School of Electrical and Computer Engineering ,

DDIT, Dire Dawa University, Ethiopia

Lecture Notes On Antennas and Radio Wave

Propagation

Instructor: Ermiyas Solomon

Ermiyas Solomon
March 10, 2022
 Contents

Contents

1 Antennas 4
1.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 TYPES OF ANTENNAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Wire Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Aperture Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Microstrip Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4 Array Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 RADIATION MECHANISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Single Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 Two-Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.3 Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.4 HISTORICAL ADVANCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 THE VECTOR POTENTIAL 𝐴 FOR AN ELECTRIC CURRENT SOURCE 𝐽 . . . 11
1.6 SOLUTION OF THE INHOMOGENEOUS VECTOR POTENTIAL WAVE EQUA-
TION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Fundamental Parameters of Antennas 15

2.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 RADIATION PATTERN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.1 Radiation Pattern Lobes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.2 Some concepts related to the pattern terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Pattern Beamwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.4 RADIATION POWER DENSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 RADIATION INTENSITY U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.6 Directivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.7 Antenna Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.8 Antenna Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.9 Beam Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

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Contents Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

2.10 Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.11 Effective Area (Aperture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.12 Radiation Efficiency and Antenna Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.13 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3 Wire Antennas 25
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 The Radiation Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3 Infinitesimal Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 Finite Length Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5 Half-Wavelength Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.6 Quarter-Wave Monopole Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.7 Loop Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.7.1 Small Circular Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.8 Radiation Density and Radiation Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.9 Radiation Intensity and Directivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

4 Antenna Arrays 38
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.2 Two-Element Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.3 N-Element Linear Array with Uniform Amplitude and Spacing . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3.1 Broadside Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.3.2 Ordinary End-Fire Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3.3 Phased (Scanning) Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.3.4 Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.4 Directivity of a Linear Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.4.1 Directivity of Broadside Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.4.2 Directivity of Ordinary End-Fire Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4.3 Directivity of Hansen-Woodyard Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.5 Nonuniform Amplitude Linear Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.5.1 Array Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.5.2 Binomial Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.5.3 Dolph-Tschebyscheff Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Ermiyas Solomon, 3
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
Chapter 1
Antennas

1.1 INTRODUCTION
An antenna is defined by Webster’s Dictionary as “a usually metallic device (as a rod or wire) for
radiating or receiving radio waves.” The IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas (IEEE
Std 145–1983) defines the antenna or aerial as “a means for radiating or receiving radio waves.”
In other words the antenna is the transitional structure between free-space and a guiding device,
as shown in Figure 1.1. The guiding device or transmission line may take the form of a coaxial
line or a hollow pipe (waveguide), and it is used to transport electromagnetic energy from the
transmitting source to the antenna, or from the antenna to the receiver. In the former case,
we have a transmitting antenna and in the latter a receiving antenna. A transmission-line
Thevenin equivalent of the antenna system of Figure 1.1 in the transmitting mode is shown
in Figure 1.2 where the source is represented by an ideal generator, the transmission line is
represented by a line with characteristic impedance 𝑍𝑐 , and the antenna is represented by a
load 𝑍𝐴 [𝑍𝐴 = (𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑟 ) + 𝑗𝑋𝐴 ] connected to the transmission line. The load resistance 𝑅𝐿 is
used to represent the conduction and dielectric losses associated with the antenna structure
while 𝑅𝑟 , referred to as the radiation resistance, is used to represent radiation by the antenna.
The reactance 𝑋𝐴 is used to represent the imaginary part of the impedance associated with
radiation by the antenna. Under ideal conditions, energy generated by the source should be
totally transferred to the radiation resistance 𝑅𝑟 , which is used to represent radiation by the
antenna. However, in a practical system there are conduction-dielectric losses due to the lossy
nature of the transmission line and the antenna, as well as those due to reflections (mismatch)
losses at the interface between the line and the antenna. Taking into account the internal
impedance of the source and neglecting line and reflection (mismatch) losses, maximum power
is delivered to the antenna under conjugate matching.
The reflected waves from the interface create, along with the traveling waves from the source
toward the antenna, constructive and destructive interference patterns, referred to as standing
waves, inside the transmission line which represent pockets of energy concentrations and

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1.2. TYPES OF ANTENNAS Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Figure 1.1: Antenna as a transition device.

Figure 1.2: Transmission-line Thevenin equivalent of antenna in transmitting mode

storage, typical of resonant devices. The losses due to the line, antenna, and the standing waves
are undesirable. The losses due to the line can be minimized by selecting low-loss lines while
those of he antenna can be decreased by reducing the loss resistance represented by 𝑅𝐿 in Figure
1.2. The standing waves can be reduced, and the energy storage capacity of the line minimized,
by matching the impedance of the antenna (load) to the characteristic impedance of the line.

1.2 TYPES OF ANTENNAS

We will now introduce and briefly discuss some forms of the various antenna types in order to
get a glance as to what will be encountered in the remainder of the course.

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March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
1.2. TYPES OF ANTENNAS Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Figure 1.3: Wire antenna configurations

1.2.1 Wire Antennas

Wire antennas are familiar to the layman because they are seen virtually everywhere—on
automobiles, buildings, ships, aircraft, spacecraft, and so on.

1.2.2 Aperture Antennas

Aperture antennas may be more familiar to the layman today than in the past because of
the increasing demand for more sophisticated forms of antennas and the utilization of higher
frequencies.

Figure 1.4: Aperture antenna configurations.

1.2.3 Microstrip Antennas

Microstrip antennas became very popular in the 1970s primarily for spaceborne applications.
Today they are used for government and commercial applications. These antennas consist of a

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School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
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March 10, 2022
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1.3. RADIATION MECHANISM Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

metallic patch on a grounded substrate. The microstrip antennas are low profile, comformable to
planar and nonplanar surfaces, simple and inexpensive to fabricate using modern printed-circuit
technology, mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces, compatible with MMIC
designs, and very versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization, pattern, and impedance.
These antennas can be mounted on the surface of high-performance aircraft, spacecraft, satellites,
missiles, cars, and even handheld mobile telephones.

Figure 1.5: Rectangular and circular microstrip (patch) antennas.

1.2.4 Array Antennas

Many applications require radiation characteristics that may not be achievable by a single
element. It may, however, be possible that an aggregate of radiating elements in an electrical
and geometrical arrangement (an array) will result in the desired radiation characteristics. The
arrangement of the array may be such that the radiation from the elements adds up to give a
radiation maximum in a particular direction or directions, minimum in others, or otherwise as
desired.

1.3 RADIATION MECHANISM

One of the first questions that may be asked concerning antennas would be “how is radiation
accomplished?” In other words, how are the electromagnetic fields generated by the source,
contained and guided within the transmission line and antenna, and finally “detached” from the
antenna to form a free-space wave?

1.3.1 Single Wire

Conducting wires are material whose prominent characteristic is the motion of electric charges
and the creation of current flow. Let us assume that an electric volume charge density, repre-
sented by 𝑞 𝑣 (𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠/𝑚3), is distributed uniformly in a circular wire of cross-sectional area
𝐴 and volume 𝑉 , as shown in Figure 1.9. The total charge 𝑄 with in volume 𝑉 is moving in the
𝑧 direction with a uniform velocity 𝑣𝑧 (meters/sec). It can be shown that the current density 𝐽𝑧
(𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠/𝑚2) over the cross section of the wire is given by

𝐽𝑧 = 𝑞 𝑣 𝑣𝑧 (1.1)

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School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
1.3. RADIATION MECHANISM Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Figure 1.6: Typical wire, aperture, and microstrip array configurations

If the wire is made of an ideal electric conductor, the current density 𝐽𝑠 (𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠/𝑚) resides
on the surface of the wire and it is given by
𝐽𝑧 = 𝑞𝑠 𝑣𝑧 (1.2)
where 𝑞𝑠 (𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠/𝑚 2 ) is the surface charge density. If the wire is very thin (ideally zero
radius), then the current in the wire can be represented by
𝐼 𝑧 = 𝑞𝑙 𝑣 𝑧 (1.3)
where 𝑞𝑙 (𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠/𝑚) is the charge per unit length. Instead of examining all three current
densities, we will primarily concentrate on the very thin wire. The conclusions apply to all
three. If the current is time varying, then the derivative of the current of (1-3) can be written as
𝑑𝐼𝑧 𝑑𝑣𝑧
= 𝑞𝑙 (1.4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑑𝑣𝑧
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎𝑧 (𝑚/𝑠 2 ) is the acceleration. If the wire is of length l, then (1-4) can be written as
𝑑𝐼𝑧 𝑑𝑣𝑧
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑞𝑙 (1.5)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
It simply states that to create radiation, there must be a time-varying current or an acceleration
(or deceleration) of charge. Therefore:
1. If a charge is not moving, current is not created and there is no radiation
2. If charge is moving with a uniform velocity:
• There is no radiation if the wire is straight, and infinite in extent.
• There is radiation if the wire is curved, bent, discontinuous, terminated, or truncated
3. If charge is oscillating in a time-motion, it radiates even if the wire is straight.

Ermiyas Solomon, 8
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
1.3. RADIATION MECHANISM Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

1.3.2 Two-Wires
Let us consider a voltage source connected to a two-conductor transmission line which is
connected to an antenna. This is shown in Figure 1.7(b). Applying a voltage across the two-
conductor transmission line creates an electric field between the conductors. The electric field
has associated with it electric lines of force which are tangent to the electric field at each point
and their strength is proportional to the electric field intensity. The electric lines of force have a
tendency to act on the free electrons (easily detachable from the atoms) associated with each
conductor and force them to be displaced. The movement of the charges creates a current
that in turn creates a magnetic field intensity. Associated with the magnetic field intensity are
magnetic lines of force which are tangent to the magnetic field.

Figure 1.7: Source, transmission line, antenna, and detachment of electric field lines.

1.3.3 Dipole
Now let us attempt to explain the mechanism by which the electric lines of force are detached
from the antenna to form the free-space waves. This will again be illustrated by an example of
a small dipole antenna where the time of travel is negligible. This is only necessary to give a
better physical interpretation of the detachment of the lines of force. Although a somewhat
simplified mechanism, it does allow one to visualize the creation of the free-space waves.

1.3.4 HISTORICAL ADVANCEMENT

The history of antennas dates back to James Clerk Maxwell who unified the theories of electricity
and magnetism, and eloquently represented their relations through a set of profound equations
best known as Maxwell’s Equations. His work was first published in 1873.In 1886, Professor
Heinrich Rudolph Hertz demonstrated the first wireless electromagnetic system. It was not
until 1901 that Guglielmo Marconi was able to send signals over large distances.He performed,

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School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
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1.4. RADIATION INTEGRALS . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Figure 1.8: Formation and detachment of electric field lines for short dipole.

in 1901, the first transatlantic transmission from Poldhu in Cornwall, England, to St. John’s
Newfoundland.This was the dawn of the antenna era.

(a) James Clerk Maxwell (b) Heinrich Hertz (c) Guglielmo Marconi

Figure 1.9: (a) Electromagnetics Pioneer, (b) Antenna Pioneer, (c) Wireless Pioneer

1.4 Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions

1.4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the analysis of radiation problems, the usual procedure is to specify the sources and then
require the fields radiated by the sources. This is in contrast to the synthesis problem where
the radiated fields are specified, and we are required to determine the sources. It is a very
common practice in the analysis procedure to introduce auxiliary functions, known as vector
potentials, which will aid in the solution of the problems. The most common vector potential
functions are the 𝐴 (magnetic vector potential) and 𝐹 (electric vector potential). Another pair is
the Hertz potentials Φ𝑒 and Φℎ . Although the electric and magnetic field intensities (𝐸 and 𝐻 )
represent physically measurable quantities, among most engineers the potentials are strictly
mathematical tools. While it is possible to determine the E and H fields directly from the
source-current densities J and M, as shown in Figure 3.1, it is usually much simpler to find the

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School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
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 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
1.5. THE VECTOR POTENTIAL 𝐴 . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

auxiliary potential functions first and then determine the 𝐸 and 𝐻 . This two-step procedure is
also shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 1.10: Block diagram for computing fields radiated by electric and magnetic sources.

