1^1

National Ubrary
of

Canada

Biblloth6que natlonale

du Canada

Beekeeping
in Western

Canada

Edited by

John Gmszka

Contributions from

Dr.

Rob

Currie,

This publication

is

Don

Dixon, Kenn Tuckey and Paul van Westendorp

a revision of the former Prairie Beekeeping

D.C. MurreU and D.N.

MacDonald

Manual prepared by

Published by:
Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development
Publishing Branch

7000

113 Street

Edmonton, Alberta

T6H 5T6

Production Editor: Chris Kaulbars

F^ectronic Publishing Production: Carolyn Boechler

Graphic Designer: John Gillmore

Copyright 1998. Her Majesty the

Queen

in

Right of Alberta. All rights reserved.

No

part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted

any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise without

permission from the Publishing Branch, Alberta

Printed 1998 08

6M

ISBN 0-7732-6139-7

;riculture,

in

Food and Rural Development.

Contents
Foreword

Acknowledgements

Chapters

The Honey Bee

Nectar and Pollen

The Importance

Plants

Honey Bee

of Pollination

Classification

Biology of the

Honey Bee

The colony

The

nest

Seasonal cycle

Growth and development

The mated queen

10

Workers

10

Colony Food Requirements, Collection

The

bee-plant relationship

Worker

foraging

Supplementary Feeding

35

Carbohydrate Supplements

35

Types

of feed

36

Types

of feeders

37

Protein Supplements

41

Drones

and Processing

31

Pollen supplements and substitutes

41

Supplement formulations

42

Substitute formulations

42

Pollen and disease transmission

42

Harvesting and storing pollen

43

13
13

14

Food processing and storage

17

Robbing honey from other colonies

18

Supplying Water to Honey Bee

Colonies

44

J
Getting Started in
Beel{:eeping

19

What

19

is

Beekeeping?

The Sting
Purchasing Bees
Basic Beekeeping Equipment

The Colony Examination

20
21
23

Spring Management

45

Selection of Apiary Site

45

Apiary Layout

46

47

id

Records

Bulk and Package Bees

47

Preparation for installation

47

Installation

48

Follow-up inspection

49

29

Expanding the Operation

30

The Apiaries Act

30

Wintered Colonies

Early

Spring

Moisture Content and

51

Hygroscopicity

74

Checking Colonies

52

Granulation

75

Feeding Colonies

53

Maintain Honey Quality

75

Requeening Wintered Colonies

53

Fermentation

75

Equalizing Colony Strength

53

Heating and Storage

76

Uniting Colonies

53

Dividing Colonies

Moving

to

54

Summer Apiary

Sites

56

Apiary Maintenance

57

Space Requirements and Supering

58

Drawing Foundation
Use

of

59

Queen Excluders

Two-Queen Colonies

Extracting

tlie

Honey

79

Honey house types

79

Location

79

Insurance

80

Space

80

Cleanliness

81

Personal health, hygiene and clothing

82

60
61

Swarm prevention

62
62

control

Hazard Analysis

Handling swarms

79

Honey House Considerations

59

Swarming

Swarm

Critical Control Point

63

(HACCP)

Components

Removing Honey from the

82

of the

Honey House

83

Loading area

83

Hot room

83

Hive

65

Extracting

When to Remove Honey

65

Tank room and

Robbing

66

Storage area

84

Floor drains

85

66

Honey Extraction

85

Shaking and brushing

67

Safety considerations

85

Bee escape boards

67

Pallets

85

68

Uncapping devices

86

69

Extractors

88

Removing Bees from the Honey

Supers

ae or acid boards
i)lowers

Abandonment

70

Loading and Movement of Honey

Supers

70

Honey

84

room

84

The sump

89
90

Settling tanks

90

honey

91

Packing honey

91

Handling Beeswax Cappings

91

73

Composition
Viscosity

filling

The honey pump

Straining

room

Draining

91

Feeding cappings back to bees

92

Centrifugal separation

92

73
-

74

Wax press

92

Cappings melter

92

Spin-float separator

93

Design recommendations

111

Rendering Beeswax Cappings

93

Hive arrangement

118

Processing cappings

93

Feeding colonies indoors

118

in

water

The steam chest

93

The

94

solar

wax melter

Rendering Brood Combs

Commercial Processing

96
of

Beeswax

Ventilation principles of wintering

109

buildings

A
The Queen

119

Natural Requeening

119

96

Emergency queen rearing

119

Supersedure

119

Swarming

119
121

Marketing the Crops

97

Laying Workers

Marketing Honey

97

Requeening as a Management

Farm

98

gate sales

Tool

122

Retail store sales

98

Methods of Queen Introduction

Marketing Beeswcix

99

Banking Queens

123

99

122

Queen Cage Candy

123

100

Queen Rearing

123

Retail sales

100

Using naturally-produced queen

Health food stores

100

Beekeepers

100

Breeder colonies

124

Marketing Other Hive Products

100

Cell building colonies

124

Propolis

100

Rearing queens without grafting

125

Royal jelly

100

Rearing queens by grafting

125

Bee venom

101

Queen mating

127

Marketing Pollen

Raw pollen

sales

124

cells

colonies

Ik
Honey Bee Health

129

103

Honey Bee Brood Diseases

129

Robbing

103

American foulbrood

129

Package Operations

103

European foulbrood

132

Chalkbrood

134

104

Sacbrood

135

104

Adult

and Winter
Management
Fall

Using Calcium Cyanide to

Kill

Colonies

Wintering Honey Bee Colonies

What

Honey Bee Diseases

106

Nosema

106

Bee

Outdoor Wintering

107

Anomalies

Indoor Wintering

109

Gassed brood

to winter

Feeding colonies for winter

disease

paralysis

in

136

136
138

Colony Condition

138

138

Starvation

138

Unwelcome Intruders

144

Dysentery

139

Mice

144

Mites

139

Skunks

144

Varroa disease

139

Bears

145

Acarine disease/tracheal mite

141

The Africanized honey bee

146

Other parasitic mites

142

Pesticide Poisoning of

External mites

142

Insect

Pests of Honey Bee

Colonies
Ants
Go

146

143

Symptoms

147

143

Preventing losses

143

Documenting bee

143

The bee louse

144

Appendices

n
A - Glossary of Apiculture

Terms

153

Appendix

- Additional

References

163

Appendix C - Apiculture Personnel

in the

Western Provinces

Appendix

D - Canada Honey

165

Grading

Regulations

Appendix

iv

167

- Recommendations for

^'ding Antibiotics

146

Toxicity of pesticides to honey bees

aX moths

Appendix

Honey

Bees

171

of

bee poisoning

150
kills

151

Foreword
Canada is a leading honey producing country, ranking behind China, the United States,
Mexico and Argentina. Canada produces an average of 31.5 thousand tonnes of honey
annually (Statistics Canada, 1990-95), with the three prairie provinces accounting for 76.5

per cent or 24.1 thousand tonnes. Alberta produces the most honey, averaging 10 thousand

tonnes annually, or 30 percent of Canada's honey production. Saskatchewan has the highest
per colony yield
light color

markets

86 kg per year per hive. Honey produced

at

and a mild flavor and

for table

in the prairie

provinces has a

highly regarded on the domestic and international

is

use and for blending with darker honeys produced elsewhere.

Beekeeping conditions on the Canadian

prairies are unique.

Hot summers,

large areas of

cultivated nectar-producing crops and a short but intense nectar flow result in yields

averaging up to 90 kg (200

unique problems

There
bee.

is

in

lb)

per hive.

On the

other hand, long severe winters present

the overwintering of bees.

a wealth of literature concerned with the biology and

However, most

of this material has

been directed

to

management

of the

beekeeping conditions

United States and Europe. This book has been prepared to assist beekeepers

management

of

honey bees under

the references listed in Appendix

prairie conditions. It should

B and

in

honey

in the

the

be seen as a supplement to

other extension literature.

Acknowledgments
Permission to reproduce diagrams, tables and photos

is

gratefully

acknowledged

to the

following:

International

Bee Research Association

Dadant and Sons

Inc.

Manitoba Department of Agriculture

Academic Press
Dr. M.V. Smith

University of Guelph
Dr. D. Nelson

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

Donald Dixon and Barry Fingler of the Manitoba Department of Agriculture

to the sections

pesticide

Dr.

on indoor wintering, selecting and layout

of apiary sites, the

for contributing

queen and

damage

Cam Jay of the

University of Manitoba for contribution to the section on "What

is

Beekeeping?"

Digitized

by the Internet Archive

in

2015

https://archive.org/details/beekeepinginwestOOgrus

The Honey Bee

The Importance
Bees are thought

to be the

of Pollination

most

efficient of the insect pollinators.

The honey bee remains

one of the few pollinating insects that can be cultured, managed and moved in great
numbers to a crop requiring pollination. Thus, the value of the honey bee to our economy

The value

of

than merely that of the honey and beeswax produced. For agricultural crops,
honey bee pollination contributes anywhere from ten to one hundred times the monetary
value of honey and beeswax, and this figure does not include the aesthetic value of
far greater

honey bee

economy

that of the

we consume depend on or benefit from pollination. As well, many

form part or all of the diet of many animals raised for milk and meat

that

insect-pollinated plants

production. Insect-pollinated legumes have the added role of soil enrichment through their
nitrogen-fixing capacity.

Inadequate pollination leads to reduced crop yields, delayed or uneven

and lower

fruit quality. Insect-pollinated

fruit

and seed set

ornamentals, both cultivated and uncultivated,

brighten the landscape, provide shelter and food for wildlife, and aid in soil stabilization.

In

many

areas of the world, the populations of native bees have suffered as a result of

changing agricultural practices, the use of pesticides and widespread land clearing and

consequent elimination of nesting

Honey Bee
Honey bees

are

sites.

Classification

members

of the class Insecta,

which includes

all

insects such as

dragonflies, leafhoppers, butterflies, beetles, mosquitoes and wasps. Insects are, in turn,

part of a larger group, the Arthropoda (jointed legs), which includes four other classes:

and mites),

Arachnida (spiders,

Chilopoda (centipedes),

Diplopoda (millipedes), and

Crustacea (lobsters, shrimp, barnacles, and crayfish).

Members
shell,

ticks, scorpions,

of the class Insecta are characterized

by having a protective exoskeleton or outer

three pairs of legs, one pair of antennae, a segmented body divided into head, thorax

and abdomen and, often, one or two pairs of wings.

Within the Insecta, there are smaller groupings or orders, and honey bees are

in the

order

Hymenoptera ("membrane-wing"). This order also includes sawflies, wasps, ants and other
solitary and social bees. There are about 20,000 species of bees in the world, about 3,300 of
these are native to North America. Most species of bees are solitary, but some live
communally and some, such as the bumble and honey bees, have developed a truly social
life style.

to

is

our

far

greater than merely

cultivated and wild ornamentals or their value to wildlife.

Many plant products

the

is

honey and

beeswax produced.

Bees can be distinguished from the other members of the Hymenoptera because they have
long, well-shaped tongues and numerous branched (plumose) body hairs. Male bees can be
distinguished from females because the males have 13 antennal segments and 7 visible
abdominal segments, whereas the females have only 12 antennal segments, 6 visible
abdominal segments and a stmg! In most species, females also have a pollen-collecting
apparatus located on the underside of the abdomen or on the hind legs.

Bumble bees and honey bees are in the family Apidae; the scientific name of the western
'n '^y^ (L.), meaning "honey-bearing bee." Thus beekeeping has been
is At

hor ey bee
He

'

:d

"apicL

ral

other

'

\pis dorsata
.

Single

comb

culture of Apis.

oiApis species are recognized at present. Apis florea, the

:ae giant

honey bee or rock hee,Apis

little

honey

and A/)f5 andreniformis

The comb

dwellings in sheltered but open areas.

cm to almost 2 metres

varies from 20

laboriosa,

all

size of these species

in depth.

Other species of honey bees such as Apis cerana

indica, the Indian

honey bee. Apis

koschevnikovi,Apis nigrocincta,Apis nuluensis and Apis mellifera live in closed cavities. A^zs

cerana can also be managed for honey production and crop pollination because
multiple

comb

dwellings and

is

similar in

many

builds

it

respects to Apis mellifera, though

its

colonies are smaller in size.

Apis mellifera has been further categorized into a number of different races. Several
geographic races otApis mellifera in Europe have developed in isolation from one another

and have evolved characteristics that suit them to their particular environments. None of
these races

The

is

native to the Americas, but

Italian bee,

Apis mellifera

tendency towards

prolific

Because of this tendency,

ligustica, is

all

have been introduced

known for

its

at

golden color,

one time or another.

its

gentleness and

its

brood rearing and populous colonies throughout the season.

its

food consumption

is

high throughout the year, including the

The Caucasian bee. Apis mellifera caucasica, is a darker-colored bee, quite gentle,
with a somewhat slower buildup in numbers, strong colonies and a strong tendency to
propolize. The Carniolan bee. Apis mellifera carnica, is also dark-colored, quiet and gentle,

winter.

with

its

brood production closely related to the

availability of pollen;

overwinters in small colonies and with less food consumption.

mellifera, is

very dark

in color,

it

characteristically

The dark

bee. Apis mellifera

with a tendency to be nervous and aggressive;

it

has a slow

spring buildup.

Other races oiApis mellifera include those that originate

(oi

infamous) of which

is

extreme aggression, small colonies, lack of clustering

to winter)

in Africa, the

most famous

the African bee. Apis mellifera scutellata. Traits of this race are
ability (since this race

does not need

and a tendency towards both migratory and reproductive swarming behaviour.

Queen

Figure

1.

The three castes

of the

Biology of the

honey bee: Queen, Worker, Drone. (Taken from Dade, 1977).

Honey Bee

Before taking up beekeeping as either a hobby or a full-time occupation, you need some

knowledge

of

honey bee

biology.

Through knowledge

bee colony and adaptation of management techniques

of the natural instincts of the

to specific situations,

you

honey

will attain

maximum honey production.

The colony
The honey bee colony

is

a family consisting of a single mother, the queen; thousands of

daughters, the workers; and a varying

number

of sons, the drones.

queen, worker and drone - differ in size and shape (Figures

The three

castes -

and 2) and are each

specialized to perform certain tasks within the colony.

This specialization and consequent interdependence of the castes makes the honey bee
colony a truly social unit. Consider the colony to be like an individual "organism" consisting
of

anywhere from 10,000

the "others."

to 60,000 "cells,"

none

of

The "organism" perpetuates

itself

through successive cycles of brood rearing.

which can

exist for very long

away from

Reproduction of the "organism" - the colony - occurs through swarming.

Queen

Figure 2. Heads

of three

castes of honey bee: Queen, Worker, Drone. (Modified from Dade, 1977).

The nest
The

physical

the colony.

dwelHng place

The colony

of the

bee

is

the nest or hive, while the bees themselves form

nests in a dark enclosed cavity, such as a hollow tree or within the

wall of a building, which provides protection from predators and inclement weather and

allows regulation of the temperature and humidity.

Wax combs

built

by the young worker bees form the substrate, or material, of the nest.

Perpendicular combs are attached to the top of the cavity and are built more or less parallel.

The

distance

between combs

is

queen, workers and drones and

Combs

are

made up

about 8
is

of six-sided (hexagonal) cells

'Jpwards from both sides of the mid-rib.

St

re.

Brood

is

reared

above and to tht

SI

mm, which

in

is sufficient

to allow the passage of the

thus referred to as the "bee space."

The

extending out and angled slightly

cells are

used for brood rearing and food

the centre of the nest in a hemisphere or sphere; pollen

^s of the brood,

and honey

is

is

stored above and to the sides of the

pollen.

Most

of the

combs are made up

along the bottoms and sides of

cells,

of worker-sized cells, but

combs (Figure

3).

some drone comb

Queens are

which begin as queen cups and when drawn out and capped, hang

on the comb (Figure

4).

will

be

built

raised in specialized queen

in a vertical position

Figure 3.
Drone-sized cells
along bottom and

end bars.

Seasonal cycle
The

races of bees used in Canadian beekeeping are adapted to a temperate climate, and the

cycle of colony development follows the cycle of the seasons. While other species of social

new queens hibernate,

honey bees maintain perennial colonies with both queens and workers surviving from fall

bees, such as bumble bees, survive the winter by having only the

through to spring.

European honey bees store

food,

when

available, far in

excess of day-to-day demands

order to survive periods of dearth and inclement weather.

When too

hot,

in

they can control

When

the temperature of the brood nest by air circulation and evaporation of water.

they

are too cold, they cluster together and generate heat energy. This adaptability allows
colonies to survive in nearly every environment inhabited by the

In spring, an overwintered colony of bees

may

human

race.

consist of from 10,000 to 20,000 individuals

or more. With the onset of the spring pollen and nectar availability, the colony begins to

increase in numbers, providing there

is

access to food and water.

A shortage

of honey,

pollen or water will lead to a temporary reduction or cessation of brood rearing.

As the number

of

worker bees increases and more are

available to maintain the brood nest,

the size of the brood nest increases, and the colony expands in an upward direction, taking

advantage of the heat rising from the brood nest. Headed by a queen with optimum laying
capacity and no limits on food and space, colony populations can increase to a maximum of
approximately 60,000, comprised of a single queen, a few thousand drones and many
workers.

If

conditions warrant, in the late spring and early

fining

preparations. S

v/orker populai

:"omone
al,

when

summer, the colony may begin swarming

the amount of queen substance available to the

=comes too low to maintain colony cohesion. This situation may occur
ionies become crowded, limiting the dispersal of queen

>vhen rapidly

is initiated

results in

li,

queen

cell construction. In addition to

pheromone

ner factors such as the level of queen pheromone production, brood

hov

nd the

.yz, ventii

availability of

space for egg-laying and food storage also play

jry roles in swarming.

important rep

Prior to swarming,

when space

become "honey bound." At

queen's egg-laying rate

egg laying

available for

this point,

falls off,

new queens

reduced, the queen

is

is

said to

are produced in queen cells while the old

and her abdomen reduces

in size.

Her nurse bees tend

to

feed her less, agitate her and eventually force her out of the hive with a good portion of the

workers and drones.

The swarm

when

generally issues around midday

it is

sunny and warm, often on

a day

following a period of inclement weather, during which the whole population has been

crowded

The swarm generally

into the hive.

settles

returning to communicate their findings by

recruit foragers. Eventually,

means

of the

She

also

may

sort of

bee dance used

to

its suitability,

and the swarms move

new home.

In the meantime, a virgin

colony."

same

one of these locations receives the majority of visits and

recruitment of most of the foragers sent to investigate

to this location to start a

in some
new home,

on a branch, a fence post or

such location close to the hive and remains there while scout bees search for a

queen

will

emerge from one

of the

leave the parent colony with a smaller

after-swarm. Several such after-swarms

may

out and sting the other queens in their cells.

issue, or

queen

cells in the "parent

number

of workers,

termed an

one of the virgin queens may search

Once mated, the new queen

will

then become

the mother of the parent colony.

Throughout the spring, the colony continues

Although very

"}

activity

occurs

i,

the
'

summer draws

lying

toward a peak population, and excess

to

an end, the colony population decreases through a slowdown

aonthsandwi

in

and brood rearing, the eventual death of worker bees and the expulsion of the

i^g drones froni \he colony.

winter cluster, the

,

to build

honey and pollen are stored through the main summer nectar flow. Once the flow ceases

nn

Worker bees

that hatch in late

summer will

live for

the wintering population.

bees do not hibernate.

uiil progresses, egg
one U three months dur

by the queen generally ceases, and there

'.

nter

when

there

is little

is

a period of from

or no brood rearing.

As

temperatures cool, the bee^ ijather together, and at about 14C, they form a well-defined
cluster which then contract,, lurther as ambient temperatures grow colder. Although very

j|
^

^
^

activity occurs in the w. .er cluster, the bees do not hibernate. Instead, they eat
honey and generate heat through rapid thoracic-muscle vibrations. Through the winter, the

'^^^'^

cluster gradually shifts position in the hive to utilize

all

maintained

29C

at

6-7C

at the

edge of the cluster and

at

the honey stores. Temperatures are

in the centre.

Some

time

in

January or February, the colony resumes brood rearing, and the temperature
is maintained at about 33C. Brood rearing causes the workers to age

within the cluster

Honey consumption within

By early

rapidly because of the stresses related to royal jelly production.

the hive increases from a maintenance level of 1.5-2 kg/month to 7-8 kg/month.
spring, colonies

may be

getting short of pollen and honey, depending on the severity of the

winter and the rate of brood rearing.

The onset

and pollen

of spring temperatures, nectar

flows allow the renewal of food stores and the rapid expansion of the brood nest, and the
cycle begins again.

Growth and development

Each caste passes through the same developmental stages from egg to adult, although their
developmental time is different (Table 1 and Figure 5). Queens take about 16 days to
develop from egg to adult, workers about 21 days and drones about 24 days.
total

The

life

cycle of a typical worker bee can be used to explain the development.

has been

laid in a cell,

into the first larval stage (instar),

in the

end of the

Provisioned

first

which

over a period of five

The

The

is

about 1.6

mm in length and

is

coiled

jelly produced by the young adult workers, and later with a

honey and pollen (bee bread), the worker larva feeds and grows
days. During this period, it moults four times, shedding its skin and

jelly,

By the

eighth day,

it

has increased

House bees cap over the

its

weight by 1,500 times and

fills

the

on the eighth day, and over the next three

the cell and spins a silken cocoon in which to

cell

days, the larva stretches out lengthwise in

pupate.

time

with royal

increasing in size.
of the cell.

at this

cell.

mixture of modified

end

Once the egg

the embryo within the egg develops for three days and then hatches

larva then moults for the last time.

stages between the grub-like larva and the adult bee are referred to as the pre-pupal

and pupal stages. At about the twenty-first day, the new adult worker
begins to

chew

bee," which

is

at the

cappings imprisoning her in her

cell.

easy to recognize by her uncertain steps,

She

finally

light color

is fully

developed and

emerges

as a "baby

and fuzzy appearance.

