 MHz. It
is normally the capacitor in a tuned RLC circuit, which is varied to adjust the center
frequency while the inductor is left xed.
Since fc =

2 LC

solving for C we obtain C =

1
L(2fc )2

When the tuning frequency is a maximum, the tuning capacitor is a minimum and vice
versa. Since we know the range of frequencies to be created, we can deduce the range of
capacitance required.
Cmax L (2fmax )2
=
=
Cmin
L (2fmin )2

2M Hz
1M Hz

)2

=4

Making a capacitor with a 4:1 value change is well within the realm of possibility.
Case II The local Oscillator is below the IF. This would require that the oscillator
tune from (500 - 455) kHz to (1600 - 455) kHz or approximately 45 kHz to 1145 kHz, in
which case:
Cmax
=
Cmin

1145kHz
45kHz

)2

648

It is not practical to make a tunable capacitor with this type of range. Therefore the local
oscillator in a standard AM receiver is above the radio band.
Image Frequency
Just as there are two oscillator frequencies, which can create the same IF, two dierent
station frequencies can create the IF. The undesired station frequency is known as the
image frequency.

55

Analog Modulation

Figure 48

If any circuit in the radio front end exhibits non-linearities, there is a possibility that other
combinations may create the intermediate frequency. Once the image frequency is in the
mixer, there is no way to remove it since it is now heterodyned into the same IF band as
the desired station.

2.6 AM Demodulation
AM Detection
There are two basic types of AM detection, coherent and non-coherent. Of these two, the
non-coherent is the simpler method.
Non-coherent detection does not rely on regenerating the carrier signal. The information or modulation envelope can be removed or detected by a diode followed by an
audio lter.
Coherent detection relies on regenerating the carrier and mixing it with the AM signal.
This creates sum and dierence frequencies. The dierence frequency corresponds to
the original modulation signal.
Both of these detection techniques have certain drawbacks. Consequently, most radio receivers use a combination of both.
Envelope Detector

56

AM Demodulation

Figure 49

When trying to demodulate an AM signal, it seems like good sense that only the amplitude
of the signal needs to be examined. By only examining the amplitude of the signal at any
given time, we can remove the carrier signal from our considerations, and we can examine
the original signal. Luckily, we have a tool in our toolbox that we can use to examine the
amplitude of a signal: The Envelope Detector.
An envelope detector is simply a half wave rectier followed by a low pass lter. In the case
of commercial AM radio receivers, the detector is placed after the IF section. The carrier
at this point is 455 kHz while the maximum envelope frequency is only 5 kHz. Since the
ripple component is nearly 100 times the frequency of the highest baseband signal and does
not pass through any subsequent audio ampliers.
An AM signal where the carrier frequency is only 10 times the envelope frequency would
have considerable ripple:

57

Analog Modulation

Figure 50

Synchronous Detector
In a synchronous or coherent detector, the incoming AM signal is mixed with the original
carrier frequency.

Figure 51

If you think this looks suspiciously like a mixer, you are absolutely right! A synchronous
detector is one where the dierence frequency between the two inputs is zero Hz. Of in
other words, the two input frequencies are the same. Let's check the math.
Recall that the AM input is mathematically dened by:
eam = sin c t +
| {z }
Carrier

58

m
m
sin (c m ) t sin (c + m ) t
|2
{z
} |2
{z
}
LowerSideband

UpperSideband

AM Demodulation
At the multiplier output, we obtain:

mixerout =eam sin c t =

m
sin m t
| 2 {z
}

1
m
m
sin 2c t sin (2c m ) t + sin (2c + m ) t
4
4
| 2
{z
}

OriginalModulationSignal

AMsignalcenteredat2timesthecarrierfrequency

The high frequency component can be ltered o leaving only the original modulation
signal.
This technique has one serious drawback. The problem is how to create the exact carrier
frequency. If the frequency is not exact, the entire baseband signal will be shifted by the
dierence. A shift of only 50 Hz will make the human voice unrecognizable. It is possible
to use a PLL (phase locked loop), but making one tunable for the entire AM band is not
trivial.
As a result, most radio receivers use an oscillator to create a xed intermediate frequency.
This is then followed by an envelope detector or a xed frequency PLL.
Squaring Detector
The squaring detector is also a synchronous or coherent detector. It avoids the problem of
having to recreate the carrier by simply squaring the input signal. It essentially uses the
AM signal itself as a sort of wideband carrier.

Figure 52

The output of the multiplier is the square of the input AM signal:

(

(eam )2 = sin c t +

m
m
cos (c m ) t cos (c + m ) t
2
2

)2

Since the input is being multiplied by the sin c t component, one of the resulting dierence
terms is the original modulation signal. The principle diculty with this approach is trying
to create a linear, high frequency multiplier.

59

Analog Modulation

2.7 AM-DSBSC
AM-DSB-SC is characterized by the following transmission equation:
v(t) = As(t) cos(2fc t)
It is important to notice that s(t) can contain a negative value. AM-DSB-SC requires a
coherent receiver, because the modulation data can go negative, and therefore the receiver
needs to know that the signal is negative (and not just phase shifted). AM-DSB-SC systems
are very susceptible to frequency shifting and phase shifting on the receiving end. In this
equation, A is the transmission amplitude.
Double side band suppressed carrier modulation is simply AM without the broadcast carrier.
Recall that the AM signal is dened by:

eam = (1 + m sin m t) sin c t = sin c t +

m2
m2
cos (c m ) t
cos (c + m ) t
2
2

The carrier term in the spectrum can be eliminated by removing the dc oset from the
modulating signal:
eDSBSC = m sin m t sin c t =

m2
m2
cos (c m ) t
cos (c + m ) t
2
2

2.7.1 Double Balanced Ring Modulator

One of the circuits which is capable of creating DSBSC is the double balance ring modulator.

Figure 53

60

AM-DSBSC
If the carrier is large enough to cause the diodes to switch states, then the circuit acts like
a diode switching modulator:

Figure 54

The modulation signal is inverted at the carrier rate. This is essentially multiplication by 1.
Since the transformers cannot pass dc, there is no term which when multiplied can create
an output carrier. Since the diodes will switch equally well on either cycle, the modulation
signal is eectively being multiplied by a 50% duty cycle square wave creating numerous
DSBSC signals, each centered at an odd multiple of the carrier frequency. Bandpass lters
are used to extract the frequency of interest.
Some IC balanced modulators use this technique, but use transistors instead of diodes to
perform the switching.

2.7.2 Push Pull Square Law Balanced Modulator

Figure 55

61

Analog Modulation
This circuit uses the same principles as the diode square law modulator. Since dc cannot
pass through the transformer, it would be expected that there would be no output signal
at the carrier frequency.
The drain current vs. gate-source voltage is of the form:
2
id = i0 + avgs + vgs

The net drain current in the output transformer is given by:

(

2
2
inet = id1 id2 = i0 + avgs1 + bvgs1
i0 + avgs2 + bvgs2

inet = a (vgs1 vgs2 ) + b (vgs1 + vgs2 ) (vgs1 vgs2 )

By applying KVL around the gate loops we obtain:
em
+ ec
2

vgs1 =

vgs2 =

em
+ ec
2

Putting it all together we obtain:

)

em
em
em
em
+ ec +
ec + b
+ ec
+ ec
inet = a
2
2
2
2

)(

em
em
+ ec +
ec
2
2

inet = aem + 2bec em

From this we note that the rst term is the originating modulation signal and can easily
be ltered o by a high pass lter. The second term is of the form:
sin m t sin c t =

1
1
cos (c m ) t cos (c + m ) t
2
2

which is AM DSBSC.

2.8 AM-DSB-C
In contrast to AM-DSB-SC is AM-DSB-C, which is categorized by the following equation:
v(t) = A[s(t) + c] cos(2fc t)
Where c is a positive term representing the carrier. If the term [s(t) + c] is always nonnegative, we can receive the AM-DSB-C signal non-coherently, using a simple envelope
detector to remove the cosine term. The +c term is simply a constant DC signal and can
be removed by using a blocking capacitor.
It is important to note that in AM-DSB-C systems, a large amount of power is wasted
in the transmission sending a "boosted" carrier frequency. since the carrier contains no
information, it is considered to be wasted energy. The advantage to this method is that it

62

AM-SSB
greatly simplies the receiver design, since there is no need to generate a coherent carrier
signal at the receiver. For this reason, this is the transmission method used in conventional
AM radio.
AM-DSB-SC and AM-DSB-C both suer in terms of bandwidth from the fact that they
both send two identical (but reversed) frequency "lobes", or bands. These bands (the
upper band and the lower band) are exactly mirror images of each other, and therefore
contain identical information. Why can't we just cut one of them out, and save some
bandwidth? The answer is that we can cut out one of the bands, but it isn't always
a good idea. The technique of cutting out one of the sidebands is called Amplitude
Modulation Single-Side-Band (AM-SSB). AM-SSB has a number of problems, but also
some good aspects. A compromise between AM-SSB and the two AM-DSB methods is called
Amplitude Modulation Vestigial-Side-Band (AM-VSB), which uses less bandwidth
then the AM-DSB methods, but more than the AM-SSB.

2.8.1 Transmitter
A typical AM-DSB-C transmitter looks like this:
c
cos(...)
|
|
Signal ---->(+)---->(X)----> AM-DSB-C

which is a little more complicated than an AM-DSB-SC transmitter.

2.8.2 Receiver
An AM-DSB-C receiver is very simple:
AM-DSB-C ---->|Envelope Filter|---->|Capacitor|----> Signal

The capacitor blocks the DC component, and eectively removes the +c term.

2.9 AM-SSB
To send an AM-SSB signal, we need to remove one of the sidebands from an AM-DSB
signal. This means that we need to pass the AM-DSB signal through a lter, to remove one
of the sidebands. The lter, however, needs to be a very high order lter, because we need
to have a very aggressive roll-o. One sideband needs to pass the lter almost completely
unchanged, and the other sideband needs to be stopped completely at the lter.
To demodulate an AM-SSB signal, we need to perform the following steps:
1. Low-pass lter, to remove noise
2. Modulate the signal again by the carrier frequency
3. Pass through another lter, to remove high-frequency components

63

Analog Modulation
4. Amplify the signal, because the previous steps have attenuated it signicantly.
AM-SSB is most ecient in terms of bandwidth, but there is a signicant added cost
involved in terms of more complicated hardware to send and receive this signal. For this
reason, AM-SSB is rarely seen as being cost eective.
Single sideband is a form of AM with the carrier and one sideband removed. In normal AM
broadcast, the transmitter is rated in terms of the carrier power. SSB transmitters attempt
to eliminate the carrier and one of the sidebands. Therefore, transmitters are rated in PEP
(peak envelope power).

P EP =

(peakenvelopevoltage)2
2RL

With normal voice signals, an SSB transmitter outputs 1/4 to 1/3 PEP.
There are numerous variations of SSB:
SSB - Single sideband - amateur radio
SSSC - Single sideband suppressed carrier - a small pilot carrier is transmitted
ISB - Independent sideband - two separate sidebands with a suppressed carrier. Used
in radio telephony.
VSB - Vestigial sideband - a partial sideband. Used in broadcast TV.
ACSSB - Amplitude companded SSB
There are several advantages of using SSB:
More ecient spectrum utilization
Less subject to selective fading
More power can be placed in the intelligence signal
10 to 12 dB noise reduction due to bandwidth limiting

2.9.1 Filter Method

The simplest way to create SSB is to generate DSBSC and then use a bandpass lter to
extract one of the sidebands.

Figure 56

64

AM-SSB
This technique can be used at relatively low carrier frequencies. At high frequencies, the Q
of the lter becomes unacceptably high. The required Q necessary to lter o one of the
sidebands can be approximated by:

fc S
Q
4f
where:
fc = carrierfrequency

f = sidebandseparation

S = sidebandsuppression(notindB)
Several types of lters are used to suppress unwanted sidebands:

LC - Maximum Q = 200
Ceramic - Maximum Q = 2000
Mechanical - Maximum Q = 10,000
Crystal - Maximum Q = 50,000

In order to reduce the demands placed upon the lter, a double heterodyne technique can
be used.

Figure 57

The rst local oscillator has a relatively low frequency thus enabling the removal of one of
the sidebands produced by the rst mixer. The signal is then heterodyned a second time,
creating another pair of sidebands. However, this time they are separated by a suciently
large gap that one can be removed by the band limited power amplier or antenna matching
network.
Example
Observe the spectral distribution under the following conditions:

65

Analog Modulation
Audio baseband = 100 HZ to 5 KHz
LO1 = 100 kHz
LO2 = 50 MHz
The spectral output of the rst mixer is:

Figure 58

If the desired sideband suppression is 80 dB, the Q required to lter o one of the
sidebands is approximately:
S = log

80
20

= 104

fc S 100 103 104

Q
=
= 12500
4f
4 200
It is evident that a crystal lter would be needed to remove the unwanted sideband.
After the lter, only one sideband is left. In this example, well retain the USB. The
spectrum after the second mixer is:

Figure 59

The Q required to suppress one of the side bands by 80 dB is approximately:

fc S
50 106 104
Q
=
= 6244
4f
4 200.2 103
Thus, we note that the required Q drops in half.
This SSB lter technique is used in radiotelephone applications.

66

AM-SSB

2.9.2 Phase Shift Method

Figure 60

The output from the top mixer is given by:

1
1
cos (c m ) t cos (c + m ) t
2
2
The output from the bottom mixer is given by:
sin m t sin c t =

cos m t cos c t =

1
1
cos (c m ) t + cos (c + m ) t
2
2

The output of the sumer is:

cos (c m ) t
which corresponds to the lower sideband.
The major diculty with this technique is the need to provide a constant 90o phase shift
over the entire input audio band. To overcome this obstacle, the Weaver or third method
uses an audio sub carrier, which is phase shifted.

67

Analog Modulation

2.9.3 Weaver Method

The Weaver or third method places the baseband signal on a low frequency quadrature
carrier.

Figure 61

This has the advantage of not requiring a broadband phase shifter however; the use of four
mixers makes it awkward and seldom used.

68

AM-SSB

Figure 62

2.9.4 SSB Transmitter

AM-SSB transmitters are a little more complicated:

cos(...)
|
Signal ---->(X)---->|Low-Pass Filter|----> AM-SSB

69

Analog Modulation
The lter must be a very high order, for reasons explained in that chapter.

2.9.5 SSB Receiver

An AM-SSB receiver is a little bit complicated as well:
cos(...)
|
AM-SSB ---->(X)---->|Low-Pass Filter|---->|Amplifier|----> Signal

This lter doesnt need to be a very high order, like the transmitter has.
These receivers require extremely stable oscillators, good adjacent channel selectivity, and
typically use a double conversion technique. Envelope detectors cannot be used since the
envelope varies at twice the frequency of the AM envelope.
Stable oscillators are needed since the detected signal is proportional to the dierence between the untransmitted carrier and the instantaneous side band. A small shift of 50 Hz
makes the received signal unusable.
SSB receivers typically use xed frequency tuning rather than continuous tuning as found
on most radios. Crystal oscillators are often used to select the xed frequency channels.

2.10 AM-VSB
As a compromise between AM-SSB and AM-DSB is AM-VSB. To make an AM-VSB signal,
we pass an AM-DSB signal through a lowpass lter. Now, the trick is that we pass it through
a low-order lter, so that some of the ltered sideband still exists. This ltered part of the
sideband is called the "Vestige" of the sideband, hence the name "Vestigial Side Band".
AM-VSB signals then can get demodulated in a similar manner to AM-SSB. We can see
when we remodulate the input signal, the two vestiges (the positive and negative mirrors
of each other) over-lap each other, and add up to the original, unltered value!
AM-VSB is less expensive to implement then AM-SSB because we can use lower-order
lters.

i Information
Broadcast television in North America uses AM-VSB

2.10.1 Transmitter
here we will talk about an AM-VSB transmitter circuit.

70

Frequency Modulation

2.10.2 Receiver
here we will talk about an AM-VSB receiver circuit. (AM)

2.11 Frequency Modulation

w:Frequency modulation4
If we make the frequency of our carrier wave a function of time, we can get a generalized
function that looks like this:
sF M = A cos(2[fc + ks(t)]t + )
We still have a carrier wave, but now we have the value ks(t) that we add to that carrier
wave, to send our data.
As an important result, ks(t) must be less than the carrier frequency always, to avoid
ambiguity and distortion.