1.5 THE VECTOR POTENTIAL 𝐴 FOR AN ELECTRIC CURRENT

SOURCE 𝐽
The vector potential 𝐴 is useful in solving for the EM field generated by a given harmonic
electric current 𝐽 . The magnetic flux 𝐵 is always solenoidal; that is, ∇ · B = 0. Therefore, it can
be represented as the curl of another vector because it obeys the vector identity

∇·∇×𝐴 = 0 (1.6)

where 𝐴 is an arbitrary vector. Thus we define

𝐵𝐴 = 𝜇𝐻 = ∇ × 𝐴 (1.7)

or
1
𝐻𝐴 = ∇×𝐴 (1.8)
𝜇
Substituting (2-3) into Maxwell’s curl equation
𝜕𝐵
∇×𝐸 = − = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻𝐴 (1.9)
𝜕𝑡
reduces it to
∇ × 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔∇ × 𝐴 (1.10)
From the vector identity
∇ × (−∇𝜙𝑒 ) = 0 (1.11)
and (3-5), it follows that
𝐸 + 𝑗𝜔𝐴 = −∇𝜙𝑒 (1.12)
The scalar function 𝜙𝑒 represents an arbitrary electric scalar potential which is a function of
position. Taking the curl of both sides of (2-2) and using the vector identity

∇ × ∇ × 𝐴 = ∇(∇ · 𝐴) − ∇2𝐴 (1.13)

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1.6. SOLUTION OF THE . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

reduces it to
∇ × 𝜇𝐻𝐴 = ∇(∇ · 𝐴) − ∇2𝐴 (1.14)
Equating Maxwell’s equation
∇ × 𝐻𝐴 = 𝐽 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖𝐸𝐴 (1.15)
to (3-9) leads to
𝜇 𝐽 + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜖𝐸𝐴 = ∇(∇ · 𝐴) − ∇2𝐴 (1.16)
Equating the equation we will get

∇2𝐴 + 𝑘 2𝐴 = −𝜇 𝐽 + ∇(∇ · 𝐴) + ∇( 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜖𝜙𝑒 ) (1.17)

In order to simplify (2-12), let

∇ · 𝐴 = −𝐽𝜔𝜖𝜇𝜙𝑒 (1.18)
which is known as the Lorentz condition. Substituting (2-13) into (2-12) leads to

∇2𝐴 + 𝑘 2𝐴 = −𝜇 𝐽 (1.19)

Where 𝐾 2 = 𝜔 2 𝜇𝜖

1.6 SOLUTION OF THE INHOMOGENEOUS VECTOR

POTENTIAL WAVE EQUATION
To derive it, let us assume that a source with current density Jz, which in the limit is an
infinitesimal source, is placed at the origin of a 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 coordinate system, as shown in Figure
2.2(a) Thus we can write (2-14) as

Figure 1.11: Coordinate systems for computing fields radiated by sources

∇2𝐴𝑧 + 𝑘 2𝐴𝑧 = −𝜇 𝐽𝑧 (1.20)

At points removed from the source (𝐽𝑧 = 0), the wave equation reduces to

∇2𝐴𝑧 + 𝑘 2𝐴𝑧 = 0 (1.21)

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1.6. SOLUTION OF THE . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Since in the limit the source is a point, it requires that 𝐴𝑧 is not a function of direction (𝜃 and
𝜙); in a spherical coordinate system, 𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴𝑧 (𝑟 ) where 𝑟 is the radial distance. Thus (2.15) can
be written as
1 𝜕[𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 ]
𝜕𝐴𝑧 (𝑟 ) ]
∇2𝐴𝑧 (𝑟 ) + 𝑘 2𝐴𝑧 (𝑟 ) = 2 + 𝑘 2𝐴𝑧 (𝑟 ) = 0 (1.22)
𝑟 𝜕𝑟
which when expanded reduces to

𝑑 2𝐴𝑧 (𝑟 ) 2 𝑑𝐴𝑧 (𝑟 )
+ + 𝑘 2𝐴𝑧 (𝑟 ) = 0 (1.23)
𝑑𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
The differential equation of (2-18) has two independent solutions

𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝐴𝑧1 = 𝐶 1 (1.24)
𝑟
𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝐴𝑧1 = 𝐶 1 (1.25)
𝑟
For this problem, the source is placed at the origin with the radiated fields traveling in the
outward radial direction. Therefore, we choose the solution of (2.19), or

𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴𝑧1 = 𝐴𝑧1 = 𝐶 1 (1.26)
𝑟
In the presence of the source (𝐽𝑧 = 0) and 𝑘 = 0, the wave equation of (2-15) reduces to

∇2𝐴𝑧 = −𝜇 𝐽𝑧 (1.27)

This equation is recognized to be Poisson’s equation whose solution is widely documented. The
most familiar equation with Poisson’s form is that relating the scalar electric potential 𝜙 to the
electric charge density 𝜌. This is given by
𝜌
∇𝜙 = − (1.28)
𝜖
whose solution is
˚
1 𝜌 0
𝜙= 𝑑𝑣 (1.29)
4𝜋𝜖 𝑉 𝑟
where 𝑟 is the distance from any point on the charge density to the observation point.By doing
this
˚
𝜇 𝐽𝑧 0
𝐴𝑧 = 𝑑𝑣 (1.30)
4𝜋 𝑉 𝑟
the time-varying solution of (2-15) can be obtained by multiplying the static solution of (2-24)
by 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 . Thus
˚
𝜇 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 0
𝐴𝑧 = 𝐽𝑧 𝑑𝑣 (1.31)
4𝜋 𝑉 𝑟

Ermiyas Solomon, 13
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
1.6. SOLUTION OF THE . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

which is a solution to (2-15). If the source is removed from the origin and placed at a position
0 0 0
represented by the primed coordinates (𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 ), as shown in Figure 2.2(b), (2-26) can be written
as
˚
𝜇 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 0
𝐴𝑧 = 𝐽 (𝑥 0, 𝑦 0, 𝑧 0) 𝑑𝑣 (1.32)
4𝜋 𝑉 𝑟

Ermiyas Solomon, 14
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
Chapter 2
Fundamental Parameters of Antennas

2.1 INTRODUCTION
To describe the performance of an antenna, definitions of various parameters are necessary.
Some of the parameters are interrelated and not all of them need be specified for complete
description of the antenna performance.

2.2 RADIATION PATTERN

An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as “a mathematical function or
a graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space
coordinates. Inmost cases, the radiation pattern is determined in the far field region and is
represented as a function of the directional coordinates. Radiation properties include power
flux density, radiation intensity, field strength, directivity, phase or polarization.” The radiation
property of most concern is the two- or three dimensional spatial distribution of radiated energy
as a function of the observer’s position along a path or surface of constant radius. A convenient
set of coordinates is shown in Figure 2.1. A trace of the received electric (magnetic) field at a
constant radius is called the amplitude field pattern. On the other hand, a graph of the spatial
variation of the power density along a constant radius is called an amplitude power pattern.
Often the field and power patterns are normalized with respect to their maximum value, yielding
normalized field and power patterns. Also, the power pattern is usually plotted on a logarithmic
scale or more commonly in decibels (dB). This scale is usually desirable because a logarithmic
scale canaccentuate in more details those parts of the pattern that have very low values, which
later we will refer to as minor lobes. For an antenna, the
a field pattern(in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the magnitude of the electric or
magnetic field as a function of the angular space.

15
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
2.2. RADIATION PATTERN Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

b power pattern(in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the square of the magnitude
of the electric or magnetic field as a function of the angular space.
c power pattern(in dB) represents the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field, in decibels,
as a function of the angular space
To find the points where the pattern achieves its half-power (3 dB points), relative to the
maximum value of the pattern, you set the value of the
a field pattern at 0.707 value of its maximum, as shown in Figure 2.2(a)
b power pattern (in a linear scale) at its 0.5 value of its maximum, as shown in Figure 2.2(b)
c power pattern (in dB) at 3 dB value of its maximum, as shown in Figure 2.2(c).

Figure 2.1: Two-dimensional normalized field pattern(linear scale), power pattern(linear scale),
and power pattern(in dB) of a 10-element linear array with a spacing of d = 0.25.

Ermiyas Solomon, 16
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
2.2. RADIATION PATTERN Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

2.2.1 Radiation Pattern Lobes

Various parts of a radiation pattern are referred to as lobes, which may be subclassified into
major or main, minor, side, an d back lobes. A radiation lobe is a “portion of the radiation
pattern bounded by regions of relatively weak radiation intensity.” Figure 2.2(a) demonstrates
a symmetrical three dimensional polar pattern with a number of radiation lobes. Some are of
greater radiation intensity than others, but all are classified as lobes. A major lobe (also called

Figure 2.2: Radiation lobes and beamwidths of an antenna pattern. (b) Linear plot of power
pattern and its associated lobes and beamwidths.

main beam) is defined as “the radiation lobe containing the direction of maximum radiation.”
A minor lobe is any lobe except a major lobe. A side lobe is “a radiation lobe in any direction
other than the intended lobe.” (Usually a side lobe is adjacent to the main lobe and occupies
the hemisphere in the direction of the main beam.) A back lobe is “a radiation lobe whose axis
makes an angle of approximately 180◦ with respect to the beam of an antenna.”
Minor lobes usually represent radiation in undesired directions, and they should be minimized.
Side lobes are normally the largest of the minor lobes.

2.2.2 Some concepts related to the pattern terminology

1 Isotropic pattern is the pattern of an antenna having equal radiation in all directions.
This is an ideal (not physically achievable) concept. However, it is used to define other
antenna parameters. It is represented simply by a sphere whose center coincides with the
location of the isotropic radiator.
2 Directional antenna is an antenna, which radiates (receives) much more efficiently in
some directions than in others. Usually, this term is applied to antennas whose directivity
is much higher than that of a half-wavelength dipole.
3 Omnidirectional antenna is an antenna, which has a non-directional pattern in a given
plane, and a directional pattern in any orthogonal plane (e.g. single-wire antenna; it is
non-directional in the azimuth plane [𝑓 (𝜙); 𝜃 = 𝜋2 ] and directional in the elevation plane
[𝑔(𝜃 ); 𝜙 = const:]).

Ermiyas Solomon, 17
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
2.3. PATTERN BEAMWIDTH Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

4 Principal patterns are the 2-D patterns of linearly polarized antennas, measured in
the E-plane (a plane parallel to the E vector and containing the direction of maximum
radiation) and in the H-plane (a plane parallel to the H vector, orthogonal to the E-plane,
and containing the direction of maximum radiation)
5 Pattern lobe is a portion of the radiation pattern bounded by regions of relatively weak
radiation intensity. Lobes are classified as: major, minor, side, and back lobes.