Table

Length of development stages of the honey bee

Queens

Workers

(hatching)

Drones

\lldlOllllllj/

(hatching)

Egg

Egg

,iL

Egg

moult

1st moult
1st moult

2nd moult

St larv:

1st larval

2nd moult

1st larval

2nd moult

2nd larva

3rd moult

znd

larval

3rd moult

2nd

larval

3rd moult
6

3rd larva!

3rd larval
4th moult

4th larval

3rd larval
4th moult

4th larval

4th larval

(s6aling)

4th moult

(sealing)

Gorging

Gorging

(sealing)

Gorging

Pre-pupa

10

5th moult

Pre-pupa
5th moult

11

5th moult

12

Pre-pupa

Pupa

13
14

6th moult

15

(emerging)

Pupa
AHiilt
MUUtl

16

17

18
1

Pupa

6th moult

(emerging)

20
21

Adult
6th moult

22

(emerging)
'

n
Adult

fv!

od.iied

from Bertholf,

(2):380-384, taken fron:

925.

The moults

dJaw 1979).

of the

honey hee. Journal of Economic Entomology

CHArru

Egg

Larva

Egg

Larva

Figure 5. Length

of

Spins

Pre-pupa

Pupa

Spins

Adult

developmental stages of the honey bee. Each

(Modified from Winston, M.

L.

Pupa

Pre-pupa

1987. The Biology of the

cell

depicts a duration of one day

Honey Bee. Harvard

Adult

in

the indicated

The mated queen

The mated queen

is

the central figure of the colony.

into workers, drones

It is

she

who

lays the eggs that develop

and queens. She also maintains colony cohesion through production

of

chemicals called pheromones.

The queen's

retinue

pheromone (queen substance)

is

produced by her mandibular glands

and consists of a complex blend consisting of 9-oxodecenoic

acid,

10-hydroxydecenoic

acid,

methyl p-hydroxybenzoate and 4-hydroxy3-3-methoxyphenylethanol. These pheromones

are

first

picked up by the nurse bees

the queen.

Pheromones

who

touch the queen with their antennae and then

lick

are then passed through the process of worker- worker contacts

and food exchange (trophallaxis) to every colony member.

The queen's mandibular gland pheromones

swarm

to

to attract drones during mating,

to stimulate foraging,

to

act to influence several inclinations:

or supersede,

enhance swarm clustering, as well as to suppress worker ovary development (see

Chapter 11 for a more detailed explanation of queen biology and her role in the colony).

The queen has no part

in caring for the brood,

cares for the brood and performs

all

and

it is

life

stage.

University Press. Cambridge, IVlassachusetts).

the worker caste that feeds and

the household and field tasks.

Drones
Drones are produced primarily

in the late spring

and early summer. They perform no

specialized tasks withm the hive, serving only to mate with virgin queens. Mature drones, a
week or more in age, leave their hives on warm sunny days and can fly several kilometres

from the colony

queens are

virgin

The

in

search of queens. Mating occurs in mid-afternoon while both drones and

in flight.

en/ effective at attracting drones through a combination of olfactory

virgin queer

(pheromones)

cues. Stimulated

vigorously puri
fifteen

drones rn

mating

flights.

by the queen's pheromones, her potential mates

group that are collectively referred to as a "drone comet." Ten to

succeed

ciitually

in

mating with each queen on one or more of her

.Although each queen typically mates several times, individual drones

The

then die immediately afterwards.

some evidence

to suggest that drones

exact location of mating

may fly regularly to

is

mate only once and

unknown, but there

mating

specific

congregation areas. Drones that are unsuccessful in mating and that survive until

worker bees and then

usually forced from the hive by the

is

sites called
fall

are

die.

Workers
Worker bees have many tasks

perform during their adult

to

lives.

The worker's

life is

divided into two main periods: the hive period (house bees) and the field period (field bees).

Each period

lasts

Workers perform

about three weeks through the

summer months.

sequence of tasks according to age and the stage of

a general

physiological development, with

"preferences" for certain tasks

much

overlapping of tasks, omissions of tasks and

shown by

individuals.

Each bee performs many different

Housekeeping duties of the

duties through the day, interspersed with frequent rest spells.

worker bees include the following:

feeding the larvae,

building

capping brood and honey

processing nectar and pollen for storage,

feeding the queen and drones,

removing dead brood, adults and foreign material from the

ventilating and def-^nding the colony.

new wax combs,

cells,

Newly-emerged worke- > engage

7/^ .1

pollen and nectar.

'he hypopharyngeal

gl-.

feed to larval workers,

'

young workers, who cont

When

about a

week

in cell-cleaning activities

From about

old,

in their

es

of the hive

and begin feeding older larvae

heads produce royal

jelly, a

protein-rich food that they

and queens. The queen's retinue

is

also

ny care for her and feed her with royal

and hover there facing

it,

made up

of these

jelly.

wo. er bees begin short orientation or "play"

flights.

warm sunny days. Many young bees

fill

These

flights

the air in front

apparently memorizing the orientation of the hive and

will aid in locating their

hive and the excess activity ceases.

10

and

the sixth to the twelfth day of worker bee development,

often occur in the early afternoon of

any landmarks that

hive,

home. After

a short time, the

bees re-enter the

cNArru

Comb building is

undertaken by workers once their wax glands have begun functioning,

between day 12 and

of abdominal
1 to

18.

The

4 pairs of

segments 4 through 7

wax glands

of the

are located under the plates or sternites

worker (Figure

6),

and they secrete scales of wax

mm diameter into the pockets beneath the sternites. The workers engaged in comb

building hang quietly in festoons, manipulating the

mandibles, chewing and softening the

wax and

wax

scales from abdominal pockets to

depositing

it

on

comb, where

it is

worked

and smoothed over. Neither the queen nor the drones develop wax or hypopharyngeal
glands.

spiracle

Figure 6. The

wax and Nasanov

Hive and the Honey Bee,

Older house bees

may

(scent) glands of the worker

honey bee. (Modified from Snodgrass

in

The

975).

when they

take on colony defense and temperature regulation duties

are physiologically no longer able to feed young larvae or produce wax. Guard bees stand at

the entrance to the hive and intercept strangers and insects of other types should they try
to enter the hive. In times of

allowed

in.

When the

honey

flow,

any forager loaded with honey or pollen

will

colony has been disturbed by predators or during dearth periods

strangers are likely to be robber bees, the guard bees are greater in

number and

be

when

alert to

any

disturbance, which they will investigate at once.

Fanning behavior may be noted

at

hive entrances during hot

summer

days. Fanning sets up

a current of air through the hive, cooling the interior and driving off excess humidity from

ripening honey. Fanning will also occur

colony, or

bend the

when

swarm

tips of their

between the

of bees

is

when bees

are shaken from frames in front of a

entering a brood box. In such situations, the workers

abdomens down to expose the Nasanov or scent gland, located

segments (Figures 6 and 7). The volatile secretion from

sixth and seventh

this

11

gland

is

carried on the air current set up by

wing fanning and serves to orient and attract

Nasanov gland may also occur at food and

of the

other bees towards its source. Exposure

water sources to mark their location for inexperienced foragers.

right hind

wing
Figure 8.

The wings

of the

worker honey bee. (Modified from Snodgrass

The Hive and the Honey Bee,

12

977).

in

cArm
Foraging duties begin

at

about three weeks of age and continue for the remainder of the

life. During this time, pollen, nectar, water and propolis are gathered in the
and brought back to the hive, where they are transferred to house bees that take over
the processing and storing tasks. At the height of the summer season, field workers forage

worker's adult
field

for about three

weeks before becoming worn out and

dying.

is a sequence to the ages at which workers normally perform tasks, bees of

any age can perform any of the tasks required to ensure normal colony functioning. In a
colony made up solely of young workers, for example, some will never feed brood or clean

Although there

house but

will

go directly to foraging, while others

Depending on the needs

some

flexibility in

of the colony

will

continue to perform house duties.

and the stimuli received by the workers, there

is

the system.

Colony Food Requirements, Collection and

Processing
The bee-plant

relationship

Bee species and the flowering

plants are thought to have evolved together, with the

inter-relationship centred around the production and collection of pollen and nectar as a

food source. Without flowering plants, bees could not

live;

without bees,

many

species of

flowering plants would not exist.

The

hairs

on the body

bee are feathered to

of the

facilitate

capture of pollen grains, and

pollination of a flower often occurs as a by-product of a bee's search for nectar

and pollen.

Nectar can be looked on as a "bribe" or "reward" offered by the flower to the bee

exchange

in

for pollination.

Other plant characteristics that help

and aromatic flowers. Color

may

attract pollinating

stimulate landing and the search for nectar and pollen.

these features are related, for

bees include bright-colored, showy

act as a long-distance attractant while

when

a flower has

It is

aroma may

interesting to note

been pollinated and

fertilized,

how

closely

nectar

secretion and aroma production cease almost at once.

Nectar

is

secreted by glands called nectaries (Figure

the flower but that

the plant and

is

may be

extrafloral in

some

which are generally located within

is

the male sex cell of

produced within special organs called anthers, which along with their

supporting filaments

make up

the stamens.

within the ovary at the base of the

Generally the stamens,

located in such a

pistil

manner

that

The female sex

cells,

the eggs, are located

pistil.

and nectaries (Figure

when

9) of bee-pollinated plant species are

the bee probes the flower for nectar, she must brush by

the anthers and the receptive area of the

same

9),

plant species. Pollen

pistil.

Pollen grains from a previous flower of the

species, caught in the feathered hairs of the bee, adhere to the receptive, often sticky,

stigmatic surface as the bee pushes past.

The

pollen grains germinate on the stigmatic surface and send pollen tubes to the ovary,

through which the male nuclei

travel. Fertilization of a flower occurs

when

the nuclei of

pollen grain and egg unite.

13

petal

nectaries

sepal

ovary

Figure 9. Longitudinal section of a flower. (Modified from Free, 1976).

f

Worker foraging

Nectar, pollen, water and propolis are the four basics required for the honey bee colony to
thrive.

Nectar

converted into honey and provides a carbohydrate source for energy, for

is

bees as well as humans. Pollen

is

the protein source for larval growth and development, as

well as adult development and maintenance. Pollen also supplies

minerals as well as lipids

Water

is

importance

of great

many vitamins

anji

(fats).

in the colony,

making up

a large proportion of the larval

body

weight and being necessary for the proper functioning of tissues and organs of both

immatures and
and

it

adults.

Water

is

used to dilute stored honey and syrup to feed to the brood,

also plays a major role in temperature

Propolis, a composite of resins and

to seal cracks

Whether

gums

and humidity regulation within the hive.

collected from trees and other vegetation,

is

used

and cover foreign material within the hive.

worker bee

collects nectar, pollen,

water or propolis

will

depend on conditions

in

the hive at that time, and the task will change with changing colony needs. Generally, the

works within

field force

distances

One

if

of the

honey bee
'

most

in'

km radius of the hive but can forage

^Testing and important facets of foraging activity

to the c

effecti\

which she forages.

>n

flowers of on]

uch an

a three

at

much

greater

necessary. Inclement weather conditions shorten this radius.

olant species.
^

It is

On any one

trip,

is

the fidelity of the

the honey bee will usually

this characteristic of the

honey bee

S-pollinator. In fact, given constant conditions

that

makes

and a steady nectar

bee may coruiivae visiting the same crop for several days or even weeks.
However, if condition- ':'tiA-':-ge in the hive or in the field, the bee may change to another
crop, another commodjo/
both.

flow, the

The worker honey bee pob

oes specialized equipment enabling her to gather and carry

quantities of nectar, water, pollen and propolis back to the hive.

The nectar and

come together

water-collecting apparatus consists of specialized mouthparts that

to form a
"honey pump" in the head to draw liquids up through the tube, a long
oesophagus and a honey stomach for short-term storage (Figure 10).

tube, a muscular

14

CMAPTU

The honey stomach

is

not part of the digestive tract of the bee, but instead

oesophagus, modified to a thin-walled expandable

flowers as necessary to obtain a
(1

mg=

full

sac.

The

is

part of the

forager will visit as

load of nectar, which weighs about 50

1000 micrograms). The numbers of flowers visited per

trip will

many

micrograms

vary from a few to

several hundred, depending on the plant species and amount of nectar available per blossom.

ventriculus

proventricular valve

honey stomach

dorsal aorta

oesophagus

Figure

0.

Honey Bee,

The

internal

organs of the worker honey bee. (Modified from Snodgrass

in

The Hive and the

1977).

Honey bees communicate the location and quantity of nectar sources to the other bees
means of the bee dance. Direction, distance and quality of the nectar
source can be determined by the duration of the dance. Thus, other bees may be directed to
a food source by a scout bee or forager who returns and performs the dance within the hive,
within the hive by

stopping to offer tastes of nectar to potential recruits.

It is

likely the floral

odor clinging to

the bee as well as the odor and flavor of the nectar aid in communicating the whereabouts of
the food source.

A honey bee collecting pollen only will scrabble at the pollen-bearing anthers of the flower
with her mandibles (jaws) and front legs. Pollen grains are often caught in the feather-like
hairs of the

honey bee as she probes the flower

for nectar.

These grains are then collected

by a series of brushing and cleaning movements into pellets on the hind

The

legs of the

honey bee are modified

to

comb

pollen from the body and gather

special baskets for transport back to the hive (Figures 11 and 12).

carry brushes of

stiff

hairs for cleaning pollen

hind legs, the basitarsus, has

many rows

the other legs, while another section, the

pins the pollen load in place.

legs.

it

into

Both fore and middle legs

from the head and thorax. One section of the

of hairs that can

tibia, is

comb

the accumulated pollen from

smooth and concave with

The joint between these two

a single hair that

sections acts as a pollen press.

15

Figure

1 1

The legs

of the

worker honey bee. (A) Right foreleg showing antenna cleaner opened and

closed. (B) Right middle leg. (C) Right hind leg and pollen basket (corbicula). (A and B modified from

Snodgrass

in

The Hive and the Honey Bee,

Pollen transferred to the

combs

is

977; C modified from Dade,

worked

into the press

977).

and then pressed into the pollen

baskets or corbiculae, as the concave tibiae are called (Figures 11 and 12). Pollen pellets
contain

some

Each foreleg

necta

'

or

to help stick the pollen grains together.

also carnes a specialized antenna cleaner (Figure 11), through

ennae are drawn

t(

ennae, which are

continually able to pt

16

honey added by the bee

-move
.

which the

pollen and debris. With constant cleaning of the eyes and the

imary sensory organs (Figure

hanges

in

her environment.

2),

the honey bee remains

Back View

Figure 12. The progressive packing of the pollen load

in

the corbicula. (Modified from Hodges. 1974).

Food processing and storage

Back

at the hive, the field

bee

will offer

her load of nectar to house bees,

over the processing, allowing her to go out again. Nectar

is

who

then take

composed primarily

of the three

sugars: sucrose, glucose and fructose, in varying proportions depending on the plant
species.

Enzymes

changing

it

to the

are added to nectar by both field and house bees that invert the sucrose,
honey sugars glucose (dextrose) and fructose (levulose).

Nectar contains from 40 to 80 per cent water. Nectar

cells in a thin film of small droplets

evaporated by the continual

air

is

taken by house bees and placed

in

with relatively large surface areas. The excess water

movement

set

up by fanning

at the hive entrance.

is

The bees

convert the nectar into honey by changing the sugar components and lowering the water
content.

Once the honey reaches

storage cells and covered with

a moisture level of about 18 per cent,

wax cappings.

it is

transferred to

If

the field bee brings in a load of pollen, she will find an

empty

cell

or one containing

some

pollen and then dangle her hind legs into the cell. Using the spines on her middle legs
(Figure 11) to loosen each pellet, she will kick off the pellets. House bees tamp the pollen
into the cell

and cover

Pollen stored

with a thin film of honey.

it

anner undergoes several changes, noticeably a change in acidity and

called "bee bread." There appears to be no difference in

ir

sometime

starch confer

nutritive quah

'

ficshly-collected pollen and bee bread.

Jaer

fermentation p

like silage,

and

Bee bread undergoes

this process contributes to its storage Hfe in the

comb.

Robbing hone from other colonies

Since the
colony

fie

when no

jrce

is

nectar

attuned to searching for food, the bees

is available,

a situation

known

"furtiveness," hovering near other colonies, darting

endeavoring to
guard bees

slip

may be

by the guards

in

depleted or completely cleaned out.

18

away

if

"foraging" at another

Robbing bees take on

challenged by guard bees and

Weaker colonies with few

honey stores may be seriously

search of stored honey.

especially preyed upon, and their

may try

as robbing.

CHAPTfR

Getting Started in

Beekeeping
Beekeeping
however,

a fascinating occupation,

is

them

stimulates

it is

hand

to try their

at

one that constantly

attracts

newcomers and

keeping a few hives. Before becoming deeply involved,

wise to do as much homework as possible:

may

carry beekeeping texts and magazines.

local libraries

the provincial apiculturist's office has

many pamphlets on hand

that will be sent

on

request.

towns often have a

larger

local

^^

bee club that can be a very good source of practical

an experienced beekeeper

may be

able to supply bees and

equipment and

will certainly

be able to supply advice.

will help the

will

will help

beginner gain

beginner gain some familiarity with

beekeeping basics, the demonstration of techniques by someone with experience

1^

Reading about

beekeeping

Although reading about beekeeping

'

information, as well as starting point for obtaining bees, hives and other equipment.

be

some

familiarity with

invaluable.
beekeeping basics.

What

is

Beekeeping
1.

is

Beekeeping?
the ability to

obtain large (or

manage honey bee

^'^j^^'^^
colonies in such a

way

^ ^fSI^

as to:

maximum) adult populations to coincide with the major nectar flows of a

given area and

2. utilize this population to the best

advantage for collecting nectar and/or pollinating crops.

Three basic problems are common

to beekeeping:

when honey flows occur within an

determining

building colony populations in preparation for the main nectar flow periods

deciding what to do with colonies during non-flow periods

area

These problems must be addressed by beekeepers worldwide, whether they operate one
colony or many, if maximum honey production is to be attained. Surveys to determine
available

bee forage and blooming periods, scale colony records, weather records and a

study of farming practices will be necessary in determining honey flows.

Maximum

colony build-up depends on good beekeeping practices:

using good genetic stock

periodic

properly situated apiaries with hives arranged to minimize drifting

adequate feeding

queen checks

19

disease prevention

swarm prevention

provision of adequate storage space for nectar and brood

winter a prop^'
if

weathe.

'

"^^^

'

supering, e

to

colonies, winter

kill

them or

an area with abundant bee forage

is in

producing a honey crop.

a unit rather than as a

lary receives the

:

the beekeeper

aekeeper must manage many hives simultaneously, the apiary

'

hive within

If

favorable for bee flight and nectar secretion, then the

sful in

beekeeper will be sik

As the comme
must be mar

must be made whether

e colonies.

^
:

and

the decision

'

After the flow p

number

of individual hives. This

same treatment, such

lowever, this objective

is

as feeding,

impossible to attain

if

site

means each

queen checks,

population shifts or

imbalances occur within the apiary caused by poor queens, disease,

drifting,

swarming or

other management-related reasons.

The Sting
The aspect

of bees that horrifies the general public is the tiny piece of chitin called the

sting. It is often said the sting is only 1/8 inch long

More important than the shock

percentage of the human population is

imagination.

small

the other

six inches are

of the initial impact,

however,

highly allergic to bee venom.

is

your

the fact that a

The beginning

beekeeper should be aware that

this possibility of a life-threatening allergic reaction exists.

The

local swelling

first

few stings often cause

and itchiness that

may

last

some

time. This

is

normal reaction. Most people become accustomed to the bee venom with time, but some

become more sensitized with each sting. Generalized reactions, where symptoms occur
away from the site of the sting, indicate a dangerous sensitivity. These symptoms include
constriction of breathing passages, itching and hives, swelling away from the site of the
sting,

nausea or abdominal cramps, dizziness and confusion and

unconsciousness and anaphylactic shock.

If

may lead to

any of these symptoms occur, the beekeeper

should seek medical help immediately.

The

bee's stinger

(Figure 13).

is

made up

When a bee

Thus when removing the

grasping and pulling

wound.

20

v/ill

of a three-piece barbed shaft attached to a

stings and flies away, the

sting, scrape

force

it

whole apparatus

away with

more venom from the

is

venom

usually

sac

left

behind.

sideways movement of the thumbnail;

sac

down

the hollow shaft into the

the barbed lancet

outline of the sting

cross section of the

structure

sting shaft

Figure 13. The sting of the worker honey bee. (Modified from Snodgrass

in

The Hive and the Honey Bee,

1977).

Honey bee workers can

sting only once and die after doing so.

the sting of the queen

not barbed and

sting repeatedly

To

if

is

used solely against

Drones have no

rival

and definitely not wool (bees can really grab onto wool, and

provoke more stinging). Long sleeves and gauntlets, a bee

collar

sting, while

The queen can

occasional sting, the beekeeper should wear smooth, light-colored

clothing, preferably cotton

will

queens.

necessary.

more than the

avoid

is

and pant legs tucked into boots or tied

at

veil tied securely

it

around the

the ankles will help prevent most stings

from occurring.