Figure 63

2.11.1 Deriving the FM Equation

Recall that a general sinusoid is of the form:
ec = sin (c t + )

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency%20modulation

71

Analog Modulation
Frequency modulation involves deviating a carrier frequency by some amount. If a sine
wave is used to deviate the carrier, the expression for the frequency at any instant would
be:
i = c + sin (m t)
where:
i =instantaneous frequency
c =carrier frequency
=carrier deviation
m = modulation frequency
This expression describes a signal varying sinusoidally about some average frequency. However, we cannot simply substitute this expression into the general equation for a sinusoid
to get the FM equation. This is because the sine operator acts on angles, not frequency.
Therefore, we must dene the instantaneous frequency in terms of angles.
It should be noted that the modulation signal amplitude governs the amount of carrier
deviation while the modulation signal frequency governs the rate of carrier deviation.
The term is an angular velocity (radians per second) and is related to frequency and angle
by the following relationship:
d
dt
To nd the angle, we must integrate with respect to time:
= 2f =

dt =
We can now nd the instantaneous angle associated with the instantaneous frequency:

f
= i dt = (c + sin (m t))dt = c t
m cos (m t) = c t fm cos (m t)

This angle can now be substituted into the general carrier signal to dene FM:
(

ef m = sin c t

f
cos (m t)
fm

The FM modulation index is dened as the ratio of the carrier deviation to modulation
frequency:
mf m =

f
fm

Consequently, the FM equation is often written as:

72

Frequency Modulation

ef m = sin (c t mf m cos (m t))

2.11.2 Bessel's Functions

w:Bessel function5
This is a very complex expression and it is not readily apparent what the sidebands of this
signal are like. The solution to this problem requires a knowledge of Bessel's functions of
the rst kind and order p. In open form, it resembles:

Jp (x) =

(1)k
k=0

( x )2k+p
2

k! (k + p)!

where:
Jp (x) = Magnitude of the frequency component
p = Side frequency number (not to be confused with sidebands)
x = Modulation index
As a point of interest, Bessel's functions are a solution to the following equation:
x2

)
d2 y
dy ( 2
2
+
x

p
=0
+
x
dx2
dx

Bessel's functions occur in the theory of cylindrical and spherical waves, much like sine
waves occur in the theory of plane waves.
It turns out that FM generates an innite number of side frequencies (in both the upper
and lower sidebands). Each side frequency is an integer multiple of the modulation signal frequency. The amplitude of higher order side frequencies decreases rapidly and can
generally be ignored.
The amplitude of the carrier signal is also a function of the modulation index and under
some conditions, its amplitude can actually go to zero. This does not mean that the
signal disappears, but rather that all of the broadcast energy is redistributed to the side
frequencies.
A plot of the carrier and rst ve side frequency amplitudes as a function of modulation
index resembles:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessel%20function

73

Analog Modulation

Figure 64

The Bessel coecients have several interesting properties including:

(

J02 + 2 J12 + J22 + J32 + = 1

One very useful interpretation of this is: J0 represents the voltage amplitude of the carrier,
J1 represents the amplitude of the 1st side frequency, J2 the 2nd side frequency etc. Note
that the sum of the squares (power) remains constant.

2.11.3 FM Bandwidth
FM generates upper and lower sidebands, each of which contain an innite number of
side frequencies. However, the FM bandwidth is not innite because the amplitude of the
higher order side frequencies decreases rapidly. Carson's Rule is often used to calculate the
bandwidth, since it contains more than 90% of the FM signal.
Carson's Rule
w: Carson's rule6
Bf m 2 (mf m + 1) fm = 2 (f + fm ))
In commercial broadcast applications, the maximum modulation index (mf m ) = 5, the
maximum, carrier deviation (f ) = 75 kHz, and maximum modulation frequency (fm )
= 15 kHz. The total broadcast spectrum according to Carson's rule is 180 kHz, but an
additional 20 kHz guard band is used to separate adjacent radio stations. Therefore, each
FM radio station is allocated 200 kHz.

74

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%20Carson%27s%20rule

Frequency Modulation

2.11.4 Noise
In AM systems, noise easily distorts the transmitted signal however, in FM systems any
added noise must create a frequency deviation in order to be perceptible.

Figure 65

The maximum frequency deviation due to random noise occurs when the noise is at right
angles to the resultant signal. In the worst case the signal frequency has been deviated by:
= fm
This shows that the deviation due to noise increases as the modulation frequency increases.
Since noise power is the square of the noise voltage, the signal to noise ratio can signicantly
degrade.

Figure 66

To prevent this, the amplitude of the modulation signal is increased to keep the S/N ratio
constant over the entire broadcast band. This is called pre-emphasis.

75

Analog Modulation

2.11.5 Pre & De-emphasis

w:Preemphasis7
Increasing the amplitude of high frequency baseband signals in the FM modulator (transmitter) must be compensated for in the FM demodulator (receiver) otherwise the signal
would sound quite tinny (too much treble).
The standard curves resemble:

Figure 67

In commercial FM broadcast, the emphasis circuits consist of a simple RC network with a

time constant of 75 Sec and a corner frequency of 2125 Hz.

Figure 68

76

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preemphasis

FM Transmission Power
The magnitude of the pre-emphasis response is dened by:

Figure 69

2.12 FM Transmission Power

The equation for the transmitted power in a sinusoid is a fundamental equation. Remember it.
Since the value of the amplitude of the sine wave in FM does not change, the transmitted
power is a constant. As a general rule, for a sinusoid with a constant amplitude, the
transmitted power can be found as follows:

P (t) =

A2
2RL

Where A is the amplitude of the sine wave, and RL is the resistance of the load. In a
normalized system, we set RL to 1.
The Bessel coecients can be used to determine the power in the carrier and any side
frequency:
(

PC = PT J02 + 2 J12 + J22 + J32 +

))

PC is the power in the unmodulated carrier.

PT is the total power and is by denition equal to the unmodulated carrier power.
As the modulation index varies, the individual Bessel coecients change and power is
redistributed from the carrier to the side frequencies.

77

Analog Modulation

2.13 FM Transmitters
FM Transmitters can be easily implemented using a VCO (see why we discussed Voltage
Controlled Oscillators, in the rst section?), because a VCO converts an input voltage (our
input signal) to a frequency (our modulated output).
Signal ----->|VCO|-----> FM Signal

2.14 FM Receivers
Any angle modulation receiver needs to have several components:
1.
2.
3.
4.

A limiter, to remove abnormal amplitude values

bandpass lter, to separate the out-of-band noise.
A Discriminator, to change a frequency back to a voltage
A lowpass lter, to remove noise added by the discriminator.

A discriminator is essentially a dierentiator in line with an envelope detector:

FM ---->|Differentiator|---->|Envelope Filter|----> Signal

Also, you can add in a blocking capacitor to remove any DC components of the signal, if
needed. (FM)

2.15 Phase Modulation

Phase modulation is most commonly used to convey digital signals. All high performance
modems today use phase modulation.
Similar to FM (frequency modulation), is Phase modulation. (We will show how they are
the same in the next chapter.) If we alter the value of the phase according to a particular
function, we will get the following generalized PM function:
sP M = A cos(2fc t + s(t))
It is important to note that the fact that < s(t) for all values of t. If this relationship
is not satised, then the phase angle is said to be wrapped.

2.15.1 BPSK Modulator

The binary phase shift keyed modulator is the simplest of app PSK modulators since it
has only two output phase states. It is generally a multiplier which can either be an IC
(integrated circuit) or ring modulator.

78

Phase Modulation

Figure 70

The output has two phase states:

Figure 71

In the above illustration, the duration of each of the phase states corresponds to one signaling
element or baud. The baud rate is therefor equal to the bit rate.

79

Analog Modulation
The spectrum of the BPSK signal will depend upon the data being transmitted, but it is
very easy to sketch it for the highest data rate input.

Figure 72

The resultant BPSK spectrum is:

Figure 73

2.15.2 QPSK Modulators (4-PSK)

Quadrature modulation uses two data channels denoted I (in phase) and Q (quadrature
phase) displaced by 90o with respect to each other. It may seem somewhat paradoxical,
that although these two channels are combined prior to transmission, they do not interfere
with each other.

80

Phase Modulation

Figure 74

The receiver is quite capable of separating them because of their quadrature or orthogonal
nature.

Figure 75

81

Analog Modulation
In the most basic conguration, there are 4 possible output phases. This suggests that each
output symbol correspond to 2 bits of binary information. Since several bits can be encoded
into a baud, the bit rate exceeds the baud rate.

Figure 76

The rst thing that happens in this circuit is that the incoming bits are organized into
groups of 2 called dibits. They are separated into 2 data streams and kept constant over
the dibit period.

82

Phase Modulation

Figure 77

Each data stream is fed to a BPSK modulator. However, orthogonal carriers feed the two
modulators. The output of the I channel modulator resembles:

83

Analog Modulation

Figure 78

The output of the Q channel modulator resembles

84

Phase Modulation

Figure 79
Combining the I and Q channels has the eect of rotating the output state by 45o .

Figure 80

85

Analog Modulation
Rotating the output reference to 45o for the sake of clarity, the transmitted output for this
particular data sequence is therefor:

Figure 81

2.15.3 8-PSK
This process of encoding more bits into each output baud or phase state can be continued.
Organizing binary bits into 3 bytes corresponds to 8 dierent conditions.
The output constellation diagram for the 8 dierent phase states is:

86

Phase Modulation

Figure 82

From this diagram it is readily apparent that two dierent amplitudes are needed on the
I and Q channels. If the A bit is used to control the polarity of the I channel and the B
bit the polarity of the Q channel, then the C bit can be used to dene the two dierent
amplitudes. In order to evenly space the phase states; the amplitudes must be 0.38 and
0.92. The magnitude of the I and Q channel signals must always be dierent. An inverter
can be used to assure this condition.
The input bit stream is organized into 3 bit bytes. Each bit is sent to a dierent location
to control a certain aspect of the modulator. The inputs to the 2 - 4 level converter are 0s
or 1s but the output is 0.38 or 0.92, depending on the C bit.

87

Analog Modulation

Figure 83

2.16 Wrapped/Unwrapped Phase

The phase angle is a circular quantity, with the restriction 0 = 2. Therefore, if we wrap
the phase a complete 360 degrees around, the receiver will not know the dierence, and the
transmission will fail. When the phase exceeds 360 degrees, the phase value is said to be
wrapped. It is highly dicult to construct a communication system that can detect and
decode a wrapped phase value.

2.17 PM Transmitter
PM signals can be transmitted using a technique very similar to FM transmitters. The
only dierence is that we need to add a dierentiator to it:
Signal ---->|Differentiator|---->|VCO|----> PM Signal

2.18 PM Receiver
PM receivers have all the same parts as an FM receiver, except for the 3rd step:
1.
2.
3.
4.

A limiter, to remove abnormal amplitude values

bandpass lter, to separate the out-of-band noise.
A Phase detector, to convert a phase back into a voltage
A lowpass lter, to remove noise added by the discriminator.

Phase detectors can be created using a Phase-Locked-Loop (again, see why we discussed
them rst?). (PM)

88

Concept

2.19 Concept
We can see from our initial overviews that FM and PM modulation schemes have a lot in
common. Both of them are altering the angle of the carrier sinusoid according to some
function. It turns out that we can go so far as to generalize the two together into a single
modulation scheme known as angle modulation. Note that we will never abbreviate
"angle modulation" with the letters "AM", because Amplitude modulation is completely
dierent from angle modulation.

2.20 Instantaneous Phase

Let us now look at some things that FM and PM have of common:
sF M = A cos(2[fc + ks(t)]t + )
sP M = A cos(2fc t + s(t))
What we want to analyze is the argument of the sinusoid, and we will call it Psi. Let us
show the Psi for the bare carrier, the FM case, and the PM case:
carrier (t) = 2fc t +
F M (t) = 2[fc + ks(t)]t +
P M (t) = 2fc t + s(t)
s(t) = A cos((t))
This Psi value is called the Instantaneous phase of the sinusoid.

2.21 Instantaneous Frequency

Using the Instantaneous phase value, we can nd the Instantaneous frequency of the wave
with the following formula:
d(t)
dt

f (t) =

We can also express the instantaneous phase in terms of the instantaneous frequency:

(t) =

f ()d

89

Analog Modulation
Where the Greek letter "lambda" is simply a dummy variable used for integration. Using
these relationships, we can begin to study FM and PM signals further.

2.22 Determining FM or PM
If we are given the equation for the instantaneous phase of a particular angle modulated
transmission, is it possible to determine if the transmission is using FM or PM? it turns
out that it is possible to determine which is which, by following 2 simple rules:
1. In PM, instantaneous phase is a linear function.
2. In FM, instantaneous frequency minus carrier frequency is a linear function.
For a refresher course on Linearity, there is a chapter on the subject in the Signals and
Systems book8 worth re-reading.

i Information
FM radio uses generalized "Angle Modulation"

2.23 Bandwidth
In a PM system, we know that the value s(t) can never go outside the bounds of (, ].
Since sinusoidal functions oscillate between [-1, 1], we can use them as a general PM
generating function. Now, we can combine FM and PM signals into a general equation,
called angle modulation:

v(t) = A sin(2fc t + sin(2fm t))

If we want to analyze the spectral components of this equation, we will need to take the
Fourier transform of this. But, we can't integrate a sinusoid of a sinusoid, much less nd
the transform of it. So, what do we do?
It turns out (and the derivation will be omitted here, for now) that we can express this
equation as an innite sum, as such:
v(t) = A

n= Jn () sin[2(nfm + fc )t]

But, what is the term Jn ()? J is the Bessel function, which is a function that exists only
as an open integral (it is impossible to write it in closed form). Fortunately for us, there
are extensive tables tabulating Bessle function values.

90

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Signals%20and%20Systems%2FTime%20Domain%20Analysis%
2FLTI%20systems

The Bessel Function

2.24 The Bessel Function

The denition of the Bessel function is the following equation:
Jn () =

1 j[sinn]
d
2 e

The bessel function is a function of 2 variables, N and .

Bessel Functions have the following properties:
If n is even:

Jn () = Jn ()
If n is odd:

Jn () = Jn ()
Jn1 + Jn+1 =

2n
Jn ().

The bessel function is a relatively advanced mathematical tool, and we will not analyze it
further in this book.

2.25 Carson's Rule

If we have our generalized function:
v(t) = A sin(2fc t + sin(2fm t))
We can nd the bandwidth BW of the signal using the following formula:
BW = 2( + 1)fm = 2(f + fm )
where f is the maximum frequency deviation, of the transmitted signal, from the carrier
frequency. It is important to note that Carson's rule is only an approximation (albeit one
that is used in industry frequently).

2.26 Demodulation: First Step

Now, it is important to note that FM and PM signals both do the same rst 2 steps during
demodulation:
1. Pass the signal through a limiter, to remove amplitude peaks

91

Analog Modulation
2. Pass the signal through a bandpass lter to remove low and high frequency noise (as
much as possible, without ltering out the signal).
Once we perform these two steps, we no longer have white noise, because we've passed the
noise through a lter. Now, we say the noise is colored.
here is a basic diagram of our demodulator, so far:
channel
s(t) ---------> r(t) --->|Limiter|--->|Bandpass Filter|---->z(t)

Where z(t) is the output of the bandpass lter.

2.27 Filtered Noise

To denote the new, ltered noise, and new ltered signal, we have the following equation:
z(t) = A cos((t)) + n0 (t)
Where we call the additive noise n0 (t) because it has been ltered, and is not white noise
anymore. n0 (t) is known as narrow band noise, and can be denoted as such:
n0 (t) = W(t) cos(2fc t) + Z(t) sin(2fc t)
Now, once we have it in this form, we can use a trigonometric identity to make this equation
more simple:
n0 (t) = R(t) cos(2fc t + (t))
Where

R(t) =

W(t)2 + Z(t)2

(t) = tan1 (Z(t)/W(t))

Here, the new noise parameter R(t) is a rayleigh random variable, and is discussed in the
next chapter.

2.28 Noise Analysis

R(t) is a noise function that aects the amplitude of our received signal. However, our
receiver passes the signal through a limiter, which will remove amplitude uctuations from
our signal. For this reason, R(t) doesnt aect our signal, and can be safely ignored for

92

Noise Analysis
now. This means that the only random variable that is aecting our signal is the variable
(t), "Theta". Theta is a uniform random variable, with values between pi and -pi. Values
outside this range "Wrap around" because phase is circular.

93

3 Transmission
This page will discuss some of the fundamental basics of EM wave propagation.

3.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum

w:Electromagnetic_wave1

Figure 84

3.2 Radio Waves

w:Radio_waves2
Maxwell rst predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves in the 19th century. He came
to this conclusion by careful examination of the equations describing electric and magnetic
phenomenon. It was left up to Hertz to create these waves, and Marconi to exploit them.
In spite of one hundred years of study, exactly what radio waves are and why they exist,
remain somewhat of a mystery.

1
2

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_waves

95

Transmission
Electromagnetic waves in free space, or TEM waves, consist of electric and magnetic elds,
each at right angles to each other and the direction of propagation.

Figure 85

The relationship between wavelength and frequency is give by:

c = f
where c is the speed of light (approximately 300,000,000 m/s in vacuum), f is the frequency
of the wave, and is the wavelength of the wave.
Radio waves can be reected and refracted in a manner similar to light. They are aected
by the ground terrain, atmosphere and other objects.
Maxwells equations state that a time varying magnetic eld produces an electric eld and
a time varying electric eld produces a magnetic eld. This is kind of a chicken and egg
situation.
Radio waves propagate outward from an antenna, at the speed of light. The exact nature of
these waves is determined by the transmission medium. In free space, they travel in straight
lines, whereas in the atmosphere, they generally travel in a curved path. In a conned or
guided medium, radio waves do not propagate in the TEM mode, but rather in a TE or
TM mode.
Radio waves interact with objects in three principle ways:
Reection A radio wave bounces o an object larger than its wavelength.
Diraction Waves bend around objects.
Scattering A radiowave bounces o an object smaller than its wavelength.