2.3 Pattern Beamwidth

Half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is the angle between two vectors, originating at the pattern’s
origin and passing through these points of the major lobe where the radiation intensity is half
its maximum.
First-null beamwidth (FNBW) is the angle between two vectors, originating at the pattern’s origin
and tangent to the main beam at its base (see Figure 2.2). Often, it is true that 𝐹 𝑁 𝐵𝑊 2𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 . The
HPBW is the best parameter to describe the antenna resolution properties. In radar technology
as well as in radio-astronomy, the antenna resolution capability is of primary importance

2.4 RADIATION POWER DENSITY

Electromagnetic waves are used to transport information through a wireless medium or a
guiding structure, from one point to the other. It is then natural to assume that power and
energy are associated with electromagnetic fields. The quantity used to describe the power
associated with an electromagnetic wave is the instantaneous Poynting vector defined as

W = E × H× (2.1)

- W=instantaneous Poynting vector (𝑊 /𝑚 2 )

- E= instantaneous electric-field intensity (𝑉 /𝑚)
- H = instantaneous magnetic-field intensity (𝐴/𝑚)
Since the Poynting vector is a power density, the total power crossing a closed surface can be
obtained by integrating the normal component of the Poynting vector over the entire surface.
In equation form
‹ ‹
P= W · 𝑑𝑠 = ˜
W · 𝑛𝑑𝑎 (2.2)
𝑉 𝑉

- P = instantaneous total power (W)

- 𝑛˜ = unit vector normal to the surface
- 𝑑𝑎 = infinitesimal area of the closed surface (𝑚2)

Ermiyas Solomon, 18
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
2.5. RADIATION INTENSITY U Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

For applications of time-varying fields, it is often more desirable to find the average power
density which is obtained by integrating the instantaneous Poynting vector over one period
and dividing by the period. The time average Poynting vector (average power density) can be
written as
1
𝑊𝑎𝑣 = 𝑅𝑒 [𝐸 × 𝐻 ∗ ] (2.3)
2
Based upon the definition of (2-3), the average power radiated by an antenna (radiated power)
can be written as
‹ ‹
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = W𝑟𝑎𝑑 · 𝑑𝑠 = ˜
W𝑎𝑣 · 𝑛𝑑𝑎 (2.4)
𝑉 𝑉

Exercise2.1: The radial component of the radiated power density of an antenna is given by

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑊𝑟 == 𝑎𝑟 𝐴0
𝑟
where 𝐴0 is the peak value of the power density, 𝜃 is the usual spherical coordinate, and 𝑎𝑟 is
the radial unit vector. Determine the total radiated power
An isotropic radiator is an ideal source that radiates equally in all directions. Although it does
not exist in practice, it provides a convenient isotropic reference with which to compare other
antennas.
‹ ˆ 2𝜋 ˆ 𝜋
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 · 𝑑𝑠 = [𝑎𝑟 𝑊0 (𝑟 )] · [𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙] = 4𝜋𝑟 2𝑊0 (2.5)
𝑉 0 0

and the power density by

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑊0 = 𝑎𝑟 ( )𝑊 /𝑚 2 (2.6)
4𝜋𝑟 2
which is uniformly distributed over the surface of a sphere of radius 𝑟 .

2.5 RADIATION INTENSITY U

Radiation intensity in a given direction is the power per unit solid angle radiated in this direction
by the antenna.
𝑑𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑈 = (2.7)
𝑑Ω
Where 𝑑 Ω = 𝑑𝐴
𝑟2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 The radiated power can be expressed as
˛ ˆ 2𝜋 ˆ 𝜋
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑈 𝑑Ω = 𝑈 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 (2.8)
Ω 0 0

We can relate the power density to the radiation intensity as

𝑑𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑈
𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 = = 2 = (2.9)
𝑑𝐴 𝑟 𝑑Ω 𝑟2

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School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
2.6. DIRECTIVITY Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

therefore
𝑈 = 𝑟 2𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 (2.10)
Thus the the radiation intensity U depends only on the direction (𝜃 ; 𝜙) but not on the distance r.
For isotropic radiator
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑈0 = (2.11)
4𝜋
In the far-field zone, the radial field components vanish, and the remaining transverse compo-
nents of the electric and the magnetic far field vectors are in phase and have magnitudes related
by
|𝐸| = 𝜂|𝐻 | (2.12)
That is why the far-field Poynting vector has only a radial component and it is a real number
showing the radiation power flow density:

1 |𝐸| 2 1
𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 = = 𝜂|𝐻 2 | (2.13)
2 𝜂 2
Then the radiation intensity in terms of the electric field becomes

𝑟2 2
𝑈 (𝜃 .𝜙) = |𝐸| (2.14)
2𝜂

Exercise 2.2: The electric field of an infinitesimal dipole in the far-field is given by

𝑘𝐼𝑂 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝐸 = 𝑗𝜂 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
4𝜋𝑟 2
Show that its radiation intensity is 𝑈 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 .

2.6 Directivity
Directivity of an antenna (in a given direction) is the ratio of the radiation intensity in this
direction and the radiation intensity averaged over all directions. The radiation intensity
averaged over all directions is equal to the total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4. If
a direction is not specified, then the direction of maximum radiation is implied.
𝑈 4𝜋𝑈
𝐷= = (2.15)
𝑈 0 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
where 𝑈 0 is the radiation intensity of isotropic source

Exercise 2.3
• Find the directivity of an isotropic radiator.
• Find the directivity of an infinitesimal dipole.
• Calculate the maximum directivity of an antenna with a radiation intensity 𝑈 = 𝑀𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

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School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
2.7. ANTENNA GAIN Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

2.7 Antenna Gain

The gain 𝐺 of an antenna is the ratio of the radiation intensity 𝑈 in a given direction and
the radiation intensity that would be obtained, if the power fed to the antenna were radiated
isotropically.
𝑈 (𝜃, 𝜙)
𝐺 (𝜃, 𝜙) = 4𝜋 (2.16)
𝑃𝑖𝑛
The gain is a dimensionless quantity, which is very similar to the directivity D. When the
antenna has no losses, i.e. when Pin = Prad, then 𝐺 (𝜃 ; 𝜙) = 𝐷 (𝜃 ; 𝜙). Thus, the gain of the
antenna takes into account the losses in the antenna system. It is calculated using the input
power 𝑃𝑖𝑛 , which can be measured directly. In contrast, the directivity is calculated via the
radiated power 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 .
There are many factors that can worsen the transfer of energy from the transmitter to the
antenna (or from the antenna to the receiver)
• mismatch losses,
• losses in the transmission line,
• losses in the antenna: dielectric losses, conduction losses, polarization losses.
The power radiated by the antenna is always less than the power fed to the antenna system,
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 ≤ 𝑃𝑖𝑛, unless the antenna has integrated active devices. That is why usually 𝐺 ≤ 𝐷. The
radiated power is related to the input power through a coefficient called the radiation efficiency:

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑒 · 𝑃𝑖𝑛 , 𝑒 ≤ 1 (2.17)

𝐺 (𝜃, 𝜙) = 𝑒 · 𝐷 (𝜃, 𝜙) (2.18)

2.8 Antenna Efficiency

The total efficiency of the antenna e0 is used to estimate the total loss of energy at the input
terminals of the antenna and within the antenna structure. It includes all mismatch losses and
the dielectric/conduction losses.
𝑒 0 = 𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑐 𝑒𝑑 (2.19)
Where
𝑒 0 = total efficiency (dimensionless)
𝑒𝑟 = reflection(mismatch) efficiency = (1 − |Γ| 2 )
Γ = voltage reflection coefficient at the input terminals of the antenna
−𝑍 0
Γ = 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑛
𝑖𝑛 +𝑍 0
where 𝑍𝑖𝑛 = antenna input impedance, 𝑍 0 = characteristic impedance of the trans-
mission line

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School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
2.9. BEAM EFFICIENCY Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

2.9 Beam Efficiency

The beam efficiency is the ratio of the power radiated in a cone of angle 2Θ and the total radiated
power. The angle 2Θ can be generally any angle, but usually this is the first-null beam width.
´ 2𝜋 ´ Θ
𝑈 (𝜃, 𝜙)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
𝐵𝐸 = ´02𝜋 ´0𝜋 (2.20)
0 0 𝑈 (𝜃, 𝜙)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙

Very high beam-efficiency antennas are needed in radars, radiometry and astronomy.

2.10 Input Impedance

Input impedance is defined as the impedance presented by an antenna at its terminals or the
ratio of the voltage to current at a pair of terminals or the ratio of the appropriate components
of the electric to magnetic fields at a point.

𝑍𝐴 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑗𝑋𝐴 (2.21)

Here, 𝑅𝐴 is the antenna resistance and 𝑋𝐴 is the antenna reactance. Generally,the antenna
resistance has two terms:
𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 (2.22)
where 𝑅𝑟 is the radiation resistance and 𝑅𝐿 is the loss resistance. The radiation resistance relates
the radiated power to the voltage (or current) at the antenna terminals. For example, in the
Thevenin equivalent, the following holds:
2𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑅𝑟 = (2.23)
|𝐼 | 2
Equivalent circuits of the transmitting and receiving antenna are shown in the figures below.

2.11 Effective Area (Aperture)

The effective antenna aperture 𝐴𝑒 is the ratio of the available power at the terminals of the
antenna to the power flux density of a plane wave incident upon the antenna, which is matched
to the antenna in terms of polarization. If no direction is specified, the direction of maximum
radiation is implied
𝑃𝑇 |𝐼𝑇 | 2𝑅𝑇 /2
𝐴𝑒 = = (2.24)
𝑊𝑖 𝑊𝑖
Where
𝐴𝑒 is the effective aperture, (𝑚 2 )
𝑃𝑇 is the power delivered from the antenna to the load, (W)

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School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
2.11. EFFECTIVE AREA (APERTURE) Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Figure 2.3: Transmitting antenna and its equivalent circuits.

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School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
2.12. RADIATION EFFICIENCY . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

𝑊𝑖 is the power flux density (Poynting vector magnitude) of the incident wave, (𝑊 /𝑚 2 ).
The effective antenna aperture is used to describe the power capturing characteristics of the
antenna when a wave impinges on it.

2.12 Radiation Efficiency and Antenna Losses

The radiation efficiency e takes into account the conductor and dielectric (heat) losses of the
antenna. It is the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna and the total power delivered to
the antenna terminals (in transmitting mode). In terms of equivalent circuit parameters:
𝑅𝑟
𝑒= (2.25)
𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿

2.13 Polarization
Polarization of an antenna in a given direction is defined as the polarization of the wave
transmitted (radiated) by the antenna. When the direction is not stated, the polarization is
taken to be the polarization in the direction of maximum gain. The polarization of a radiated
wave is defined as the locus traced by the extremity of the time-varying electric field vector at a
fixed observation point. According to the shape of the trace, three types of polarization exist
for harmonic fields: linear, circular and elliptical. Any polarization can be represented by two
orthogonal linear polarizations, (𝐸𝑥 ; 𝐸 𝑦 ) or (𝐸𝐻 ; 𝐸𝑉 ), whose fields are out of phase by an angle
of Δ𝜙.

Ermiyas Solomon, 24
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
Chapter 3
Wire Antennas

3.1 Introduction
Wire antennas, linear or curved, are some of the oldest, simplest, cheapest, and the most versatile
for many applications. The dipole and the monopole are arguably the two most widely used
linear wire antennas across the UHF, VHF and lower-microwave bands. Arrays of dipoles
are commonly used as base-station antennas in land-mobile systems. The monopole and its
variations are perhaps the most common antennas for portable equipment, such as cellular
telephones, cordless telephones, automobiles, trains, etc. It has attractive features such as simple
construction, sufficiently broadband characteristics for voice communication, small dimensions
at high frequencies. An alternative to the monopole antenna for hand-held units is the loop
antenna, the microstrip patch antenna, the spiral antennas, and others.