Purchasing Bees
The beginning beekeeper should

generally start with two or three colonies. Having one

colony does not allow any comparisons to be drawn, and

there

To

is

no source of fresh eggs

start a colony of bees, the

for

another province or country

buy

buy a nucleus colony ("nuc")

buy an overwintered colony from another beekeeper

hive a

The

package imported from a producer

first

begin

is

swarm

of

the colony becomes queenless,

(see Chapter 11).

beekeeper may try several options:

if

new queen production

in

bees

three methods are

more

reliable

ways

of obtaining bees.

The

best time of year to

the early spring; the beekeeping season begins in April.

Packages or nucs must be ordered some time before April

ordering

may be done

(in

January or February), and

directly through a club, association or through a

beekeeper. Packages are containers

by shaking worker bees

off

filled

commercial

with 0.9 to 1.8 kilograms of bees. These are

filled

frames through a funnel into a screened box or tube (Figure

14).

A queen

in a

screened cage and source of sugar syrup are added, and the packages are
in Canada.

shipped bulk to their destination

If

nucs or overwi^ tered colonies are to be purchased, they should be inspected for any
^^ses. Regulations vary. In some provinces, provincial inspectors will

evidence of bee

'

carry out inspections

be permitted.
bees or usee

'

'

:rf

all

bee equipment for

sale,

'hat the regulations are in

and a permit

will

be issued

if

a sale is to

your province before you purchase any

g equipment.

Figure 14B.
Traditional type package.

22

Basic Beekeeping Equipment

The

basis for the

movable frame hive

By
left

is

the "bee space" of 8

mm or 5/16". In a

passageway between combs.

what colonies build in nature in man-made hives, we find that the combs are
free from one another and that the spaces between the combs and between the supers

naturally-built (feral)

bee nest, the bees leave

this space as a

duplicating

are not

filled in

with additional combs, called burr comb.

This space allows movable frame hives to be intensively managed because their combs are
easily

removed

for examination

and manipulation. Thus, the inner dimensions of

bee hive incorporate the length and width of comb from

feral colonies plus the

modern

bee space

between and around the combs.

The boxes

that

make up

the bee hive are called "bee boxes," "hive bodies," "brood

chambers" or "supers." The name used

function and position on the hive.
typically

to describe the standard

The names

box depends on

its

"hive bodies" or "brood chambers" are

used to describe the boxes that house the brood nest. The term "honey super"

used to describe the boxes that are "superimposed" over the brood chambers,
surplus honey

is

in

is

which

stored.

Most hive bodies and honey supers

are of standard length and width (Figure 15) to allow

the exchange of frames and boxes from hive to hive. Standard or Langstroth equipment has
a higher resale value for this reason. Supers of different depths are available, so the

beekeeper can use a shallower honey super

dimensions other than those shown

in

for easier lifting,

Figure 15

is

if

desired.

also available.

Equipment

of

telescoping hive cover

Dimensions

H
I

=
=

432
540

mm = 17 in.
mm = 21-1/4 in.

inner cover

Dimensions
E

497

mm =

19-7/8

in,

honey super
Dimensions
F

241

mm =

9-1/2

in.

queen excluder

two brood chambers

Dimensions
E

497

241

mm =
mm =

19-7/8
9-1/2

in.

in.

bottom board

Dimensions

mm = 21-1/2 in.
mm = 16-1/2 in.
= 51 mm 2 in.
= 19 mm = y4in.

A=
B =
C

Figure 15. Components

of the

standard bee hive.

546

420

Each Langstroth box, be

it

brood chamber or honey super, holds

each of which holds a comb of beeswax.

their

wax

boxes to allow

a little extra

Many beekeepers

maximum

of ten frames,

space for manipulation. Beeswax combs begin as sheets of

foundation embossed with the bases of the hexagonal

These sheets may incorporate

prefer to use only nine frames in

cells,

about two per centimetre.

vertical wires for extra support.

Frames, again of standard dimensions, are cross-wired, and the foundation inserted into
slots or

grooves

in top

and bottom bars (Figure

16).

Then, the cross wires are embedded

embedder or a weak electric current. When placed in a

strong colony with plenty of honey stores or available sugar syrup, the foundation is drawn

into the

wax by means

of a spur

out and built upon to form a comb.

Figure 16B.

wired frame.

4
Figure

6C.

sheet of plastic foundation.

In general, frames in

honey supers hold newer combs

that are light or golden in color, while

brood chambers hold darker-colored combs. Successive generations of brood

cause this darkening through deposits of larval skins and the polishing of

in a

cells

comb

with propolis

between generations. Dark-colored combs are preferred by the queen for egg-laying,
possibly because of greater heat retention properties. Because the production of good brood
combs takes time, these combs are a valuable part of the beekeeping operation and should
be cared for properly.

Generally, two brood chambers and from three to five honey supers are necessary for each
The hive also requires a bottom board and a top cover. The bottom board

colony.

(Figure 15) should be kept off the ground, either by nailing cleats on the bottom or by
some sort of hive stand to preserve the bottom board from

placing the hives on pallets o

contact with n

re.

An inner cove
cm entrance

be placed over the top box (Figure

i-'

cover

purposes.

covered

cm

well as

is

rimmed board may have

15); this

a 5

hole drilled through the cover for feeding

placed the outer cover or hive

The

lid.

telescoping

lid is

often

added protection. These two covers may be amalgamated into one by

wood cut

using IP
centre

cm

the rim, as well as a 5

to the dimensions of the supers, with a small hole drilled in the

entrance dadoed on one end. Whichever design

is

chosen, outer covers as

and bottom boards must be painted with two coats of good quality paint for

protection against weathering.

The beginning beekeeper may buy used equipment, order pre-assembled new equipment,
order

it

unassembled and assemble

it

at

home

or build from scratch.

ordered assembled from some beekeeping supply houses, but

assembled
If

at

home

Equipment can be

less expensive

if

or built from scratch.

overwintered colonies are purchased, they

and the seller

is

may also

will

be

in either

one or two brood chambers,

supply three or four honey supers for each colony. Beekeepers will

often sell used equipment with or without bees.

Drawn combs,

especially in the brood

chambers, are a definite advantage over foundation, but the buyer must be aware of the
possibility that the

equipment may carry the dormant stages of any number of bee diseases.

Again, the permit to sell the equipment,

disease history.

Combs

if

required in your province, should detail any

should also be inspected before purchasing for general condition,

including the percentage of drone comb,

mouse

Besides bee hives, the beginning beekeeper

or

moth damage and broken frames.

will find three pieces of

equipment essential

for colony examination:

smoker

the

the hive tool

the bee veil

All three

can be obtained through any beekeeping supply house (Figure 17 and Table

Without a smoker and a hive tool or suitable substitute, the beekeeper

manipulation of super or frame

difficult

due

to propolizing

angered guard bees. With a smoker and hive

puffs of

smoke while

tool,

will find

2).

any

by the bees and the presence of

the bees

may be

kept quiet with a few

the beekeeper gently pries apart bee boxes and frames to look inside,

^^^^

Figure 17. Bee

veil

with hat, smoker, hive tool and brush.

The bee

veil protects the head and neck from the worker bees checking out the situation,
whether they are angry or merely inquisitive. A pair of coveralls should be purchased for
added protection. Gloves may be used while the beekeeper grows accustomed to handling

the bees but are not

recommended

for constant use, as they

make

manipulation of frames

more awkward.
Nearly any type of fuel
cool smoke.

Such

wood shavings

are

with insecticides.
to the

may be used in a smoker. The aim

is

to

have a constant source of

fuels as burlap sacking, alfalfa pellets, binder twine, rolls of cardboard

all

A hot

and

Be sure the sacking or the twine has not been treated

smoke may be cooled down by adding some green grass or leaves

good

fuels.

smoker.

11

Table

2.

Equipment necessary

Hive

to operate a four-colony apiary.

'

:ijxes/supGrs

metal covers

Equiprsient

hnttnm hnarH<?

Hoffman frames
lb

foundation - approx. 240 sheets

lb

frame wire

spur embedder
gallon of paint

sugar-syrup feeders (division board or other)

1

fume board

four-pack winter

or four

bee escape boards

wrap

smoker

rclsUlldi

Equipment

hive tool
veil

helmet
coveralls

Honey House

four frame extractor and motor

Equipment

electric

storage tank with honey gate - 650

nylon straining cloth

uncapping plane or scratching fork

Yearly

packages

Requirements

package

Optional Items

bee brush

of bees, 0.9

hive stands

gueen excluders
1

cil

capacity

"nucs"*
(1

lb)

sugar 40-200 kg (-20-90

Dec yiUvco

[)a\l

1,000

(2 lb) or

of oxytetracycline, 0.45 kg

48

kg

lb

ic

Colo

eyelets
eyelet punch

honey gate
strainer

package

of fumagillin 0.5 g

pollen substitute 4.5 kg (10

bee allergy

kit

if

varroa present

Apistan strips

menthol or formic treatments

bee journals
optional

lb)

"Anakit"

wintering colonies

if

if

acarine present

lb)

CHAFtn

The Colony Examination

Colonies should be checked during warm, sunny days with

brood and bees. Another point to remember

field force is

away from the

that

is

numbers

hive, reducing the

with. During inclement weather, foragers stay at

little

wind

on days with good

home

to avoid chilling the

flight

weather, the

beekeeper has

of bees the

work

to

with nothing to do, and because

older bees have a well-developed guarding instinct, colonies will be

much more

defensive

on such days.

Throughout the colony examination, remain calm and unhurried, and keep all movements
as gentle and smooth as possible. A "crash-bang" approach only serves to anger the colony
and makes checking a chore instead of a pleasure.

The beekeeper should examine

1.

2.

the colony with the following points in mind:

Are there fresh eggs? Newly-laid eggs generally denote the presence of a laying queen;
thus, her presence can be inferred even if she is not seen during each colony inspection.

How

does the brood pattern look? Check to see

has a "spotty" appearance?

disease problem

is

A "spotty"

pattern

causing the death of

3.

Does the colony have enough

4.

Are there other signs

of

pollen,

some

if

nearly every cell

may

is

capped or

indicate that a "poor"

if

the frame

queen or

of the brood.

honey and space?

any disease problems?

The beekeeper should always work from

beside the hive so that the entrance and flight

path are not blocked. Hive tool in hand and smoker smoking, the beekeeper directs a few
puffs of

smoke

into the entrance(s).

ground and the inner cover,

lifted,

if

The outer cover

present,

is

is

removed, placed upside down on the

gently pried up.

As soon

as the inner cover

calming effect on the bees, and

if it is

used each time the hive

is

more defensive with each manipulation,

until the

opened, the colony should

remain quiet and gentle throughout the season. Without smoke, the colony
little

is

few puffs of smoke are directed over the top bars of the frame. The smoke has

time comes

when

will

become

the guard bees

a
fly

up without hesitation to attack the intruder.

two or more brood chambers, the upper chambers are pried apart - again
the chambers - and are placed diagonally on the outer cover. Starting
with the bottom brood chamber, one of the outer frames is gently removed and leaned
against the chamber to give room for further manipulations. Each frame is pried apart,
If

the colony

using

is in

smoke between

removed and examined and then

replaced, leaving

room

to get at the next one.

It is

important to avoid crushing and rolling bees, because the chemicals or pheromones
released by crushed bees alarm the other workers

who then become more

defensive and

apt to sting.

comb on every inspection or examination of the hive.

combs is usually sufficient to check for brood diseases and
will also reveal the status of the queen and food stores within the hive. Take care,
especially in the spring, to replace the brood combs in the same order to keep the brood
It is

not necessary to examine each

Inspecting two or three brood

nest intact.

Once the frames have been checked, they are pushed together and the outer frame
The second chamber is then placed back on the first. Each chamber may be

replaced.

in the same manner, again using smoke to prevent crushing bees when the upper
chambers are replaced. The inner and outer covers are then placed on top of the hive, and
the beekeeper moves on to the next one.

checked

he Operation

Expand
Once the

oeekeeper has become familiar with bee biology and management, an

'

iber of colonies

increase

buying

colonic

expansi

-e it

of the region

much

nies,

may be

considered. This expansion

may be

achieved by

by building equipment and buying packages or "nucs," by

splitting

combination of these methods. Again, exercise caution in any kind of

from two colonies or two hundred. Time and

and the potential honey market should

easier to handle than an instant tripling or

all

more

facilities available, suitability

be considered.

of colony

A slow expansion is

numbers.

The Apiaries Act

Beekeeping

Canada

is regulated in each province under an Apiaries Act (Bee Act) or

Each province requires all beekeepers to register with the provincial
Department of Agriculture. There is no fee for registration; however, some provinces have

in

similar legislation.

an annual registration and identification of apiary locations while others require a one-time
registration only, valid for the duration of your beekeeping career.

The

Provincial Apiculturist's function

is

to enforce the Apiaries

extension services and management information.

Act and to provide

The primary purpose

of the

Act

is

to

control bee diseases and mites and their spread since these pests spread easily and have a
serious, negative effect

on bees and honey production.

inspections before sale to ensure the purchaser

Movement

is

of bees infected with mites is regulated in

some. Contact the

All jurisdictions require hive

not buying hives infected with diseases.

all

office of the Provincial Apiculturist to

jurisdictions

and restricted

determine the regulations

in

in

your

province and for the latest information on the prevention and control methods for bee
diseases and mite pests.

Knowing where beekeepers and

aerial spray

Beekeepers
or

move

in areas that

for

may be

for insect pests,

affected can

when widespread

such as mosquitoes or grasshoppers.

be notified without delay, so they can protect

Government programs such as crop insurance, low interest loans and

bear damage are offered to registered beekeepers only.

their hives.

compensation

30

their apiaries are located is valuable

programs are considered

CHAPTER

Nectar and Pollen

Plants
Knowing the nectar and
beekeeping.

An

is

an essential part of

Maistre's 1943 Beekeeping for Beginners in Alberta:

intimate knowledge of the clover acreage in any given district should be

sufficient guide to
is

pollen producing plants in an area

To quote from Le

given

While

to the

its

suitability for

honey production, when due consideration

question of rainfall.

this quotation

does not mention canola or

alfalfa, it

points to the fact that even with

the best management, bees cannot produce honey without a source of the raw materials:
nectar and pollen.

While the control of nectar production

is,

to

some

extent, genetic, any factor that affects

either the day-to-day or long term well being of the plant will also affect nectar secretion.

Different plant species have different requirements for

soil type, precipitation, air

quantity of nectar secreted and

fields of canola

may bloom

optimum

secretion. Soil moisture,

temperature and the number of sunshine hours

may

all

affect the

sugar concentration. In a drought situation, for instance,

its

for only a short time,

and during that time, the quantity of nectar

secreted will be minimal; any available water will be utilized for plant maintenance and

development

first.

Beekeepers refer

to a

hives. Perhaps the

flowers and
fairly

"honey flow" when they see surplus honey being stored

term "nectar flow"

is

collected and changed into

is

more

apt since

it is

in their

the nectar that flows from the

honey by the bees. The nectar flows are generally

well delineated on the prairies, whereas in other areas of Canada, such as the west

coast, the flows

may be

less intense

There are three nectar flows

the spring flow

the main or

the late or

in

and stretched out over longer periods.

most regions

of the prairies:

The beekeeper should

summer flow

fall

know when

the nectar

flows begin

in his or

flow
her area and

Honey from

the lesser spring and

fall

flows

is

usually

left for

the bees, for spring build-up

and overwintering purposes, respectively. The main nectar flow supplies the surplus honey
harvested by the beekeeper. Generally, the three nectar flows are accompanied by pollen
flows because nearly

all

the major prairie nectar plants, with the exception of

alfalfa,

are

visited for pollen as well.

The beekeeper should know when

they

last.

the nectar flows begin in his or her area and

Records of scale colony gains and losses have been kept

Station since 1954.

These dates (Figure 18 and Table

at

3) will give the

how

long

Beaverlodge Research

beekeeper a general

long they

how

last.

idea of what to expect, but allowance

must be made

for different regions, climatic

regimes

and cropping patterns as well as yearly variations in weather patterns.

Figure 18.
Scale colony gains,

Beaverlodge 1954-76.

-5

15

15

31

May

30

15

June

31

15

30

15

31

Aug.

July

Sept.

Generally, the spring flow occurs from the end of April to the end of

main flow occurs from the end

sometimes

into

of June to the

end of July, and the

May

or mid-June.

late flow in

The

August and

September. To know when the flows and dearth periods are occurring, the

beekeeper may wish to have

a colony

readings, such information

immediately available, and management techniques can be

is

on a scale

in the

home

apiary.

With periodic scale

adjusted accordingly.

Table

from

3.
1

Records of average nectar flow dates at Beaverlodge, Alberta, (latitude 55

954

to

976. Pollen

was

obtained from

crops except

all

Forage source

Date of nectar flow

Willow

May 10- June

Dandelion

May 27 - June 27

Hawk's-beard

June

Alsike clover

June 20

Canola

June 28 -August 10

Alfalfa

June 28

Frost

Sweet-clover

June 28

Frost

Red clover

July 10 -Frost

(single cut)

Fireweed

Taken from Henn, G. D. and D.

1 -

July 5
L. Nelson, 1977.

Agriculture Canada Contribution No.

NRG 77-6.

An

l\l)

alfalfa.

10

Frost

Frost

August 5

analysis of Beaverlodge nectar flow records.

CMArm
may be divided into major and minor categories. Bees collect nectar and
pollen from many different plant species, but only a few of these plants grow in enough
profusion and produce enough nectar that a surplus of honey may be harvested (Figure 19).
As well, nectar production by a particular plant species may vary under different soil and
Nectar plants

climatic conditions.

Plants considered a major nectar source in one region

others. Yearly variations

may

also cause

may be

minor honey plants

only a minor source in

to occasionally yield heavily or

major plants to yield poorly. Again, the beekeeper must become familiar with the
peculiarities of his or her

own

region through observation of flowering plants and dates, and

weather and scale colony records.

Figure 19D.

Figure 19C. Canola

Alfalfa

Major nectar plants include the following:

willows and dandelions in the spring

canola, alfalfa,
in

sweet clover, white clover, red clover, alsike

clover, faba

bean and sainfoin

mid summer

sunflower, buckwheat, borage and second blossom

alfalfa in

the late

summer

to early

fall

Minor honey

plants include the following:

hawk's-beard

caragana

saskatoon berry

pin and choke cherries

currant

raspberry

sow-thistle

aster

thistles

goldenrod

fireweea

poplar,

elm and other deciduous trees

contribute

As wr

iny horticultural crops

some

also

pollen in the early spring.

and ornamentals are good nectar and pollen plants. Apple

some of the honeysuckles, poppies and many of the herbs such

as borage and thyme, to name but a few, all yield nectar or pollen and are freely visited by
foraging honey bees. For the backyard beekeeper, it may even be desirable to plant a "bee
and

ci

fruit trees, lilac,

garden" to supply the bees with extra nectar and pollen sources.

Each species of plant produces nectar with unique properties that, in turn, affects its value
honey crop. Characteristics of honey such as its colour, aroma, flavour, sugar
composition and speed of granulation are all influenced by the nectar source (see Chapter 7).
as a

Colour

is

one of the most important factors affecting honey grading and consequently, the

price the producer receives for the crop. In general, light coloured honeys such as those

produced from clover,

quantities.

alfalfa

and canola tend to

sell for a

higher price

when

sold in bulk

Darker coloured honeys classed as golden, amber or dark tend to

sell for a

lower

price.

Sunflower and buckwheat, which bloom later

coloured honey, respectively. Each of these

and distinctive flavour that

and

affect taste,

if

in the season,

floral

produce golden and dark

sources produces honey with a strong

mixed with the remaining honey

which can lower the price received

crop, will lower colour grade

for the entire crop.

Thus,

it is

often

honey from these sources during the extracting process. In some

instances, these distinctly flavoured honeys can even be marketed as a specialty and sold

desirable to separate

premium

A few plants yield nectar or pollen toxic to honey bees

honey,

is

at

price.

or nectar that,

when converted

to

poisonous to humans. One case of bee poisoning in the Brooks area of Alberta

documented

in the

is

1935 annual report of the Apiculture Branch. From 50 to 90 per cent of

were lost from affected hives in the apiary during the middle of June that
The cause of the poisoning was pollen or nectar obtained from narrow-leaved milk

the field bees

year.

vetch, Astragalus pectinatus. Fortunately, cases of poisoning are rare; very few plant species
in

North America may cause such problems. Other plants that produce honey toxic

or

humans

and

34

azalias.

include other Astragalus species, mountain laurel (Kalmia

sp.),

to

bees

rhododendrons

CHAFTER

Supplementary
Feeding
Several times during the year, the food stores in a honey bee colony

supplementary feeding

at

may run

these times, the colony population will decline

low. Without

at least

and

at

worst, the colony will die through starvation.

When

close to starvation, workers carry larvae and pupae out of the hive entrance and drive

drones out. Adults can survive for a short time on their body reserves but
die

if

food does not

numbers

will

become

go through

its

available.

will eventually

A colony that is rearing brood and rapidly building in

honey and pollen stores amazingly

quickly. Various authors

estimate that a colony should have at least 14-18 kg (about five or six frames) of stored

honey on hand

at all

times during the beekeeping season, should a dearth period occur. The

colony should also have stored pollen around the brood area. For the winter, of course, far

more honey

will

be needed.