96

Radio Waves
Because of these complex interactions, radio wave propagation is often examined in three
distinct regions in order to simplify the analysis:
Surface (or ground) waves are located very near the earths surface.
Space waves occur in the lower atmosphere (troposphere).
Sky waves occur in the upper atmosphere (ionosphere).
The boundaries between these regions are somewhat fuzzy. In many cases, it is not possible
to examine surface waves without considering space waves.

Figure 86

97

Transmission

3.2.1 Common RF Band Designations

Frequency band name
ELF - Extremely Low Frequency
SLF - Super Low Frequency
ULF - Ultra Low Frequency
VLF - Very Low Frequency
LF - Low Frequency
MF - Medium Frequency
HF - High Frequency
VHF - Very High Frequency
UHF - Ultra High Frequency
SHF - Super High Frequency
EHF - Extremely High Frequency

Frequency
3 30 Hz
30 300 Hz
300 3000 Hz
3 30 kHz
30 300 kHz
300 3000 kHz
3 30 MHz
30 300 MHz
300 3000 MHz
3 30 GHz
30 300 GHz

Wavelength
100000 10000 km
10000 1000 km
1000 100 km
100 10 km
10 1 km
1000 100 m
100 10 m
10 1 m
1000 100 mm
100 10 mm
10 1 mm

3.2.2 Surface Waves

These are the principle waves used in AM, FM and TV broadcast. Objects such as buildings,
hills, ground conductivity, etc. have a signicant impact on their strength. Surface waves
are usually vertically polarized with the electric eld lines in contact with the earth.

Figure 87

Refraction
Because of refraction, the radio horizon is larger than the optical horizon by about 4/3.
The typical maximum direct wave transmission distance (in km) is dependent on the height
of the transmitting and receiving antennas (in meters):
dmax

17ht +

17hr

km

However, the atmospheric conditions can have a dramatic eect on the amount of refraction.

98

Radio Waves

Figure 88

Super Refraction
In super refraction, the rays bend more than normal thus shortening the radio horizon.
This phenomenon occurs when temperature increases but moisture decreases with height.
Paradoxically, in some cases, the radio wave can travel over enormous distances. It can be
reected by the earth, rebroadcast and super refracted again.
Sub refraction
In sub refraction, the rays bend less than normal. This phenomenon occurs when temperature decreases but moisture increases with height. In extreme cases, the radio signal may
be refracted out into space.

3.2.3 Space Waves

These waves occur within the lower 20 km of the atmosphere, and are comprised of a
direct and reected wave. The radio waves having high frequencies are basically called
as space waves. These waves have the ability to propagate through atmosphere, from
transmitter antenna to receiver antenna. These waves can travel directly or can travel after
reecting from earths surface to the troposphere surface of earth. So, it is also called
as Tropospherical Propagation. In the diagram of medium wave propagation, c shows the
space wave propagation. Basically the technique of space wave propagation is used in bands
having very high frequencies. E.g. V.H.F. band, U.H.F band etc. At such higher frequencies
the other wave propagation techniques like sky wave propagation, ground wave propagation
cant work. Only space wave propagation is left which can handle frequency waves of higher
frequencies. The other name of space wave propagation is line of sight propagation. There
are some limitations of space wave propagation.
1. These waves are limited to the curvature of the earth.
2. These waves have line of sight propagation, means their propagation is along the line
of sight distance.
The line of sight distance is that exact distance at which both the sender and receiver
antenna are in sight of each other. So, from the above line it is clear that if we want to

99

Transmission
increase the transmission distance then this can be done by simply extending the heights of
both the sender as well as the receiver antenna. This type of propagation is used basically
in radar and television communication.
The frequency range for television signals is nearly 80 to 200MHz. These waves are not
reected by the ionosphere of the earth. The property of following the earths curvature
is also missing in these waves. So, for the propagation of television signal, geostationary
satellites are used. The satellites complete the task of reecting television signals towards
earth. If we need greater transmission then we have to build extremely tall antennas.
Direct Wave
This is generally a line of sight transmission, however, because of atmospheric refraction
the range extends slightly beyond the horizon.
Ground Reected Wave
Radio waves may strike the earth, and bounce o. The strength of the reection depends on
local conditions. The received radio signal can cancel out if the direct and reected waves
arrive with the same relative strength and 180o out of phase with each other.
Horizontally polarized waves are reected with almost the same intensity but with a 180o
phase reversal.
Vertically polarized waves generally reect less than half of the incident energy. If the angle
of incidence is greater than 10o there is very little change in phase angle.

3.2.4 Sky Waves

These waves head out to space but are reected or refracted back by the ionosphere. The
height of the ionosphere ranges from 50 to 600 km.
Radio waves are refracted by the ionized gas created by solar radiation. The amount of
ionization depends on the time of day, season and the position in the 11-year sun spot cycle.
The specic radio frequency refracted is a function of electron density and launch angle.
A communication channel thousands of kilometers long can be established by successive
reections at the earths surface and in the upper atmosphere. This ionospheric propagation
takes place mainly in the HF band.
The ionosphere is composed of several layers, which vary according to the time of day. Each
layer has dierent propagation characteristics:
D layer This layer occurs only during the day at altitudes of 60 to 90 km. High
absorption takes place at frequencies up to 7 MHz.
E layer This layer occurs at altitudes of 100 to 125 km. In the summer, dense ionization
clouds can form for short periods. These clouds called sporadic E can refract radio signals
in the VHF spectrum. This phenomenon allows amateur radio operators to communicate
over enormous distances.

100

Fading and Interference

F layer - This single nighttime layer splits into two layers (F1 and F2) during the day.
The F1 layer forms at about 200 km and F2 at about 400 km. The F2 layer propagates
most HF short-wave transmissions.
Because radio signals can take many paths to the receiver, multipath fading can occur. If
the signals arrive in phase, the result is a stronger signal. If they arrive out of phase with
each other, they tend to cancel.
Deep fading, lasting from minutes to hours over a wide frequency range, can occur when
solar ares increase the ionization in the D layer.
The useful transmission band ranges between the LUF (lowest usable frequency) and MUF
(maximum usable frequency). Frequencies above the MUF are refracted into space. Below
the LUF, radio frequencies suer severe absorption. If a signal is near either of these two
extremes, it may be subject to fading.
Meteors create ionization trails that reect radio waves. Although these trails exist for only
a few seconds, they have been successfully used in communications systems spanning 1500
km.
The Aurora Borealis or Northern Lights cause random reection in the 3 - 5 MHz region.
Aurora causes signal utter at 100 Hz to 2000 Hz thus making voice transmission impossible.

3.3 Fading and Interference

Radio signals may vary in intensity for many reasons.

3.3.1 Flat Earth Reections (Horizontal Polarization)

There are at least two possible paths for radio waves to travel when the antennas are near the
earth: direct path and reected path. These two signals interact in a very complex manner.
However, ignoring polarization and assuming a at earth can produce some interesting
mathematical descriptions.

101

Transmission

Figure 89

p1 = direct wave path length

p2 = reected wave path length
p = p2 - p1 dierence in path lengths
d = distance
From the geometry we can observe:
p21 = (hr ht )2 + d2
p22 = (hr + ht )2 + d2
p22 p21 = (hr ht )2 + d2 (hr + ht )2 d2 = 4hr ht
(p2 p1 ) (p2 + p1 ) = 4hr ht
Butp = (p2 p1 ) and d p1 p2
p2d 4hr ht therefore p

2hr ht
d

If the dierence in the two paths p, is 1/2 long, the two signals tend to cancel. If p is
equal to , the two signals tend to reinforce. The path dierence p therefore corresponds
to a phase angle change of:

102

Fading and Interference

p =

2
4hr ht
p =

The resultant received signal is the sum of the two components. The situation is unfortunately made more complex by the fact that the phase integrity of the reected wave is not
maintained at the point of reection.
If we limit the examination of reected waves to the horizontally polarized situation, we
obtain the following geometry:

Figure 90

Applying the cosine rule to this diagram, we obtain a resultant signal of:
(

Er = E1

p
2 (1 cos p ) = 2E1 sin
2

The signal strength of the direct wave is the unit distance value divided by the distance:
Er = Ed0 Therefore, the received signal can be written as:
(

2E0
2hr ht
Er =
sin
d
d

For small angles this can be approximated by:

Er

2E0 2hr ht
4hr ht
= E0
d
d
d2

3.3.2 Multipath Fading

The received signal is generally a combination of many signals, each coming over a dierent path. The phase and amplitude of each component are related to the nature of the
path. These signals combine in a very complex manner. Some multipath fading eects are
characterized by delay spread, Rayleigh and Ricean fading, doppler shifting, etc. Fading
is the most signicant phenomenon causing signal degradation. There are several dierent
categories of fading:

103

Transmission
Flat fading: the entire pass band of interest is aected equally (also known as narrow
or amplitude varying channels).
Frequency selective fading: certain frequency components are aected more than others
(also known as wideband channels). This phenomenon tends to introduce inter-symbol
interference.
Slow fading: the channel characteristics vary at less than the baud rate.
Fast fading: the channel characteristics vary faster than the baud rate.
Time Dispersion
Time dispersion occurs when signals arrive at dierent times. Signals traveling at the speed
of light move about 1 foot in 1 nanosecond. This spreading tends to limit the bit rate over
RF links.
Rayleigh Fading
The Rayleigh distribution can be used to describe the statistical variations of a at fading
channel. Generally, the strength of the received signal falls o as the inverse square of the
distance between the transmitter and receiver. However, in cellular systems, the antennas
are pointed slightly down and the signal falls of more quickly.

Figure 91

104

Reection
Ricean Fading
The Ricean distribution is used to describe the statistical variations of signals with a strong
direct or line-of-sight component and numerous weaker reected ones. This can happen in
any multipath environment such as inside buildings or in an urban center.
A received signal is generally comprised of several signals, each taking a slightly dierent
path. Since some may add constructively in-phase and others out of phase, the overall signal
strength may vary by 40 dB or more if the receiver is moved even a very short distance.
Doppler Shift
A frequency shift is caused by the relative motion of the transmitter and receiver, or any
object that reects/refracts signal. This movement creates random frequency modulation.
Doppler frequency shift is either positive or negative depending on whether the transmitter
is moving towards or away from the receiver.
This Doppler frequency shift is given by:
fd =

vm
fc
c

vm is the relative motion of the transmitter with respect to the receiver, c is the speed
of light and fc is the transmitted frequency. In the multipath environment, the relative
movement of each path is generally dierent. Thus, the signal is spread over a band of
frequencies. This is known as the Doppler spread.

3.3.3 Atmospheric Diraction

Radio waves cannot penetrate very far into most objects. Consequently, there is often a
shadow zone behind objects such as buildings, hills, etc.
The radio shadow zone does not have a very sharp cuto due to spherical spreading, also
called Huygens principle. Each point on a wavefront acts as it were a point source radiating
along the propagation path. The overall wavefront is the vector sum of all the point sources
or wavelets. The wavelet magnitude is proportional to 1 + cos where is measured from
the direction of propagation. The amplitude is a maximum in the direction of propagation
and zero in the reverse direction.

3.4 Reection
Reection normally occurs due to the surface of earth or building & hills which have large
dimension relative to the wavelength of the propagation waves. The reected wave changes
the incident angle.
There is similarity b/w the reection of light by a conducting medium. In both cases,
angle of reection is equal to angle of incidence. The equality of the angles of reection &
incidence follows the second law of reection for light.

105

Transmission

3.5 Diraction
3.6 Path Loss
3.7 Rayleigh Fading
3.8 Rician Fading
3.9 Doppler Shift
This page is going to talk about the eect of noise on transmission systems.

3.10 Types of Noise

w:Electronic_noise3
Most man made electro-magnetic noise occurs at frequencies below 500 MHz. The most
signicant of these include:
Hydro lines
Ignition systems
Fluorescent lights
Electric motors
Therefore deep space networks are placed out in the desert, far from these sources of interference.
There are also a wide range of natural noise sources which cannot be so easily avoided,
namely:
Atmospheric noise - lighting < 20 MHz
Solar noise - sun - 11 year sunspot cycle
Cosmic noise - 8 MHz to 1.5 GHz
Thermal or Johnson noise. Due to free electrons striking vibrating ions.
White noise - white noise has a constant spectral density over a specied range of
frequencies. Johnson noise is an example of white noise.
Gaussian noise - Gaussian noise is completely random in nature however, the probability
of any particular amplitude value follows the normal distribution curve. Johnson noise is
Gaussian in nature.

106

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_noise

Types of Noise
Shot noise - bipolar transistors

in = 2qIdc f
where q = electron charge 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs
Excess noise, icker, 1/f, and pink noise < 1 KHz are Inversely proportional to frequency
and directly proportional to temperature and dc current
Transit time noise - occurs when the electron transit time across a junction is the same
period as the signal.
Of these, only Johnson noise can be readily analysed and compensated for. The noise power
is given by:
Pn = kT B
Where:
k = Boltzman's constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
T = temperature in degrees Kelvin
B = bandwidth in Hz
This equation applies to copper wire wound resistors, but is close enough to be used for all
resistors. Maximum power transfer occurs when the source and load impedance are equal.

3.10.1 Combining Noise Voltages

The instantaneous value of two noise voltages is simply the sum of their individual values
at the same instant.
vtotalinst = v1inst + v2inst
This result is readily observable on an oscilloscope. However, it is not particularly helpful, since it does not result in a single stable numerical value such as one measured by a
voltmeter.
If the two voltages are coherent [K = 1], then the total rms voltage value is the sum of the
individual rms voltage values.
vtotalrms = v1rms + v2rms
If the two signals are completely random with respect to each other [K = 0], such as Johnson
noise sources, the total power is the sum of all of the individual powers:
Ptotalrandomnoise = Pn1random + Pn2random

107

Transmission
A Johnson noise of power P = kTB, can be thought of as a noise voltage applied through
a resistor, Thevenin equivalent.

Figure 92

An example of such a noise source may be a cable or transmission line. The amount of
noise power transferred from the source to a load, such as an amplier input, is a function
of the source and load impedances.

108

Types of Noise

Figure 93

If the load impedance is 0 , no power is transferred to it since the voltage is zero. If

the load has innite input impedance, again no power is transferred to it since there is no
current. Maximum power transfer occurs when the source and load impedances are equal.

PL max =

e2s
4Rs

The rms noise voltage at maximum power transfer is:

en =

4RP = 4RkT B

109

Transmission

Figure 94

Observe what happens if the noise resistance is resolved into two components:
e2n = 4RkT B = 4 (R1 + R2 ) kT B = e2n1 + e2n2
From this we observe that random noise resistance can be added directly, but random noise
voltages add vectorially:

110

Noise Temperature

Figure 95

If the noise sources are not quite random, and there is some correlation between them [0 <
K < 1], the combined result is not so easy to calculate:

PT otal(notquiterandom) =

E12 + E22 + 2KE1 E2

= P1 + P2 = 2K P1 + P2
R0

where
K = correlation [0 < K < 1]
R0 = reference impedance

3.11 Noise Temperature

The amount of noise in a given transmission medium can be equated to thermal noise.
Thermal noise is well-studied, so it makes good sense to reuse the same equations when
possible. To this end, we can say that any amount of radiated noise can be approximated
by thermal noise with a given eective temperature. Eective temperature is measured
in Kelvin. Eective temperature is frequently compared to the standard temperature,
To , which is 290 Kelvin.
In microwave applications, it is dicult to speak in terms of currents and voltages since
the signals are more aptly described by eld equations. Therefore, temperature is used to
characterize noise. The total noise temperature is equal to the sum of all the individual
noise temperatures.

3.12 Noise Figure

w:Noise_gure4
4

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_figure

111

Transmission
The terms used to quantify noise can be somewhat confusing but the key denitions are:
Signal to noise ratio: It is either unitless or specied in dB. The S/N ratio may be
specied anywhere within a system.
S
signalpower Ps
=
=
N
noisepower
Pn
(

S
N

= 10 log
dB

Ps
Pn

( NS )in
(unit less)
( NS )out

Noise Factor (or Noise Ratio): F =

Noise Figure: N F = 10 log F = SN Rin SN Rout dB

This parameter is specied in all high performance ampliers and is measure of how much
noise the amplier itself contributes to the total noise. In a perfect amplier or system, NF
= 0 dB. This discussion does not take into account any noise reduction techniques such as
ltering or dynamic emphasis.