3.2 The Radiation Fields

Given an antenna excited with 𝐽 , we will determine the radiation fields by taking the following
steps:
1 Select an appropriate coordinate system and determine the magnetic vector potential 𝐴
2 Find 𝐻 from 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 = ∇ × 𝐴
1
3 Determine 𝐸 from 𝐸 = 𝑗𝜔𝜖 ∇ ×𝐻
4 Find the far-field (𝑘𝑟 >> 1) and determine antenna parameters of interest such as
 The time-average power density 𝑊𝑎𝑣 = 21 <[𝐸 × 𝐻 ∗ ]
 The radiation intensity 𝑈 = 𝑟 2𝑊𝑎𝑣
¸
 The time average radiated power 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑆 𝑊𝑎𝑣 · 𝑑𝑠

25
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
3.3. INFINITESIMAL DIPOLE Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

 The directivity 𝐷 0 = 4𝜋 𝑈𝑃|𝑟𝑎𝑑

𝑚𝑎𝑥

Note: For a vector field 𝐴, the coordinate transformation from rectangular (𝑥; 𝑦; 𝑧) to cylindrical
(𝜌; 𝜙; 𝑧) and spherical (𝑟 ; 𝜃 ; 𝜙) can be written in matrix form as

𝐴𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 0 𝐴𝑥
­𝐴𝜙 ® = ­−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 0®­𝐴𝑦 ® (3.1)
© ª © ª© ª

«𝐴𝑧 ¬ « 0 0 1¬«𝐴𝑍 ¬

𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 sin 𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐴𝑥

­𝐴𝜃 ® = ­𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ®­𝐴𝑦 ® (3.2)
© ª © ª© ª

«𝜙 ¬ « −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 0 ¬«𝐴𝑧 ¬

The magnetic vector potential is a solution to the wave equation

∇2𝐴 + 𝐾 2𝐴 = −𝜇 𝐽, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑘 2 = 𝜔 2 𝜇𝜖 (3.3)

and is given by
˚
𝜇 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑅
𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐽 (𝑥 0, 𝑦 0, 0 𝑧) 𝑑𝑉 0 (3.4)
4𝜋 𝑉 𝑅

where 𝑅 = |𝑟 − 𝑟 0 | is the distance between the source point and observation

3.3 Infinitesimal Dipole

An infinitesimal dipole is a very small (𝑙 << 𝜆) and very thin (𝑎 << 𝜆) linear antenna. Usually
its overall length must be 𝑙 ≤ 50
𝜆
The infinitesimal dipole is not very practical but can be used to
analyze more complex geometries.
Assume the infinitesimal dipole is positioned symmetrically at the origin and oriented along
the z axis. The current is assumed to be constant and is given by

𝐼 (𝑧 0) = 𝐼 0𝑎𝑧 (3.5)

The magnetic vector potential becomes

ˆ
𝜇 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑅 0
𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐼 (𝑥 0, 𝑦 0, 𝑧 0) 𝑑𝑙 (3.6)
4𝜋 𝐿 𝑅

but (𝑥 0, 𝑦 0, 𝑧 0)=(0, 0, 0) 𝑅 = (𝑥 − 𝑥 0) 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦 0) 2 + (𝑧 − 𝑧 0) 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑙 0 = 𝑑𝑧 0 There-

p p

fore,
ˆ 𝑙
𝜇𝐼 0 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 2 0 𝜇𝐼 0𝑙 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑎𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑎𝑧 𝑒 (3.7)
4𝜋 𝑟 −𝑙
2
4𝜋𝑟

Ermiyas Solomon, 26
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
3.3. INFINITESIMAL DIPOLE Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Figure 3.1: Infinitesimal dipole.

Converting to spherical coordinates (3.2),

𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (3.8)

𝐴𝜃 = −𝐴𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (3.9)

𝐴𝜙 = 0 (3.10)
The magnetic field intensity is

1 1 𝜕
 
𝜕𝐴𝑟
𝐻 = ∇ × 𝐴 = 𝑎𝜙 (𝑟𝐴𝜃 ) − (3.11)
𝜇 𝜇𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃

which reduces to
𝐻𝑟 = 𝐻𝜃 = 0 (3.12)
1 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
 
𝑘𝐼 0𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐻𝜙 = 𝑗 1+ 𝑒 (3.13)
4𝜋𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟
The electric field intensity is
1
𝐸= ∇×𝐻 (3.14)
𝑗𝜔𝜖
and reduces to
1 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
 
𝐼 0𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐸𝑟 = 𝜂 1+ 𝑒 (3.15)
2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑗𝑘𝑟
1 1
 
𝑘𝐼 0𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐸𝜃 = 𝑗𝜂 1+ − 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 (3.16)
4𝜋𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟 (𝑘𝑟 ) 2
𝐸𝜙 = 0 (3.17)

Ermiyas Solomon, 27
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
3.3. INFINITESIMAL DIPOLE Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

At far-field or radiation field, the terms 1/𝑟 3 and 1/𝑟 2 can be neglected in favor of the 1/𝑟 term
(𝑘𝑟 >> 1𝑜𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 >> 𝑟 ), therefore

𝑘𝐼 0𝑙𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝐸𝜃 = 𝑗𝜂 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (3.18)
4𝜋𝑟
𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝜃 = 𝐻𝑟 = 𝐻𝜃 = 0 (3.19)
𝑘𝐼 0𝑙𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝐻𝜙 = 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (3.20)
4𝜋𝑟
The ratio of 𝐸𝜃 to 𝐻𝜙 is equal to

𝐸𝜃
𝑍𝑤 = ' 𝜂 = 120𝜋 ' 377 (3.21)
𝐻𝜙

where 𝑍 𝑤 is the wave impedance and 𝜂 is the intrinsic impedance of free space.
Note that the 𝐸 and 𝐻 -field components in the far-field are perpendicular to each other and
hence form a TEM mode.
The time-average power density is

1 1 𝜂 𝑘𝐼 0𝑙 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
 
2
𝑊𝑎𝑣 ∗
= <[𝐸 × 𝐻 ] = 𝑎𝑟 |𝐸𝜃 | = 𝑎𝑟 (3.22)
2 2𝜂 2 4𝜋 𝑟2

The radiated power is

˛ 2𝜋  2
𝜋 𝐼 0𝑙
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑊𝑎𝑣 · 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜂 (3.23)
0 3 𝜆
The radiation resistance from 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 12 𝐼 02𝑅𝑟 is
 2  2
2𝜋 𝑙 2 𝑙
𝑅𝑟 = 𝜂 = 80𝜋 (3.24)
3 𝜆 𝜆

The radiation intensity is

1 𝜂 𝑘𝐼 0𝑙 2 2
 
2 2
𝑈 = 𝑟 𝑊𝑎𝑣 = |𝐸𝜃 | = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (3.25)
2𝜂 2 4𝜋

The directivity becomes

𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 3
𝐷 0 = 4𝜋 = (3.26)
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 2

Exercise 4.1 Find the radiation resistance of in infinitesimal dipole whose overall length is 𝑙 = 50
𝜆
.
Compute the reflection coefficient when connected to a transmission line with characteristic
impedance of 75𝑜ℎ𝑚.

Ermiyas Solomon, 28
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
3.4. FINITE LENGTH DIPOLE Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

3.4 Finite Length Dipole

For a very thin finite length dipole, a good approximation of the current distribution along the
dipole’s length is the sinusoidal one:
h  i
 𝑙
− 0 , 0 ≤ 𝑧0 ≤ 𝑙
𝑎 𝐼 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝑧
h 2 2
 𝑧
(3.27)


𝐼 (𝑧 0) = i
𝑎𝑧 𝐼 0𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 2 − 𝑧 , 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 2𝑙
 𝑙 0 0

The finite length dipole is subdivided into an infinite number of infinitesimal dipoles of length
𝑑𝑧. Each such dipole produces the elementary far field as element at 𝑧 0.

𝑘𝐼 (𝑧 0)𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑅
𝑑𝐸𝜃 = 𝑗𝜂 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝑧 0 (3.28)
4𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝐸𝑟 = 𝑑𝐸𝜃 = 𝑑𝐻𝑟 = 𝑑𝐻𝜃 = 0 (3.29)
𝑘𝐼 (𝑧 0)𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑅
𝑑𝐻𝜙 = 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝑧 0 (3.30)
𝑅
Where 𝑅 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + (𝑧 − 𝑧 0) 2 and 𝐼 (𝑧 0) denotes the value of the current In the far-field, we
p

Figure 3.2: Finite dipole geometry and far-field approximation

can approximate
𝑅 ' 𝑟 − 𝑧 0𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 (3.31)
𝑅 ' 𝑟 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 (3.32)

Ermiyas Solomon, 29
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
3.4. FINITE LENGTH DIPOLE Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

the elementary electric field intensity becomes

𝑘𝐼 (𝑧 0)𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 0
𝑑𝐸𝜃 = 𝑗𝜂 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝑧 0 (3.33)
4𝜋𝑟
Using the superposition principle, the total far-field is obtained as
ˆ 𝑙 (ˆ 𝑙 )
2 𝑘𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 2
0 𝑗𝑘𝑧 0𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐸𝜃 = 𝑑𝐸𝜃 = 𝑗𝜂 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐼 (𝑧 )𝑒 𝑑𝑧 0
(3.34)
−𝑙
2
4𝜋𝑟 −𝑙
2

The first factor

𝑘𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝑔(𝜃 ) = 𝑗𝜂 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (3.35)
4𝜋𝑟
is called the element factor. The element factor in this case is the far field produced by an
infinitesimal dipole of unit current element 𝐼 0𝑙 = 1(𝐴 − 𝑚). The element factor is the same
for any current element, provided the angle 𝜃 is always associated with the current axis. The
second factor ˆ 𝑙
2 0
𝑓 (𝜃 ) = 𝐼 (𝑧 0)𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝑧 0 (3.36)
−𝑙
2

is the space factor (or pattern factor, array factor). The pattern factor is dependent on the
amplitude and phase distribution of the current at the antenna (the source distribution in space).
The total field of the antenna is equal to the product of the element and space factors. This is
referred to as pattern multiplication for continuously distributed sources, and it can be written
as
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓 𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ) × (𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ) (3.37)
The pattern multiplication for continuous sources is analogous to the pattern multiplication for
discrete-element antennas (arrays). For the specific current distribution described by (3.27), the
pattern factor is
(ˆ ˆ 𝑙
0
)
𝑘𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
     
𝑙 2 𝑙
𝑗𝑘𝑧 0𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐸𝜃 = 𝑗𝜂 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 0
−𝑧 𝑒 0
𝑑𝑧 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 0
+𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑧𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝑧 (3.38)
0
4𝜋𝑟 −𝑙
2
2 0 2
The above integrals are solved using
ˆ
𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) − 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)] (3.39)
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
The far-field of the finite length dipole is obtained as
    
𝑘𝑙 𝑘𝑙 
𝐼 0𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 
 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 
𝐸𝜃 ' 𝑗𝜂 (3.40)
2𝜋𝑟 
 
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 
 
 
    
𝑘𝑙 𝑘𝑙 
𝐼 0𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟  𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 
𝐻𝜙 ' 𝑗 (3.41)

2𝜋𝑟 
 
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 
 
 
Dear student take some breath!!