Carbohydrate Supplements
Supplementary feeding of a carbohydrate

will

be necessary during the spring

for both

Supplementary

when there is
any foundation to be drawn out. By spring, the winter stores are usually much depleted as
result of an acceleration in brood rearing. A delayed spring flow or a spring with much
overwintered and package colonies as well as for

new

divisions, especially

feeding

both package and

A dearth period often occurs between the spring and main nectar flows, when the

overwintered colonies

dandelions have finished and before the sweet clover and canola begin blooming. At this

this stage

may

main nectar

A food shortage

to greater

them back to the extent they are not able to take full advantage of the
The beekeeper must carefully monitor the food reserves in colonies

during the spring brood rearing period.

Supplementary feeding

in the spring

serves to stimulate both package and overwintered

colonies to greater brood rearing efforts.

Even

if

food stores are available in the hive,

beekeepers choose to feed some sugar syrup to colonies

the spring nectar flow begins.

for stimulative

many

purposes before

brood

at

set

flow.

the spring

serves to stimulate

inclement weather preventing foraging increases the need for supplementary feed.

time, colonies are raising a lot of brood and are rapidly expanding in size.

in

rearing efforts.

Types of feed
Beekeepers feed a variety of sugar types to their bees. Frames of capped honey are
way to feed. Honey should not be extracted from the brood chambers

certainly the easiest

but rather

left for

the overwintering colonies or used in making up brood chambers for next

season's packages (see Chapter

and given back to the bees

5).

Extra frames of honey

in the spring

when

Sugar syrup made from refined white sugar

is

may be

stored over the winter

colony stores are low.

the most widely used supplementary bee

Brown sugar and molasses contain a higher percentage of impurities, which are
indigestible by bees and may cause a dysentery problem, especially noticeable in wintering
feed.

colonies.

These sugars should not be used to feed bees. White sugar contains almost no
makes a better bee feed. The syrup is mixed in a 2:1 sugar: water

impurities and, therefore,

mixture (by volume) for both

To make

fall

and spring feeding.

small quantities of syrup, use a garbage pail and hand power. For large quantities,

mixer

a tank with a

will

be necessary. Hot water

boiling the syrup is unnecessary and

digestible for the bees.

is

useful in mixing 2:1 sugar syrup, but

may result in caramelization, making the

syrup less

A colony's food stores will be increased by about 3 kg with 5 litres of

2:1 sugar syrup.

Feeding dry sugar to honey bee colonies

is

not generally recommended. Bees will consume

dry sugar but will also often carry the sugar out of the hive and drop
entrance. In an emergency,

sugar

may be

access to

it.

if

it

in front of the

other means of feeding are not immediately available, dry

spread on the inner cover around the open feeding hole, so the bees have

Another inner cover may be placed over the sugar to enclose

Syrup may be made from honey by diluting

it

from 17 per cent moisture

it.

to about

33 per

cent moisture with a quarter volume of water for a 2:1 syrup, or by about a half for a 1:1
syrup.

Honey that has darkened through

overheating, for instance in a

saved for spring feed but should never be used as

fall

wax

melter,

may be

feed. Overheating causes

caramelization and a higher percentage of indigestible matter, as well as the accumulation

of toxic substances.

faeces, such
3**^*-

If

fed in the

honey may lead

fall

for winter stores,

to dysentery

when

the bees cannot

fly to

void their

problems within the hive and the premature

.0-

death of affected workers.

Only honey from

colonies

known

to be

Only honey from colonies known to be free of diseases should be fed back to bees,

for

may be carried in honey and if fed to a colony, may cause an outbreak

Sugar syrup may be mixed with honey syrup to prevent the honey syrup from

disease organisms
free of diseases

disease.
should be fed back to

of

cystalHzing.

bees.

Liquid invert sugar

for

use

in the

hydrolysis
acid is

is

is

manufactured

in

two grades, 50 per cent and 100 per

cent, primarily

baking industry. Be aware that invert sugar produced by a method called acid
unsuitable for use as a bee feed. With the process

known

added to sucrose, which breaks the sucrose molecule into

glucose and fructose. This process produces substances toxic to

as acid hydrolysis,

component
honey bees.
its

parts,

Another carbohydrate food that does appear suitable for feeding bees is high-fructose corn
syrup (HFCS), also referred to as isomerized corn syrup. This syrup is made from
cornstarch by the addition of enzymes, which

then convert

some

of the glucose to fructose.

fructose and 55 per cent fructose.

Mixed

first

break the starch down to glucose and

HFCS

available in two forms: 42 per cent

been reported from beekeepers using

is

results have

CNATTIR

the 42 per cent formulation, possibly owing to a varying polysaccharide content causing

some bee

The 55 per

mortality.

moisture content of this syrup

about 23 per cent.

about a third of its volume before feeding

Although

HFCS seems practical as

it

to colonies.

bee feed, being lower

than sucrose, handling problems associated with

sideline beekeeper. Since the syrup

means

of storing large

volumes

make a better bee feed. The

The syrup is diluted with water by

cent formulation appears to

is

it

make

it

in cost at the

time of writing

impractical for the hobby or

shipped by tanker, the beekeeper must have some

is

of syrup

under heated conditions, preferably over 26C, as

the syrup will crystallize at lower temperatures.

The beekeeper must

also have a

way

of

liquefying crystallized syrup.

The major problem with HFCS

inadvertent or intentional.

move

it

directly to the

If

is

the potential to cause adulteration of the honey, be

HFCS

honey frames where

the beginning of June, or two to

will

it

it

may

be mixed with the honey produced

at the

HFCS, take care to stop feeding it to colonies by

three weeks before the main nectar flow is expected to

beginning of the major nectar flow.

begin, and before any

fed to the colonies in the late spring, the bees

is

If

using

honey supers are added

to the hives.

Types of feeders
Whatever type of syrup is used, place it as close to the colony cluster as possible, so it is
accessible even during cold weather. The feeder must be readily accessible and must keep
the syrup unexposed, because exposed syrup will promote robbing. Before feeding, level
the colonies or tip them back slightly so that if syrup leaks, it will gather at the back of the
bottom board, rather than running out of the entrance and attracting potential robbers.
Several types of feeders are available:
1.

Hive top feeder

This feeder (Figure 20) is the same length and width as a super,
10 cm or more in depth and sits directly over the brood chamber. It can be divided in two
and has a channel from below to allow bees access to the syrup.

screen can be placed

over the access area and down both sides into the syrup compartment, so bees have

away and drown. The standard hive top

some beekeepers may alter the depth so
that more syrup can be fed. This type of feeder has some problems with leakage if the joints
are not tight, and it takes up a fair amount of storage space. Some bee loss through
drowning is common.
something to cling to as they feed and do not

feeder holds about nine

Older supers

may be

to prevent leakage.

litres of syrup,

float

although

altered and used as top feeders

However,

types of feeders, which

is

substantially

an advantage

if

they are adequately braced and lined

more syrup can be

when

feeding in the

fed at one time using other

fall.

In addition,

commercially-manufactured top feeders are available from bee supply firms.

37

Figure 20. Hive top feeder. Floats should be used to prevent bees from drowning.

2.

Division-board or frame feeder

This feeder

is

constructed to the same outer

dimensions as a frame (Figure 21) and replaces an outer frame

ideal for feeding smaller

example, as

it

amounts

holds from two to four

hardboard or plastic with wooden

syrup and to prevent drowning.

problems

if

in

the brood chamber.

It is

of sugar syrup, such as spring feeding of packages, for

litres.

floats or

Generally, the frame feeder

is

made

of

The wooden frame feeder may have some leakage

joints are not sealed properly.

wood,

screening inside to allow the bees access to the

3.

Friction-top pail

The 13.6 kg

feeder in commercial apiaries.

colonies in the

fall

friction-top pail (Figure 22) is the

Its size

makes

it

most widely used

amounts of syrup

ideal for feeding large

to

or to overwintered colonies needing feed in the spring.

Figure 22.

Feed

pails inverted

on

hives.

(Photo D. Nelson)

Lids for feeder pails are commercially available and have a rubber ring seal and several
holes covered with a piece of 16

mesh/cm

the plastic. Alternatively, the beekeeper

centre of the

lid,

into the plastic

Once the
cover.

or

drill

cm

and the

lid

drill

several small (1.5

mm)

mesh melted

replaced, the pail

is

inverted over the hole in the inner

is

formed inside the

pail; this

should not be allowed to drip onto the ground as any exposed syrup in the bee yard

The recessed

The feeder pail may

allow space for the bees to

come up and

syrup

may

take the syrup.

when it is heated by the sun, which causes the air within the pail
may be prevented by placing a super and an outer cover on the hive

leak

to expand. This result

lid will

mesh

iron.

syrup will drip out until a partial vacuum

incite robbing.

into

holes in the

holes or a single large hole and melt a piece of

around the holes with a hot

pail is filled

Some

several 1

(40 mesh/in.) brass or stainless

may

pail. Hot syrup tends to run out of the inverted feeder pails, so syrup should be
room temperature before feeding.

around the
cooled to

In addition, hot syrup will denature antibiotics added for bee disease prevention and control.

However during

cold weather, bees will take

syrup, so undue cooling

Feeder

pails

warm

should be stored in a cool, dark place

from sunlight.

If

much more

syrup

quickly than cold

not necessary.

is

when

handled roughly, especially

when

not in use to prevent deterioration

cold, the lid

and rim of the

tend

pail will

to crack. If properly cared for, the pail will last for several years.

Jars with holes

larger the

jar,

punched

in the

screw-type

lids

may be used as

hive top feeders. Again, the

the better, and the jar should be protected from direct sunlight for the

reasons mentioned below.

4.

Boardman feeder

This feeder consists

of a

wooden block that holds a canning jar and

The feeder allows the beekeeper to see

can be inserted into the hive entrance (Figure 23).

at a glance

how much

syrup

is left

to a colony. This type of feeder can

be adequate

for

spring feeding of package colonies. However, there are several disadvantages to this type of
feeder:

as with feeder pails, direct sun

in cold

exposure of antibiotics

may cause

breakdown

in the

need

to

be fed

in the fall usually require

container of this size, unless the beekeeper

is

come

to the hive entrance

syrup to direct sunlight will cause almost immediate

of the antibiotics

Also, colonies that

as the jar

leakage

weather, bees will not leave the cluster to

is

committed

more than can be given

in a

to replenishing the syrup as

soon

empty.

Figure 23.

Boardman feeders being

used

in

indoor wintering.

(Photo D. Nelson)

5.

Outdoor feeding
To save time, some commercial beekeepers feed each bee yard with
drum of sugar syrup sitting amongst the colonies. The practice is not recommended for
several reasons. As mentioned above, exposing sugar syrup to hungry colonies incites
robbing behavior. Robbing puts each colony on the defensive, and a yard

40

full

of defensive

colonies

among

is

not a pleasant place to work. Robbing

Another negative aspect

of outdoor feeding

more

also

one means

of spreading disease

is

that the strong colonics with a greater

whereas the weak colonies with few foragers tend

get enough. Thus, the strong get stronger and the weak get weaker while the

foraging force tend to collect

not to

is

colonies.

feed,

beekeeper's aim should be to have colonies equal

in strength.

also feeds any other colony within foraging distance, be

it

This outdoor feeding practice

the beekeeper's colony or that of

a neighbor.

Protein Supplements
Pollen, the colony's only natural source of protein and lipids (fats), contains

and minerals essential to normal bee functioning. As

compounds

vitamins

that attract bees and stimulate feeding. Protein is necessary to stimulate the

hypopharyngeal glands
glands. Protein

is

worker bees and for the production of royal jelly by these

development and maintenance of adult muscles,

in adult

also necessary in the

glands and other tissues.

old,

many

well, pollen contains aromatic

Young

adult bees normally eat pollen until they are about 10 days

during which time they are active in feeding brood. Estimates place colony

requirements between 18 and 32 kg of pollen per year.

A lack of pollen at any time during the brood production months will lead to a setback in
brood rearing and a consequent decline
turn, lead to

reduced honey

colony population numbers. This decline

in

will, in

yields.

Traditionally, spring pollen sources

have always been

plentiful

on the

prairies, the earliest

flows being from willows and poplars. However, changing agricultural practices and

increased land clearing have

Poor

flying conditions

may

made good

spring locations hard to

lead to temporary pollen shortages.

come by

The

in

some

regions.

period between spring

and summer nectar flows may be a pollen dearth period, when the dandelions are finishing
and the canola
shortage

is

is

not yet in bloom.

management

The

feeding of protein supplements in times of pollen

practice that could be beneficial in

some years and

should,

therefore, be considered seriously by the beekeeper.

Pollen supplements and substitutes

Pollen supplements contain

expeller-processed low

fat

some

substitutes contain no pollen.

less than that of

soybean

pollen and

soybean

The

flour,

flour,

some other protein source such

protein content of pollen

is

similar to, though

somewhat

brewer's yeast and milk powder. Bees can rear brood using

these other protein sources, but the advantage of adding pollen

resulting mixture to the

as

milk powder or brewer's yeast while pollen

is

honey bee. Pollen substitutes may not be

the attractiveness of the

utilized in

some

instances, probably because of the lack of a feeding stimulant.

Whether mixing supplement or

substitute,

experiment

suitable formulation before going into production.

consistency, too sloppy a mixture will drip

down between

mixture will not be used as readily by the bees.

liquid portion or to

first

It

on a small scale to

The important thing

is

find a

to find the right

the frames while too

stiff

might be necessary to hold back on the

add more dry ingredients to the mixture to correct the consistency.

Supplement and substitute mixtures may be blended by hand or with the

commercial bread dough mixer or drill press.

Once protein foods

aid of a

must be

are given to colonies in the early spring, a steady supply

maintained until fresh pollen

is

available. Pollen substitute will

able to collect fresh pollen, but there

is

some

be ignored once the bees are

indication that straight pollen patties or pollen

supplement may actually decrease pollen foraging and reduce the amount of pollen brought
into the hive. Feeding pollen supplement should, therefore, be discontinued once fresh
pollen

is

available.

Supplement formulations
Pollen

may be

mixed with sugar syrup or mixed with other protein foods and

fed alone,

sugar syrup. Basic proportions are as follows:

1 part pollen

2 parts hot water

5 parts granulated sugar
5 parts soybean flour (expeller-processed low

fat)

or

other substitute

The

pollen

must be mixed with the water

stir until dissolved,

mix

material) and

to dissolve the pollen pellets.

Add

the sugar and

then add the soybean flour (brewer's yeast or other suitable dry

into a dough.

The

relative proportion of the pollen

may be

increased.

Substitute formulations
Pollen substitutes

may be

fed to colonies as either a dry mixture or a moist patty.

mixture, with or without sugar,

may be fed inside

or in a frame feeder, or outside the hive in containers protected from the rain.
substitutes are fed dry, the bees

become dusted with the mixture

subsequently quite easy to pick out both in the

Because soybean
products

flour

is

air

and

When the

as they collect

it

and are

in the hive.

and brewer's yeast are not very attractive to honey bees, these

may be mixed with an

formulation

The dry

the hive, either on top of the inner cover

equal or greater weight of sugar or a 2:1 sugar syrup.

One

as follows:

3 parts soybean flour

2 parts brewer's yeast
2:1 sugar syrup

Pollen supplements and substitutes

subsequent feeding. To form the

amount

of

either be packed into pails or

500 gram

used. Patties

method

slices, placing

may be made

is

to

form a

these between

in

made

into patties for

use a sheet of wax paper, placing the required

dough towards one end and folding the other end over,

or a rolling pin. Another

into

may

patties,

loaf-like

wax paper

advance and frozen

flattening with the hands

shape with the dough,

sheets. Plastic bags

chill

may

it

and cut

it

also be

until required.

Pollen and disease transmission

If

pollen

is

collected from diseased colonies,

it

will

then act as a reservoir of infection for

such diseases as American and European foulbrood and chalkbrood. Oxytetracycline should
be fed to colonies being fed protein supplement mixtures as a protective measure against
the foulbrood diseases. However, no antibiotic

is

available to protect

honey bees from

chalkbrood. Thus, pollen should be collected from disease-free colonies only, includinj^ the

foulbrood diseases, chalkbrood and sacbrood.

Caution
Antibiotics

must never be fed

trapping pollen for

to colonies using the icing sugar mixture

human consumption. The

method while

icing sugar/antibiotic mixture can

pollen and lead to pollen contamination, especially

if

into the

fall

bottom mounted traps are used.

Harvesting and storing pollen

Many pollen trap

designs are available, but

all

involve the

same

basic principles: the bees

mm spaces (5 mesh) that knocks the pollen pellets from

their legs. The pollen pellets then gather below another screen with 3 or 4 mm spaces
must pass through
(6-8 mesh),

a screen with 5

which keeps the bees

out.

Variations in pollen trap designs include differences in location, size and

installation.

Traps may

brood chamber.

Some

Some

fit

method

of

over the front entrance or between the bottom board and

first

traps are designed to keep hive debris and pollen pellets separate.

traps include cone-shaped drone escapes, as the drones cannot pass through the

double screen. Plans for pollen traps are available from the apiculture
O.A.C. (Ontario Agricultural College) trap

is

office.

The modified

popular and can be further modified to have the

pollen drawer open to the rear or side depending on preference (Figure 24).

Figure 24. Modified O.A.C.

Whichever design

is

trap.

used, the pollen trap

pollen-collecting container

is

of

must be weatherproof to protect the

pollen.

wood, often with a bottom of cloth, and/or screening

The

to

prevent condensation and mold. Pollen should be collected from strong, disease-free
colonies during strong pollen flows (more than 100

grams per

day).

The

pollen collected

from one colony over a season can be fed back to up to 50 colonies the next spring

supplement

patties.

Some honey bee

towards collecting pollen, and the beekeeper

consider retaining

Pollen should be

some

in pollen

colonies appear to have a genetic predisposition

who

intends to trap pollen each year

may

pollen-collecting stock for this purpose.

removed from the

traps on a regular basis and daily during heavy pollen

flows or wet weather. Hive equipment

must be bee-tight when

collecting pollen and

all

other entrances and openings closed, as bees are adept at finding alternate routes into the
hive to avoid passing through the double screen.

If left

on the hives throughout the brood rearing period, pollen traps may cause some

reduction in brood rearing and honey yield. Front entrance traps

may cause

congestion

problems during the nectar flow and may interfere with ventilation during hot weather
since the hive entrance

is

restricted

by the screens. The double screen may be removed

from such pollen traps to ease congestion. In addition, some replenishment of pollen stores
in the hive may be allowed. It is best to remove pollen traps before the main honey flow to
minimize disruption of honey production and to allow the colony to store as much pollen as
possible for their needs and use in the year.

Once

must be stored correctly to retain its attractive and nutritive

method is to bag and freeze the pollen immediately after
Pollen stored in the deep freeze will keep its nutritional value for several years.

collected, pollen

The best

qualities.

collection.

storage

Another storage method

into containers

is

mix pollen with

to

half its

weight of dry sugar, pack the mixture

and cover with a layer of sugar before sealing. This pollen mixture

may be

room temperature and will retain its nutritional value fairly well. Pollen may be
air-dried in a warm room until the pellets are hard and then stored in sealed containers in a
cool, dry place. The nutritional value of air-dried pollen decreases with time, so the pollen
stored at

should be used within two years.

Supplying Water

to

Honey Bee Colonies

Since honey bees do not store water as they do pollen and honey, a continuous water

supply

important to the proper functioning of the honey bee colony. Water

is

liquefy granulated
sufficient water,

honey and

to dilute

brood rearing

honey and sugar syrup

is

used to

for feeding to larvae.

Without

is curtailed.

Bees collect water every day and generally visit the nearest source for their supply. They
may become a nuisance around stock watering troughs, outdoor faucets and swimming
pools

water cannot be found closer to the hive.

if

energy

is

If water can be found nearby, then less

expended by the colony and more foraging time is available for nectar and pollen

collection. In the winter, the

need

for

water

is

diminished, and bees use condensed water

gathered on the inner sides and top of the hive.

Natural water sources such as clean puddles, ditches, small ponds and streams are
suitable. If

yard and

no such source

filled

is

nearby,

drums or smaller containers may be placed

all

in the

bee

with water and flotation devices such as sticks, boards and dried twigs for the

bees to land on. Alternative devices include corrugated iron or

plastic sheets sloped into a

gutter or trough to collect rain water, or a cistern to collect rain water from the roof of an
adjacent building. Syrup feeders can be used to keep a continual supply of water in each

colony

if

desired.

CHAPTER

Management

Spring

Selection of Apiary Site

A good apiary
main nectar

site

enables the honey bee colony to maximize

its

population in time for the

A good apiary

flow. Factors that should

be considered

enables the honey

following:
1.

site

in apiary site selection include the

Hives should be sheltered from prevaling winds

at

ground

level,

bee colony

with southern sun

exposure.

maximize

2. All-weather accessibility

its

population

and freedom of flooding are necessary.

to

in

time for

the main nectar flow.

3.

Grassy or sandy areas retain warmth better than

hive entrances should be controlled by
(please consult landowner

4.

mowing

tilled

ground. Vegetation in front of the

or by applying an all-vegetation herbicide

first).

Sources of spring nectar and pollen (willow, maple, poplar and dandelion) should be nearby
to reduce supplemental feeding requirements.

5. If

no natural sources of water are nearby, watering stations should be placed

Otherwise, bees
6. If the sites will

may

forage for water at livestock watering troughs and

in the apiary.

swimming

be used throughout the summer, adequate bee forage must be

bees readily forage up to 3.2

km

(2 miles), apiaries

pools.

available.