Figure 96

3.12.1 Friiss' Formula & Amplier Cascades

It is interesting to examine an amplier cascade to see how noise builds up in a large
communication system.
( )
S
N

F = ( ) in =
S
N

Amplier gain can be dened as: G =

112

Sout
Sin

out

Sin Nout

Nin Sout

Noise Figure

Figure 97

Therefore the output signal power is: Sout = GSin

and the noise factor (ratio) can be rewritten as: F =

Sin
Nin

Nout
GS
=
in

Nout
GNin

The output noise power can now be written: Nout = F GNin

From this we observe that the input noise is increased by the noise ratio and amplier gain
as it passes through the amplier. A noiseless amplier would have a noise ratio (factor) of
1 or noise gure of 0 dB. In this case, the input noise would only be amplied by the gain
since the amplier would not contribute noise.
The minimum noise that can enter any system is the Johnson Noise:
Nin(minimum) = kT B
Therefore the minimum noise that can appear at the output of any amplier is:
Nout(minimum) = F GkT B
The output noise of a perfect amplier would be (F = 1):
Nout(perfect) = GkT B
The dierence between these two values is the noised created (added) by the amplier
itself:

Nout(added) = Nout(minimum) Nout(perfect) = F GkT B GkT B = (F 1) GkT B

This is the additional (created) noise, appearing at the output.
The total noise out of the amplier is then given by:

113

Transmission

Ntotal = Nout(perfect) + Nout(added) = GkT B + (F 1) GkT B

If a second amplier were added in series, the total output noise would consist the rst stage
noise amplied by the second stage gain, plus the additional noise of the second amplier:
Ntotal = G1 G2 kT B + (F1 1) G1 G2 kT B + (F2 1) G2 kT B
If we divide both sides of this expression by the common term: G1 G2 kT B
we obtain:
Ntotal
G1 G2 kT B + (F1 1) G1 G2 kT B + (F2 1) G2 kT B
=
G1 G2 kT B
G1 G2 kT B
Recall: F =

Nout
GNin

Ntotal
G1 G2 kT B

2 1
Then: Foverall = F1 + FG
1

This process can be extended to include more ampliers in cascade to arrive at:
Friiss' Formula
F = F1 +

F2 1 F3 1
+
+
G1
G1 G2

This equation shows that the overall system noise gure is largely determined by the noise
gure of the rst stage in a cascade since the noise contribution of any stage is divided by
the gains of the preceding stages. This is why the 1st stage in any communication system
should be an LNA (low noise amplier).

3.13 Receiver Sensitivity

In a given bandwidth, W, we can show that the noise power N equals:
N = F (kT0 )W
From N, we can show that the sensitivity of the receiver is equal to
SN R N

3.14 Cascaded Systems

This page will discuss the topic of signal propagation through physical mediums, such as
wires.

114

Transmission Line Equation

3.15 Transmission Line Equation

w:Transmission_line5
Many kinds of communication systems require signals at some point to be conveyed over
copper wires.
The following analysis requires two assumptions:
A transmission line can be decomposed into small, distributed passive electrical elements
These elements are independent of frequency (i.e. although reactance is a function of
frequency, resistance, capacitance and inductance are not)
These two assumptions limit the following analysis to frequencies up to the low MHz region.
The second assumption is particularly dicult to defend since it is well known that the
resistance of a wire increases with frequency because the conduction cross-section decreases.
This phenomenon is known as the skin eect and is not easy to evaluate.

Figure 98

The purpose behind the following mathematical manipulation is to obtain an expression that
denes the voltage (or current) at any time (t) along any portion (x) of the transmission
line. Later, this analysis will be extended to include the frequency domain.
Recall the characteristic equations for inductors and capacitors:
i
v = L t
and i = C v
t

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_line

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Transmission

3.15.1 Kircho's Voltage Law

Kircho's voltage law (KVL) simply states that the sum of all voltage potentials around a
closed loop equal zero. Or in other words, if you walked up a hill and back down, the net
altitude change would be zero.
Applying KVL in the above circuit, we obtain:
v (x, t) = Rxi (x, t) + Lx

i
(x, t) + v (x + x, t)
t

Rearranging:
i
(x, t)
t
But the LHS (left hand side) of the above equation, represents the voltage drop across
the cable element v, therefor:
v (x, t) v (x + x, t) = Rxi (x, t) + Lx

v = Rxi (x, t) + Lx

i
(x, t)
t

Dividing through by x, we obtain:

v
i
= Ri (x, t) + L (x, t)
x
t
The LHS is easily recognized as a derivative. Simplifying the notation:
v
i
= Ri + L
x
t
This expression has both current and voltage in it. It would be convenient to write the
equation in terms of current or voltage as a function of distance or time.

3.15.2 Simplifying the Equation (trust me)

The rst step in separating voltage and current is to take the derivative with respect to the
position x (Equation 1):
2v
i
2i
=R
+L
2
x
x
xt
The next step is to eliminate the current terms, leaving an expression with voltage only.
The change in current along the line is equal to the current being shunted across the
line through the capacitance C and conductance G. By applying KCL in the circuit, we
obtain the necessary information (Equation 2):
v
i
= Gv + C
x
t

116

Transmission Line Equation

Taking the derivative with respect to time, we obtain (Equation 3):
2i
v
2v
= G +C 2
xt
t
t
Substituting (Equation 2) and (Equation 3) into (Equation 1), we obtain the desired
simplication:
[

2v
v
v
2v
=
R
Gv
+
C
+
L
G
+
C
x2
t
t
t2

Collecting the terms, we obtain:

The Transmission Line Equation for Voltage
2v
v
2v
=
RGv
+
(RC
+
LG)
+
LC
x2
t
t2
This equation is known as the transmission line equation. Note that it has voltage at any
particular location x as a function of time t.
Similarly for current, we obtain:
The Transmission Line Equation for Current
2i
2i
i
+
LC
=
RGi
+
(RC
+
LG)
x2
t
t2
But we're not quite done yet.

3.15.3 Solving the Transmission Line Equation

Historically, a mathematician would solve the transmission line equation for v by assuming a
solution for v, substituting it into the equation, and observing whether the result made any
sense. An engineer would follow a similar procedure by making an educated guess based
on some laboratory experiments, as to what the solution might be. Today there are more
sophisticated techniques used to nd solutions. In this respect, the engineer may lag behind
the mathematician by several centuries in nding applications for mathematical tools.
To solve the transmission line equation, we shall guess that the solution for the voltage
function is of the form:
v (t) = ejt ex
The rst term represents a unity vector rotating at an angular velocity of radians per
second, in other words, a sine wave of some frequency. The second term denotes the sinusoid
being modied by the transmission line, namely its amplitude decaying exponentially with
distance. If we let be a complex quantity, we can also include any phase changes which
occur as the signal travels down the line.

117

Transmission
The sine wave is used as a signal source because it is easy to generate, and manipulate
mathematically. Eulers Identity shows the relationship between exponential notation and
trigonometric functions:
Euler's Identity
ejt = cos (t) + j sin (t)
Going back to our educated guess, we will let = + j, therefore:
v (t) = ejt e(+j)x = ex e(tx)j
The term ex represents the exponential amplitude decay as this signal travels down
the line. is known as the attenuation coecient and is expressed in Nepers per meter.
The term e(tx)j represents the frequency of the signal at any point along the line.
component is known as the phase shift coecient, and is expressed in radians per meter.
Substituting our educated guess
v (t) = ejt e(+j)x
into the transmission line equation for voltage, we obtain:
[
]
[ jt (+j)x ]
2 [ jt (+j)x ]
2 [ jt (+j)x ]
jt (+j)x
e
e
=
RG
e
e
+(RC
+
LG)
e e
e
e
+LC
x2
t
t2

This looks pretty intimidating, but if you can do basic dierentials and algebra, you can do
this!
Simplifying the Equation (trust me)
The idea now is to work through the math to see if we come up with a reasonable solution.
If we arrive at a contradiction or an unreasonable result, it means that our educated guess
was wrong and we have to do more experimenting and come up with a better guess as to
how voltage and current travel down a transmission line.
Let's look at this equation one term at a time:
LHS = RHS Term 1 + RHS Term 2 + RHS Term 3
Starting with the left hand side (LHS) we get the following simplication:
]
[
2 [ jt (+j)x ]
jt (+j)x
e
e
=

(
+
j)
e
e
= ( + j)2 ejt e(+j)x
x2
x
Believe it or not, the RHS Term 1 does not need simplifying.

Simplifying the RHS Term 2, we obtain:

118

Transmission Line Equation

(
)
[ jt (+j)x ]
e e
= (RC + LG) j ejt e(+j)x
t
Simplifying the RHS Term 3, we obtain:

(RC + LG)

]
[
2 [ jt (+j)x ]
jt (+j)x
e
e
=
LC
je
e
= LC 2 ejt e(+j)x
t2
t
Let's put it all back together:

LC

( + j)2 ejt e(+j)x = RG ejt e(+j)x +(RC + LG) j ejt e(+j)x LC 2 ejt e(+j)x
Note that each of the four terms contain the expression ejt e(+j)x .
Therefore we end up with:
( + j)2 = RG + (RC + LG) j LC 2
And this can be further simplied to:
Attenuation and Phase Shift Coecients

+ j = =

(R + jL) (G + jC)

This result is not self contradictory or unreasonable. Therefore we conclude that our educated guess was right and we have successfully found an expression for attenuation and
phase shift on a transmission line as a function of its distributed electrical components and
frequency.

3.15.4 Lossless Transmission Line

Signal loss occurs by two basic mechanisms: signal power can be dissipated in a resistor
[or conductance] or signal currents may be shunted to an AC ground via a reactance. In
transmission line theory, a lossless transmission line does not dissipate power. Signals, will
still gradually diminish however, as shunt reactances return the current to the source via
the ground path. For the power loss to equal zero, R = G = 0. This condition occurs when
the transmission line is very short. An oscilloscope probe is an example of a very short
transmission line. The transmission line equation reduces to the voltage equation:
2v
2v
=
LC
x2
t2
and the current equation:
2i
2i
= LC 2
2
x
t

119

Transmission
To determine how sinusoidal signals are aected by this type of line, we simply substitute
a sinusoidal voltage or current into the above expressions and solve as before, or we could
take a much simpler approach. We could start with the solution for the general case:

+ j = =

(R + jL) (G + jC)

Let R = G = 0, and simplify:

+ j =

(jL) (jC) = (LC)2 j

Equating the real and imaginary parts:

=0

= LC
This expression tells us that a signal travelling down a lossless transmission line,
experiences a phase shift directly proportional to its frequency.
Phase Velocity
A new parameter, known as phase velocity, can be extracted from these variables:
Vp =

1
LC

meters per second

Phase velocity is the speed at which a xed point on a wavefront, appears to move. In the
case of wire transmission lines, it is also the velocity of propagation., typically: 0.24c < Vp
< 0.9c .
The distance between two identical points on a wavefront is its wavelength () and since
one cycle is dened as 2 radians:
=

and = 2f

therefore:
Vp = f
In free space, the phase velocity is 3 x 108 meters/sec, the speed of light. In a cable, the
phase velocity is somewhat lower because the signal is carried by electrons. In a waveguide
transmission line, the phase velocity exceeds the speed of light.

3.15.5 Distortionless Transmission Line

A distortionless line does not distort the signal phase, but does introduce a signal loss. Since
common transmission lines are not super conductors, the signal will decrease in amplitude
but retain the same shape as the input. This characteristic is essential for long cable systems.

120

Transmission Line Equation

Phase distortion does not occur if the phase velocity Vp is constant at all frequencies.
By denition, a phase shift of 2 radians occurs over one wavelength .
Since
Vp = f

f=

Then:
Vp =

This tells us that in order for phase velocity Vp to be constant, the phase shift coecient
, must vary directly with frequency .
Recall

(R + jL) (G + jC) = + j

The problem now is to nd . This can be done as follows:

(

R + jL
G + jC
R
(jL)
(jC) = j LC 1 +
jL
jC
jL

1+

G
jC

It may seem that we have lost , but do not give up. The 2nd and 3rd roots can be expanded
by means of the Binomial Expansion.
Recall:
n (n 1) 2 n (n 1) (n 2) 3
x +
x +
2!
3!
In this instance n = 1/2. Since the contribution of successive terms diminishes rapidly,
is expanded to only 3 terms:
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx +

(
)

1 R
1
R 2
j LC 1 +

2 jL 8 jL

)(

1
1 G
1+

2 jC 8

G
jC

)2 )

This may seem complex, but remember it is only algebra and it will reduce down to simple
elegance. Expanding the terms we obtain:

j LC

(
)2

1
G
1 G

+ 1 R 14 RG
1
+

2 LC
2 jC

( 8 )2jC ( 2 jL
)2

16 jL jC
8 jL

(
)2
(
)2 (
)2

R
G
1
R
G
1
+
16 jL
jC
64 jL
jC

Since = + j, we merely have to equate the real and imaginary terms to nd .

121

Transmission

(
)
(
)
(
) (

1 G 2 1 RG
1 R 2 1
R 2 G
LC 1 +

+
+

8 C
4 2 LC 8 L
64 L
C

{z

Dierenceofsquares

{z

Verysmall

)2

Or

Note that if

R
L

G
C

1
LC 1 +
8

then LC

R
G

L C

)2 }

From this we observe that is directly proportional to .

Therefore the requirement for distortionless transmission is:
RC = LG
w:Heaviside_condition6
This is one of the essential design characteristics for a broadband coax cable network.
If we equate the real terms, we obtain:

RG

So there is a reason to study algebra after all!

3.16 The Frequency Domain

Signal analysis is often performed in the frequency domain. This tells us how the transmission line aects the spectral content of the signals they are carrying.
To determine this, it is necessary to nd the Fourier Transform of the transmission line
equation. Recall:
2v
v
2v
+
LC
=
RGv
+
(RC
+
LG)
x2
t
t2
and recall (hopefully) the Fourier Transform (which converts the time domain to the frequency domain):

F {f (t)} = F () =

122

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaviside_condition

ejt f (t) dt

The Frequency Domain

To prevent this analysis from blowing up, we must put a stipulation on the voltage function
namely, that it vanishes to zero at an innite distance down the line. This comprises a basic
boundary condition.
let

v 0 as x

This stipulation is in agreement with actual laboratory experiments. It is well known that
the signal magnitude diminishes as the path lengthens.
Likewise, a time boundary condition, that the signal was zero at some time in the distant
past and will be zero at some time in the distant future, must be imposed.
let

v0

as t

Although engineers have no diculty imposing these restrictions, mathematical purists, are
somewhat oended. For this and other reasons, other less restrictive transforms have been
developed. The most notable in this context, is the Laplace transform, which does not have
the same boundary conditions.
Having made the necessary concessions in order to continue our analysis, we must nd the
Fourier Transform corresponding to the following terms:
{

v
F
t

F {v}

2v
F
t2

F {v} = V

Let:

Then applying the transform on the derivative, we obtain:

{

v
F
t

ejt

v
dt
t

This equation can be solved by using integration by parts:

let

u dv = uv

u = ejt

v
F
t

=e

jt

v du

du = jejt

and dv =
{

v
t

v=v

(
)

v|
v jejt dt

Applying the boundary conditions when t goes to innity makes the 1st term disappear.

123

Transmission

v
F
t

= j

ejt v dt

Note that the resulting integral is simply the Fourier Transform. In other words:
{

v
t

= jF {v} = jV

similarly:
{

2v
F
t2

= (j)2 F {v} = (j)2 V

We can now write the transmission line equation in the frequency domain:
2V
= RGV + (RC + LG) jV + LC (j)2 V
x2
where:
V = V () = F {v (t)}
Rearranging the terms, we obtain:
2V
= [RG + (RC + LG) j + (jL) (jC)] V
x2
or
2V
= [(R + jL) (G + jC)] V
x2
since:

(R + jL) (G + jC) = + j =
then
2V
= 2V
x2
or
2V
2V = 0
x2
This represents the most general form of the transmission line equation in the frequency
domain. This equation must now be solved for V to observe how voltage (or current) varies
with distance and frequency. This can be done by assuming a solution of the form:

124

The Frequency Domain

x
x
V = Ae
| {z }
| {z } + Be
forwardwave

reversewave

These terms represent an exponential decay as the signal travels down the transmission
line. If we ignore any reections, assuming that the cable is innitely long or properly
terminated, this simplies to:
V = V0 ex
To verify whether this assumption is correct, substitute it into the equation, and see if a
contradiction occurs. If there is no contradiction, then our assumption constitutes a valid
solution.
2
V0 ex 2 V0 ex = 0
x2
)
( 2
V0 ex 2 V0 ex = 0
x

2 V0 ex 2 V0 ex = 0
0=0
Thus we validate the assumed solution. This tells us that in the frequency domain, the
voltage or current on a transmission line decays exponentially:
V = V0 ex
where:

(R + j) (G + j) = || = + j
= propagationconstant
= attenuationcoecient
= phasecoecient

In exponential notation, a sinusoid may be represented by a rotating unity vector, of some

frequency:
ejt = cos t + j sin t

125

Transmission
Note that the magnitude of this function is 1, but the phase angle is changing as a function
of t.
If we let: V0 = ejt
phasevs.tandx

e| x
{z }

Then: V0 = ejt ex = ejt e(+j)x =

}|

ej(tx)

attenuationvs.x

This result is quite interesting because it is the same solution for the transmission line
equation in the time domain. The term ex represents an exponential decay. The signal
is attenuated as length x increases. The amount of attenuation is dened as:
Attenuation in Nepers: N = |ln ex | = x
Attenuation in dB: = 20 log ex 8.68589x
This allows us to determine the attenuation at any frequency at any point in a transmission
line, if we are given the basic line parameters ofR, L, G, & C.
The term ej(tx) represents a rotating unity vector since:
ej(tx) = cos (t x) + j sin (t x)
The phase angle of this vector is x radians.

3.17 Characteristic Impedance

The characteristic impedance of a transmission line is also known as its surge impedance, and
should not be confused with its resistance. If a line is innitely long, electrical signals will
still propagate down it, even though the resistance approaches innity. The characteristic
impedance is determined from its AC attributes, not its DC ones.
Recall from our earlier analysis:
This page will discuss Wireless EM wave propagation, and some basics about antennas.

3.18 Isotropic Antennas

In communication we talk about 'antennas'; insects have 'antennae'

An isotropic antenna radiates it's transmitted power equally in all directions. This is an ideal
model; all real antennas have at least some directionality associated with them. However,
it is mathematically convenient, and good enough for most purposes.