Ermiyas Solomon, 30
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
3.5. HALF-WAVELENGTH DIPOLE Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

3.5 Half-Wavelength Dipole

This is a classical and widely used thin wire antenna with 𝑙 = 𝜆2 . Its radiation resistance is 73
ohms, which is very near the 50-ohm or 75-ohm characteristic impedances of some transmission
lines, its matching to the line is simplified especially at resonance. Taking 𝑙 = 𝜆2 , and incorporate
with 𝑘 = 2𝜋 𝜆 , after simple mathematical manipulation equation (3.40) and (3.41) becomes

"
#
𝐼 0𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜋
𝐸𝜃 ' 𝑗𝜂 (3.42)
2𝜋𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

"
#
𝐼 0𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜋
𝐻𝜙 ' 𝑗 (3.43)
2𝜋𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

The other parameters of interest reduce to

"
𝜋

#2
𝐼 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑊𝑎𝑣 = 2 2 (3.44)
8𝜋 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
"
𝜋

#2
𝐼 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑈 = 𝑟 2𝑊𝑎𝑣 = 2 (3.45)
8𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
ˆ 𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )
𝐼0 2
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜂 𝑑𝜃 = 15𝐼 0𝐶𝑖𝑛 (2𝜋) ' 36.56𝐼 0 (3.46)
4𝜋 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Where 𝐶𝑖𝑛 is the cosine integral which is tabulated . See more this on your textbook.
ˆ 𝑥
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦
𝐶𝑖𝑛 (𝑦) = 𝑑𝑦 (3.47)
0 𝑦

The directivity becomes

𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑈 |𝜃 = 𝜋2 4
𝐷 0 = 4𝜋 = 4𝜋 ' = 1.643 (3.48)
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 2.435
The radiation resistance for free-space (𝜂 = 120𝜋) is given by
2𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜂
' 2.435 ' 73𝑜ℎ𝑚 (3.49)
𝐼0 4𝜋
The imaginary part of the input impedance is approximately ' 𝑗42.5 ohm. To acquire maximum
power transfer, this reactance has to be removed by matching (e.g., shortening) the dipole. At
resonance, the input impedance becomes

𝑍𝐴 = 73 + 𝑗42.5 (3.50)

Ermiyas Solomon, 31
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
3.6. QUARTER-WAVE . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

3.6 Quarter-Wave Monopole Antenna

It consists of one-half of a half-wave dipole antenna located on a conducting ground plane.
Using image theory, the monopole radiates only half as much power as the dipole with the
same current. Thus
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 18.28𝐼 0 (3.51)
𝑅𝑟 = 36.5𝑜ℎ𝑚 (3.52)
The field produced in the region above the ground plane due to the 𝜆
4 with its image is the same
as the field due to a 𝜆2 wave dipole.

Figure 3.3: Quarter-wavelength monopole on an infinite perfect electric conductor.

Figure 3.4: Quarter-wavelength monopole on an infinite perfect electric conductor.

3.7 Loop Antennas

Loop antennas feature simplicity, low cost and versatility. They may have various shapes:
circular, triangular, square, elliptical, etc. They are widely used in communication links up to
the microwave bands (up to 3 GHz). They are also used as electromagnetic (EM) field probes in

Ermiyas Solomon, 32
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
3.7. LOOP ANTENNAS Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

the microwave bands. Loop antennas are usually classified as electrically small (𝐶 < 𝜆/10) and
electrically large (𝐶 ' 𝜆). Here, 𝐶 denotes the loop’s circumference. Electrically small loops of
a single turn have very small radiation resistance (comparable to their loss resistance). Their
radiation resistance can be substantially improved by adding more turns. Multi-turn loops have
better radiation resistance although their efficiency is still poor. That is why they are used mostly
as receiving antennas where losses are not so important. The radiation characteristics of a small
loop antenna can be additionally improved by inserting a ferromagnetic core. Radio-receivers
of AM broadcast are usually equipped with ferrite-loop antennas. Such antennas are used in
pagers, too.

3.7.1 Small Circular Loop

Assume the loop antenna is positioned symmetrically on the x-y plane, at 𝑧 = 0, as shown in
Figure (4.8). The wire is assumed to be very thin and the current spatial distribution is given by

𝐼𝜙 = 𝐼 0 (3.53)

where 𝐼 0 is a constant. The magnetic potential is

ˆ
𝜇 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑅 0
𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐼 (𝑥 0, 𝑦 0, 𝑧 0) 𝑑𝑙 (3.54)
4𝜋 𝐶 𝑅
For convenience, write the rectangular components of the current in terms of polar components
0 0
𝐼𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 0 𝐼𝜌
0 0
­𝐼 𝑦 ® = 0®­𝐼𝜙 ® (3.55)
© ª © ª© ª
­𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
« 𝐼𝑧 ¬ « 0 0 1¬« 𝐼𝑧 ¬

when expanded,
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼 𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 0 − 𝐼𝜙0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙0 (3.56)
𝐼 𝑦 = 𝐼 𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 0 + 𝐼𝜙0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙0 (3.57)
𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑧 (3.58)
The radiated fields are usually expressed in spherical components, so express the rectangular

Figure 3.5: Geometrical arrangement for loop antenna analysis.

Ermiyas Solomon, 33
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
3.7. LOOP ANTENNAS Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

unit vectors through spherical ones

𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 + 𝑎𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 − 𝑎𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 (3.59)

𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 + 𝑎𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 + 𝑎𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 (3.60)

𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑎𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (3.61)

𝐼 = 𝑎𝑟 [𝐼 𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜙 − 𝜙 0) + 𝐼𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜙 − 𝜙 0) + 𝐼𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ]

+ 𝑎𝜃 [𝐼 𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜙 − 𝜙 0) + 𝐼𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜙 − 𝜙 0) − 𝐼𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ]
+ 𝑎𝜙 [−𝐼 𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜙 − 𝜙 0) + 𝐼𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜙 − 𝜙 0)] (3.62)

Since 𝐼 𝜌 , 𝐼𝑧 = 0

𝐼 = 𝑎𝑟 𝐼𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜙 − 𝜙 0) + 𝑎𝜃 𝐼𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜙 − 𝜙 0) + 𝑎𝜙 𝐼𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜙 − 𝜙 0) (3.63)

Noting that

𝑥 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
𝑧 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 𝑟 2
𝑥 0 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
𝑦 0 = 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
𝑧0 = 0
𝑥 02 + 𝑦 02 + 𝑧 02 = 𝑎 2
The distance 𝑅 becomes

𝑅 = (𝑥 − 𝑥 0) 2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦 0) + (𝑧 − 𝑧 0) 2 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑎 2 − 2𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜙 − 𝜙 0)
p p
(3.64)

The differential length is 𝑑𝑙 0 = 𝑎𝑑𝜙. The 𝜙-component of (3.53) becomes

ˆ √
𝑎𝜇 2𝜋 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘 𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 −2𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜙−𝜙 0 )
𝐴𝜙 = 𝐼𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜙 − 𝜙 0) p (3.65)
4𝜋 0 𝑟 2 + 𝑎 2 − 2𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜙 − 𝜙 0)
Since the spatial current 𝐼𝜙 is constant, the field radiated by the loop will not be a function of
the observation angle 𝜙. Thus any observation angle 𝜙 can be chosen; for simplicity 𝜙 = 0.
Therefore (3.65) reduces to
ˆ √
𝑎𝜇 2𝜋 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘 𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 −2𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜙−𝜙 0 )
𝐴𝜙 = 𝐼𝜙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 0 p (3.66)
4𝜋 0 𝑟 2 + 𝑎 2 − 2𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜙 − 𝜙 0)

Ermiyas Solomon, 34
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
3.7. LOOP ANTENNAS Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

The function √
𝑒 −𝑗𝑘 𝑟 2 +𝑎 2 −2𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜙−𝜙 0 )
𝑓 =p (3.67)
𝑟 2 + 𝑎 2 − 2𝑎𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜙 − 𝜙 0)
can be expanded in a Maclaurin series about 𝑎 = 0
1
𝑓 = 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 0 (0)𝑎 + 𝑓 00 (0)𝑎 2 (3.68)
2
where 𝑓 (𝑛) (0) = Approximating 𝑓 by taking only the first two terms
𝜕𝑓
𝜕𝑎 |𝑎=0

𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝑓 (0) = (3.69)
 𝑟
𝑗𝑘 1 −𝑗𝑘𝑟

0
𝑓 (0) = + 2 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 (3.70)
𝑟 𝑟
1 𝑗𝑘 1
   
𝑓 ' + + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 (3.71)
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑎 2 𝜇𝐼 0 𝑗𝑘 1
 
𝐴𝜙 ' + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (3.72)
4 𝑟 𝑟
It can be shown that
𝐴𝑟 = 0 = 𝐴𝜃 (3.73)
𝑘𝜇𝑎 2 𝐼 0𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
 
𝐴 = 𝑎𝜙 1+ 𝑒 (3.74)
4𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟
The magnetic field intensity 𝐻 = 𝜇1 ∇ × 𝐴 becomes

𝑘𝑎 2 𝐼 0𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
 
𝐻𝑟 = 𝑗 1+ 𝑒 (3.75)
2𝑟 2 𝑗𝑘𝑟
(𝑘𝑎) 2 𝐼 0𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 1
 
𝐻𝜃 = − 1+ − 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 (3.76)
4𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟 (𝑘𝑟 ) 2
𝐻𝜙 = 0 (3.77)
1
The corresponding electric field 𝐸 = 𝑗𝜔𝜖 ∇× 𝐻 becomes:
(𝑘𝑎) 2 𝐼 0𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
 
𝐸𝜙 = 𝜂 1+ 𝑒 (3.78)
4𝑟 𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝜃 = 0 (3.79)
In the far-field region (𝑘𝑟 >> 1), the fields approximate to
𝑘𝑎 2 𝐼 0𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −𝜋𝑆𝐼 0𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝐻𝜃 ' − = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (3.80)
4𝑟 𝜆 2𝑟
𝑘𝑎 2 𝐼 0𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜋𝑆𝐼 0𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
𝐸𝜙 ' 𝜂 =𝜂 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (3.81)
4𝑟 𝜆 2𝑟
𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝜃 = 𝐻𝑟 = 𝐻 𝜙 = 0 (3.82)
where 𝑆 = 𝜋𝑎 2 is the geometrical area of the loop

Ermiyas Solomon, 35
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
3.8. RADIATION DENSITY AND . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

3.8 Radiation Density and Radiation Resistance

The time-average power density in the far-field becomes

(𝑘𝑎) 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
𝑊𝑎𝑣 ' 𝑎𝑟 𝜂 𝐼 (3.83)
232 0 𝑟 2
The radiated power is ˛
𝜋
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑊𝑎𝑣 𝑑𝑆 = 𝜂 (𝑘𝑎) 4 𝐼 02 (3.84)
𝑆 12
The radiation resistance becomes
2𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜋 2 2 2 2𝜋 𝑘𝑆 2 𝐶 2 𝑆2
𝑅𝑟 = = 𝜂 ( ) (𝑘 𝑎 ) = 𝜂 ( ) ( ) = 20𝜋 ( ) ' 31, 171( ) (3.85)
𝐼 02 6 3 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆4

where 𝑆 = 𝜋𝑎 2 is the area and 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑎 is the circumference of the loop. If the loop has 𝑁 turns,
the radiation resistance is multiplied by 𝑁 2

𝜋 𝑆2
𝑅𝑟 = 𝜂 ( ) (𝑘 2𝑎 2 ) 2 𝑁 2 = 31, 171( 4 )𝑁 2 (3.86)
6 𝜆
Even though the radiation resistance of a single-turn loop may be small, the overall value can
be increased by including many turns. This is a very desirable and practical mechanism that is
not available for the infinitesimal dipole.