As

should be located near the centres of

areas that offer a variety of nectar sources.

7. Sites

8.

should be large enough to prevent crowding and offer sufficient bee forage.

Avoid
of

sites that are easily vandalized. Colonies should preferably

be hidden from the view

highways and public roads. Fences, locked gates or private lands are also helpful

to deter

theft or vandalism.

9. Sites
in

should be free of browsing livestock and bears. Portable electric fences are effective

keeping cattle and bears away from colonies. Further information on electric fences

be obtained from your apiculture

10.

If

several apiary sites are used,

may

office.

it is

helpful to locate

them so

minimum

of travel time

and

distance are required to visit them. This planning will help keep operating expenses down.

11.

Do

not select an apiary site too close to someone else's. Try to maintain a distance of

several kilometers between apiaries to reduce the risk of disease transmission and forage

competition.

12. Register the site(s) with the Provincial

Government where required or

applicable.

45

Figure 25. Eight possible apiary layouts.

Apiary Layout
It is

important to minimize

numbers

of bees

drift

within the apiary.

from other colonies within the

supering and disease transmission

to

may

certain colonies receive large

problems such as swarming, early

occur. Early drifting can be especially detrimental

newly hived packages. These situations

honey production

When

apiary,

will result in

reduced colony build-up and loss of

for those hives that are losing significant

numbers

of bees drifting to

other hives.

To

help reduce drifting and to ensure evenly-populated hives in an apiary, the following

methods may be used:

1.

Use

irregular, non-repetitive hive layouts, facing the hive entrances in different directions,

as illustrated in Figure 25. Hives should be spaced 1-2

results.
2.

The use

of four-hive

m apart within each layout for best

and two-hive pallets effectively reduces

Use colored hive bodies or colored

strips

drifting.

above the hive entrances. Colors such as black,

white, yellow and blue are visible to bees.

3.

Use

existing landmarks such as trees, bushes and fences as orientation cues.

When

choosing a hive layout, the beekeeper should note the presence or absence of windbreaks,
lines of

46

bee

flight

and equipment accessibility (trucks,

fork-lifts, etc.).

Field Records
Keeping

field

records of weather, dates of nectar and pollen flows, colony condition and

management can be

a real advantage to the beekeeper.

quality of apiary sites, such as

when

chalkbrood,

which

sites are

prone

Records allow an evaluation of the

to stress-related maladies like

early flows can be expected and which sites are better for wintering.

management and offer valuable information on

Record only pertinent information, accurately and briefly
several seasons so that good, reliable comparisons can be made. Do not attempt to

Such records help

in

planning colony

individual colony performance.

and

for

start collecting highly detailed information that is difficult to maintain or too complicated to

be used for future reference. Keep

field

records simple.

Bulk and Package Bees

Historically,

package bees were imported into the prairie provinces every spring from the

U.S. After the border closure in 1987, packages of bees could only be sourced from British

Columbia,

New Zealand and Australia.

Even though Canadian beekeepers have become more self-reliant, packages from off-shore
sources continue to be used by beekeepers as a means to offset winter losses, strengthen
wintered colonies, expand their operations or to introduce improved bee characteristics. To
ensure availability when needed, order packages in January through a commercial
beekeeper, a local bee club or directly from a reputable package bee producer or importer.

Package bees are imported and available during the month of April. Prairie producers tend
and

to prefer early arrival

installation dates.

When April remains cold, early packages may

when April is warm and sunny, early

not build up any faster than later packages. Yet

packages

will

have an advantage over

later

packages

in population build-up.

the prairies, packages should arrive no later than the second

Most package beekeepers order packages containing

packages with 1.4 kg

(3 lb) or

the larger population

is

even

less fragile

reasonably good, smaller packages

The

size of

package

is

1.8

kg

Generally for

of April.

kg (2 lb) of bees, but some order

The more bees the better because
care, although when conditions are

0.9

(4 lb) of bees.

and may need less

may do just

as well.

a matter of personal preference. If

may be

week

two-queen colonies are planned,

The number of bees per kilogram can vary

depending on the engorgement of the bees when packages are made up. The more sugar
syrup, honey or nectar the bees have taken in, the more each bee weighs and the fewer the
number of bees in the package. An extra weight allowance of bees should be added by the
package producer to make up for this variability.
larger packages

better at the start.

Preparation for installation

The

single-storey

empty hives should be prepared and placed

at the apiary site before the

packages arrive. Each brood box contains nine frames of good brood combs. Frames

and 9 should be
4, 5,

full

of

honey (Figure

26),

frames 3 and 7 should be

full of pollen,

and 6 should have empty areas ringed with pollen and/or honey.

replace frame 2 or 8 (1 or

9).

1, 2,

and frames

A frame feeder may

brood

Frames

1, 2, 8,

honey 4 frames

Frames

3, 7

pollen

Frames

4, 5,

75% empty

chamber

but

ringed with honey

and /or pollen

bottom board

Figure 26. Arrangement of food stores

If

honey

brood chamber prior to installing bees.

not available, sugar syrup must be supplied to the bees immediately upon hiving,

is

especially

in first

when

nor fresh pollen

hived on foundation. Protein supplement should be given

is available.

Blocks reducing the entrance to 2-4

cm

if

neither stored

should be on the hive

entrances.

When
days.

the packages arrive, the bees have been in the package container for at least three

To minimize

possible.

may be

If

further stress, the bees should be handled gently and hived as soon as

storing

is

necessary, packages should be kept in a dark

fed by spraying or sprinkling the screens with

warm

room

1:1 sugar

at

about 15C and

syrup to supply water

and carbohydrates for energy. Avoid using a paint brush to apply syrup to the screens as

damage the bees' tongues. Hiving should be done on

this tool will

late afternoon

away and get

and evening, so the bees have a night to settle

lost or drift to

in

a cool, cloudy day or in

and do not immediately

fly

another hive.

Installation

The

generally accepted

1.

Frames

2.

The package

4,

method

is

knocked sharply on the brood box or other

The feeder can and

4.

The queen cage can be placed

48

is

as follows:

hive.

available object, causing the bees

bottom of the cage.

3.

container.

bees into the hive

5 and 6 are removed and leaned against the brood box.

to drop to the

empty

of transferring the

Two

the queen cage are then carefully and quickly removed.

in a

pocket for warmth while the bees are shaken into the

or three sharp raps and shakes should roll

all

the bees out of the package

Before releasing the queen, check for any damage including missing
lameness. She

may then be

Pour some syrup on her and immediately drain

it off,

while holding the queen cage just

above the bees and prying the screen away. Then watch as she

Queens

that have

been confined

prevents them from taking

wings or

legs,

released directly into the cluster by the direct release method.

flight

to

queen mailing cages tend

when

Once the bees

released.

falls into

the mass of bees.

and the syrup

to be flighty,

start to climb

frames from the bottom board, the three frames are gently replaced, and the

onto the

lid is

put back

on.

If

the weather

dunked

in

is

warm

or the bees are agitated, each package

may be sprayed

with or

water immediately prior to hiving to slow the bees down and prevent immediate

flight.

The queen may be released more

in

Chapter

11.

in before the

Once

Some beekeepers

queen

is

slowly by using one of the slow release methods outlined

feel a

slow release allows the bees to calm down and settle

freed, preventing

any aggression towards her

at the

time of hiving.

hived, bees can be given medicated sugar syrup for protection against disease and for

stimulative purposes, even

if

feed

is

not otherwise required.

Follow-up inspection
Five to seven days after packages have been hived (Table
inspected for the presence and pattern of eggs.

one egg per

cell,

spaced and the

the queen

lid

is

If

doing well, and no further inspection

replaced with a

minimum

of disturbance. If

queen should be found. An apparently healthy queen may be

for later re-inspection. If the

queen

using a slow-release method.

the centre frame

4),

If

is

is briefly

eggs are present, in a good pattern with

is

needed. Frames are

no eggs are present, the

left alone,

and the hive marked

new queen must be introduced

antibiotics and sugar syrup may be given

injured or missing, a

not already done,

to each colony.

The second
pattern

is

inspection

is

made 10-14 days

after the first check.

At

this time, the

brood

again examined on a frame or two, and disease and pest problems are looked

Colony food stores are assessed and supplemented

if

for.

required. Oxytetracycline should be

given again, as outlined in Appendix E.

On the

first

or second inspections, failing queens (recognized by spotty brood patterns, a

predominance
replaced.

of

drone brood, a lack of eggs and young brood or no brood

Any supersedure

replace the existing queen)

replacement queen

may

cells

(queen

cells

at all)

being built by the bees in their

must be destroyed

if

should be

own attempt

not be accepted.

A colony with no brood at all has likely been queenless

may be requeened,

since hiving.

If

sufficient

bees are

numbers have dwindled, each frame of bees

may be shaken in front of another colony needing additional population. If a queen begins
fail late in the season (June, July), the colony will have reduced honey production. At this
time of year, the colony can be united with another queen-right colony for honey
production. Alternately, the colony can be requeened or allowed to raise its own queen if
present, the colony

the hive

isr

to

the beekeeper plans to requeen, or the

to be wintered.

or

if

to

Table

r Visit

4. Beekeeping

sequences and checklist

Time after Hiving

Symptoms

Solution

Quesn Chock

Eoas

Close hive

Queen-right

(Do not look for queen)

Queenless

No eaas

Requeen

Roaring sound

days

Purpose

(Package bees)
1

5-7 days

or

check again

in

Bees agitated

AFB-EFB prevention
2

weeks

Feed antibiotics

Quesn Check
Queen-right

Brood

Queenless

See

Drone layer

Convex cappings

Supersedure

Queen

OK

stages

in all

visit

cell(s)

on face of

comb

Requeen

or unite

Requeen

or unite

Destroy queen

and

cell(s)

requeen or unite
Laying workers

Many

eggs/cell

Eggs on

cell

Kill

colony or

dump bees

wall

No queen
Multiple laying queen

Several eggs

in

bottom

OK

of cells

AFB-EFB prevention
3

4-6

weeks

Feed antibiotics

Queen Check

See

Brood Pattern Check

Good

with few cells empty

Poor

Spotty appearance, brood of

visits

Frames

and 2

of brood of uniform

different sizes;

many

age

OK

Requeen

or unite

cells

empty
Food Check
Lack of honey

Empty

Feed syrup or add frames

cells

of

honey

Starved bees

Bees running over frames

"shaking"

Lack

of pollen

Presence

of

eggs and emerging

substitute

6-8 frames of brood and bees

Add 2nd brood super

AFB-EFB prevention

Space Check
Space required
Space not required

Feed pollen supplement or

adults but no brood

Feed antibiotics

present
less than 6

frames

of

brood

Check

for

space

in

week

check that queen, stores OK

and bees

and disease-free
4

Every 9-10 days

and

after visit 3

Food Check

See

Swarm

Queen honeybound

Reverse hive bodies and add a

No space

super

Prevention

Preswarming-crowded

others

Swarming

initiated

visit

Feed syrup or frames of honey

for

eggs

"Wall-to-wall bees"

Provide ventilation

Queen

Check

cells

bottom

of

on sides and

for

queen

cells

every

9-10 days, reverse brood

frames

chambers as necessary and

add supers where needed.
Provide space and ventilation
Demaree
Supering

AFB-EFB prevention

50

- Add
- Add

st

honey super

prior to

others as needed

expected honeyflow

or 2 at a time

Cease all medication one

month before honeyflow

Wintered Colonies Early Spring

Much

management of wintered colonies depends on the quality of the

management and the method of wintering (see Chapter 10). Overwintering

of the early spring

previous

fall

colonies begin rearing brood in January or February, and honey and pollen consumption

increase dramatically with increased brood rearing.

An

early spring check

is

necessary to determine the amount and

This check should be done on outdoor colonies

warm sunny day with no wind. The

cover gently pried up and a

little

in early

March or

availability of food stores.

as early as pos

hie,

on

top covering and insulation are removed, the iinier

smoke used

to

keep the bees calm.

It is

not advisable to

disturb the bees by pulling frames from within the cluster.

By

looking

down between

frames, capped honey can be seen.

The colony should have from

may be placed next

four to six honey frames in contact with the cluster; outer honey frames
to the cluster

if

inner feeder of
low.

necessary. Protein supplement

warm 2:1

sugar syrup

may be

may be

given, and extra

placed next to the cluster

honey frames or an
honey stores are

if

The colony should be closed up and insulation replaced with as little disturbance
Dead colonies should either be removed or closed up to prevent robbing.

as

possible.

Colonies should be checked again for food stores in early April, the protein supplement
replenished and honey or syrup given as necessary. At this time, colonies wintered indoors

may be moved

outside, depending

on the weather. Such colonies may have a quick

inspection at this point and be fed 2:1 sugar syrup and antibiotics by using pails or inner
feeders.

Once the weather has warmed up and pollen and nectar are available, winter wraps may be
removed from colonies wintered outdoors; generally, this will be done in the last half of
May. At this time, all wintered colonies are subject to a thorough inspection. Bottom boards
are scraped and cleaned of

reversed

all

accumulated debris and dead bees. Brood chambers may be

at this point (Figure 27)

if

the upper brood chamber

extends into the lower brood box. Weaker colonies

to a single

may be

is full

left in

of

bees and the cluster

two chambers or reduced

box depending on the number of bees.

Figure 27.
Reversing brood chambers.
A: prior to reversing.
B: after reversing.

At the same time, colonies are assessed

stores and strength.

for

queen problems, disease symptoms, food

A strong wintered colony will have from four to seven kilograms

of

more frames of brood. Dead colonies

should be cleaned out and removed from the apiary. Very weak and queenless colonies and
colonies with drone-laying queens may be united with medium strength colonies,
remembering to pinch off the poorer queen first. The queen's performance can be assessed
by checking one or two frames for brood pattern and for symptoms of brood disease. Food
bees (covering nine to eleven frames) and

stores are assessed, and 2:1 syrup

brood rearing. Oxytetracycline

also be administered

is

five or

given to replace depleted stores and to stimulate

may be

given in the syrup or icing sugar, and fumagillin

may

when nosema has been detected before.

Checking Colonies
Regular checks should be continued through

May

and June

at

10-14 day intervals.

Be

systematic and consistent in examining the colonies:

1.

How does the brood pattern look?

2. Is there

brood

in all stages?

3.

Are there swarm

4.

Are there symptoms

5.

Are pests such as ants or skunks present?

6.

Are there unusually large numbers

7.

Does the colony have enough stored honey and

8.

Does

9.

Are the bees restless and defensive, or are they quiet?

it

cells?

of

any disease or mites?

of

dead bees on the bottom board or hive entrance?

pollen?

require space for bees, brood and food storage?

The beekeeper must assess each colony, determine its needs and apply the appropriate
management. At the same time, note the general condition of the apiary, including duration
and likelihood of dearth periods. In areas where American foulbrood and
European foulbrood disease have been reported, colonies may be fed oxytetracycline every
of the spring flow

7-10 days. Antibiotic feeding should stop at least three weeks before the start of the major
nectar flow.

cull any broken or misshapen combs or combs with

comb and replace with good quality worker combs. Culled combs
developing brood may be marked and placed on the outside edges of the second

While checking the brood chambers,

large areas of drone

containing

brood chamber, or the third box, to allow the brood to hatch out. These frames can then be

removed when the honey

is

extracted and melted

down

or destroyed. Bottom boards,

frames and hive covers should be repaired or replaced when broken or rotting. Keeping

hammer and
If

nails in the truck allows for

a robbing situation develops at

52

worse by continuing

to

in

the bee yard.

any time during these inspections, the beekeeper should

finish the inspection of the colony, close

situat-' )n

minor equipment repair

it

up and leave the yard, rather than making the

open hives.

CNArru

Feeding Colonies
Feeding both sugar syrup and protein supplement may be required
late spring

and early

duration, or

if

summer

(see Chapter

4). If

at

times through the

the spring nectar flow

there are periods of inclement weather, colonies

may

is

minor or

quickly

of short

become

short of

honey and pollen during the rapid build-up period preceding the main nectar flow. Feeding
of sugar syrup should cease two weeks before the onset of the main nectar flow to avoid
adulteration of the honey.

Requeening Wintered Colonies

If

some schedule

colonies are wintered each year,

advisable.

If

of

requeening every one or two years

may be done

commercially-produced queens are used, requeening

during spring or early summer.

If

at

is

any time

queens are reared by the beekeeper or purchased

domestically, the time of requeening depends on

usually just prior to the main nectar flow.

when queens can be

Methods

first

made

available,

of requeening are covered in Chapter 11

Equalizing Colony Strength

Equalizing serves three purposes:

it

boosts

weak

so the apiary can be

managed

uniformly.

it slows down the growth of

makes the hive populations uniform,

colonies,

strong colonies (which helps prevent swarming) and

it

Very weak and queenless colonies may be united

make a two-queen unit.

with colonies of medium strength or placed above another colony to

To boost

^^^^^

the strength of a weaker colony, one or two frames of capped brood are taken

from a stronger colony.

It is

important to shake the bees

disease before they are installed.

The

transfer of

off

and check the frames for

open brood

is

not recommended, as

merely demands more work for the weaker colony. Closed brood

expand rapidly and

offer

more bees

to help

will

expand the brood nest.

If

of a

frames

the recipient hive has

moved with adhering bees,

more populous hives to boost the

method of equalizing is to switch the positions of weak and strong colonies

weak colony receives the incoming foragers from the strong colony. Always try
determine why colonies are weak before trying to boost their populations. Disease, mites

and

alternative

old, failing

capped brood are

jaken from a Stronger

^'

so that the
to

of

cause the colony to

colony population.

An

weaker COlony,

it

too few bees to cover the brood adequately, the frames can be
or extra bees can be shaken into the hive from the other,

Strength

queens can cause colony weakness, and these problems should be remedied

before adding bees and brood from strong colonies.

Uniting Colonies
Very weak colonies are often the result of a poor or failing queen. Rather than attempting to
requeen such colonies and nurse them back to strength, many beekeepers merely unite
them with stronger colonies. If worker brood is present, uniting can be done as follows: the
failing queen is pinched off, and the colony is checked for queen cells, which must be
removed. A sheet of newspaper is placed over the upper brood chamber of a medium or
strong colony, two or three slits are made in the paper with the hive tool, and the weak

W.-

colony

placed on top.

is

The bees

will gradually

chew through

the newspaper and form a

single unit.

weak colony can be shaken in front of a stonger colony and

same strong colony or another strong colony. Bees shaken
gradually find their way inside without major conflict.

Alternatively, the bees of the

the brood frames added to the

front of another colony will

If

no brood

is

present in a weak colony, the bees can be shaken

another colony.

Any

extra honey and pollen frames

stores. Before uniting colonies, the

may be

off all

in

the frames in front of

given to colonies in need of food

weak colony should be checked

carefully for evidence of

any brood disease, as diseases can be spread by both brood frames and adult bees.

Dividing Colonies
Dividing strong wintered colonies

colony numbers, either to

There are several ways

is

make up

one method of slowing their build-up while increasing

for winter losses or to

to split colonies.

Most

often, a

expand the beekeeping operation.

new colony

is

made from

either a

strong single-parent colony or from a two-parent colony. Dividing a colony in two

may

two weak colonies. Generally, the parent colony should not be reduced so much
can no longer make a full honey crop.

result in
that

it

Some commercial

operations have adopted a different method of making up colony losses or

for producing divisions for resale.

whatever number

Healthy parent colonies are selected and divided into

of splits or nuclei they can produce,

each the size of a two to three pound

package. Outside queen sources are needed in early spring to provide each nucleus with a

queen.

The

When

divisions are

made

later in early

splitting of a healthy colony to depletion

advantages. There

is

generally

to each parent colony.

The

much

summer,

seems

self-raised

queens can be used.

destructive, but there are

some

distinct

compared to applying a single split

method seems helpful in keeping down

less labor involved

splitting-to-depletion

tracheal mite infestation levels and allows for effective varroa mite control applications.

queens must be ordered ahead of time to be on

May. Divisions are made once the weather has warmed and the risk of

In preparation for spring colony division,

hand sometime

in

frost is low. If the divisions are

the division should not be too

colonies.

The

first

made

late;

to replace winter losses or to

expand the operation,

otherwise, no honey crop can be expected from these

offspring from the

new queens

will

be foraging about six weeks

later,

so

when making divisions. If

splits may be made stronger to

the expected dates of the major nectar flow must be kept in mind
the time span until the start of the main honey flow

is

short,

allow for a shorter build-up period.

A warm,

sunny day with no wind is best for this colony division. Queens and brood
chambers with bottom boards and covers for the expected number of divisions are brought
to the apiary.

packages.

If

Brood chambers should be made up with honey and pollen frames as

possible, an inner feeder of

warm

2:1 sugar syrup

may take

for

the place of one

frame.

The

(jueen in each parent colony is found and placed to one side. One or more frames of
capped brood and adhering bees are taken from each parent colony, checked for disease and

CMAFTU

new brood chamber. A frame

placed in the

of

honey and pollen may

also

be transferred

if

the parent colonies have a surplus.

The new

division ends up with three or four frames of bees and brood,

most

of

which

capped. Parent colonies receive empty combs and their brood nests are consolidated.
or three frames of extra bees
will

make up

and

all

for the field

A new,

the apiary.

may be shaken

bees that

caged queen

it.

Two

These bees

back to the parent colonies when divisions are

left in

placed in the division after she has been visually checked

is

attendant bees removed.