126

Isotropic Antennas

A radio antenna is an example of an isotropic antenna

3.18.1 Power Flux Density

If the transmitted power is spread evenly across a sphere of radius R from the antenna, we
can nd the power per unit area of that sphere, called the Power Flux Density using the
Greek letter (capital phi) and the following formula:
=

PT
4R2

Where PT is the total transmitted power of the signal.

3.18.2 Eective Area

The eective area of an antenna is the equivalent amount of area of transmission power,
from a non-ideal isotropic antenna that appears to be the area from an ideal antenna.
For instance, if our antenna is non-ideal, and 1 meter squared of area can eectively be
modeled as .5 meters squared from an ideal antenna, then we can use the ideal number in
our antenna. We can relate the actual area and the eective area of our antenna using the
antenna eciency number, as follows:
=

Ae
A

The area of an ideal isotropic antenna can be calculated using the wavelength of the transmitted signal as follows:

A=

2
4

3.18.3 Received Power

The amount of power that is actually received by a receiver placed at distance R from the
isotropic antenna is denoted PR , and can be found with the following equation:
PR = R Ae
Where R is the power ux density at the distance R. If we plug in the formula for the
eective area of an ideal isotropic antenna into this equation, we get the following result:
PR =

PT
PT
=
(4R/)2 LP

127

Transmission
Where LP is the path-loss, and is dened as:
(

LP =

4R

)2

The amount of power lost across freespace between two isotropic antenna (a transmitter
and a receiver) depends on the wavelength of the transmitted signal.

3.19 Directional Antennas

A directional antenna, such as a parabolic antenna, attempts to radiate most of its power
in the direction of a known receiver.

A "satellite dish" is an example of a parabolic antenna

Here are some denitions that we need to know before we proceed:
Azimuth Angle
The Azimuth angle, often denoted with a (Greek lower-case Theta), is the angle that
the direct transmission makes with respect to a given reference angle (often the angle of
the target receiver) when looking down on the antenna from above.
Elevation Angle
The elevation angle is the angle that the transmission direction makes with the ground.
Elevation angle is denoted with a (Greek lower-case phi)

3.19.1 Directivity
Given the above denitions, we can dene the transmission gain of a directional antenna as
a function of and , assuming the same transmission power:
GT (, ) =

isotropic

3.19.2 Eective Area

The eective area of a parabolic antenna is given as such:

Ae =

128

D2
4

Link-Budget Analysis

3.19.3 Transmit Gain

Gmax =

4Ae
2

If we are at the transmit antenna, and looking at the receiver, the angle that the transmission
diers from the direction that we are looking is known as (Greek upper-case Psi), and
we can nd the transmission gain as a function of this angle as follows:
(

G() =

2J1 ((D/)sin())
sin()

)2 (

)2

Where J1 ( ) denotes the rst-order bessel function.

3.19.4 Friis Equation

The Friis Equation is used to relate several values together when using directional antennas:
PR =

PT GT GR
LP

The Friis Equation is the fundamental basis for link-budget analysis.

3.20 Link-Budget Analysis

If we express all quantities from the Friis Equation in decibels, and divide both sides by the
noise-density of the transmission medium, N0, we get the following equation:
C/N0 = EIRP LP + (GR /Te ) k
Where C/N0 is the received carrier-to-noise ratio, and we can decompose N0 as follows:
N0 = kT e
k is Boltzmann's constant, (-228.6dBW) and Te is the eective temperature of the noise
signal (in degrees Kelvin). EIRP is the "Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power", and is
dened as:
EIRP = GT PT
To perform a link-budget analysis, we add all the transmission gain terms from the transmitter, we add the receive gain divided by the eective temperature, and we subtract
boltzman's constant and all the path losses of the transmission.

129

Transmission

3.21 Further reading

Jean-Claude Wippler. "What if youre out of wireless range?"7 . 2013.
This page is all about Space-Division Multiplexing (SDM).
What is SDM: When we want to transmit multiple messages, the goal is maximum reuse of
the given resources: time and frequency. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM), operates by
dividing the time up into time slices, so that the available time can be reused. FrequencyDivision Multiplexing (FDM), operates by dividing up the frequency into transmission
bands, so that the frequency spectrum can be reused. However, if we remember our work
with directional antennas, we can actually reuse both time and frequency, by transmitting
our information along parallel channels. This is known as Space-Division Multiplexing.

3.22 Technical categorisations

3.22.1 Spatial Coding

3.23 Multipathing
3.24 Application systems
3.24.1 MIMO Systems
3.24.2 Smart antenna

130

http://jeelabs.org/2013/06/05/what-if-youre-out-of-wireless-range/

4 Digital Modulation
4.1 Denition
What is PAM? Pulse-Amplitude Modulation is "pulse shaping". Essentially, communications engineers realize that the shape of the pulse in the time domain can positively or
negatively aect the characteristics of that pulse in the frequency domain. There is no one
way to shape a pulse, there are all sorts of dierent pulse shapes that can be used, but in
practice, there are only a few pulse shapes that are worth the eort. These chapters will
discuss some of the common pulses, and will develop equations for working with any generic
pulse.

4.2 Square Wave

The most logical way to transmit a digital signal is through a stream of pulses. One distinct
pulse for a digital "1", and another distinct pulse for a digital "0". Intuitively, a square
pulse will transmit this data, and there are a number of dierent ways to transmit the data
using
The square wave is a basic choice for transmitting digital data because it is easy to transmit,
and is generally easy to receive. If we take the fourier transform of a square wave, we get a
sinc function. A sinc function is a never-ending function, which means that a square wave in
the time domain has a very wide bandwidth. When using a square wave, there will always
be a trade-o, because high-frequency components of the square wave will be attenuated
by the channel, and the resultant waveform will be more prone to error on the other end.

4.2.1 Unipolar Square Wave

A unipolar square wave is a wave where a logical 1 is transmitted using a square pulse of
height A. Then a logical 0 is transmitted with a 0 voltage.

4.2.2 Bipolar Square Wave

A bipolar square wave is a square wave where a 1 is transmitted with a pulse of height A/2,
and a 0 is transmitted with a pulse of -A/2.

131

Digital Modulation

4.3 Other pulses

It turns out that simply by changing the shape of the pulse (changing it away from a square
wave), we can create a signal with better properties: lower bandwidth, lower error rate,
etc... This section will talk about a few dierent pulses.

4.4 Sinc
By the property of duality, however, we can see that if we have a sinc wave in the time
domain, we will have a square-shape in the frequency domain. This is an interesting result,
because it means that we can transmit a sinc shape with denite bandwidth bounds, and
it can travel through a channel in its entirety without being attenuated, or losing any
harmonics!

4.5 Comparison
Here we will show a basic comparison between square pulses and sinc pulses:
Metric
Bandwidth
Jitter
Noise
ISS

Square Pulse
Large bandwidth
Not susceptible to Jitter
Very susceptible to Noise
Not aected by ISS

Sinc Pulse
Small bandwidth
Very susceptible to Jitter
Susceptible to Noise
Aected heavily by ISS

4.6 slew-rate-limited pulses

Most systems that use RS232, RS485, or high speed clocks use slew-rate-limited drivers.
Some use driver chips with integrated slew-rate limiting; other systems use digital driver
chips that put sharp square pulses on their output pins, then an external slew-rate-limiting
resistor1 between that output pin and the rest of the system.

4.7 Raised-Cosine Rollo

Sinc pulses use less bandwidth, but they are very susceptible
pulses have a large bandwidth, but are very resistant to jitter.
but the intrepid communications engineer will try to nd a
is called the "Raised-Cosine Rollo" pulse, and has the best

132

to jitter. Conversely, Square

The decision seems hopeless,
3rd option. The 3rd option
characteristics of each wave.

slew-rate-limiting resistor {http://massmind.org/techref/electips.htm#series_resistor}

Binary symmetric pulses

Raised Cosine Rollo (RCR) pulses are resistant to jitter, and at the same time have
reasonably good bandwidth. Granted the bandwidth of an RCR pulse is wider than a sinc
pulse, and the jitter resistance isn't as good as with a square wave, but this is a compromise,
after all.
Pulse
Rectangular
Sinc
RCR

Bandwidth
rb/2

Jitter Resistance
Excellent
Bad
Good

4.8 Binary symmetric pulses

A system uses binary symmetric pulses if it transmits only 2 kinds of pulse, s1 and s0 , and
s1 (t) = -s0 (t). In a symmetric case, our comparator circuits are very easy: If the correlator
outputs a positive value, it's a binary 1. If it outputs a negative value, it's a binary 0.

4.9 Asymmetric Pulses

Asymmetric pulses are more dicult for many reasons:
1. The threshold where the comparator should test the value may not be zero
2. The correlation receiver needs to correlate two dierent signals.
3. The dierent pulses may have dierent power, and they may be dierent susceptible
to noise.

4.10 Asymmetric Correlation Receiver

When asymmetric pulses are used, the receiver system must actually employ 2 coherent
optimal receivers, each one tuned to receive one of the pulses. When two coherent optimal
receivers are used, the receiver that is outputting the highest voltage value at the end of
time T has received it's pulse.
... why not employ only 1 coherent optimal receiver, tuned to receiver neither s0 nor s1, but
instead tuned to receive the dierence (s1 - s0) ? ...
Some PAM systems, such as Ethernet 100BASE-T2, use PAM-5 ...

4.11 References
(PAM)
This page discusses the binary modulation schemes and "keying".

133

Digital Modulation

4.12 What is "Keying?"

Square waves, sinc waves, and raised-cosine rollo waves are all well and good, but all of
them have drawbacks. If we use an optimal, matched lter, we can eliminate the eect of
jitter, so frankly, why would we consider square waves at all? Without jitter as a concern,
it makes no sense to correct for jitter, or even take it into consideration. However, since the
matched lter needs to look at individual symbols, the transmitted signal can't suer from
any intersymbol interference either. Therefore, we aren't using the sinc pulse.
Since the raised-cosine roll-o wave suers from both these problems (in smaller amounts,
however), we don't want to use that pulse either.
So the question is, what other types of pulses can we send?
It turns out that if we use some of the techniques we have developed using analog signal
modulation, and implement a sinusoidal carrier wave, we can create a signal with no intersymbol interference, very low bandwidth, and no worries about jitter. Just like analog
modulation, there are 3 aspects of the carrier wave that we can change: the amplitude, the
frequency, and the phase angle. Instead of "modulation", we call these techniques keying
techniques, because they are operating on a binary-number basis.
There is one important point to note before continuing with this discussion: Binary signals
are not periodic signals. Therefore, we cannot expect that a binary signal is going to
have a discrete spectra like a periodic squarewave will have. For this reason, the spectral
components of binary data are continuous spectra.

4.13 Amplitude Shift Keying

In an ASK system, we are changing the amplitude of the sine wave to transmit digitial data.
We have the following cases:
Binary 1: A1 sin(fc t)
Binary 0: A0 sin(fc t)
The simplest modulation scheme sets A0 = 0V (turning the transmitter o), and setting
A1 = +5V (any random non-zero number turns the transmitter on). This special case of
ASK is called OOK (On-O keying). Morse code uses OOK.
Another common special case of ASK sets A1 to some positive number, and A0 to the
corresponding negative number A0 = -A1. We will mention this case again later.
In ASK, we have the following equation:
a(t) sin(t)
by the principal of duality, multiplication in the time domain becomes convolution in the
frequency domain, and vice-versa. Therefore, our frequency spectrum will have the following
equation:

134

Frequency Shift Keying

A(j) (t )
where the impulse function is the fourier-transform of the sinusoid, centered at the frequency
of the wave. the value for A is going to be a sinc wave, with a width dependant on the
bitrate. We remember from the Signals and Systems2 book that convolution of a signal
with an impulse is that signal centered where the impulse was centered. Therefore, we
know now that the frequency domain shape of this curve is a sinc wave centered at the
carrier frequency.

4.14 Frequency Shift Keying

In Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), we can logically assume that the parameter that we
will be changing is the frequency of the sine wave. FSK is unique among the dierent
keying methods in that data is never transmitted at the carrier frequency, but is instead
transmitted at a certain oset from the carrier frequency. If we have a carrier frequency of
fc , and a frequency oset of f , we can transmit binary values as such:
Binary 1: A sin((fc + f )t)
Binary 0: A sin((fc f )t)
Similar to ASK, we have FSK, which uses 2 dierent frequencies to transmit data. For now
we will call them 1, 2. Using the same logic that we used above, the fourier representations
of these waves will be (respectively):
A1 (j) (t 1)
A0 (j) (t 2)
With one sinc wave centered at the rst frequency, and one sinc wave centered at the second
frequency. Notice that A1 and A0 are the half-square waves associated with the 1s and the
0s, respectively. These will be described later.

4.14.1 Error Rate

The BER of coherent QPSK in the presence of gaussian and Rayleigh noise is as follows:
{| border=1
|- | Gaussian Noise || Rayleigh Fading |- |

1
2

erfc

Eb
N0

1
2

0
2+0

|}

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Signals%20and%20Systems

135

Digital Modulation

4.15 Phase Shift Keying

PSK systems are slightly dierent then ASK and FSK systems, and because of this dierence, we can exploit an interesting little trick of trigonometry. PSK is when we vary the
phase angle of the wave to transmit dierent bits. For instance:
Binary 1: A sin(fc t + 1 )
Binary 0: A sin(fc t + 0 )
If we evenly space them out around the unit-circle, we can give ourselves the following nice
values:
Binary 1: A sin(fc t + 0)
Binary 0: A sin(fc t + )
Now, according to trigonometry, we have the following identity:
sin(fc t + ) = sin(fc t)
So in general, our equations for each signal (s) is given by:
s1 (t) = A sin(fc t)
s0 (t) = A sin(fc t)
Which looks awfully like an ASK signal. Therefore, we can show that the spectrum of a
PSK signal is the same as the spectrum of an ASK signal.
There are two commonally used forms of Phase Shift keying Modulation:
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
Binary Phase Shift keying is set out above.

4.15.1 QPSK
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying utilises the fact that a cosine wave is in quadrature to a
sine wave, allowing 2 bits to be simultaneously represented.

Binary
Binary
Binary
Binary

11:
10:
01:
00:

A sin(fc t + 0) + cos(fc + /2)

A sin(fc t + 0) + cos(fc /2)
A sin(fc t + ) + + cos(fc + /2)
A sin(fc t + ) + + cos(fc /2)

QPSK has the advantage over BPSK of requiring half the transmission band width for the
same data rate, and error probability.

4.15.2 Error Rate

The BER of coherent BPSK in the presence of gaussian and Rayleigh noise is as follows:
{| border=1

136

Binary Transmitters
|- | Gaussian Noise || Rayleigh Fading |- |

1
2

erfc

Eb
N0

1
2

0
1+0

|}

4.16 Binary Transmitters

4.17 Binary Receivers
Now what if try to cram more information into a single bittime? If we take 2 bits at a time,
and arrange them together, we can assign each set of 2 bits to a dierent symbol, and then
we can transmit the dierent symbols.

4.18 Pronunciation
First o, "M-ary" is not pronounced like the female name "mary". If you say "mary" to a
boardroom lled with engineers, they will laugh at you, and your boss will politely tell you
later to start cleaning up your desk. "M-ary" is pronounced like "em airy".

4.19 Example: 4-ASK

Let us use the following scheme:

"00"
"01"
"10"
"11"

=
=
=
=

+5V
+1.66V
-1.66V
-5V

we can see now that we can transmit data twice as fast using this scheme, although we need
to have a more complicated receiver, that can decide between 4 dierent pulses (instead of
2 dierent pulses, like we have been using).

4.20 Bits Per Symbol

All popular communication systems transmit an integer number of bits per symbol. We
can relate the number of bits ("k") and the number of dierent symbols ("m") with the
following equation:
m = 2k
This causes the number of symbols to be a power of two.
With M-ary modulation techniques, the "symbols per second" rate can be much slower than
the "bits per second" data rate.

137

Digital Modulation

4.21 QPSK
Quadrature phase shift keying (aka 4-PSK) is PSK modulation that has four points in the
constellation.

4.22 CPFSK (MSK)

[MSK]minimum shift keying

4.23 DPSK
4.24 For further reading
Wikipedia:Constellation_diagram3
Wikipedia:Quadrature amplitude modulation4
The quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) system of modulation is the most popular M-ary scheme5 .