Exercise 3.4: Find the radiation resistance of a single-turn and an eight-turn small circular
loop. The radius of the loop is 𝜆/25 and the medium is free-space. (ans. 0.788, 50.43 ohms)

3.9 Radiation Intensity and Directivity

𝜂 (𝑘𝑎) 4 2 2
𝑈 = 𝑟 2𝑊𝑎𝑣 = 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (3.87)
2 16 0
and the normalized radiation intensity is

𝑈𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 (3.88)

The directivity becomes

𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 3
𝐷 0 = 4𝜋 = (3.89)
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 2

Ermiyas Solomon, 36
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
3.9. RADIATION INTENSITY AND . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Exercise 3.5
1.A magnetic field strength of 5𝜇𝐴/𝑚 is required at a point on 𝜃 = 𝜋/2, 2𝑘𝑚 from an antenna in
air. Neglecting ohmic loss, how much power must the antenna transmit if it is:
a An infinitesimal dipole with length 𝜆/50
b A dipole of 𝑙 = 1.5𝜆
c A half-wave dipole
d A quarter-wave monopole.
2.An electric field strength of 10𝜇𝑉 /𝑚 is to be measured at an observation point 𝜃 = 𝜋/2, 500𝑘𝑚
from a half-wave dipole antenna operating in air at 50𝑀𝐻𝑧.
a What is the length of the dipole
b Calculate the current that must be fed to the antenna
c Find the average power radiated by the antenna
d If a transmission line with 𝑍 0 = 75𝑜ℎ𝑚 is connected to the antenna, determine the Γ and
𝑆𝑊 𝑅.
3. The current distribution on a terminated and matched long linear (traveling wave) antenna
of length 𝑙, positioned along the z-axis and fed at its one end, is given by
0
𝐼 = 𝑎𝑧 𝐼 0𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 , 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑙 0

Where 𝐼 0 is a constant. Derive expressions for the

a far-zone spherical electric and magnetic field components
b radiation power density.
4. A thin linear dipole of length 𝑙 is placed symmetrically about the z-axis. Find the far-zone
spherical electric and magnetic components radiated by the dipole whose current distribution
can be approximated by
𝐼 0 (1 + 2𝑙 𝑧 0), −𝑙2 ≤ 𝑧 0 ≤ 0
(
a 𝐼 (𝑧 0) =
𝐼 0 (1 − 2𝑙 𝑧 0), 0 ≤ 𝑧 0 ≤ 2𝑙
b 𝐼𝑧 (𝑧 0) = 𝐼 0𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝜋𝑙 𝑧 0), −𝑙2 ≤ 𝑧 0 ≤ 2𝑙
c 𝐼𝑧 (𝑧 0) =𝐼 0𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 𝜋𝑙 𝑧 0), −𝑙2 ≤ 𝑧 0 ≤ 2𝑙 ,
5. If a small single-turn loop antenna has a radiation resistance of 0.04 ohm, how many turns
are needed to produce a radiation resistance of 1 ohm? 6. A 100-turn loop antenna of radius
20𝑐𝑚 operating at 10𝑀𝐻𝑧 in air is to give a 50𝑚𝑉 /𝑚 field strength at a distance 3𝑚 from the
loop. Determine
a The current that must be fed to the antenna
b The average power radiated by the antenna
6. A horizontal infinitesimal electric dipole of constant current 𝐼 0 is placed symmetrically about
the origin and directed along the x-axis. Derive the
(a) far-zone fields radiated by the dipole
(b) directivity of the antenna
(c) determine the polarization of the radiated far-zone electric fields (𝐸𝜃 ; 𝐸𝜙 ) and normalized
amplitude pattern in the following planes: (i) 𝜙 = 0◦ (ii) 𝜙 = 90◦ (iii) 𝜃 = 90◦ .
7.An infinitesimal electric dipole is centered at the origin and lies on the x-y plane along a line
which is at an angle of 45◦ with respect to the x-axis. Find the far-zone electric and magnetic
fields radiated. The answer should be a function of spherical coordinates.

Ermiyas Solomon, 37
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
Chapter 4
Antenna Arrays

4.1 Introduction
Usually the radiation patterns of single-element antennas are relatively wide, i.e., they have
relatively low directivity (gain). In long distance communications, antennas with high directivity
are often required. Such antennas are possible to construct by enlarging the dimensions of the
radiating aperture (maximum size much larger than 𝜆). This approach however may lead to the
appearance of multiple side lobes. Besides, the antenna is usually large and difficult to fabricate.
Another way to increase the electrical size of an antenna is to construct it as an assembly of
radiating elements in a proper electrical and geometrical configuration called antenna array.
Usually, the array elements are identical. This is not necessary but it is practical and simpler
for design and fabrication. The individual elements may be of any type (wire dipoles, loops,
apertures, etc.) The total field of an array is a vector superposition of the fields radiated by the
individual elements. To provide very directive pattern, it is necessary that the partial fields
(generated by the individual elements) interfere constructively in the desired direction and
interfere destructively in the remaining space.
There are five basic methods to control the overall antenna pattern:
1 The geometrical configuration of the overall array (linear, circular, spherical, rectangular,
etc.),
2 The relative placement of the elements
3 The excitation amplitude of the individual elements,
4 The excitation phase of each element
5 The individual pattern of each element

38
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.2. TWO-ELEMENT ARRAY Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

4.2 Two-Element Array

Assume we have an array of two infinitesimal horizontal dipoles positioned along the z-axis, as
shown in Figure 4.1. The total field radiated by the two elements is

Figure 4.1: Geometry of a two-element array positioned along the z-axis

( )
𝑘𝐼 0𝑙 𝑒 −𝑗 (𝑘𝑟 1 −𝛽/2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 𝑒 −𝑗 (𝑘𝑟 2 +𝛽/2) 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2
𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸 1 + 𝐸 2 = 𝑎𝜃 𝑗𝜂 + (4.1)
4𝜋 𝑟1 𝑟2

where the first element is excited by current 𝐼 1 = 𝐼 0𝑒 𝑗 𝛽/2 and the second by 𝐼 2 = 𝐼 0𝑒 +𝑗 𝛽/2 , so that
the phase difference between the elements becomes 𝛽. At far-field

𝜃1 ' 𝜃2 ' 𝜃 (4.2)

𝑑
𝑟 1 ' 𝑟 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (4.3)
2
𝑑
𝑟 2 ' 𝑟 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (4.4)
2
𝑟 1 ' 𝑟 2 ' 𝑟 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (4.5)
Equation (4.1) reduces to

𝑘𝐼 0𝑙𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 h i
𝐸𝑡 = 𝑎𝜃 𝑗𝜂 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑒 𝑗 (𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝛽)/2
+𝑒 −𝑗 (𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝛽)/2
(4.6)
4𝜋𝑟

Ermiyas Solomon, 39
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.3. N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

𝑘𝐼 0𝑙𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 1
 
𝐸𝑡 = 𝑎𝜃 𝑗𝜂 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝛽) (4.7)
4𝜋𝑟 2
| {z }| {z }
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

Thus the total field of the array is equal to the product of the field created by a single element
located at the origin and the array factor, 𝐴𝐹 :
1
𝐴𝐹 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ (𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝛽)] (4.8)
2
which in normalized form can be written as
1
𝐴𝐹𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ (𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝛽)] (4.9)
2
We observe that the far-zone field of a uniform two-element array of identical elements is equal
to the product of the field of a single element, at a selected reference point (usually the origin),
and the array factor of that array. That is

𝐸 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓 𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑) = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒 𝑓 𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡) × (𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ) (4.10)

The concept expressed by (4.6) is the so-called pattern multiplication rule valid for arrays of
identical elements. This rule holds for any array consisting of decoupled identical elements,
where the excitation magnitudes, the phase shift between the elements and the displacement
between them are not necessarily the same. The total pattern, therefore, can be controlled via
the single-element pattern, or via the AF. The AF, in general, depends on the:
1. the number of elements,
2. the mutual placement,
3. the relative excitation magnitudes and phases.

4.3 N-Element Linear Array with Uniform Amplitude and

Spacing
We assume that each succeeding element has a 𝛽 progressive phase lead current excitation
relative to the preceding one. An array of identical elements with identical magnitudes and
with a progressive phase is called a uniform array. The AF of the uniform array can be obtained
by considering the individual elements as point (isotropic) sources. Then, the total field pattern
can be obtained by simply multiplying the AF by the field pattern of the individual element
(provided the elements are not coupled).
The 𝐴𝐹 of an N -element linear array of isotropic sources is

𝐴𝐹 = 1 + 𝑒 𝑗 (𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝛽) + 𝑒 2𝑗 (𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝛽) + ... + 𝑒 𝑗 (𝑁 −1) (𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 +𝛽) (4.11)

Ermiyas Solomon, 40
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.3. N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

𝑁
Õ
𝐴𝐹 = 𝑒 𝑗 (𝑛−1)𝜓 𝑊 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝛽 (4.12)
𝑛=1

From (4.12), it is obvious look like geometric series in form of :

1 − 𝑥𝑁
𝐺 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + ... + 𝑥 𝑁 −1 = (4.13)
1−𝑥
Hence eq.(4.12) becomes:
𝑗 𝑁𝜓
 𝑗 𝑁𝜓 −𝑗 𝑁𝜓

1 − 𝑒 𝑗 𝑁𝜓 𝑒 2 𝑒 2 −𝑒 2
𝐴𝐹 = = (4.14)
1 − 𝑒 𝑗𝜓 𝑗𝜓
 𝑗𝜓 −𝑗𝜓

𝑒 2 𝑒 2 −𝑒 2
 
 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝜓

2 

𝐴𝐹 = 𝑒 𝑗 [ (𝑁 −1)/2]𝜓 


 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜓 ) 
 2 
 
Here, N shows the location of the last element with respect to the reference point in steps with
length d. The phase factor 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( 𝑗 [(𝑁 1)/2]) is not important unless the array output signal is
further combined with the output signal of another antenna. It represents the phase shift of the
array’s phase center relative to the origin, and it would be identically equal to one if the origin
were to coincide with the array center. Neglecting the phase factor gives
 
 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝜓

2 

𝐴𝐹 =  (4.15)


 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜓 ) 
 2 
 
For small values of 𝜓 , it reduces to
 
 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑁𝜓

2 

𝐴𝐹 =  (4.16)


 (𝜓 ) 
 2 
 
The maximum of the above expression equals N. Normalizing the array factor we obtain
 
 𝑁𝜓
1  𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 

𝐴𝐹𝑛 =   (4.17)
𝑁  𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜓 ) 
 2 
 
or for small values 𝜓  
 𝑁𝜓
1 
 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 

𝐴𝐹𝑛 =   (4.18)
𝑁  (𝜓 ) 
 2 
 

Ermiyas Solomon, 41
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.3. N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Nulls
To find the nulls of the AF, equation (4.17) is set equal to zero:
𝑁 𝑁
𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜓 ) = 0 ⇒ 𝜓 = ±𝑛𝜋 (4.19)
2 2
so the nulls occur at
2𝑛
  
𝜆
𝜃 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
−𝛽 ± 𝜋 , 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, , , (𝑛 ≠ 0, 𝑁 , 2𝑁 , 3𝑁 ...) (4.20)
2𝜋𝑑 𝑁

When 𝑛 = 0, 𝑁 , 2𝑁 , 3𝑁 , , , , , the AF attains its maximum values (see the case below) because it
reduces to a 𝑠𝑖𝑛(0) = 0 form. The values of n determine the order of the nulls. For a null to
exist, the argument of the across must be between -1 and +1.