Chapter

fly

into the division to strengthen

is

A slow release method is

employed

for the

queen (see

11).

the divisions are to be moved to a new location, requeening should take place after the
move because of better queen acceptance and lower risk of accident. It is generally
recommended to move new divisions to another apiary site to avoid the drifting of bees
back to the parent colony. If moving is not possible, the divisions should be set down away
If

from the parent colonies and oriented

to slow the flight of the bees

new

Alternatively, the

Entrances should be reduced

in a different direction.

and allow them to orient to their

division

may be

new location.

placed temporarily on top of one of the parent

colonies over a solid inner cover, with a 5

cm

entrance in the rim facing towards the back

loosely plugged with grass. Thus, the division can take advantage of the heat from the

colony below until

it

gains

some

strength.

It

may then be

set

down when the parent

colony

receives another super. Robbing of these small colonies can be a problem, so equipment

should be bee-tight and the entrance size reduced.

may

made without searching for the queen. This method is useful when
made or when preparing two-queen hives. The parent hive is inspected
and three frames of capped brood are selected. The bees are shaken off the frames and
placed in a brood chamber with supporting frames of honey pollen and empty comb. The
frames removed from the parent hive are replaced with empty comb. A queen excluder is
Divisions

many

also be

divisions are

then placed on the parent hive, and the division

The bees

move up

will quickly

is

placed on top.

to cover the brood frames in the division, but the

queen

will

not be able to pass through the excluder. In 30 minutes or so, the division can be placed on
its

own bottom board and possibly moved

with a solid inner cover as above

introduced to the

These new

new division as

if

to another apiary, or the excluder can be replaced

two-queening

is

the object.

A new queen is then

before.

divisions are useful in requeening strong colonies that have

been made

queenless before the main nectar flow. These colonies are then provided with a young,
laying queen.

method.
colonies,

An

If

The

one can wait

alternate

may be united to the queenless colony using the newspaper

made solely to produce laying queens for requeening of wintered

division

divisions are

method

until the

beginning of June (see Chapter 11).

of increasing colony

that are not intended to produce a

build up to

numbers

for next

year

is

to

good wintering strength by September. Nucs are made up

June, and timing

is critical

to their successful build-up.

emerging brood and adhering bees are placed

queen; the nuc

supplements,

if

is

The

that

nuclei (nucs)

have time to

in the first part of

Two or three frames

in a separate

then set aside from the parent colony and

needed.

make up

honey crop within the same season, but

of

capped and

brood chamber and given a

is

fed syrup and protein

hive equipment should be bee-tight and an entrance reducer in

In

By September, these nucs will have built up to a colony filling two

may even produce surplus honey some years. This method
of one's own stock or of locally-purchased queens or queen cells

place to prevent robbing.

brood chambers, and they

allows for the production

when

quality

and

availability are high.

This method of producing nuclei, intended as honey producing colonies in the following
year, has

been adopted successfully by many commercial producers. The nuclei can receive

appropriate mite control applications at any time of the season since no honey

produced
full

for harvest.

Wintering nuclei has proven

size colonies because of lower

demands

in

much more

is

being

cost effective than wintering

equipment, sugar-feed and medications.

Extra numbers can be made up in anticipation of winter colony losses. These wintered
colonies will be strong enough to produce

honey
If

new

splits in the

second year and produce a

crop.

colonies are wintered indoors, nucs

may be made

at the

end of June, thus taking

advantage of brood that will not be old enough to be collecting

Nucs made up

flow.

strength and

at this

may not be

time

may

not build up to

much

nectar during the main

more than one brood chamber

in

strong enough to winter well outdoors. However, both nucs and

single-storey colonies can be successfully wintered indoors.

If

spring yards are not

suitable for

Moving
If

use,

to

Summer Apiary

summer

spring yards are not suitable for

should be found well

before the main

is

should be found well before

expected. Sites should be selected for good honey production from

year to year, taking advantage of variations in weather,

soil

and crop conditions. Field

records from previous years will indicate which areas traditionally yield well and
flows can be expected.

is

summer use, summer sites

sites

the main nectar flow

nectar flow

Sites

summer

changes

Some

when

areas can change drastically from year to year because of

in crop plantings.

expected.

Summer site

requirements are essentially the same as those for spring

all-weather accessibility for vehicles

some

enough room

arrangement of

adequate water supply

good summer nectar flows

shelter from the wind

for

all

colonies

sites to

minimize travel time

low

free of browsing cattle and bears.

in

visibility to

reduce disruption

An

electric fence is

an effective deterrent and essential

keeping bears out of the apiary. Select sites not visible from roads and highways, to

reduce the risk of vandalism and

Honey bees
two

sites:

forage up to about three

different

^lalfway
bloory

theft.

km from the hive with little loss in honey yield. When

five km apart, the summer yard should be located

blooming crops are located

between them rather than beside one or the other. When both
crop, select the site with the best bee forage potential.

fields

have the same

:iig

package colonies should be moved to the summer sites while still in one brood
chamber. Once second and more supers have been added, it becomes more difficult to move
If pn'v'.ible,

the colonies. Depending on local conditions, colonies are generally

ft

moved

in

May,

cNArm
preferably at dusk or at night

when

all

bees are inside and the temperature

Entrance and top screens are not required for short moves

Some beekeepers

is

lower.

at night.

fasten bottom boards permanently to the first brood

chambers with two

hive staples on each side, slanted in opposite directions. While helpful for moving,

permanent fastening makes reversing brood chambers and cleaning bottom boards difficult.
is to have nails protrude through the bottom board rim into the
brood box. This method prevents lateral movement and allows easy removal of the brood
Another fastening method

chamber from the bottom board. Other producers do not fasten the supers onto the bottom
remove the lid and stack the hives so tightly together on the truck that no
lateral movement can take place. Each row of hives must be securely strapped and fastened
boards, but

to the deck.

Before

lifting

from flying
is

the hives, direct several puffs of

smoke

into the entrance to

Hives should be loaded with the frames

out.

keep the bees

parallel to the truck so that rocking

minimized. Frame spacers or self-spacing frames prevent the problems of frames sliding

together or falling from the frame rests. Without spacers, frames

in place

with nails driven through the hand-holds

(left

are tied in place on the truck to avoid shifting in transit.

summer

site,

may be

hive entrances

lightly stuffed

4,

may be

5 and 6

fastened

protruding for easy removal). Hives

Once the hives are unloaded

with grass to slow

down

at the

the foragers

and allow for orientation.

When

colonies are

Try

move

to

moved less than three to five km, field bees often return to the old site.
new sites at more than five km distance. Hives moved a short
the back garden for example, should be moved a little each day so that

colonies to

distance, across

returning foragers can find their home.

For daytime moves

in hot

weather, use top screens to allow ventilation and clustering

space for the bees. These are boxes about 10

supports on which bees

may

smaller can be cut for the

screen

is

cling.

full

cm

screened on the

in depth,

For the entrance, a

stiff

mesh with 4

top,

with cross

mm spaces or

width of the entrance and about twice the height.

When the

folded lengthwise and pushed into the entrance, the screen will hold itself in

place. All cracks

between supers should be plugged or taped.

Apiary Maintenance
In the

summer

apiary, vegetation in front of

each hive should be controlled so that the bees

have easy access to the hive entrance. Mats of cardboard, sugar sacks cut

and the

like

may be

Alternatively, vegetation

may be

when

are not

paper

treated with herbicide around each hive. Herbicides are

very effective when applied to young vegetation early

later

in half, tar

placed in front of each hive and anchored under the bottom board.

in the

season but should not be used

the bees are flying. Soil sterilants and herbicides with long residual properties

recommended, as they may have undesirable

effects

on non-target vegetation such

as the trees surrounding the bee yard.

Mowing with a
residues.

cutter or motorized weed-eater

When using motorized mowers,

starting to

mow;

is

very effective and does not leave

take care to

smoke

otherwise, vibrations through the gound

all

may

the hive entrances before

result in a severe defensive

response. Sites should also be checked for short stumps and debris hidden in the grass.

Broken frames and

comb should be

bits of

collected and

removed from the yard

after

each

visit.

Space Requirements and Supering

Beekeepers have

was probably
in most parts

traditionally allowed a total of five

sufficient for

of the prairie provinces.

for a total of six or

full

this

number

Three brood supers and three or four honey supers,

seven per hive, may be needed to optimize honey production.

Outdoor wintered colonies are generally wintered

are usually

bee boxes per hive. While

package colonies, more boxes are needed for wintered colonies

of bees and brood

in

two brood chambers. Both chambers

by the end of May, by which time the winter wrap has

been removed.

When there

are five or six frames of brood in the second super, and before

plugged with honey, a third box, made up with nine empty combs,
This step generally takes place by the middle or end of

month

later for packages.

is

it

becomes

added to each colony.

May for wintered

colonies and a

Entrance reducers can be removed from the colonies around the

beginning of June. Timing varies from year to year and yard to yard, so

it is

important to

check the colonies regularly.

Package colonies with good

seven weeks

five to

prolific

queens can generally receive second brood chambers

after hiving or in the latter half of

May. These colonies should have

five

or six frames of brood and from seven to nine frames of bees at this time. Seconds should
contain nine dark brood

the

first, if

possible.

If

combs with pollen and honey arranged

the bees are slow to

capped brood may be placed

move

in the centre of the

be done when boxes of foundation are given.

is cold,

the seconds

may be

dissipating cluster heat.

If

in the

into the seconds,

same manner

as in

one or two frames of

second to draw them up;

this baiting

must

colonies are not yet strong, and the weather

placed underneath the firsts to provide extra space without

Brood chambers may then be reversed as required.

Honey supers contain nine frames of honey comb, preferably light in color since dark comb
may darken the stored honey. Combs that have had one or two cycles of brood reared in
them are

ideal for

honey storage, being

light in color

but strengthened by cocoon residues

and propolis. Newly-drawn combs must be extracted with care, as they are easily broken.

Both bottom supering and top supering are practiced by beekeepers, although most
commercial beekeepers prefer top supering for speed. Top supering necessitates getting
the supers on before a honey barrier

supering means far more work,

but

is

necessary

if

is

formed, thus good timing

lifting partially-filled

is

imperative.

Bottom

supers to place empty supers beneath,

them
empty

the supers are plugged and the beekeeper does not wish to extract

right away. In addition, unless

queen excluders are used, the queen may move

into

supers placed above the brood nest.

Frame spacers
saves time

are often used in brood chambers and in honey supers.

when

The use

of spacers

supering colonies and makes the use of self-spacing frames unnecessary.

lateral frame mobility when checking brood

chambers and the loss of the correct bee space between combs. Metal spacers corrode
quK kly and rust when formic acid is used to control mites. As such, these spacers require

Disadvantages of spacers include the loss of

frequent replacement.

58

When

the main honey flow commences, colonies need plenty of space. Bees need space to

cluster, for wax-builders to hang, for

temporary storage of unripe honey, as well as

brood rearing and the storage of pollen and honey. Even more space
temperatures and humidity are high during heavy nectar flow.

and no space

is left

and store nectar, the

to process

field

When

is

required

the hive

becomes

full

bees stop foraging. In regions of

slowdown or temporary stoppage may mean

short, intense nectar flows, such

for

when

losing the

opportunity for a great honey crop.

When

becomes
space

When

in doubt, give

more

space.

queen (moving upwards through each box rather than expanding the brood nest

supering. In the prairies,

erally)

combs

is,

is

a signal for

where nectar flows are intense and of short duration, the honey

may

production and storage requirements

the

get ahead of the

wax

building,

and whitening of

therefore, not a rehable cue. Supering should be considered in combination

with anticipated nectar flow, frequency of visits and strength of colony. Generally two or

more supers

are added just prior to or at the beginning of the main nectar flow, and

more

are given as the flow progresses.

Drawing Foundation
Each

some brood combs

year,

are lost through breakage and culling, and these

be replaced with good worker combs from the honey supers. To replace combs
supers, the beekeeper

may give each

If at all

much

get colonies to draw out as

possible, colonies should

combs must
in the

honey

colony up to nine or ten frames of foundation with

only a minor reduction in honey yield in a good year, although in a poor year,
difficult to

it

may be

foundation.

never be given whole boxes of foundation, for such supers

some extent as a barrier to upward expansion, and some colonies will show great
reluctance to move into them. It is far better to intersperse foundation amongst drawn
comb, beginning with three frames in the third super. If supers of foundation must be given,
will act to

each should contain ten frames instead of nine. Nine frames of foundation leave enough
space between frames that bees
foundation.

The bees

will

will only

of
is

The

instead of drawing out

so outer frames

may be

rotated

visit.

it

or

chew holes

in the

foundation sheets.

are used to confine the queen to the brood chambers.

Most

often, the

used between the second brood chamber and honey supers. For two-queen

colony systems, this piece of equipment

When the

first,

Queen Excluders

Queen excluders
excluder

comb

be drawn out during a nectar flow or while feeding a 2:1 sugar syrup.

Otherwise, bees will ignore

Use

construct burr

work on the centre frames

inwards during each subsequent

Foundation

may

excluder

is installed,

third super should

is

essential.

the bees should be encouraged to overcome the barrier.

be given before the second

bees to move up into the third super,

and no

is left to

it

is

process and store

nectar, the field bees

the top of the uppermost brood chamber

in

full

better to be too early and risk "stove-piping" by the

It is

than to be too late and risk swarming and reduced honey production.

White ridges of wax appearing

the hive

plugged with honey. To encourage the

must contain drawn comb. Placing one or two

stop foraging.

frames of emerging brood and adhering bees

in the third

super

is

very effective in

stimulating the bees to pass the excluder. Placing a super containing only foundation on top
of the excluder should

never be done because the excluder and the foundation

function as a double barrier, and the colony

may end up swarming

will

then

instead of expanding.

Two-Queen Colonies
While there are probably as many variations
beekeepers, the aim remains the same for
preparation of the main nectar flow.

expand very

in

all

making up two-queen colonies as there are

systems: to maximize adult bee populations in

By managing two queens

rapidly, resulting in a greater ratio of field

in

one colony, the colony can

bees to house bees and hence, the

greater the colony's foraging capabilities.

Two-queen systems also offer better swarm control and requeening of wintered colonies.
As well, extra laying queens are available for those colonies with queen problems during
the spring and summer.

The disadvantages

of

two-queen systems include the increased labor and equipment as well

as the cost of the extra queens.

Two-queen

colonies require precise timing in

management

and demand greater equipment manipulation. In some areas, two-queen colonies can reach
a height of nine or ten supers requiring solid footing.

As queen excluders are used

throughout the nectar flow, honey removal requires bee-escape boards or bee-blowers
(see Chapter

For the

6).

prairie provinces,

where two-queen colonies are most suitable because of the short

made up from wintered colonies sometime in

but intense main nectar flow, units are usually

May. The timing depends on colony strength and the strength and duration of the spring
flow. Two-queen colonies are at their peak from eight to nine weeks after being made up.
For two-queen units made up from packages, nine or ten weeks may be required

for

build-up.

When making up two-queen

units, the parent colonies

should be equalized to similar

strength by an exchange of adults or capped brood. Then, the original queen in each colony
is

placed in the bottom brood chamber with younger brood, food stores and empty comb.

The other two empty brood chambers may be

a division board in

placed in the second and third positions with

between. Such a division board

is

generally an inner cover with

feeding holes completely blocked, turned so that the entrance

is in

the opposite direction from the lower entrance (Figure 28). This
is

necessary; otherwise, the odor of the

first

all

the

the upper rim and facing

initial

complete separation

queen remains throughout the colony and may

prevent acceptance of the second queen.

Figure 28.
Solid division board

used

in initial

step

in

making up two-queen
colonies.

The top

entrance should face

the back of the hive.

60

CMATTM

honey are placed in this top brood chamber, and two or three
frames of extra bees shaken in to make up for subsequent drifting back to the lower
entrance. A new queen is given to the upper unit using a slow release method. The lid is

Capped brood and plenty

of

replaced and the upper entrance loosely blocked with fresh grass to allow time for
orientation.

Equipment must be bee-tight

acceptance in the top

to prevent robbing

and to improve queen

unit.

if the beekeeper does not wish to search for the

queen excluder may be placed between brood chambers and each
chamber checked in four days for eggs. The chamber containing the queen is then placed on

If

the original queen cannot be found or

original queens, a

made up

the bottom and the two-queen units

Both units are checked

as above.

week later for laying queens and signs of swarming or

may be requeened or reunited. Division boards of
replaced at this time with an apparatus known as a two-queen

supersedure. Queenless units

queen-right colonies are
board, which

is

comprised of an entrance

move through

material, so air and bees

may be

Alternatively, division boards

of

newspaper

to

in the

rim as well as two layers of zinc excluder

but queens do not meet.

replaced with a single queen excluder, using a sheet

slow the mingling of the bees and allow for acceptance to both queen odors.

An upper entrance is made by offsetting the second unit forward over the excluder. Bees
can then move freely from one unit to another without hostility. The upper queen is usually
given another brood chamber, while the lower queen
are provided to both units.

reversal of the chambers

The brood chambers

If

is

restricted to one.

two brood chambers are given

may be

required, supers

needed.

of each unit are brought together at the beginning of the

just prior to the first pull.

At

this time, the

continue to keep them separated by

main

flow,

beekeeper may either reunite the units or

means

of a single excluder. Uniting the units will

usually cause one queen to be killed, thereby reducing the

If

If

to either queen, periodic

amount

of

brood to be

fed.

two-queen colonies are used as a method of requeening, the old queen may be found and

killed to

ensure the survival of the younger queen.

An

excluder

is

generally

left

between

the brood chambers and honey supers for the duration of the flow. After uniting, colonies
are

managed

as single-queen colonies with a

much

higher population, greater space

requirements and higher honey yields.

Swarming
As mentioned in Chapter 1, swarming is the colony's means of reproduction. Capturing
swarms is one method of increasing the number of colonies in a beekeeping operation. In
many countries, swarms are routinely hived or attracted into hives and the honey
subsequently harvested. However, relying on swarms for colony increase has its drawbacks:

Firstly,

while nearly any colony will

swarm may be

a perpetuation of a

swarm given

swarming

the right circumstances, the hiving of a

strain rather than a selection

away from

swarming.

Secondly, the beekeeper

is

so the quality of the stock

not in control of making the divisions and requeening them,

may

suffer.

Thirdly,

it is

the strongest colonies, which would otherwise produce a good honey crop,

that do the swarming.

Swarming reduces colony strength too

close in time to the main nectar flow and, thus,

decreases the productivity of that colony.

Before swarming takes place, a slowdown in egg laying and foraging occurs as the bees get

"swarming condition." Even

the colony

is

through some corrective action by the beekeeper,

it

into the

Management techniques

if

prevented from actually swarming

will

be less productive as a

result.

are best employed to prevent the swarming impulse from

occurring rather than trying to control

it

once

has been

it

initiated.

Swarm prevention
The most important

factor in

needed. Bees need space to

swarm prevention

sit,

is

the supply of adequate space

especially during inclement weather

when

confined to the hive. Inadequate space for processing and storage of honey

nest becomes honey-bound, and the queen no longer has sufficient

queen prevented from egg-laying produces

cohesion and

ColoniBS should b6

to help prevent both

supersedure and

^ failing queen also produces

less

may issue

queen substance, which reduces colony

less

queen substance, and

a

if

a supersedure

is

underway

at this

swarm. Colonies should be requeened regularly to help

prevent both supersedure and swarming. The brood nest should be kept free of congestion

by reversing brood chambers and adding supers.

High, temperatures

and humidity, poor ventilation and

air

drainage are

swarming impulse, each

contributing to the development of the

swarming.

means the brood

for egg-laying.

may lead to swarming.

time of year, the colony

retjueened regularly

room

when

the foragers are

all

factors

relating to the

need

for

space. Space requirements per bee increase with temperature. Poor ventilation leads to
,

jg|lP^|gj|fe

high humidity

^^^^

when excess moisture

is

being evaporated from nectar, thus increasing the

space to spread out the nectar.

Temperature and humidity problems can be solved to a large extent by providing more
space, removing entrance reducers, providing entrance mats and cracking lids or supers,
setting

them ahead

slightly to allow

more

air flow.

Foundation and queen excluders should

be used judiciously so as not to form a barrier to upward expansion. Honey-bound colonies

should be bottom supered. Populous colonies
nectar flow to keep the bees busy at

Some

may be used

work instead

colonies have a genetic propensity for

in areas

of planning to

with an early main

swarm.

swarming and may swarm regardless. These

colonies should be culled from a wintering operation. Colonies raised from packages appear

more

inclined to

Swarm

swarm than wintered

colonies.

control

Notwithstanding management
are several

ways

of preventing

efforts, a

colony

may

still

enter a swarming condition. There

bees from actually leaving the hive. From about mid-May

onwards, regular hive inspections should include looking for queen

swarming

intitiation.

A quick

examination method

hive tool, pull the second chamber a

bottom

of the

little

is

to crack the

forward and

frames so that they move up.

tilt it

back,

cells that will indicate

brood chambers with the

smoking the bees on the

cNArm
Swarm

cells are generally located along the

different stages of development.

young

larvae.

Queen

bottom and sides

Queen cups (Chapter

cells containing older larvae

distinguished (see Figure 51).

If

swarm

cells are

brood frames, usually

of

11) should be

checked

for

at

eggs and

and pupae are drawn out and are easily

found along the frame bottoms, they

should be crushed, and the colony should then be checked thoroughly for any cells

elsewhere on the frames. At the same time, extra space and means for ventilation must be
provided to relieve brood nest congestion.