4.25 Denition
Consider the case of a system with two carrier waves instead of a single carrier wave as we
have considered with modulation schemes so far. One is a sine wave, and the other is a
cosine wave of the same frequency. Since these two waves are orthogonal we can use them
simultaneously in a single channel without losing the information of either. If both waves
have the same frequency f we can write out the equation for a generic symbol, s:
s(t) = Ak sin(f t) + Bk cos(f t)
In this way, we can create multiple symbols by simply changing the values of A and B. This
equation can be broken up into two parts:
Ak sin(f t) Which is called the "in-phase" component of the equation.
Bk cos(f t) Which is called the "quadrature" component of the equation.
An equation which is written as a sum of a sine plus a cosine is said to be in "quadrature
form". If we combine the two components into a single waveform as such:

s(t) =

3
4
5

138

A2k + Bk2 cos(f t + tan1 (Bk /Ak ))

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation_diagram
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrature%20amplitude%20modulation
Chapter 4.17 on page 137

Constellation Plots
This form is called the "Polar Form" of the equation.

i Information
56K modems and Digital TV use QAM

4.26 Constellation Plots

If we make a graph with the X axis being the values for A, and the Y axis being the values
for B, we get what is called a Constellation Plot. These plots are called constellation
plots due to the similiarity in shape and layout with astronomical star charts. The A and B
values for each symbol are plotted (the "stars") and various measurements between them
are used to determine information from the system. On a constellation plot, we can see a
number of rules:
1. The further apart the points are on the constellation plot, the less likely they are to
be mistaken for each other in the presence of noise.
2. The closer the points are to the origin, the less power it takes to send.
3. The more points there are, the faster the data rate (bit rate) at a xed symbol rate
(more symbols)
4. The fewer points there are, the simpler and cheaper the hardware necessary to distinguish between them (fewer symbols, fewer thresholds in the receiver).
For these reasons there is no single "best" constellation plot, but it is up to the engineer
to pick the points that are best for the system. In other words, trade os need to be made
between speed, performance, and cost of hardware. These tradeos can be made by placing
the constellation points at dierent locations on the constellation plot.

4.27 Benets of QAM

Increase the eciency of transmission by utilising both amplitude and phase variations.
Reducing or eliminating intermodulation interference caused by a continuous carrier near
the modulation sidebands.

4.28 For further reading

w:quadrature amplitude modulation6 w:constellation diagram7
The quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) system of modulation is the most popular M-ary scheme.

6
7

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/quadrature%20amplitude%20modulation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/constellation%20diagram

139

Digital Modulation

4.29 Denition
Let us say that we have 2 carrier waves. One is a sine wave, and the other is a cosine wave.
Since these two waves are orthogonal, we can use them simultaneously, without losing the
information of either. If both waves have the same frequency, f, we can write out the
equation for a generic symbol, s:
s(t) = Ak sin(f t) + Bk cos(f t)
In this way, we can create multiple symbols by simply changing the values of A and B. This
equation can be broken up into two parts:
Ak sin(f t) Which is called the "in-phase" component of the equation.
Bk cos(f t) Which is called the "quadrature" component of the equation.
An equation which is written as a sum of a sine plus a cosine is said to be in "quadrature
form". If we combine the two components into a single waveform as such:

s(t) =

A2k + Bk2 cos(f t + tan1 (Bk /Ak ))

This form is called the "Polar Form" of the equation.

i Information
56K modems and Digital TV use QAM

4.30 Constellation Plots

If we make a graph with the X axis being the values for A, and the Y axis being the
values for B, we get what is called a "Constellation Plot". If A and B have discrete values,
then the constellation plot will show dots at points that correspond to values for A and B
coordinates. It is called a constellation plot because the layout of the dierent points can
look very similar to the layout of stars in the sky.
On a constellation plot, we can see a number of points:
1. The further apart the points are, the less likely they are to be mixed up
2. The closer the points are to the origin, the less power it takes to send.
1. The more points there are, the faster the data rate (bit rate) at a xed symbol rate.
2. The fewer points there are, the simpler and cheaper the hardware necessary to distinguish between them.
For these two reasons, there is no single "best" constellation plot, but it is up to the
engineer to pick the points that are best for the system. By placing the points manually,
the engineer is able to make trade-os between the power of the system, and the number of
bits per symbol (and therefore the bitrate).

140

Benets of QAM

4.31 Benets of QAM

4.32 For further reading
w:quadrature amplitude modulation8 w:constellation diagram9 (QAM)
1. REDIRECT Communication Systems/Noncoherent Receivers10

4.33 Line Codes

w:line code11
In addition to pulse shaping, there are a number of useful line codes that we can use to
help reduce our errors or to have other positive eects on our signal.
Line coding consists of representing the digital signal to be transported, by an amplitudeand time-discrete signal, that is optimally tuned for the specic properties of the physical
channel (and of the receiving equipment). The waveform pattern of voltage or current used
to represent the 1s and 0s of a digital signal on a transmission link is called line encoding.
The common types of line encoding are unipolar, polar, bipolar and Manchester encoding.
Line codes are used commonly in computer communication networks over short distances.
There are numerous ways digital information can be coded onto a transmission medium.
Some of the more common include:

8
9
10
11

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/quadrature%20amplitude%20modulation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/constellation%20diagram
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Systems%2FNoncoherent%20Receivers
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/line%20code

141

Digital Modulation

Figure 99

142

Line Codes

Figure 100

Each of the various line formats has a particular advantage and disadvantage. It is not
possible to select one, which will meet all needs. The format may be selected to meet one
or more of the following criteria:
Minimize transmission hardware
Facilitate synchronization
Ease error detection and correction
Minimize spectral content
Eliminate a dc component
The Manchester code is quite popular. It is known as a self-clocking code because there is
always a transition during the bit interval. Consequently, long strings of zeros or ones do
not cause clocking problems.

143

Digital Modulation

4.34 Non-Return to Zero Codes (NRZ)

w:non-return-to-zero12
Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) codes are a bit awkwardly named, especially considering
that the unipolar NRZ code does return to a zero value. In essence, an NRZ code is just a
simple square wave, assigning one value to a binary 1, and another amplitude to a binary
0.
NRZ codes are more bandwidth ecient than bipolar ones. However, their spectral components go all the way down to 0 Hz. This prevents them from being used on transmission
lines which are transformer coupled, or for some other reason cannot carry DC.

Figure 101

4.34.1 Unipolar NRZ

Unipolar NRZ is simply a square wave with +AV being a binary 1, and 0V being a binary 0.
NRZ is convenient because computer circuits use unipolar NRZ internally, and it requires
little eort to expand this system outside the computer. Unipolar NRZ has a DC term, but
a relatively narrow bandwidth.

4.34.2 Bipolar NRZ

Bipolar NRZ operates using a bipolar voltage supply rail. Marks typically are represented
using negative voltages (e.g., -9V), while spaces with positive voltages (e.g., +9V). For
example, RS-232C/EIA-232 signaling relies on bipolar NRZ.
-5V +5V -5V +5V -5V -5V +5V -5V -5V
1 0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1

12

144

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/non-return-to-zero

Non-Return to Zero Codes (NRZ)

Bipolar NRZ has similar bandwidth and DC balance issues as unipolar NRZ.

4.34.3 AMI
AMI (alternate mark inversion) is another example of a bipolar line code. Each successive
mark is inverted and the average or DC level of the line is therefor zero.

Figure 102

AMI is usually implemented as RZ pulses, but NRZ and NRZ-I variants exist as well.
One of the weaknesses of this approach is that long strings of zeros cause the receivers to
lose lock. It is therefor necessary to impose other rules on the signal to prevent this. For
example, combining NRZ-M with AMI yields MLT-3, the line coding system used with
100-base-T Ethernet.

4.34.4 CDI
The CDI(Conditioned Diphase Interface) bipolar line code is actually a slightly dierent
form of the original FM line coding used in single-density disk drives and audio cassette
tapes. Marks are encoded as alternate polarity full period pulses. Spaces are encoded by
half a period at the negative voltage and half period at the positive voltage. This coding
scheme has the advantage that it requires less logic to implement than HDB3.

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Digital Modulation

Figure 103

4.35 Manchester
w:Manchester code13
Manchester codes were an invention that allows for timing information to be sent along
with the data. In an NRZ code, if there is a long stream of ones or zeros, the receiver
could conceivably suer so much compound jitter that it would either lose or gain an entire
bit time, and then be out of sync with the transmitter. This is because a long stream of
1s or 0s would not "change state" at all, but instead would simply stay at a single value.
Manchester codes say that every single bittime will have a transition in the middle of the
bit time, so that a receiver could nd that transition, and "lock on" to the signal again, if it
started to stray away from center. Because there are more transitions, however, manchester
codes also require the highest bandwidth of all the line codes.

i Information
Ethernet LAN uses manchester codes

4.36 Dierential Codes

Some communication channels (such as phase-modulated sine waves and dierential twisted
pairs) have the characteristic that transitions between the 2 symbols used can be easily
distinguished, but when rst starting to receive it is dicult to tell which of the 2 states
it is in. For example, full-speed USB uses a twisted pair and transmits +3.3 V on one line
and 0 V on the other line for "1", but 0 V on the one line and +3.3 V on the other line
for "0". Because some cables have an extra half-twist in them, it is impossible for a device
that was just plugged in to tell whether the symbol it is currently receiving is a "1" or a
"0".
Dierential codes still work, not even noticing when the 2 wires get switched.

13

146

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester%20code

Comparison
Dierential codes, in general, look exactly the same on a oscilloscope or spectrum analyzer
as the non-dierential code they are based on, and so use exactly the same bandwidth and
have exactly the same bitrate.
Dierential codes that work when the 2 wires get switched include:
Dierential Manchester encoding -- based on Manchester encoding
Non-Return-to-Zero Inverted (NRZI) -- based on non-return-to-zero (NRZ)
(A few non-dierential codes also work even when the 2 wires get switched -- such as bipolar
encoding, and MLT-3 encoding).

4.36.1 Dierential NRZ

4.36.2 Dierential Manchester
Dierential Manchester encoding, also called biphase mark code (BMC) or FM1, is a line
code in which data and clock signals are combined to form a single 2-level self-synchronizing
data stream. It is a dierential encoding, using the presence or absence of transitions to
indicate logical value. It has the following advantages over some other line codes: A
transition is guaranteed at least once every bit, allowing the receiving device to perform
clock recovery. Detecting transitions is often less error-prone than comparing against a
threshold in a noisy environment. Unlike with Manchester encoding, only the presence
of a transition is important, not the polarity. Dierential coding schemes will work exactly
the same if the signal is inverted (wires swapped). (Other line codes with this property
include NRZI, bipolar encoding, coded mark inversion, and MLT-3 encoding). If the high
and low signal levels have the same voltage with opposite polarity, coded signals have zero
average DC voltage, thus reducing the necessary transmitting power and minimizing the
amount of electromagnetic noise produced by the transmission line.

4.37 Comparison
Code
Unipolar NRZ

Bandwidth
Low bandwidth

Bipolar NRZ

Lower bandwidth

Dierential NRZ

Lower bandwidth

Manchester

High bandwidth

Dierential
Manchester

Moderate bandwidth

Timing
No timing information
No timing information
No timing information
Good clock recovery
Good clock recovery

DC value
High DC component
No DC component
Little or no DC
component
No DC component
No DC Component

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Digital Modulation

4.38 further reading

Wikipedia:dierential coding14

14

148

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/differential%20coding

5 Analog Networks
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/Circuit Switching Networks1
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/Cable Television Network2
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/Radio Communications3

1
2
3

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FCircuit%20Switching%
20Networks
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FCable%20Television%20Network
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FRadio%20Communications

149

6 Digital Networks
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/Parallel vs Serial1
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/OSI Reference Model2
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/Channels3
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/Internet4
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/Ethernet5 (IEEE 802.3)
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/Wireless Internet6

1
2
3
4
5
6

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FParallel%20vs%20Serial
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FOSI%20Reference%20Model
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FChannels
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FInternet
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FEthernet
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FWireless%20Internet

151

7 Hybrid Networks
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/Analog and Digital TV1
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/Analog and Digital Telephony2

1
2

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FAnalog%20and%20Digital%20TV
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FAnalog%20and%20Digital%
20Telephony

153

8 Advanced Internet
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/Berkeley Socket API1
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/IP Protocol and ICMP2
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/TCP and UDP Protocols3
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/HTTP Protocol4
w:File Transfer Protocol5 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol
used to exchange and manipulate les over a TCP/IP based network, such as the Internet6 .
FTP is built on a client-server architecture and utilizes separate control and data connections between the client and server applications. FTP is also often used as an application
component to automatically transfer les for program internal functions. FTP can be used
with user-based password authentication or with anonymous user access.

8.1 Purpose
Objectives of FTP, as outlined by its RFC, are:

To
To
To
To
To

promote sharing of les (computer programs and/or data).

encourage indirect or implicit use of remote computers.
shield a user from variations in le storage systems among dierent hosts.
transfer data reliably, and eciently.
gain readability to the end user.

8.2 Connection methods

FTP runs over the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Usually FTP servers listen on
the well-known port number 21 (IANA-reserved) for incoming connections from clients. A
connection to this port from the FTP client forms the control stream on which commands
are passed to the FTP server and responses are collected. FTP uses out-of-band control;
it opens dedicated data connections on other port numbers. The parameters for the data

1
2
3
4
5
6

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FBerkeley%20Socket%20API
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FIP%20Protocol%20and%20ICMP
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FTCP%20and%20UDP%20Protocols
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FHTTP%20Protocol
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File%20Transfer%20Protocol
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Internet

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Advanced Internet
streams depend on the specically requested transport mode. Data connections usually use
port number 20.
In active mode, the FTP client opens a dynamic port, sends the FTP server the dynamic
port number on which it is listening over the control stream and waits for a connection from
the FTP server. When the FTP server initiates the data connection to the FTP client it
binds the source port to port 20 on the FTP server.
In order to use active mode, the client sends a PORT command, with the IP and port as
argument. The format for the IP and port is "h1,h2,h3,h4,p1,p2". Each eld is a decimal
representation of 8 bits of the host IP, followed by the chosen data port. For example, a
client with an IP of 192.168.0.1, listening on port 49154 for the data connection will send
the command "PORT 192,168,0,1,192,2". The port elds should be interpreted as p1256
+ p2 = port, or, in this example, 192256 + 2 = 49154.
In passive mode, the FTP server opens a dynamic port, sends the FTP client the server's
IP address to connect to and the port on which it is listening (a 16-bit value broken into a
high and low byte, as explained above) over the control stream and waits for a connection
from the FTP client. In this case, the FTP client binds the source port of the connection
to a dynamic port.
To use passive mode, the client sends the PASV command to which the server would reply
with something similar to "227 Entering Passive Mode (127,0,0,1,192,52)". The syntax of
the IP address and port are the same as for the argument to the PORT command.
In extended passive mode, the FTP server operates exactly the same as passive mode,
however it only transmits the port number (not broken into high and low bytes) and the
client is to assume that it connects to the same IP address that was originally connected
to.
While data is being transferred via the data stream, the control stream sits idle. This can
cause problems with large data transfers through rewalls which time out sessions after
lengthy periods of idleness. While the le may well be successfully transferred, the control
session can be disconnected by the rewall, causing an error to be generated.
The FTP protocol supports resuming of interrupted downloads using the REST command.
The client passes the number of bytes it has already received as argument to the REST
command and restarts the transfer. In some commandline clients for example, there is an
often-ignored but valuable command, "reget" (meaning "get again"), that will cause an interrupted "get" command to be continued, hopefully to completion, after a communications
interruption.
Resuming uploads is not as easy. Although the FTP protocol supports the APPE command
to append data to a le on the server, the client does not know the exact position at which
a transfer got interrupted. It has to obtain the size of the le some other way, for example
over a directory listing or using the SIZE command.
In ASCII mode (see below), resuming transfers can be troublesome if client and server use
dierent end of line characters.

156

Data format

8.3 Data format

While transferring data over the network, several data representations can be used. The
two most common transfer modes are:
ASCII mode
Binary mode: In "Binary mode", the sending machine sends each le byte for byte and
as such the recipient stores the bytestream as it receives it. (The FTP standard calls this
"IMAGE" or "I" mode)
In ASCII mode, any form of data that is not plain text will be corrupted. When a le
is sent using an ASCII-type transfer, the individual letters, numbers, and characters are
sent using their ASCII character codes. The receiving machine saves these in a text le in
the appropriate format (for example, a Unix machine saves it in a Unix format, a Windows
machine saves it in a Windows format). Hence if an ASCII transfer is used it can be assumed
plain text is sent, which is stored by the receiving computer in its own format. Translating
between text formats might entail substituting the end of line and end of le characters used
on the source platform with those on the destination platform, e.g. a Windows machine
receiving a le from a Unix machine will replace the line feeds with carriage return-line
feed pairs. It might also involve translating characters; for example, when transferring from
an IBM mainframe to a system using ASCII, EBCDIC characters used on the mainframe
will be translated to their ASCII equivalents, and when transferring from the system using
ASCII to the mainframe, ASCII characters will be translated to their EBCDIC equivalents.
By default, most FTP clients use ASCII mode. Some clients try to determine the required
transfer-mode by inspecting the le's name or contents, or by determining whether the
server is running an operating system with the same text le format.
The FTP specications also list the following transfer modes:
EBCDIC mode - this transfers bytes, except they are encoded in EBCDIC rather than
ASCII. Thus, for example, the ASCII mode server
Local mode - this is designed for use with systems that are word-oriented rather than
byte-oriented. For example mode "L 36" can be used to transfer binary data between two
36-bit machines. In L mode, the words are packed into bytes rather than being padded.
Some FTP servers accept "L 8" as being equivalent to "I".
In practice, these additional transfer modes are rarely used. They are however still used by
some legacy mainframe systems.
The text (ASCII/EBCDIC) modes can also be qualied with the type of carriage control
used (e.g. TELNET NVT carriage control, ASA carriage control), although that is rarely
used nowadays.
Note that the terminology "mode" is technically incorrect, although commonly used by FTP
clients. "MODE" in RFC 959 refers to the format of the protocol data stream (STREAM,
BLOCK or COMPRESSED), as opposed to the format of the underlying le. What is
commonly called "mode" is actually the "TYPE", which species the format of the le
rather than the data stream. FTP also supports specication of the le structure ("STRU"),
which can be either FILE (stream-oriented les), RECORD (record-oriented les) or PAGE

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Advanced Internet
(special type designed for use with TENEX). PAGE STRU is not really useful for nonTENEX systems, and RFC 1123 section 4.1.2.3 recommends that it not be implemented.