Maxima
They are studied in order to determine the maximum directivity, the HPBWs, the direction of
maximum radiation. The maximum value of (4.17) occur when

𝜓
= ±𝑚𝜋 (4.21)
2
and is  
𝜆
𝜃𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
(−𝛽 ± 2𝑚𝜋) , 𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, ... (4.22)
2𝜋𝑑
The array factor of (4.18) has only one maximum and occurs when 𝑚 = 0 in (4.20). That is
 
−1 −𝜆𝛽
𝜃𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (4.23)
2𝜋𝑑

HPBW
√
The HPBW of a major lobe is calculated by setting the value of AFn equal to 1/ 2. For the
approximate 𝐴𝐹𝑛 in (4.18),
" #
𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝑁2 𝜓 ) 1 𝑁
= √ ⇒ 𝜓 ' 1.391 (4.24)
𝑁
2𝜓 2 2

which becomes
2.782
  
𝜆
𝜃ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1
−𝛽 ± , 𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, ... (4.25)
2𝜋𝑑 𝑁

Ermiyas Solomon, 42
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4.3. N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Maxima of Minor Lobes

They are the maxima of AFn, where 𝐴𝐹𝑛 < 1. They occur approximately where the numerator
attains a maximum and the AF is beyond its first null:
𝑁 𝑁 𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜓 ) = ±1 ⇒ 𝜓 = ±(2𝑠 + 1) (4.26)
2 2 2
2𝑠 + 1
  
𝜆
𝜃 𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 −𝛽 ± 𝜋 , 𝑠 = 0, 1, 2, ... (4.27)
2𝜋𝑑 𝑁
The maximum of the first minor lobe occurs when 𝑠 = 1
𝑁 3𝜋
𝜓' (4.28)
2 2
At that point (4.18) reduces to
2
𝐴𝐹𝑛 = = 0.212 (4.29)
3𝜋
which in 𝑑𝐵 is equal to
2
𝐴𝐹𝑛 = 20 log10 (
) = −13.46𝑑𝐵 (4.30)
3𝜋
Thus the maximum of the first minor lobe of the array factor of (4.18) is 13.46 dB down from
the maximum at the major lobe.

4.3.1 Broadside Array

A broadside array is an array, which has maximum radiation at 𝜃 = 90 (normal to the axis of
the array). For optimal solution, both the element factor and the AF, should have their maxima
at = 𝜋2 . From (4.20), it follows that the maximum of the AF occurs when

𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝛽 = 0 (4.31)

Since the maximum is desired towards 𝜃 = 90◦ , then

𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝛽 |𝜃 = 𝜋2 = 0 ⇒ 𝛽 = 0 (4.32)

The uniform linear array has its maximum radiation at 𝜃 = 90◦ , if all array elements have their
excitation with the same phase (𝛽 = 0).
To ensure that there are no maxima in the other directions (called grating lobes), the separation
between the elements should not be equal to multiples of a wavelength:

𝑑 ≠ 𝑛𝜆, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3... (4.33)

Otherwise, additional maxima, 𝐴𝐹𝑛 = 1, appear. Assume that 𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆; 𝛽 = 0. Then,

𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝛽 |𝑑=𝑛𝜆 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 |𝜃 =0◦,180◦ = 2𝑛𝜋 (4.34)

Ermiyas Solomon, 43
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.3. N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

This value of when substituted in (4.17) makes the array factor attain its maximum value. Thus
for a uniform array with 𝛽 = 0 and 𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆, in addition to having the maxima of the array factor
directed broadside (𝜃 = 90◦ ) to the axis of the array, there are additional maxima directed along
the axis (𝜃 = 0◦ ; 180◦ ) of the array (end-fire radiation).
One of the objectives in many designs is to avoid multiple maxima (grating lobes). Often it
may be required to select the largest spacing between the elements but with no grating lobes.
To avoid any grating lobe, the largest spacing between the elements should be less than one
wavelength (𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 𝜆).

4.3.2 Ordinary End-Fire Array

An end-fire array is an array, which has its maximum radiation along the axis of the array (𝜃 =
0◦ ; 180◦ ). It may be required that the array radiates only in one direction- either 𝜃 = 0◦𝑜𝑟 180◦ .

Figure 4.2: Three-dimensional amplitude patterns for broadside, and broadside/end-fire arrays
(N = 10).

For an AF maximum at 𝜃 = 0◦

𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝛽 |𝜃 =0◦ = 𝑘𝑑 + 𝛽 = 0 ⇒ 𝛽 = −𝑘𝑑 𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0◦ (4.35)

For an AF maximum at 𝜃 = 180◦

𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝛽 |𝜃 =0◦ = 𝑘𝑑 + 𝛽 = 0 ⇒ 𝛽 = 𝑘𝑑for𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 180◦ (4.36)

If the element separation is multiple of a wavelength, 𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆, then in addition to the end-fire
maxima there also exist maxima in the broadside directions. As with the broadside array, in
order to avoid grating lobes, the maximum spacing between the element should be less than 𝜆:

𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 < 𝜆 (4.37)

Ermiyas Solomon, 44
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.3. N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Figure 4.3: Three-dimensional amplitude patterns for broadside, and broadside/end-fire arrays
(N = 10).

Figure 4.4: Three-dimensional amplitude patterns for end-fire arrays toward 𝜃 = 0◦ and 𝜃 = 180◦
(N = 10; 𝑑 = 𝜆/4).

4.3.3 Phased (Scanning) Arrays

In the previous two sections it was shown how to direct the major radiation from an array, by
controlling the phase excitation between the elements, in directions normal (broadside) and
along the axis (end fire) of the array. It is then logical to assume that the maximum radiation
can be oriented in any direction to form a scanning array. The procedure is similar to that of
the previous two sections.
Let us assume that the maximum radiation of the array is required to be oriented at angle 𝜃
(0◦ ≤ 𝜃 0 ≤ 180◦ ). To accomplish this, the phase excitation 𝛽 between the elements must be
adjusted so that

𝜓 = 𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝛽 |𝜃 =𝜃 0 = 𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝛽 = 0 ⇒ 𝛽 = −𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0 (4.38)

Ermiyas Solomon, 45
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.4. DIRECTIVITY OF A LINEAR . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

4.3.4 Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array

One of the shortcomings of end-fire arrays is their relatively broad HPBW as compared to
broadside arrays. To enhance the directivity of an end-fire array, Hansen and Woodyard
proposed that the phase shift of an ordinary end-fire 𝛽 = ±𝑘𝑑 be increased for closely spaced
elements of a very long array as
2.94 𝜋
𝛽 = (𝑘𝑑 + ) ' −(𝑘𝑑 + )|𝜃 = 0◦ (4.39)
𝑁 𝑁
2.94 𝜋
𝛽 = (𝑘𝑑 + ) ' (𝑘𝑑 + )|𝜃 = 180◦ (4.40)
𝑁 𝑁
Conditions (3.39) and (3.40) are known as the Hansen-Woodyard conditions for end-fire radiation.
They follow from a procedure for maximizing the directivity.

4.4 Directivity of a Linear Array

We will investigate the directivity of each of the arrays considered above, since it represents a
figure of merit on the operation of the system.

4.4.1 Directivity of Broadside Array

" #2
𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝑁2 𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )
𝑈 (𝜃 ) = |𝐴𝐹𝑛 | = 𝑁
(4.41)
2 𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷 0 = 4𝜋 = (4.42)
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑊𝑎𝑣
but,
𝜋
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑈 (𝜃 = )=1 (4.43)
2
and the radiation intensity averaged over all directions is
ˆ ˆ 
1 2𝜋 𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑍

𝑊𝑎𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 (4.44)
4𝜋 0 0 𝑍
changing variable:
𝑁 𝑁
𝑍= 𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑑𝑍 = − 𝑘𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (4.45)
2 2
ˆ 𝑁 𝑘𝑑/2  ˆ 𝑁 𝑘𝑑/2 
1 2 1
 
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑍 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑍
𝑊𝑎𝑣 =− 𝑑𝑍 = 𝑑𝑍 (4.46)
2𝑁 𝑘𝑑 −𝑁 𝑘𝑑/2 𝑍 𝑁 𝑘𝑑 −𝑁 𝑘𝑑/2 𝑍
The function ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑍
𝑍 ) is a relatively fast decaying function as 𝑍 increases. That is why, for large
arrays, where 𝑁 𝑘𝑑 is big enough ( 20), the integral (4.46) can be approximated by
ˆ 𝑁 𝑘𝑑/2  ˆ ∞
1 1
 
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑍 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑍
𝑑𝑍 ' 𝑑𝑍 (4.47)
𝑁 𝑘𝑑 −𝑁 𝑘𝑑/2 𝑍 𝑁 𝑘𝑑 −∞ 𝑍

Ermiyas Solomon, 46
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.4. DIRECTIVITY OF A LINEAR . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Since ˆ +∞  
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑍
𝑑𝑍 = 𝜋 (4.48)
−∞ 𝑍
we obtain
𝜋
𝑊𝑎𝑣 = (4.49)
𝑁 𝑘𝑑
The directivity becomes
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁 𝑘𝑑 𝑑
𝐷0 = = = 2𝑁 ( ) (4.50)
𝑊𝑎𝑣 𝜋 𝜆
Substituting the length of the array 𝐿 = (𝑁 1)𝑑,
𝐿 𝑑
𝐷 0 = 2(1 + ) (4.51)
𝑑 𝜆
For large arrays (𝐿 >> 𝑑)
𝐿
𝐷 0 ' 2( ) (4.52)
𝜆

4.4.2 Directivity of Ordinary End-Fire Array

In a similar way it can be shown that the directivity of an end-fire array becomes
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 2𝑁 𝑘𝑑 𝑑
𝐷0 = = = 4𝑁 ( ) (4.53)
𝑊𝑎𝑣 𝜋 𝜆
For large arrays (𝐿 >> 𝑑)  
𝐿
𝐷0 ' 4 (4.54)
𝜆

4.4.3 Directivity of Hansen-Woodyard Array

It can be shown that the directivity of Hansen-Woodyard array is
  
𝑑
𝐷 0 = 1.805 4𝑁 (4.55)
𝜆
which is 1.805 times that of the ordinary end-fire array as given by (4.53). For large arrays
(𝐿 >> 𝑑)   
𝐿
𝐷 0 ' 1.805 4 (4.56)
𝜆
Exercise 4.1:
1 Prove equation (4.55)
2 Given a linear uniform array of isotropic elements with N = 10; d = 𝜆/4, find the directivity
if:
a. 𝛽 = 0 (broadside)
b. 𝛽 = 𝑘𝑑 (end-fire)
c. 𝛽 = 𝑘𝑑𝜋/𝑁 (Hansen-Woodyard) [ans. a. 5 (=6.999 dB) b. 10 (10 dB) c. 17.89 (12.53
dB)]

Ermiyas Solomon, 47
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.4. DIRECTIVITY OF A LINEAR . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Exercise 4.2:
1 Three isotropic sources, with spacing 𝑑 between them, are placed along the 𝑧-axis. The
excitation coefficient of each outside element is unity while that of the center element is
2. For a spacing of 𝑑 = 𝜆/4 between the elements, find the
a. array factor
b. angles where the nulls of the pattern occur (0◦ ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180◦ )
c. angle where the maxima of the patter occur (0◦ ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180◦ )
2. For the three-element array of isotropic radiators (𝑑 = 𝜆/2) shown in Figure (5.12), find
the array factor, maxima and all the nulls if the elements 1, 2 and 3 are, respectively,
excited with current distribution
a. 1; j; +1
b. 1; j; j.
3. Show that in order for a uniform array of N elements not to have any minor lobes, the
spacing and progressive phase shift between the elements must be
 𝑑 = 𝜆/𝑁 ; 𝛽 = 0 for a broadside array.
 𝑑 = 𝜆/(2𝑁 ); 𝛽 = ±𝑘𝑑 for an ordinary end-fire array.
4. A uniform array of 20 isotropic elements is places along the z-axis a distance 𝜆/4 apart
with progressive phase shift 𝛽 rad. Calculate for the following array types
a. broadside
b. end-fire with maximum at 𝜃 = 0◦
c. end-fire with maximum at 𝜃 = 180◦
d. phased array with maximum aimed at 𝜃 = 30◦
e. Hansen-Woodyard with maximum at 𝜃 = 0◦
f. Hansen-Woodyard with maximum at 𝜃 = 180◦
5. An array comprise two dipole that are separated by one wavelength. If the dipoles are
fed by the current of the same magnitude and phase,
a. Find the array factor
b. Calculate the angles where the nulls of the pattern occur
c. Determine the angles where the maxima of the pattern occur
d. Sketch the group pattern in the plane containing the elements.
6. An antenna receives a power of 2𝜇𝑊 from the radio station. calculate its effective area if
the antenna is located in the far zone of the station where 𝐸 = 50𝑚𝑉 /𝑚
7. Four isotropic sources are placed along the 𝑧− axis as shown figure below. Assuming that
the amplitude of element 1 and 2 are +1 and the amplitude 3 and 4 are -1 find
(a) the array factor in simplified form
(b) all the nulls when 𝑑 = 𝜆/2
8. A three-element array of isotropic sources has the phase and the magnitude relationship
shown. The spacing btween the elements 𝑑 = 𝜆/2.
a. Find the array factor
b. Find the nulls
9. Three isotropic elements of equal exicitaion are placed along the y-axis as shown in the
figure 4.7. If the relatives amplitude of 1 is +2 and 2 and 3 is +1, find a simplifed expression
for the three-dimensional unnormlized array factor