Swarm

days to prevent the occurrence of swarming.

swarm

cells,

the old queen

may

If

cells

must be removed every nine or ten

the colony

is left

longer than ten days with

depart with a swarm, leaving the colony with several virgin

queens on the point of emergence.

The Demaree method is effective for arresting the swarming preparation of a colony. This
method involves confining the queen to one frame of brood in the bottom brood chamber
along with eight empty combs. An excluder is placed on the brood chamber, and an empty
honey super placed above it. The rest of the brood is placed on top, with capped brood in

The top boxes are checked about a week later

The brood nest can be consolidated when the main nectar flow

the third position and open brood above that.

to destroy

any queen

cells.

begins.

Beekeepers often

clip

one wing of mated queens, both to mark her and to help

control. This operation will

the colony but will return

slow swarming but

when they

will

not prevent

discover the queen

it;

not with them.

is

wait until a virgin queen emerges and then swarm. Clipping wings

in

the bees will

is

swarm

still

leave

The bees

will

a delicate operation,

requiring time and a gentle, steady hand. Virgin queens should never be clipped because of

the need to

fly

and mate.

Handling swarms
Most swarms occur between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m., when temperatures are highest and
enough daytime hours are left. Swarms often occur on the first sunny day following a period
of inclement weather,
site

has been found.

and they usually

The swarm then

settle in a

leaves

its

nearby tree or other object

temporary

until a

new

location.

Swarms may be

reunited with the parent colony or used to establish a new colony. To hive
swarm, you need a brood chamber with bottom board and cover. Sometimes swarms,
depending on location and circumstances, are easily shaken into the brood chamber. If the
queen is shaken into the box with the bees, the swarm will usually settle into its new-found

home.

If

she

bees

is

not, the

is

not easily accessible,

will fly out of the

box and back

to the original location to rejoin

the queen.

If

the

swarm

collect the

bees and then

the queen; once she

moved to

its

is in

dump them

is

requeen by

all

desired,
itself

the

swarm

use some other container to

The key

to success is to hive

originated needs a thorough inspection for

be destroyed when the swarm

all

but one

swarm

cell

kept separate,

it

is

reunited with the colony.

must be destroyed

while preventing after-swarms. Reuniting

newspaper method, placing the swarm on top

Then, check

to

ultimate location in the evening.

which should

reuniting

may be necessary

into the brood chamber.

the hive, the others will follow within an hour, and the hive can be

The parent colony from which

cells,

it

should be supplied with

for disease

of the parent

some

food and

swarm

When no

to allow the colony to

may be accomplished with the

colony. If the swarm is to be

left to settle in for

several days.

and brood pattern, and give extra space when required. Swarms are

63

generally

made

up, in part, of

many young bees

that will quickly

draw out foundation and

produce honey.

A swarm in late May or June will grow to

fill

two brood chambers and

will

winter

Swarms in July and August will have less opportunity to grow in population
before the summer ends. Such swarms may perish if wintered outdoors, but may survive
wintered indoors. Alternately, late swarms may be united with weaker colonies to boost
successfully.

their populations.

CHAPIEK

Removing Honey

From the Hive

The beekeeper must always remember
ensure the honey

is

to the bees during the time of

When

to

The number

that

honey

is

a food. Great care

kept as pure and clean as possible.

honey

Make

must be taken

to

sure no medications are given

flows.

Remove Honey

of times

honey

is

removed from honey bee colonies depends on the

beekeeper's preference and the size of the operation.

A hobby beekeeper may wish to

super the colonies and then leave them until the main nectar flow has finished before

removing and extracting the honey.

The commercial beekeeper who wishes

to

maximize honey production

will

remove honey

supers from the colonies two and often three times through the nectar flow, replacing them

down honey production

removed regularly, the colonies

with empty supers until the flow finishes. Colonies do tend to slow

somewhat
will

as

honey stores increase.

If

the honey stores are

probably continue to operate at a high pitch, and overall yields are likely to be higher.

The timing

of the first

honey extraction depends,

to

some

extent,

on the beekeeper's

The beekeeper

preference and the number of colonies operated, as well as on such factors as the weather

and the intensity of the flow. The beekeeper generally keeps a close watch on the colonies

know when supers are filling up at each site. The beekeeper should then begin removing
honey accordingly, commencing with the more advanced yards and working around to the
slower yards. It is time to remove a super if a good portion of the comb space is filled with
honey. If the honey is capped across the upper third of the frame, the honey will be
adequately cured. In some areas, and especially at the end of a honey flow, uncapped combs
to

may be ready for

harvesting anyway.

Honey supers in which the honey is completely capped indicate a potential loss of honey
Under dry prairie conditions, capped honey may contain as little as 13-14 per

production.

cent moisture, while the

honey

is

17.8 per cent.

maximum

Frames

moisture content allowed in Canada No.

that are partially capped contain both

unpasteurized

low moisture honey

and high moisture honey, averaging out to an acceptable percentage. In addition, low
moisture honey

is

thicker and

that shakes out of a frame

is

more

difficult to extract.

unripe and must be

left

Honey

that drips like thin syrup or

on the hive

for further processing

by

the bees.

Finding the fine line between unripe honey and ripe honey requires good judgment, precise
timing and the use of a honey refractometer (to test the moisture content of honey).

Uncapped honey

is

often slightly higher in moisture content than

is

desirable.

As

a result,

65

close watch on the

colonies tO

knoW

S\iJ^Q^Z

filling

are

up at each

site

the beekeeper must either have

some means

honey house before extracting or wait

of bringing the moisture content

for the

honey bees

Removing honey from the hives should not be

regions where canola and mustard are grown.
readily,

even

Recently,
after

in the

some

most

comb, and

prairie

this

honey

down

in the

complete the process.

delayed, especially in a cool

Honey from these

summer

in

crops tends to crystallize

then impossible to extract.

is

beekeepers have been experimenting with taking honey supers

of the excess moisture has

store ripened

to

honey more readily

off

been evaporated but before capping has begun. Bees

in cells that are

not too

full,

and the

last bit of cell

length

Removing supers before cells are completely full may, therefore,

increase honey yield, simply by providing more empty space and avoiding slowdowns
related to a lack of storage space. Furthermore, the bees consume honey to produce
beeswax. Therefore if honey is removed before the frame is capped, then honey that would
otherwise be converted into cappings wax is available for harvest. With this method, there
is httle or no beeswax to be processed.
takes the longest to

If

fill.

the queen has laid eggs in the honey supers, the frames with brood should be

before the extraction process. These frames

weak

or accumulated in extra boxes and given to

Usually after the

first

honey

is

may be moved down

into the

removed

brood chambers

colonies as an extra brood chamber.

removed, the nectar flow

is

on

in full force,

and the bees

tend to form a honey barrier that keeps the queen from moving upwards again for the
duration of the flow.

As honey supers are removed, more empty supers are added

being brought in at the time of the second

honey flows are over,

all

pull,

hives

to the hive. If nectar is

may be supered

again.

still

When the

honey supers are removed, and colonies are left with just the two
late flow will occur in which the bees could produce

brood chambers. Occasionally, a

another super of honey, but most late flows are minor and serve to

chambers with stores

situation

for the winter or for next year's

and be prepared to super the bees again

if

fill

up the brood

packages or nucs. Monitor the

conditions warrant.

Robbing
During inclement weather or when there

is

any frames exposed to them. This practice

no nectar

is

flow,

called robbing

bees

will try to steal

honey from

and must be prevented as much

as possible. Besides the danger from the possible spread of disease,

it is

unpleasant to work

bee yard where robbing is happening. Supers should be covered as they are loaded on
the truck - to prevent both robbing and dust contamination.
in a

Removing Bees From

the

Honey Supers

Before removing the honey supers from the hive, bees must be removed from the honey
supers for the beekeeper's ease and comfort and to maintain the bee population in the
hives.

66

There are several ways

of

removing the bees.

cMArm
Shaking and brushing
Supers to be extracted are taken

off

the hive, and as each frame

is

removed from the super,

the bees are shaken from the frames in front of the hive with one or two sharp downward

movements.

It

brush or any

soft

helps to use a second super, with a

lid,

to receive the beeless frames.

A bee

brush may be used to brush away stragglers.

Alternatively, each frame

may be brushed

effective in

good weather when there

of the hive

seems not

clean of bees. Shaking and brushing are quite

no danger of robbing, and there are few supers to

deal with. Bees tend to get quite cross when they are brushed - shaking the frame in front
to anger

them

is

as

much. Keep

bees. Shaking and brushing are useful methods

if

smoker on hand

to help

calm the

only a few supers of honey are to be

removed.

Bee escape boards

Bee escapes work

as

one-way gates: bees can go through but cannot return (Figure 29). If
is placed between the honey supers to

an inner cover containing one or more bee escapes

move down to the brood nest, thereby

The bee escape boards have to be left on for several hours Bee escapes work quite well providing there is no brood in the honey

be removed and the rest of the hive, the bees tend to

vacating the honey supers.
usually overnight.

supers as bees will not leave brood.

67

Equipment must be bee-tight; otherwise, the supers may be robbed of all the honey before
comes back to remove them. Honey supers are best removed in the early
morning, before bees are flying, to prevent the bees from finding cracks in the hive and
the beekeeper

may be enhanced by

robbing the supers. Bee escape boards

placing

them

directly

above a

shallow super containing no frames, thereby giving ample cluster space for the vacating
bees.

The screened

hole in the centre of the bee escape can be two inches in diameter

(Figure 29) to further enhance effectiveness. (Commercial, spring-loaded bee escapes are
available, but they

seem

to plug easily.)

Bee escape boards are useful, especially in smaller operations and for hobby beekeepers.
However, using them means the beekeeper must make two trips to the bee yard from one
to three days apart, and the honey supers must be lifted twice. Empty supers must be
available for each hive before full supers are removed and extracted, so some extra honey
supers

may be

Fume

or acid boards

Fume

required.

boards (Figure 30) are the most

"acid" refers back to a time

Carbolic acid

is

no longer

when

common means

of taking

carbolic acid or phenol

Fume boards

legal for use.)

are

honey

off hives.

(The term

was the common chemical used.

made

of a

wooden frame with two

layers of absorbent fabric such as flannelette tacked over one side under a layer of tin that

painted black for heat absorption. Butyric anhydride

Figure 30. Acid or fume board (cut

The outer cover

moving down,
drivin<.;r

more

or

lid

of the hive is

fume board

the bees down.

puffs of

smoke

away

The

is

sprinkled on the fabric.

view).

removed, and

after the

placed on top of each hive.

top super

bees are smoked to

The fumes

start

them

act as a repellent,

removed when all the bees have moved out, a few

fume board is placed atop the next super until all

is

are given, and the

honey supers have been cleared

68

is

of bees

and removed.

is

CMArnm

The major drawback to the use of fume boards is the possibiHty of honey contamination.
Take care to make the rim of the fume board deep enough (5 cm) so that the wax or honey
on top of the frames does not come into contact with the chemical on the cloth. All burr
comb must be removed before placing the fume board on each super. Also, it is not
necessary to soak the flannelette; a few drops of the chemical repellent
will

Under

hot,

sunny conditions, fume boards function quickly

supers. Consequently, the

from the super;

contamination

is

fume boards should be

which time, the super

at

next box or hive.

If

fume boards are

greatly increased.

left

is

reach

all

left

bees from the

to drive the

on only long enough to drive the bees

removed, and the fume board

is

placed on the

on the hives too long, the possibility of honey

Fume

boards work more effectively

bridging across the top of the honey supers

is

if all

the

wax

broken. This condition allows the fumes to

the bees.

Stacking the fume boards, cloth side to cloth side and tin to
in

do the job and

will

prevent drips onto the super of honey.

each yard

will help retain the

tin,

immediately after finishing

chemical effectiveness for the next yard.

Butyric anhydride (Bee-go, Honey-Robber)

Butyric anhydride

is

very effective as a bee repellent and the only product currently

registered for this use. This chemical has a very disagreeable odour.

If

too

much chemical

is

become stupified and will not move down out of the super. If this
happens, remove the super and place it on the ground so the frames are vertical.

used, the bees will

situation

The

stupified

bees

Carbolic acid

will

then leave the super on their own.

and benzaldehyde

At one time, both these chemicals were used with fume boards, but neither are currently
registered as bee repellents and should not

may leave

be used. The use

of either of these products

residues that could prevent the honey from being sold.

Bee blowers
remove bees from the honey supers. Many commercial
cold, cloudy days. These blowers are
especially useful when queen excluders are on the hives, as excluders inhibit the downward
movement caused by fume boards. Blowers can also come in handy in the fall to reduce
colonies to two brood chambers for wintering or to blow dead bees out of equipment after

Bee blowers use forced

air to

beekeepers use blowers as a back-up system on

killing colonies.

Honey supers
blower

is

are

removed from the hive and placed on

a stand in front of the hive.

The

used to direct a stream of air between each of the frames, and the bees are blown

out of the super in front of the hive.

Blowers are available

in

both backpack and free-standing models with stands and chutes of

various descriptions to direct bees to their hive entrances. These tools are a

fast, efficient,

though noisy, means of removing bees from supers, and the bees do not seem
angry or aggressive. There

is

supers and does not find her

a possibility of

way back

queen

loss

if

she

is

to

become

blown from the honey

to the hive.

Abandonment
The abandonment system works
honey

well at times

flow. In this system, the full

when the bees

are experiencing a good

honey supers are removed and placed on the ground

(on pallets) or on top of hives with the frames in a vertical direction.

immediately supered up again. During the next few hours, the bees

honey supers and return

to leave the

to their hive to continue work.

The

hives can be

will leave the original

Many beekeepers

honey supers out overnight, picking them up

in the early

find

it

effective

morning (Figure

31).

Figure 31. Supers on hives.

The bees

will

not abandon any patches of brood, so queen excluders must be used with this

system. With this system, two trips must be

made

to the apiary to harvest the honey,

the heavy honey supers must be handled an extra time.

be used when there

is

no honey flow as

it

will

and

The abandonment system cannot

promote robbing.

Loading and Movement of Honey Supers

While the "arm-strong" method of moving heavy honey supers within the bee yard and

honey house may be sufficient for a small number of hives, heavy lifting is one of the chief
drawbacks of beekeeping. Beekeepers can minimize this problem by using various devices.

Good

quality, single-stack pallets greatly simplify the

trays to catch any dripping

further

movement on

honey (Figure

32).

movement

the truck and in the honey house

super cart (Figure 33). Thus, the supers are moved

a time. Tailgate loaders are available

may be used

colonies (Figure 34).

to facilitate the

honey supers and

is

act as

accomplished with a two-wheeled

in units of five or six rather

on which supers may be stacked on

mechanically and wheeled into place on the flatbed with the

loaders

of

Supers are placed on pallets on the truck and

movement

of

than one at

pallets,

cart. Alternatively,

then

boom

honey supers as well as honey bee

lifted

hive

Figure 33. Super

Figure 34.

Boom

cart.

loader.

Some commercial beekeepers

with

many colonies have converted

to a palletized forklift

system. Large pallets that can hold four or six stacks of supers are used. The honey supers
are stacked on the pallet while
truck.

With

supers are

this

system, a

now moved

it is

forklift

in units of

on the ground, and the

or pallet jack

is

also

20 to 30 or more.

forklift lifts

needed

in the

the pallet onto the

honey house. The

72

Figure 35. Honey

Honey

is

is

sweet

liquid.

a sweet, viscous liquid that

and capped

in

bees produce from nectar (Figure 35). Once stored

beeswax combs, honey remains

stable and can

be used as food by the bees

many months. If handled properly by the beekeeper, honey retains its quality, but
remember honey is a potentially perishable food product. If attention is not given to careful
handling from comb to container, honey can easily lose its unique and delightful fragrance
over

and

flavor,

and

it

can even

spoil.

Composition
Honey

is

composed primarily of the invert sugars levulose and dextrose (fructose and
amounts of sucrose, maltose and other sugars, minerals, proteins

glucose), with small

(mainly enzymes), pigments, acids and essential

oils that

add fragrance and

flavor.

The

Canadian Food and Drug Act defines honey as containing no more than 20 per cent water,
5 per cent sucrose and 0.6 per cent ash (minerals), and no less than 65 per cent invert
sugars.

The Canadian Honey Regulations use

a similar definition. In both cases, alfalfa

honey may not have more than 10 per cent sucrose. Fragrance, flavor and color vary
according to the plant species. Honey ranges from white and mild-flavored to dark and
strong-flavored.

Viscosity
Honey is viscous. That
movement through the

is, it

does not flow

bubbles and suspended particles, such as wax,

viscosity or

Both the temperature

and

freely,

this characteristic affects

good body; thin honey has low

float to

the surface. Thick honey has a high

viscosity.

Both the temperature and moisture content

honey

of the

affect its rate of flow,

temperatures and/or high moisture content causing a decrease

and moisture content

beekeepers put honey supers

of the

honey

rate of flow.

affect its

the

sump and

honey with

settling tanks.

(6.5F) is

in the hot

There

room

needed

for

that.

for a

in viscosity.

day before extracting and

warm
why

with

That

is

why they heat

a rapid decrease in viscosity up to 30.3C (86.5F) for

is

a 17.5 per cent moisture content,

temperatures higher than

honey

extracting system. Viscosity also affects the rate at which air

and very

little is

gained by keeping honey at

For lower moisture honeys, a temperature increase of 3.6C

each percentage decrease

in

moisture to obtain the same viscosity, so

low moisture honey may require a dangerously high temperature

for extraction.

Moisture Content and Hygroscopicity

The moisture content

of

honey

affects its viscosity, weight, handling, grading, rate of

granulation and tendency towards fermentation. Moisture content can easily be determined

with a honey refractometer, available at bee supply houses.

(its

weight in relation to that of water)

is

The

specific gravity of

honey

higher than water and varies with the moisture

content: the higher the moisture content, the lower the specific gravity. Consequently, a

given volume of 14 per cent moisture honey weighs more than the same volume of 18 per
cent moisture honey.

Honey

is

hygroscopic, which

equilibrium point
at

is

means

will

it

absorb water from the atmosphere until an

reached. For 17.4 per cent moisture honey, this equilibrium

58 per cent relative humidity (R.H.), and moisture

will neither

be gained nor

is

reached

lost at this

R.H. Other honeys held at 58 per cent R.H. will gain or lose until they reach 17.4 per cent
moisture.

A low R.H. will cause

stored in the hot room, there

is

the honey to lose moisture. Thus,

maintained at 58 per cent. This principle

is

used

in

air

over the surface of the

A wet and dry bulb thermometer may be installed in the

track of relative humidity, while a refractometer

are
is

reducing the moisture content of

high-moisture honey before extracting by blowing warm, dry

honey combs.

when honey supers

a chance of moisture loss unless the relative humidity

may be used

to

hot

room

for

keeping

monitor honey moisture

content.

Honey

stored above 60 per cent R.H. will absorb water from the atmosphere,

the surface layers and gradually throughout the honey. This process
the moisture level of honey, making

it

easier to extract.

initially into

may be used

However, take care

to raise

that the

moisture content does not rise to unsafe levels and cause spoilage through fermentation.

Fermentation

may

also occur

if

high-moisture honey

treated to bring the moisture content

moisture content

is

very

difficult to

down

is

extracted and stored rather than

before extracting.

Once honey

honey, a process beyond the scope of most commercial beekeepers.

/4

is

extracted,

its

lower, except by thorough blending with a low moisture

Granulation
Honey

is

a supersaturated solution of dextrose in the presence of levulose, and in time, the

excess dextrose generally precipitates and forms crystals. Granulated honey, then, consists
of crystals of dextrose surrounded by a solution of levulose and water.

honey

to granulate

Honeys with

depends on the

relative proportions of dextrose

a high dextrose content,

such as canola and dandelion honeys,

very quickly, while honeys with more levulose, such as fireweed,

slowly or not at

all.

The tendency

Most Canadian honeys

of a

and water.

may

will granulate

granulate very

will granulate naturally.

Temperatures fluctuating between 5C and 7C (4rF and 45F) appear optimum for the
initiation of granulation, while temperatures around 14C (10C-18C) [57F (50F-64F)]
are ideal for granulation to proceed rapidly. Honey that granulates quickly is smoother and
has a finer texture than slowly granulating honey. Granulation does not occur above 27C
(81F) and below freezing. Granulation occurs very slowly below 10C (50F).

High moisture honey

crystallizes

more

will result in a creamier, softer granulation,

coarsely. Placing

honey storage tanks

in a

and low moisture honey

heated location or using

water-jacketed tanks for settling will help keep granulation from occuring before the honey
is

packed.

Maintain Honey Quality

To be

of high quality, extracted

honey should be as similar

Improper handling may incorporate wax particles and

give

it

air

to

honey

in

the

comb

as possible.

bubbles into the honey, which will

a cloudy appearance. Dust, dead bees and other foreign objects in the finished

product show a lack of adequate care and sanitation.

high moisture content and high temperatures

when

Honey

is

most

easily

damaged through

handling and storing.

Fermentation
Few organisms

can tolerate honey's high sugar content, but there are several

sugar-tolerant yeasts that occur naturally in honey. At moisture levels below 17.1 per cent,

these yeast species survive in a dormant form (spore) and cannot reproduce. However,

when

the moisture content

is

over about 18 per cent, the yeast

them to
fermentation. The

multiply, feeding on the sugars and changing

action results in

honey spoilage or

(vinegar) and water, giving the

honey

cells

can begin to grow and

alcohol and carbon dioxide. This

alcohol

a distinctly sour

and

may break down

"off" taste, a

to acetic acid

funny texture with

small bubbles and a heaving or foaming surface due to the presence of carbon dioxide.