8.4 FTP return codes

FTP server return codes indicate their status by the digits within them. A brief explanation
of various digits' meanings are given below:
1xx: Positive Preliminary reply. The action requested is being initiated but there will be
another reply before it begins.
2xx: Positive Completion reply. The action requested has been completed. The client
may now issue a new command.
3xx: Positive Intermediate reply. The command was successful, but a further command
is required before the server can act upon the request.
4xx: Transient Negative Completion reply. The command was not successful, but the
client is free to try the command again as the failure is only temporary.
5xx: Permanent Negative Completion reply. The command was not successful and the
client should not attempt to repeat it again.
x0x: The failure was due to a syntax error.
x1x: This response is a reply to a request for information.
x2x: This response is a reply relating to connection information.
x3x: This response is a reply relating to accounting and authorization.
x4x: Unspecied as yet
x5x: These responses indicate the status of the Server le system vis-a-vis the requested
transfer or other le system action.

8.5 Anonymous FTP

A host that provides an FTP service may additionally provide anonymous FTP access.
Users typically login to the service with an 'anonymous' account when prompted for user
name. Although users are commonly asked to send their email address in lieu of a password,
little to no verication is actually performed on the supplied data.
As modern FTP clients typically hide the anonymous login process from the user, the ftp
client will supply dummy data as the password (since the user's email address may not be
known to the application). For example, the following ftp user agents specify the listed
passwords for anonymous logins:

Mozilla Firefox7 (3.0.7) mozilla@example.com

KDE8 Konqueror (3.5) anonymous@
wget (1.10.2) -wget@
lftp (3.4.4) lftp@

7
8

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Mozilla%20Firefox
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/KDE

158

Commands

8.6 Commands
Enter ftp /? in Windows, or ftp --help in Unix, to get the command parameters.
Once connected to a server, type help to display the dierent possible commands.
To manipulate the les with the mouth, download a good FTP client which will do the
interface (for example this Filezilla doesn't need any installation9 ).
1. REDIRECT Communication Networks/Routing10

9
10

http://portableapps.com/apps/internet/filezilla_portable
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Networks%2FRouting

159

9 Coding and Security

1. REDIRECT Data Coding Theory/Transmission Codes1
1. REDIRECT Data Coding Theory/Spectrum Spreading2
1. REDIRECT Data Coding Theory/Data Compression3
1. REDIRECT Data Coding Theory/Hamming Codes4

1
2
3
4

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Data%20Coding%20Theory%2FTransmission%20Codes
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Data%20Coding%20Theory%2FSpectrum%20Spreading
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Data%20Coding%20Theory%2FData%20Compression
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Data%20Coding%20Theory%2FHamming%20Codes

161

10 Appendices
The 802 portion of the IEEE is responsible for publishing standards on a number of dierent
protocols. Any chapter with a note such as (IEEE 802.3) is referring to the group below
that has published the currently accepted standard for that topic.
Working Group
802.1
802.2
802.3
802.4
802.5
802.6
802.7
802.8
802.9
802.10
802.11
802.12
802.14
802.15
802.16
802.17
802.18
802.19
802.20
802.21
802.22

Task
Higher Layer LAN Protocols Working Group
Logical Link Control Working Group
Ethernet Working Group
Token Bus Working Group
Token Ring Working Group
Metropolitan Area Network Working Group
Broadband TAG
Fiber Optic TAG
Isochronous LAN Working Group
Security Working Group
Wireless LAN Working Group
Demand Priority Working Group
Cable Modem Working Group
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) Working Group
Broadband Wireless Access Working Group
Resilient Packet Ring Working Group
Radio Regulatory TAG
Coexistence TAG
Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA)
Working Group
Media Independent Hando Working Group
Wireless Regional Area Networks

Status
Active
Inactive
Active
Disbanded
Inactive
Disbanded
Disbanded
Disbanded
Disbanded
Disbanded
Active
Inactive
Disbanded
Active
Active
Active
Active
Active
Active
Active
Active

163

11 Further reading
11.1 Wikibooks

Communication Theory1
Voice over IP2
Internet Technologies3
Networking:Ports and Protocols4
Internet Engineering5
Serial Communications Bookshelf6
Analog and Digital Conversion7
Wireless Mesh Networks8

11.2 Wikipedia Articles

Wikipedia:History Of Internet9

11.3 Books
Garcia and Widjaja, "Communication Networks: Fundamental Concepts and Key Architectures", Second Edition, McGraw Hill, 2004. ISBN 007246352X
Stern and Mahmoud, "Communication Systems: Analysis and Design", Prentice Hall,
2004. ISBN 0130402680
Silage, Dennis, "Digital Communication Systems Using SystemVue", DaVinci Engineering Press, 2006. ISBN 1584508507
Haykin and Moher, "Modern Wireless Communications", Prentice Hall, 2005. ISBN
0130224723
Gibson, Jerry D. "Principles of Digital and Analog Communications, Second Edition",
Macmillan Publishing Company, 1989. ISBN 0023418605

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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Communication%20Theory
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Voice%20over%20IP
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Internet%20Technologies
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Networking%3APorts%20and%20Protocols
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Internet%20Engineering
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Information%20technology%20bookshelf%23Serial%
20Communications
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Analog%20and%20Digital%20Conversion
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wireless%20Mesh%20Networks
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20Of%20Internet

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Aleksev2
Annieyc 20023
Avicennasis4
Az15685
Chazz6
CodeCat7
Cspurrier8
Darklama9
DavidCary10
Dirk Hnniger11
Everlong12
Frigotoni13
Ftiercel14
Gautamraj15
Glaisher16
Hagindaz17
JackPotte18
Jakec19
Jguk20
Jomegat21

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Adrignola
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Aleksev
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Annieyc_2002
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Avicennasis
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Az1568
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Chazz
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:CodeCat
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Cspurrier
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Darklama
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:DavidCary
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Dirk_H%25C3%25BCnniger
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Everlong
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Frigotoni
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Ftiercel
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Gautamraj
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Glaisher
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Hagindaz
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:JackPotte
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Jakec
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Jguk
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Jomegat

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Kar.ma23
L0g1c24
LlamaAl25
Mabdul26
Mattb11288527
Mike.lifeguard28
Panic2k429
Prav00130
Priyankgandhi31
QuiteUnusual32
Recent Runes33
Reece34
Savh35
Scud4336
Sigma 737
Sjlegg38
Tannersf39
Tegel40
Thenub31441
Upul42
Webaware43
Whiteknight44
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Xania46

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Jugandi
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Kar.ma
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:L0g1c
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:LlamaAl
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Mabdul
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Mattb112885
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Mike.lifeguard
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Panic2k4
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Prav001
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Priyankgandhi
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:QuiteUnusual
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Recent_Runes
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Reece
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Savh
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Scud43
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Sigma_7
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Sjlegg
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Tannersf
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Tegel
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Thenub314
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Upul
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Webaware
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Whiteknight
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Wknight8111
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Xania

Books
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Xerol47
YMS48
rico Jnior Wouters49

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Xerol
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:YMS
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:%25C3%2589rico_J%25C3%25BAnior_Wouters

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List of Figures
GFDL: Gnu Free Documentation License.
html

http://www.gnu.org/licenses/fdl.

cc-by-sa-3.0: Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0 License.

creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

http://

cc-by-sa-2.5: Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 2.5 License.

creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/

http://

cc-by-sa-2.0: Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 2.0 License.

creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/

http://

cc-by-sa-1.0: Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 1.0 License.

creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/1.0/

http://

cc-by-2.0: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 License. http://creativecommons.

org/licenses/by/2.0/
cc-by-2.0: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 License. http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en
cc-by-2.5: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 License. http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/2.5/deed.en
cc-by-3.0: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License. http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/3.0/deed.en
GPL: GNU General Public License. http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-2.0.txt
LGPL: GNU Lesser General Public License. http://www.gnu.org/licenses/lgpl.
html
PD: This image is in the public domain.
ATTR: The copyright holder of this le allows anyone to use it for any purpose,
provided that the copyright holder is properly attributed. Redistribution, derivative
work, commercial use, and all other use is permitted.
EURO: This is the common (reverse) face of a euro coin. The copyright on the design
of the common face of the euro coins belongs to the European Commission. Authorised
is reproduction in a format without relief (drawings, paintings, lms) provided they
are not detrimental to the image of the euro.
LFK: Lizenz Freie Kunst. http://artlibre.org/licence/lal/de
CFR: Copyright free use.

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List of Figures
EPL: Eclipse Public License. http://www.eclipse.org/org/documents/epl-v10.
php
Copies of the GPL, the LGPL as well as a GFDL are included in chapter Licenses50 . Please
note that images in the public domain do not require attribution. You may click on the
image numbers in the following table to open the webpage of the images in your webbrower.

50

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Chapter 13 on page 177

List of Figures

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Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Original uploader was Cuddlyable351 at en.wikipedia52
Later versions were uploaded by Noclip53 at en.wikipedia54 .
Adrignola, Darklama, Jugandi, Red4tribe
Original uploader was Krishnavedala55 at en.wikipedia56
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi, Mabdul
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi

GFDL

GFDL

http:////en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Cuddlyable3
http://en.wikipedia.org
http:////en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Noclip
http://en.wikipedia.org
http:////en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Krishnavedala
http://en.wikipedia.org

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Adrignola, Jugandi, Mike.lifeguard

Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
en:User:Jugandi57
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi, Mike.lifeguard
Original uploader was Cuddlyable358 at en.wikipedia59
Later versions were uploaded by Noclip60 at en.wikipedia61 .
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi, Red4tribe
Adrignola, Jugandi, Red4tribe
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi, Red4tribe
Adrignola, Jugandi, Red4tribe
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi, Original uploader was Pawe ucek62
at pl.wikipedia63
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi, Mike.lifeguard
Adrignola, Darklama, Jugandi

http:////en.wikibooks.org/wiki/en:User:Jugandi
http:////en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Cuddlyable3
http://en.wikipedia.org
http:////en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Noclip
http://en.wikipedia.org
http:////pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Pawe%C5%82_%C5%81ucek
http://pl.wikipedia.org

GFDL

GFDL

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unknown.
Original uploader
en.wikibooks65
unknown.
Original uploader
en.wikibooks67
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Jugandi
Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi, Fayaz2968
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi
Adrignola, Jugandi

was

Jugandi64

at

PD

was

Jugandi66

at

PD

http:////en.wikibooks.org/wiki/en:User:Jugandi
http://en.wikibooks.org
http:////en.wikibooks.org/wiki/en:User:Jugandi
http://en.wikibooks.org
http:///w/index.php?title=User:Fayaz29&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1

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13 Licenses
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part of a transaction in which the right of possession and use of the
User Product is transferred to the recipient in perpetuity or for a xed
term (regardless of how the transaction is characterized), the Corresponding Source conveyed under this section must be accompanied by
the Installation Information. But this requirement does not apply if
neither you nor any third party retains the ability to install modied object code on the User Product (for example, the work has been
installed in ROM).
The requirement to provide Installation Information does not include
a requirement to continue to provide support service, warranty, or updates for a work that has been modied or installed by the recipient,
or for the User Product in which it has been modied or installed.
Access to a network may be denied when the modication itself materially and adversely aects the operation of the network or violates
the rules and protocols for communication across the network.
Corresponding Source conveyed, and Installation Information provided, in accord with this section must be in a format that is publicly
documented (and with an implementation available to the public in
source code form), and must require no special password or key for
unpacking, reading or copying. 7. Additional Terms.
Additional permissions are terms that supplement the terms of this
License by making exceptions from one or more of its conditions. Additional permissions that are applicable to the entire Program shall be
treated as though they were included in this License, to the extent that
they are valid under applicable law. If additional permissions apply
only to part of the Program, that part may be used separately under
those permissions, but the entire Program remains governed by this
License without regard to the additional permissions.
When you convey a copy of a covered work, you may at your option
remove any additional permissions from that copy, or from any part
of it. (Additional permissions may be written to require their own
removal in certain cases when you modify the work.) You may place
additional permissions on material, added by you to a covered work,
for which you have or can give appropriate copyright permission.
Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, for material you
add to a covered work, you may (if authorized by the copyright holders
of that material) supplement the terms of this License with terms:
* a) Disclaiming warranty or limiting liability dierently from the
terms of sections 15 and 16 of this License; or * b) Requiring preservation of specied reasonable legal notices or author attributions in
that material or in the Appropriate Legal Notices displayed by works
containing it; or * c) Prohibiting misrepresentation of the origin of
that material, or requiring that modied versions of such material be
marked in reasonable ways as dierent from the original version; or *
d) Limiting the use for publicity purposes of names of licensors or authors of the material; or * e) Declining to grant rights under trademark
law for use of some trade names, trademarks, or service marks; or *
f) Requiring indemnication of licensors and authors of that material
by anyone who conveys the material (or modied versions of it) with
contractual assumptions of liability to the recipient, for any liability
that these contractual assumptions directly impose on those licensors
and authors.
All other non-permissive additional terms are considered further restrictions within the meaning of section 10. If the Program as you
received it, or any part of it, contains a notice stating that it is governed by this License along with a term that is a further restriction,
you may remove that term. If a license document contains a further
restriction but permits relicensing or conveying under this License, you
may add to a covered work material governed by the terms of that license document, provided that the further restriction does not survive
such relicensing or conveying.
If you add terms to a covered work in accord with this section, you
must place, in the relevant source les, a statement of the additional
terms that apply to those les, or a notice indicating where to nd the
applicable terms.
Additional terms, permissive or non-permissive, may be stated in the
form of a separately written license, or stated as exceptions; the above
requirements apply either way. 8. Termination.
You may not propagate or modify a covered work except as expressly
provided under this License. Any attempt otherwise to propagate or
modify it is void, and will automatically terminate your rights under
this License (including any patent licenses granted under the third
paragraph of section 11).
However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license
from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and nally terminates

your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days
after the cessation.
Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated
permanently if the copyright holder noties you of the violation by
some reasonable means, this is the rst time you have received notice
of violation of this License (for any work) from that copyright holder,
and you cure the violation prior to 30 days after your receipt of the
notice.
Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate the
licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you under
this License. If your rights have been terminated and not permanently
reinstated, you do not qualify to receive new licenses for the same
material under section 10. 9. Acceptance Not Required for Having
Copies.
You are not required to accept this License in order to receive or run
a copy of the Program. Ancillary propagation of a covered work occurring solely as a consequence of using peer-to-peer transmission to
receive a copy likewise does not require acceptance. However, nothing
other than this License grants you permission to propagate or modify
any covered work. These actions infringe copyright if you do not accept
this License. Therefore, by modifying or propagating a covered work,
you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so. 10. Automatic
Licensing of Downstream Recipients.
Each time you convey a covered work, the recipient automatically receives a license from the original licensors, to run, modify and propagate that work, subject to this License. You are not responsible for
enforcing compliance by third parties with this License.
An entity transaction is a transaction transferring control of an organization, or substantially all assets of one, or subdividing an organization, or merging organizations. If propagation of a covered work
results from an entity transaction, each party to that transaction who
receives a copy of the work also receives whatever licenses to the work
the party's predecessor in interest had or could give under the previous
paragraph, plus a right to possession of the Corresponding Source of
the work from the predecessor in interest, if the predecessor has it or
can get it with reasonable eorts.
You may not impose any further restrictions on the exercise of the
rights granted or armed under this License. For example, you may
not impose a license fee, royalty, or other charge for exercise of rights
granted under this License, and you may not initiate litigation (including a cross-claim or counterclaim in a lawsuit) alleging that any
patent claim is infringed by making, using, selling, oering for sale, or
importing the Program or any portion of it. 11. Patents.
A contributor is a copyright holder who authorizes use under this
License of the Program or a work on which the Program is based. The
work thus licensed is called the contributor's contributor version.
A contributor's essential patent claims are all patent claims owned
or controlled by the contributor, whether already acquired or hereafter
acquired, that would be infringed by some manner, permitted by this
License, of making, using, or selling its contributor version, but do
not include claims that would be infringed only as a consequence of
further modication of the contributor version. For purposes of this
denition, control includes the right to grant patent sublicenses in a
manner consistent with the requirements of this License.
Each contributor grants you a non-exclusive, worldwide, royalty-free
patent license under the contributor's essential patent claims, to make,
use, sell, oer for sale, import and otherwise run, modify and propagate the contents of its contributor version.
In the following three paragraphs, a patent license is any express
agreement or commitment, however denominated, not to enforce a
patent (such as an express permission to practice a patent or covenant
not to sue for patent infringement). To grant such a patent license
to a party means to make such an agreement or commitment not to
enforce a patent against the party.
If you convey a covered work, knowingly relying on a patent license,
and the Corresponding Source of the work is not available for anyone
to copy, free of charge and under the terms of this License, through
a publicly available network server or other readily accessible means,
then you must either (1) cause the Corresponding Source to be so
available, or (2) arrange to deprive yourself of the benet of the patent
license for this particular work, or (3) arrange, in a manner consistent
with the requirements of this License, to extend the patent license to
downstream recipients. Knowingly relying means you have actual
knowledge that, but for the patent license, your conveying the covered work in a country, or your recipient's use of the covered work
in a country, would infringe one or more identiable patents in that
country that you have reason to believe are valid.
If, pursuant to or in connection with a single transaction or arrangement, you convey, or propagate by procuring conveyance of, a covered
work, and grant a patent license to some of the parties receiving the
covered work authorizing them to use, propagate, modify or convey a
specic copy of the covered work, then the patent license you grant is
automatically extended to all recipients of the covered work and works
based on it.
A patent license is discriminatory if it does not include within the
scope of its coverage, prohibits the exercise of, or is conditioned on the
non-exercise of one or more of the rights that are specically granted
under this License. You may not convey a covered work if you are
a party to an arrangement with a third party that is in the business
of distributing software, under which you make payment to the third
party based on the extent of your activity of conveying the work, and
under which the third party grants, to any of the parties who would
receive the covered work from you, a discriminatory patent license (a)
in connection with copies of the covered work conveyed by you (or
copies made from those copies), or (b) primarily for and in connection
with specic products or compilations that contain the covered work,
unless you entered into that arrangement, or that patent license was
granted, prior to 28 March 2007.
Nothing in this License shall be construed as excluding or limiting any
implied license or other defenses to infringement that may otherwise
be available to you under applicable patent law. 12. No Surrender of
Others' Freedom.
If conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement
or otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do
not excuse you from the conditions of this License. If you cannot convey a covered work so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations
under this License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you may not convey it at all. For example, if you agree to
terms that obligate you to collect a royalty for further conveying from
those to whom you convey the Program, the only way you could satisfy