Ermiyas Solomon, 48
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.4. DIRECTIVITY OF A LINEAR . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Figure 4.5: For problem 7

Ermiyas Solomon, 49
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
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4.4. DIRECTIVITY OF A LINEAR . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Figure 4.6: For problem 8

Figure 4.7: For problem 9

Ermiyas Solomon, 50
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.5. NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

4.5 Nonuniform Amplitude Linear Arrays

In this section we consider broadside arrays (𝛽 = 0) with uniform spacing but nonuniform am-
plitude distribution. The discussion will be directed toward binomial and Dolph-Tschebyscheff
broadside arrays.
Of the three distributions (uniform, binomial, and Tschebyscheff), a uniform amplitude array
yields the smallest half-power beamwidth. It is followed, in order, by the Dolph-Tschebyscheff
and binomial arrays. In contrast, binomial arrays usually possess the smallest side lobes followed,
in order, by the Dolph-Tschebyscheff and uniform arrays. As a matter of fact, binomial arrays
with element spacing equal or less than =2 have no side lobes. It is apparent that the designer
must compromise between side lobe level and beamwidth.

4.5.1 Array Factor

Let us consider a linear array with an even number (2M) of elements, located symmetrically
along the z-axis, with excitation an, which is also symmetrical with respect to z = 0. For a
broadside array (𝛽 = 0),

𝐴𝐹𝑒 = 𝑎 1𝑒 +𝑗 (1/2)𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑎 2𝑒 +𝑗 (3/2)𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ... + 𝑎𝑀 𝑒 +𝑗 [ (2𝑀−1)/2]𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑎 1𝑒 −𝑗 (1/2)𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑎 2𝑒 −𝑗 (3/2)𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ... + 𝑎𝑀 𝑒 −𝑗 [ (2𝑀−1)/2]𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (4.57)

⇒
2𝑛 − 1
Õ𝑀  
𝐴𝐹𝑒 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (4.58)
𝑛=1
2
If the linear array consists of an odd number (2M + 1) of elements, located symmetrically along
the z-axis, the array factor is

𝐴𝐹𝑜 = 2𝑎 1 + 𝑎 2𝑒 +𝑗𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑎 3𝑒 +𝑗2𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ... + 𝑎𝑀+1𝑒 +𝑗𝑀𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

+ 𝑎 2𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑎 3𝑒 −𝑗2𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + ... + 𝑎𝑀+1𝑒 −𝑗𝑀𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (4.59)

𝑀+1
Õ
𝐴𝐹𝑜 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠 [(𝑛 − 1)𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ] (4.60)
𝑛=1

The amplitude of the center element is 2𝑎 1 . Equations (4.59) and (4.60) can be normalized and
written as

𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠 [(𝑛 − 1)𝑢] 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = 2𝑀

Í𝑀
𝐴𝐹𝑒 = 𝑛=1
𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠 [2(𝑛 − 1)𝑢] 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = 2𝑀 + 1 (4.61)
Í𝑀+1
𝐴𝐹𝑜 = 𝑛=1
𝑊 ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑢 = 𝜋𝑑𝜆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

The next step will be to determine the values of the excitation coefficients(𝑎𝑛 s).

Ermiyas Solomon, 51
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.5. NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Figure 4.8: Nonuniform amplitude arrays of even and odd number of elements.

4.5.2 Binomial Array

The excitation distribution of a binomial array is given by the coefficients of the binomial
expansion (1 + 𝑥)𝑚−1 . The coefficients can easily be read off from Pascal’s triangle.

𝑛 = 0: 1
𝑛 = 1: 1 1
𝑛 = 2: 1 2 1
𝑛 = 3: 1 3 3 1 (4.62)
𝑛 = 4: 1 4 6 4 1
𝑛 = 5:1 5 10 10 5 1
𝑛 = 6:1 6 15 20 15 6 1

Exercise 4.3: Find the amplitude excitations for a binomial array having 2; 3; 4, and 5 array
elements. [ans. a1 = 1; a1 = 1; a2 = 1; a1 = 3; a2 = 1; a1 = 3; a2 = 4; a3 = 1]
An approximate closed-form expression for the HPBW of a binomial array with 𝑑 = Λ/2 is
given by
1.06 0.75
𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = √ =p (4.63)
𝑁 −1 𝐿/𝜆

Ermiyas Solomon, 52
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.5. NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

The directivity of a broadside binomial array with spacing d = =2 can be calculated as

√ p
𝐷 0  1.77 𝑁 = 1.77 1 + 2𝐿/𝜆 (4.64)

4.5.3 Dolph-Tschebyscheff Array

Dolph proposed (in 1946) a method to design arrays with any desired sidelobe levels and
any HPBWs. This method is based on the approximation of the pattern of the array by a
Tschebyscheff polynomial of order m, high enough to meet the requirement for the side-lobe
levels. A DolphTschebyscheff with no side lobes (sidelobe level of 1 dB) reduces to the binomial
design.
Referring to (5.61), the array factor of an array of even or odd number of elements with symmetric
amplitude excitation is nothing more than a summation of M or M + 1 cosine terms. Each cosine
term, whose argument is an integer times a fundamental frequency, can be rewritten as a series
of cosine functions with the fundamental frequency as the argument. That is,
𝑚 = 0: cos(o) = 1
𝑚 = 1: cos(mu) = cos(u)
𝑚 = 2: cos(mu) = cos(2u) = 2cos2𝑢 − 1
𝑚 = 3: cos(mu) = cos(3u) = 4cos3𝑢 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢 (4.65)
𝑚 = 4: cos(mu) = cos(4u) = 8cos4𝑢 − 8𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑢 +1
𝑚 = 5: cos(mu) = cos(5u) = 16cos5𝑢 − 20𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑢 + 5𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢
𝑚 = 5: cos(mu)= cos(5u) = 32cos6𝑢 − 48𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑢 + 18𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑢 − 1

The above are obtained by the use of Euler’s formula

[𝑒 𝑗𝑢 ]𝑚 = (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢)𝑚 = 𝑒 𝑗𝑚𝑢 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑚𝑢) + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑚𝑢)

and the trigonometric identity

𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑢 = 1𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑢
Letting
𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢 (4.66)
𝑚 = 0: cos(o) = 1= T0 (𝑧)
𝑚 = 1: cos(mu) = z= T1 (𝑧)
𝑚 = 2: cos(mu) = 2z2 − 1 = T2 (𝑧)
𝑚 = 3: cos(mu) = 4z3 − 3𝑧 = T3 (𝑧) (4.67)
𝑚 = 4: cos(mu) = 8z4 − 8𝑧 2 +1= T4 (𝑧)
𝑚 = 5: cos(mu) = 16z5 − 20𝑧 3 + 5𝑧 = T4 (𝑧)
𝑚 = 5: cos(mu)= 32z6 − 48𝑧 4 + 18𝑧 2 − 1 = T5 (𝑧)

Ermiyas Solomon, 53
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.5. NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

and each is related to a Tschebyscheff (Chebyshev) polynomial 𝑇𝑚 (𝑧). These relations between
the cosine functions and the Tschebyscheff polynomials are valid only in the 1 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ +1 range.
Because |𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑚𝑢)| ≤ 1, each Tschebyscheff polynomial is |𝑇𝑚 (𝑧)| ≤ 1 for 1 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ +1. For
|𝑧| > 1, the Tschebyscheff polynomials are related to the hyperbolic cosine functions.
The recursion formula for Tschebyscheff polynomials is

𝑇𝑚 (𝑧) = 2𝑧𝑇𝑚1 (𝑧) − 𝑇𝑚2 (𝑧) (4.68)

Each polynomial can also be computed using

𝑇𝑚 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑧)], 1 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ +1 (4.69)

𝑇𝑚 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ[𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ −1 (𝑧)]𝑧 < 1; 𝑧 > +1 (4.70)

Properties of the Tschebyscheff polynomials:
1. All polynomials of any order m pass through the point (1; 1)
2. Within the range 1 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 1, the polynomials have values within [1; 1]
3. All nulls occur within 1 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 1
4. The maxima and minima in the 𝑧 ∈ [1; 1] range have values +1 and -1, respectively.
5. The higher the order of the polynomial, the steeper the slope for |𝑧| > 1.

Dolph-Tschebyscheff Array Design

The main goal is to approximate the desired AF with a Tschebyscheff polynomial such that
• the side-lobe level meets the requirements, and
• the main beam width is as small as possible.
An array of N elements has an AF approximated with a Tschebyscheff polynomial of order m,
which is always
𝑚 =𝑁 −1 (4.71)
where N = 2M, if N is even; and N = 2M + 1, if N is odd.
In general, for a given side-lobe level, the higher the order 𝑚 of the polynomial, the narrower
the beamwidth. However, for m > 10, the difference is not substantial - see the slopes of Tm(z)
in Figure 4.9. The AF of an 𝑁 element array (5.61) is identical with a Tschebyscheff polynomial
if (Í
𝑀
𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠 [(2𝑛 − 1)𝑢], 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = 2𝑀, 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑇𝑁 −1 (𝑧) = Í𝑛=1 (4.72)
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 [2(𝑛 − 1)𝑢], 𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑁 = 2𝑀 + 1, 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑀+1

Here, 𝑢 = 𝜋𝑑/𝜆𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 . Define the side-lobe level be

𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅0 = , 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (4.73)
𝐸𝑠𝑙

Ermiyas Solomon, 54
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022
 Lecture Notes on ECEg-4292
4.5. NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE . . . Antennas and Radio Wave Propagation

Figure 4.9: Tschebyscheff polynomials of orders zero through five.

The array design can be states as: Design a broadside Dolph-Tschebyscheff array of 2M or 2M +
1 elements with spacing d between the elements. The side lobes are 𝑅0 dB below the maximum
of the major lobe. Find the excitation coefficients and form the array factor.

Procedure
1. Expand the AF as given by (4.61) by replacing each cos(mu) term (m = 1; 2; : : : ; M) with
the power series of cosu.
2. Determine 𝑧 0 such that TN1(z0) = R0 (voltage ratio).
3. Substitute 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢 = 𝑧/𝑧 0 in the AF as found in step 1.
4. Equate the AF found in Step 3 to 𝑇𝑁 −1 (𝑧) and determine the coefficients for each power
of z
Exercise 4.4: Design a broadside Dolph-Tschebyscheff array of 𝑁 = 5 elements with a major-
to-minor lobe ratio of 𝑅0 = 26 dB. Find the excitation coefficients and form the AF.

Ermiyas Solomon, 55
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
DDIT, Dire Dawa University
March 10, 2022