both those terms and this License would be to refrain entirely from
conveying the Program. 13. Use with the GNU Aero General Public
License.
Notwithstanding any other provision of this License, you have permission to link or combine any covered work with a work licensed under
version 3 of the GNU Aero General Public License into a single combined work, and to convey the resulting work. The terms of this License will continue to apply to the part which is the covered work, but
the special requirements of the GNU Aero General Public License,
section 13, concerning interaction through a network will apply to the
combination as such. 14. Revised Versions of this License.
The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions of the GNU General Public License from time to time. Such new
versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may dier
in detail to address new problems or concerns.
Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program
species that a certain numbered version of the GNU General Public License or any later version applies to it, you have the option of
following the terms and conditions either of that numbered version or
of any later version published by the Free Software Foundation. If
the Program does not specify a version number of the GNU General
Public License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free
Software Foundation.
If the Program species that a proxy can decide which future versions
of the GNU General Public License can be used, that proxy's public
statement of acceptance of a version permanently authorizes you to
choose that version for the Program.

Later license versions may give you additional or dierent permissions.

However, no additional obligations are imposed on any author or copyright holder as a result of your choosing to follow a later version. 15.
Disclaimer of Warranty.

THERE IS NO WARRANTY FOR THE PROGRAM, TO THE EXTENT PERMITTED BY APPLICABLE LAW. EXCEPT WHEN
OTHERWISE STATED IN WRITING THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND/OR OTHER PARTIES PROVIDE THE PROGRAM
AS IS WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER EXPRESSED OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO,
THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. THE ENTIRE RISK
AS TO THE QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF THE PROGRAM IS WITH YOU. SHOULD THE PROGRAM PROVE DEFECTIVE, YOU ASSUME THE COST OF ALL NECESSARY SERVICING, REPAIR OR CORRECTION. 16. Limitation of Liability.

IN NO EVENT UNLESS REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW OR

AGREED TO IN WRITING WILL ANY COPYRIGHT HOLDER,
OR ANY OTHER PARTY WHO MODIFIES AND/OR CONVEYS
THE PROGRAM AS PERMITTED ABOVE, BE LIABLE TO YOU
FOR DAMAGES, INCLUDING ANY GENERAL, SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF
THE USE OR INABILITY TO USE THE PROGRAM (INCLUDING
BUT NOT LIMITED TO LOSS OF DATA OR DATA BEING RENDERED INACCURATE OR LOSSES SUSTAINED BY YOU OR
THIRD PARTIES OR A FAILURE OF THE PROGRAM TO OPERATE WITH ANY OTHER PROGRAMS), EVEN IF SUCH HOLDER
OR OTHER PARTY HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY
OF SUCH DAMAGES. 17. Interpretation of Sections 15 and 16.

If the disclaimer of warranty and limitation of liability provided above

cannot be given local legal eect according to their terms, reviewing
courts shall apply local law that most closely approximates an absolute waiver of all civil liability in connection with the Program, unless a
warranty or assumption of liability accompanies a copy of the Program
in return for a fee.

You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
along with this program. If not, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.

END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS How to Apply These Terms

to Your New Programs

If the program does terminal interaction, make it output a short notice

like this when it starts in an interactive mode:

If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest

possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it
free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these
terms.

<program> Copyright (C) <year> <name of author> This program

comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show
w'. This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it under
certain conditions; type `show c' for details.

To do so, attach the following notices to the program. It is safest to

attach them to the start of each source le to most eectively state the
exclusion of warranty; and each le should have at least the copyright
line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.
<one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does.>
Copyright (C) <year> <name of author>
This program is free software: you can redistribute it and/or modify
it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
the Free Software Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or (at
your option) any later version.
This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but
WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty
of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU General Public License for more details.

Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper

mail.

The hypothetical commands `show w' and `show c' should show the
appropriate parts of the General Public License. Of course, your program's commands might be dierent; for a GUI interface, you would
use an about box.
You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or
school, if any, to sign a copyright disclaimer for the program, if necessary. For more information on this, and how to apply and follow the
GNU GPL, see <http://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.
The GNU General Public License does not permit incorporating your
program into proprietary programs. If your program is a subroutine
library, you may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary
applications with the library. If this is what you want to do, use the
GNU Lesser General Public License instead of this License. But rst,
please read <http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/why-not-lgpl.html>.

13.2 GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.3, 3 November 2008
Copyright 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation,
Inc. <http://fsf.org/>
Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies of this
license document, but changing it is not allowed. 0. PREAMBLE
The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other
functional and useful document "free" in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the eective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or
without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to
get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for
modications made by others.
This License is a kind of "copyleft", which means that derivative works
of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license
designed for free software.
We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free
software, because free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the
software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals;
it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or
whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.
1. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS

following text that translates XYZ in another language. (Here XYZ

stands for a specic section name mentioned below, such as "Acknowledgements", "Dedications", "Endorsements", or "History".) To "Preserve the Title" of such a section when you modify the Document
means that it remains a section "Entitled XYZ" according to this definition.
The Document may include Warranty Disclaimers next to the notice
which states that this License applies to the Document. These Warranty Disclaimers are considered to be included by reference in this
License, but only as regards disclaiming warranties: any other implication that these Warranty Disclaimers may have is void and has no
eect on the meaning of this License. 2. VERBATIM COPYING
You may copy and distribute the Document in any medium, either
commercially or noncommercially, provided that this License, the
copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies
to the Document are reproduced in all copies, and that you add no
other conditions whatsoever to those of this License. You may not use
technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or distribute. However, you may accept
compensation in exchange for copies. If you distribute a large enough
number of copies you must also follow the conditions in section 3.
You may also lend copies, under the same conditions stated above, and
you may publicly display copies. 3. COPYING IN QUANTITY

This License applies to any manual or other work, in any medium,

that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can
be distributed under the terms of this License. Such a notice grants a
world-wide, royalty-free license, unlimited in duration, to use that work
under the conditions stated herein. The "Document", below, refers to
any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and
is addressed as "you". You accept the license if you copy, modify or
distribute the work in a way requiring permission under copyright law.

If you publish printed copies (or copies in media that commonly have
printed covers) of the Document, numbering more than 100, and the
Document's license notice requires Cover Texts, you must enclose the
copies in covers that carry, clearly and legibly, all these Cover Texts:
Front-Cover Texts on the front cover, and Back-Cover Texts on the
back cover. Both covers must also clearly and legibly identify you as
the publisher of these copies. The front cover must present the full title
with all words of the title equally prominent and visible. You may add
other material on the covers in addition. Copying with changes limited
to the covers, as long as they preserve the title of the Document and
satisfy these conditions, can be treated as verbatim copying in other
respects.

A "Modied Version" of the Document means any work containing the

Document or a portion of it, either copied verbatim, or with modications and/or translated into another language.

If the required texts for either cover are too voluminous to t legibly,
you should put the rst ones listed (as many as t reasonably) on the
actual cover, and continue the rest onto adjacent pages.

A "Secondary Section" is a named appendix or a front-matter section of the Document that deals exclusively with the relationship of
the publishers or authors of the Document to the Document's overall
subject (or to related matters) and contains nothing that could fall
directly within that overall subject. (Thus, if the Document is in part
a textbook of mathematics, a Secondary Section may not explain any
mathematics.) The relationship could be a matter of historical connection with the subject or with related matters, or of legal, commercial,
philosophical, ethical or political position regarding them.

If you publish or distribute Opaque copies of the Document numbering

more than 100, you must either include a machine-readable Transparent copy along with each Opaque copy, or state in or with each Opaque
copy a computer-network location from which the general networkusing public has access to download using public-standard network
protocols a complete Transparent copy of the Document, free of added
material. If you use the latter option, you must take reasonably prudent steps, when you begin distribution of Opaque copies in quantity,
to ensure that this Transparent copy will remain thus accessible at the
stated location until at least one year after the last time you distribute
an Opaque copy (directly or through your agents or retailers) of that
edition to the public.

The "Invariant Sections" are certain Secondary Sections whose titles

are designated, as being those of Invariant Sections, in the notice that
says that the Document is released under this License. If a section does
not t the above denition of Secondary then it is not allowed to be
designated as Invariant. The Document may contain zero Invariant
Sections. If the Document does not identify any Invariant Sections
then there are none.
The "Cover Texts" are certain short passages of text that are listed,
as Front-Cover Texts or Back-Cover Texts, in the notice that says that
the Document is released under this License. A Front-Cover Text may
be at most 5 words, and a Back-Cover Text may be at most 25 words.
A "Transparent" copy of the Document means a machine-readable
copy, represented in a format whose specication is available to the
general public, that is suitable for revising the document straightforwardly with generic text editors or (for images composed of pixels)
generic paint programs or (for drawings) some widely available drawing
editor, and that is suitable for input to text formatters or for automatic
translation to a variety of formats suitable for input to text formatters.
A copy made in an otherwise Transparent le format whose markup,
or absence of markup, has been arranged to thwart or discourage subsequent modication by readers is not Transparent. An image format
is not Transparent if used for any substantial amount of text. A copy
that is not "Transparent" is called "Opaque".
Examples of suitable formats for Transparent copies include plain
ASCII without markup, Texinfo input format, LaTeX input format, SGML or XML using a publicly available DTD, and standardconforming simple HTML, PostScript or PDF designed for human
modication. Examples of transparent image formats include PNG,
XCF and JPG. Opaque formats include proprietary formats that can
be read and edited only by proprietary word processors, SGML or
XML for which the DTD and/or processing tools are not generally
available, and the machine-generated HTML, PostScript or PDF produced by some word processors for output purposes only.
The "Title Page" means, for a printed book, the title page itself, plus
such following pages as are needed to hold, legibly, the material this
License requires to appear in the title page. For works in formats
which do not have any title page as such, "Title Page" means the text
near the most prominent appearance of the work's title, preceding the
beginning of the body of the text.
The "publisher" means any person or entity that distributes copies of
the Document to the public.
A section "Entitled XYZ" means a named subunit of the Document
whose title either is precisely XYZ or contains XYZ in parentheses

It is requested, but not required, that you contact the authors of the
Document well before redistributing any large number of copies, to
give them a chance to provide you with an updated version of the
Document. 4. MODIFICATIONS
You may copy and distribute a Modied Version of the Document under the conditions of sections 2 and 3 above, provided that you release
the Modied Version under precisely this License, with the Modied
Version lling the role of the Document, thus licensing distribution
and modication of the Modied Version to whoever possesses a copy
of it. In addition, you must do these things in the Modied Version:
* A. Use in the Title Page (and on the covers, if any) a title distinct
from that of the Document, and from those of previous versions (which
should, if there were any, be listed in the History section of the Document). You may use the same title as a previous version if the original
publisher of that version gives permission. * B. List on the Title Page,
as authors, one or more persons or entities responsible for authorship
of the modications in the Modied Version, together with at least ve
of the principal authors of the Document (all of its principal authors,
if it has fewer than ve), unless they release you from this requirement. * C. State on the Title page the name of the publisher of the
Modied Version, as the publisher. * D. Preserve all the copyright
notices of the Document. * E. Add an appropriate copyright notice
for your modications adjacent to the other copyright notices. * F. Include, immediately after the copyright notices, a license notice giving
the public permission to use the Modied Version under the terms of
this License, in the form shown in the Addendum below. * G. Preserve
in that license notice the full lists of Invariant Sections and required
Cover Texts given in the Document's license notice. * H. Include an
unaltered copy of this License. * I. Preserve the section Entitled "History", Preserve its Title, and add to it an item stating at least the title,
year, new authors, and publisher of the Modied Version as given on
the Title Page. If there is no section Entitled "History" in the Document, create one stating the title, year, authors, and publisher of the
Document as given on its Title Page, then add an item describing the
Modied Version as stated in the previous sentence. * J. Preserve the
network location, if any, given in the Document for public access to a
Transparent copy of the Document, and likewise the network locations
given in the Document for previous versions it was based on. These
may be placed in the "History" section. You may omit a network
location for a work that was published at least four years before the
Document itself, or if the original publisher of the version it refers to
gives permission. * K. For any section Entitled "Acknowledgements"
or "Dedications", Preserve the Title of the section, and preserve in
the section all the substance and tone of each of the contributor acknowledgements and/or dedications given therein. * L. Preserve all

the Invariant Sections of the Document, unaltered in their text and

in their titles. Section numbers or the equivalent are not considered
part of the section titles. * M. Delete any section Entitled "Endorsements". Such a section may not be included in the Modied Version.
* N. Do not retitle any existing section to be Entitled "Endorsements"
or to conict in title with any Invariant Section. * O. Preserve any
Warranty Disclaimers.

Title (section 1) will typically require changing the actual title. 9.

TERMINATION

If the Modied Version includes new front-matter sections or appendices that qualify as Secondary Sections and contain no material copied
from the Document, you may at your option designate some or all of
these sections as invariant. To do this, add their titles to the list of
Invariant Sections in the Modied Version's license notice. These titles
must be distinct from any other section titles.

However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your license
from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a) provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and nally terminates
your license, and (b) permanently, if the copyright holder fails to notify you of the violation by some reasonable means prior to 60 days
after the cessation.

You may add a section Entitled "Endorsements", provided it contains nothing but endorsements of your Modied Version by various
partiesfor example, statements of peer review or that the text has
been approved by an organization as the authoritative denition of a
standard.
You may add a passage of up to ve words as a Front-Cover Text,
and a passage of up to 25 words as a Back-Cover Text, to the end
of the list of Cover Texts in the Modied Version. Only one passage
of Front-Cover Text and one of Back-Cover Text may be added by
(or through arrangements made by) any one entity. If the Document
already includes a cover text for the same cover, previously added by
you or by arrangement made by the same entity you are acting on
behalf of, you may not add another; but you may replace the old one,
on explicit permission from the previous publisher that added the old
one.
The author(s) and publisher(s) of the Document do not by this License give permission to use their names for publicity for or to assert or imply endorsement of any Modied Version. 5. COMBINING
DOCUMENTS
You may combine the Document with other documents released under
this License, under the terms dened in section 4 above for modied
versions, provided that you include in the combination all of the Invariant Sections of all of the original documents, unmodied, and list
them all as Invariant Sections of your combined work in its license
notice, and that you preserve all their Warranty Disclaimers.
The combined work need only contain one copy of this License, and
multiple identical Invariant Sections may be replaced with a single
copy. If there are multiple Invariant Sections with the same name
but dierent contents, make the title of each such section unique by
adding at the end of it, in parentheses, the name of the original author or publisher of that section if known, or else a unique number.
Make the same adjustment to the section titles in the list of Invariant
Sections in the license notice of the combined work.
In the combination, you must combine any sections Entitled "History"
in the various original documents, forming one section Entitled "History"; likewise combine any sections Entitled "Acknowledgements",
and any sections Entitled "Dedications". You must delete all sections
Entitled "Endorsements". 6. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS
You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies
of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is
included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this
License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other
respects.
You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy
of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License
in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document. 7.
AGGREGATION WITH INDEPENDENT WORKS
A compilation of the Document or its derivatives with other separate
and independent documents or works, in or on a volume of a storage or
distribution medium, is called an "aggregate" if the copyright resulting
from the compilation is not used to limit the legal rights of the compilation's users beyond what the individual works permit. When the
Document is included in an aggregate, this License does not apply to
the other works in the aggregate which are not themselves derivative
works of the Document.
If the Cover Text requirement of section 3 is applicable to these copies
of the Document, then if the Document is less than one half of the
entire aggregate, the Document's Cover Texts may be placed on covers that bracket the Document within the aggregate, or the electronic
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