Extensive fermentation

Honey from

will

cause containers to burst their

lids

and overflow.

17.1 per cent to 18 per cent moisture will be relatively safe from fermentation;

however, between 18.1 per cent and 19 per cent moisture, fermentation within a year
likely. If

the moisture content

within a year.

is

over 19 per cent fermentation

will

undoubtedly occur

is

In addition to moisture content and yeast count, the extent of granulation and the storage

temperature

will affect

honey's tendency to ferment. Once dextrose has crystallized, the

resulting solution of levulose and water

may be

honey storage, and fermentation may occur

higher in moisture content than

is

safe for

in the liquid portion.

Storage temperatures under 10C (50F) are desirable because granulation occurs slowly,

and yeasts do not grow or reproduce

amounts

at all at

these temperatures. Freezing

contrast, fermentation will not occur at temperatures

storage at such high temperatures will

The

is ideal

for small

of honey, as neither granulation nor fermentation will occur while in storage.

By

above 27C (81F), but long-term

damage the honey.

pasteurization process serves to both

kill

the vegetative form of the yeasts and to

dissolve dextrose crystals and retard granulation (Table

5).

At high temperatures, the time

periods are extremely short, and a system of flash heating and immediate cooling must be

used to avoid heat damage to the honey. Honey that has begun to ferment can be heated to
66C (150F) for a short time
fermentation and

Table

5.

may

(less than three minutes); this heat

treatment will stop further

drive off the sour taste.

Yeast destroying temperatures and minimum time

Temperature

Time

52C

470 min

54C

170 min

57C

60 min

60C

22 min

63C

7.5

min

66C

2.8

min

68C

1.0

min

Taken from Townsend. G.F. Preparation

Food. Agdex 616. 29 pp.

of honey for market. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and

Heating and Storage

Heat
kill

is

used

in the

honey house and packing plant

yeasts, dissolve crystals and

make processing

reduce viscosity,

for several reasons: to

easier. If too

much

heat

is

applied to

honey during handling, the honey quality will suffer through changes in fragrance, flavor
and color. These same changes will occur if honey is stored at temperatures above 10C.

The higher

the storage temperature, the shorter the time before quality begins to

deteriorate.

Tests have been developed to measure the level of a chemical breakdown product,
hydroxymetjiylfurfural (HMF), in honey samples as an index of deterioration through
overheating.^ or

invertase

poor storage conditions. Levels of honey enzymes such as diastase and

c.,n also

be monitored, as enzymes are generally sensitive to heat. These factors

are important, especially to the beekeeper

countries will require certain

ii

who wishes

to sell

honey overseas, as some

HMF and diastase levels as indicators of proper processing.

Honey

to

be graded and classed under the federal regulations must meet certain

HMF and

diatase levels.

Food thermometers can be used

to

check honey temperature as

extracting system, paying particular attention to temperatures in

it

runs through the

sump

tanks and heat

exchangers.

A
Extracting the

Honey
Whether designing

new

facihty or altering an old one, the

beekeeper should

first visit

other beekeepers and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of their honey houses,
extracting systems and storage

facilities.

the honey house must be adequate,

manage the beekeeping

realize that the

it

The beekeeper should also remember that while

If money is not available to

need not be luxurious.

operation, then the

honey house

is

honey house

will

be of little value. However,

used to process a food product, so

it

must be

of a suitable

standard.

Honey House Considerations

Honey house types
Most modern honey houses

are single-storey with relatively simple construction: concrete

high ceilings and large doors. Two-storey honey houses allow the use of gravity flow

floors,

some

However, unless this latter type of honey house is built

floors, moving equipment from one floor to another
will be awkward and time-consuming. Having good quality honey pumps overcomes the
disadvantages of single-level honey houses. In addition, one-storey buildings are more
for

into a

of the extracting process.

hill

to allow off-loading

easily expanded, altered

An

on both

and adapted to other types of industry.

old building such as a school can often be altered to

may need

Floors and foundations

barrels.

to

make

a very good

honey house.

be strengthened to take the weight of honey supers and

For the beekeeper with a smaller operation, a garage or small shed

will

be quite

adequate.

Location

Take considerable

Take considerable care when deciding on the location for a new honey house. The
value of the facility must be considered. If the honey house is built away from the
beekeeper's residence,

it

resale

is

especially important

When building in rural

if

family

areas, consider a

water and power

availability of

sewage disposal

members have had

drainage and elevation

site

accessibility for large,

availability of natural gas (possibly)

heavy trucks

number

allergic reactions to

bee

Qg^g yy|^gp (jgcjdjng

.

can be sold in the future and the residence retained. Also,

potential exposure of the beekeeper's family to occasional stings can then be reduced,

which

<

^"^ location lOr a

new honey house.

stings.

of factors:

^^Pjl^J

Plan for future development before constructing even the

first

building on a site.

municipalities have restrictions and rules for site developments, and these
followed.

Be aware

that large

developments

in

remote areas may have

Many

must be

very poor resale

potential.

A honey house located on the outskirts of a town is convenient with respect to the
and adequacy of roads as well as being close to a potential labor
However, caution is advised in locating too close to residential areas as future

availability of services

supply.

zoning bylaws

may cause

problems.

Insurance
Insurance

Premiums
If

is,

of course, highly desirable for sideline or

will

depend on the location and design

the operation

is

located in or near a

town with

commercial beekeeping operations.

of the

honey house and storage facilities.

premiums will be lower.

a fire department,

Also, locating wax-rendering facilities and storage areas in separate buildings will reduce

insurance premiums.

Space
Whether the honey house

is

a specially constructed building, a converted schoolhouse or a

two-car garage, there are several considerations to

make

in planning its layout.

A major consideration with the honey house is to make sure there is ample space for
moving honey and equipment

easily

and

efficiently. It is

very important to have an

efficient

flow-through design from unloading to reloading the honey supers and from uncapping the

frames to packing the honey (Figure 36). The layout should be planned carefully to avoid
bottlenecks (Figure 37).

Supers
from apiaries

Pump

Tank

Figure 36.

Flow diagram showing operations necessary

extracting honey for bulk shipping.

80

I
|

Filling

containers

|
in

Shipping

ran k

Uncapping table

room

Extractor

dl'Sump

E xtractiny room

Heat

o
o

chamber
Storage area

Storage tank

H ot room

Storage

Storage
Large door

Loading dock

Figure 37. Honey house layouts.

The use

overhead doors further conserves available space compared to using

of sliding or

swinging doors. Sliding doors are recommended in heavy

traffic areas,

such as entrances to

room and the extracting room. Hanging plastic strip doors work
one room but still allow easy passage from one area to another.

storage areas, the hot

to

keep heat

Space

is

also

in

needed

for the storage of

honey containers and winter storage

honey supers before and

well

after extracting, storage for

of hive equipment.

Allowance for expansion must be taken into account. Should the beekeeper plan to palletize
the beekeeping operation, the honey house must be able to accommodate the future use of
forklifts.

will

As farm honey

sales increase, a salesroom

may become desirable. Workshop space

may be considered. Wax-rendering

be required, and a staffroom and wax-rendering area

and boiler rooms should be located

fire in

in

another building,

if

possible, to reduce the danger of

the honey house.

Cleanliness

A factor that shares

equal importance with space

is

cleanHness.

It is in

the beekeeper's best

interests to maintain high standards of cleanliness to ensure a high quality product.

honey house and

its

The

surroundings must meet certain sanitation criteria to obtain a

producer-grader certificate from Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (see Chapter 9 on

Marketing the Crop).

Many of the points

in this section are

covered

in the

Federal

Honey

Regulations.

The honey house should not be located close to livestock and stagnant water. A gravelled
or paved yard will do much towards keeping vehicles, loading docks and floors clean and
free of mud and dust. The honey house and storage areas must be bee-tight; windows
should be screened and provided with bee escapes. Doors should be spring-loaded, so they

cannot be

left

open by accident. Plenty

of light, both natural

and

artificial, in

the extracting

area will help

make

a safe, pleasant place to work.

Windows may

also provide ventilation,

and fans can be installed to both increase ventilation and reduce humidity.
Walls should be painted a light color and should be both clean and washable. Floors should
ideally

be of concrete and be smooth, painted or treated for protection against the acid

action of

honey and water. Grated

floor drain gutters help greatly in

and non-slippery. Wooden floors are best avoided or

with varnish.

Some beekeepers use

stainless steel skirting

and protection against

for easier cleaning

available for people

working

in the

at least

forklift

keeping the floors clean

they should be

tiled or

coated

on the lower metre of the walls

damage. Washroom

facilities

must be

honey house.

Fermentation and objectionable odours occur when water mixes with the honey and

is

allowed to stand. This result can be avoided by having drainage water carried well away

from the working area, rather than allowing

it

to stand close to the extracting facility.

Honey and wax spills should be cleaned up immediately with a minimum of water. Too
much water will simply spread the honey in a thin film, resulting in sticky floors and a
fermentation problem. Joints between the floor and walls should be sealed with a silicone
sealant or covered to prevent water and

honey from seeping under walls and fermenting

there.

Regular cleaning sessions during daily operations prevent a build-up of the stickiness

sometimes associated with honey houses. Each worker should be provided with a bucket of
wash rag and be made responsible for the cleanliness of his or her area. At

clear water and a

certain times of the day, extracting should stop and a

only, for instance, 15

few minutes be devoted to cleaning

minutes prior to lunch and quitting time. In

this

way, honey and wax

have no chance to accumulate, which can become a formidable cleaning task

at the

end of

the season.
Special attention should be paid to bee specks on walls and around lights.
especially useful in

honey house.

removing bees from windows and

imperative that the

It is

A shop vac is

lights should they gain entry to the

vacuum cleaner be emptied some

honey house each day; otherwise, the dead bees begin

to rot

distance from the

and smell.

Personal health, hygiene and clothing

Because honey

is

and clothing are very important concerns.

a food product, health, hygiene

People with contagious diseases should not be working

should be worn by

in the extracting plant.

Hair nets

Hands must be washed with soap and water before starting work and
immediately after using the washroom facilities. Clothing should be chosen carefully so that
loose ends cannot get into the honey (or into moving parts of the machinery).
all.

Hazard Analysis
The

Critical Control Point

HACCP program

(HACCP)

serves to ensure food safety by anticipating and preventing hazards

associated with ingredients and processing, rather than relying on inspection systems and
finished-product testing. All food processors are

moving

these secondary processors will be requiring that

to this process.

As time goes

on,

HACCP principles be practiced by the

suppliers - in this case, the beekeepers.

It will

be important for beekeepers to be able to track and report on

all

steps involved in the

production of their honey, including the type and method of applying any medications.

problem

82

is

If

found with any honey, a beekeeper must be able to trace batches of honey back

to their source. Careful record keeping will

be required

to

meet these demands and food

safety concerns.

Components

Honey House

of the

Loading area
The

area for unloading and loading trucks should be enclosed for protection against poor

weather and robbing bees.

super carts. The loading area,

for

are not used, a raised dock

If forklifts

There must be adequate space

off-loading.

equipment or

barrels.

if

is

necessary for level

for manoeuverability with both forklifts

large enough,

may

also serve as

and

temporary storage space

Both hot room and storage area should have direct access

to the

loading area.

Hot room
The hot room

is

where honey

is

warmed

to reduce viscosity and,

if

necessary, dried to

reduce moisture content. The room should be large enough to accommodate three days
extracting supply, in case of poor weather or extractor breakdown.
(three square feet) should be allowed per single stack of supers.

An area

The room

of about 0.26 m'^

is

kept at

may be used to circulate the warm

air. The room needs two doorways so that honey supers can be moved from truck to hot
room and from hot room to extracting room without having to restack or move supers
temperatures between 26C and 32C (80F-90F). Fans

within the hot room.

If

new building is being planned,

give serious consideration to providing in-floor heating in

If

the hot room. This system ensures that the honey at the bottom of the stack of honey

supers

is

as

warm

as the

honey

fans to create the air flows

If

honey

efficient

is

high in moisture,

it

This type of heating requires the use of ceiling

at the top.

needed

for efficient

must be dried before

circulated up through the supers,

The moist

air is

needed

Dehumidifiers

then exhausted at ceiling

room and

An

level. (This

incorporated into the system,

a high rate of air

efficient

Chapter

may be

system

7, at

exchange

will allow

For the best

for drying

results,

honey. Dry

which are staggered or stacked on side-slatted

type of drying

labour-intensive or requires expensive floor pallets and

will

about a

a relative humidity of

if

is

not in

desired.

per cent moisture loss

at 17.4

is

in

air

use.)
in the

24 hours. As mentioned

per cent moisture

in

will neither

gauge

in the

honey be too low

in

moisture for easy extraction, the relative

room can be increased by sprinkling water on the floor. A humidity

hot room will help the beekeeper monitor the relative humidity.

in the

hot

A single window will attract stray bees, which may be released through a bee
removed by vacuuming. One type
upwards, with the

tip of

of

bee escape

is

a wire

mesh cone

the hot

|^

volume

maintained in the hot room, the better the honey drying process will be.

humidity

in

very

common

A large

heating

pallets.

gain nor lose moisture. Naturally, then, the lower the relative humidity that can be

Alternatively, should the

is

^0 providing in-floor

an
air is

speed up the drying process.

58 per cent, honey

building

serious consideration

extracting.
is

new

being planned, give

honey heating.

system of air circulation within the supers

escape or

directed outwards and

the cone large enough to allow the passage of one bee (about 5

mm).

83

Some beekeepers

place a black cardboard triangle in the

window and bee escapes

in

each

upper corner, so the bees are attracted to the areas of light and eventually find their way
through the bee escape.
placed outside the
to a

A small catcher colony with one or two frames

window

to attract the stray bees.

At

may be
may be taken

of brood

intervals, this colony

bee yard and the bees used as a nucleus hive or added to another colony.

Extracting

room

room contains the extracting system and equipment for handling wax
As this room is the centre of the honey house operation, it should be a pleasant
place to work in, both day and night if necessary. Walls should be painted a light color; there
should be adequate lighting and enough windows to allow natural light.

The

extracting

cappings.

Maintain adequate space around machinery for easy

some thought to designing the equipment layout

supers in the extracting area.

Much

movement and ease of cleaning. Give

much movement of stacks of

to avoid too

time and labour can be saved

the uncapper are very close to the frames

when they

are

the supers emptied at

if

removed from the extractor

(Figure 37).

From

bee hives or taken to

that position, the supers of extracted frames are returned to the

storage. Larger operations

may use conveyors

or portable frame accumulators to

accomplish this "U" flow concept and, thus, avoid the excessive use of

forklift

or hand carts

in the extracting area.

Tank room and

filling

room

Locating honey tanks in the hot

Locating honey tanks
in

the hot room or

another heated area

retard honey granulation.

honey

in

them too

If

room

or another heated area will facilitate settling and

the honey tanks are in the hot room, take care not to keep

Prolonged exposure to heat

long.

will

darken the honey and reduce

its

quality.

will facilitate settling

The

and retard honey

area should have easy access to temporary storage and loading areas.

filling

area should not be in the hot

weighed, a scale should be recessed

granulation.

station, the scale

in

room but may be on the other

the floor in the

filling area. If

side of the wall. This

If

barrels

there

must be

only one

is

filling

can be placed directly under the honey gate for ease of use.

Storage area
Storage space

is

needed

for

honey containers, both empty and

full,

and for hive equipment.

Empty

barrels are often stored outside, but ideally, they should be stored under cover to

protect

them from dust and

rain. It is

best for

full

barrels to be stored under cover,

convenient to the loading area, until shipped out.

If

stored outside,

tarpaulin.

full

barrels

Water must not

seepage into the barrel

sit

must be protected from

on the barrel

lids,

precipitation by

especially

if

means

bungs are

of a roof or

in the lids, as

will occur. Plastic barrel liners help protect barrelled

honey from

picking up moisture.

Over winter, hive equipment

is

stored in unheated warehouses. Beekeepers should

seriously consider storing hive equipment in buildings separate from the

precaution against total loss in case of

fire.

honey house

as a

Losing honey supers just before the nectar flow

would be disastrous, whatever the insurance payments.

CMAPm
Floor drains
It is

important to maintain a clean extracting plant or honey house. Cleanliness reflects on

makes the production of a clean product easier and

The honey and wax that end up on the
extracting plant floor are easily removed with water under pressure. However, effective
floor drains are required for easy clean-up. The installation of grid-covered floor drain
the wholesomeness of the product,

increases worker safety and effectiveness.

trenches, with a suitable trap, greatly improves the clean-up efficiency.

Honey Extraction
The

choice of the extracting equipment to be used will depend on the following factors:

beekeeping operation

size of the

available space

equipment costs

extracting rate desired

availability of

personal preference of the beekeeper

Whatever the

wax

personnel

system components should be matched so

choice, the

separating device

is

that, for instance, the

compatible with the method of uncapping, and the uncapper and

extractor have similar capacities.

Safety considerations
As

and food-processing plants, certain safety precautions must be taken

in all factories

in

the honey house. At the very least, drive belts, pulleys and conveyor chains should be

gummed up with honey and wax and to prevent

Loose clothing should be avoided, and rings should be removed when operating

covered, both to prevent their being

accidents.

extracting equipment.

Long

hair should be arranged, or netted, so there is

no danger of it

getting caught in conveyors or belts.

Honey and water

are efficient conductors of electricity, and electrical shocks can occur

if

the wiring has not been installed properly. Electrical switches should be enclosed in

waterproof boots, and electrical conduit should be waterproof, with waterproof fittings

where

it

enters motors and switches. Conductors should enter switches and motors from

the bottom, so there

is

no

possibility of

water leaking into equipment when

it is

washed

down. Electrical motors should be of the enclosed type to prevent the danger of shock

when they
The

are washed. Safety codes should be followed in

forklifts

used

in palletized

beekeeping operations

all

wiring procedures.

may cause

accidents

if

they are

overloaded or driven without care. Forklifts should not be used in the extracting room. The
operator and other personnel must always be aware of each other's position.
gasoline or propane driven forklifts

may

Fumes from

constitute a health hazard in enclosed areas, so be

aware of ventilation concerns.

Pallets
used for supers with full honey frames should be constructed to catch all dripping
honey (Figure 32). This construction reduces spillage and the necessity of continual
Pallets

cleanup of sticky floors. Pallets allow the simplified

forklift, pallet

movement

of stacks of supers with

jack or hand operated two-wheeled super cart.

Uncapping devices

When the honey

in the

combs

is

warm and at the

desired moisture level, the

combs are

ready to be extracted. The wax coverings or cappings must be removed from the cells
before the honey can be extracted.

There are many

devices

may be

different devices

simple fork-like

on the market

comb

for

removing these cappings. These

scratchers or hand-held knives and planes that are

heated by electricity or steam (Figure 38).

Combs may

also

be unmapped with mounted

horizontal or vertical jiggle knives, across which each frame

is

moved by

hand.

Figure 38.

Uncapping plane.

Most

larger operations use uncapping machines with electric or steam-heated vibrating

knives that cut the cappings from each side of the honey frame as
knives (Figure 39).

wax

Some

of these uncappers use chain

cappings. All these machines adjust to

flails

accommodate

the beekeeper's preference for a deep or shallow cut.

it

passes between the

remove the
comb thicknesses and

or chipper heads to

different

The wax cappings with honey

usually gathered below the uncapper for further processing.

are

Super elevators are available to ease the honey frame handling and
avoid constant bending.

A stack

on the super elevator, which

is

of supers is

located to the side of the uncapping device.

supers are removed, the elevator

Some beekeepers

lifts

beekeeper

As the

directly

top

the remaining supers to a convenient height.

The honey supers

method requires more handling of heavy honey

build a platform at the correct height by the uncapper.

are placed on the platform manually. This

supers. For beekeepers with larger operations, there

air or hydraulics to

grasp

all

the frames to the uncapper.

is

by

a device available that operates

the frames in a super at one time. Then, the operator guides

The machine does

Frequently, honey bees place burr

This wax should be removed

comb on

at the

accumulation of wax on these bars

wax on

to help the

wheeled from the hot room and placed

all

the

lifting.

the top or bottom bars of the honey frames.

time of the uncapping/extracting process.

will eventually

slow down operations

An

in the field.

removed by scraping all the frames while they are

the super. The wax on the bottom bar can be removed by passing the frame across
the top bar can be easily

The

still

in

stationary blade in front of the uncapper.

Because honey frames are not uniform, uncapping machines frequently miss the wax on
cells that are shorter than normal. Many beekeepers find it beneficial to have one person
watch

for these spots

Often,
of

if

frame

one frame

The

is

and to scratch the cappings before the frame enters the extractor.

not completely uncapped,

will often

it

will

break during extraction. The "blow out"

break several adjacent combs.

extracting process

works most

efficiently

if

there

hold freshly uncapped frames while the extractor

uncapping, this method

may be

is

is

some

sort of "surge" device to

finishing the previous load.

as simple as having a long rack or a circular tray

frames are placed as they are uncapped. Uncapping machines are

holds the uncapped frames.

The frames

are carried along by endless chains. In

them

to collect the

With hand

where the

fitted to a tray or

rack that

are either pushed along by succeeding frames or

all

cases, these surge devices

honey that drips from the frames.

must have

trays under

Extractors
All

honey extractors use

remove honey from combs. Tangential

two to sixteen frames but are most
Frames are placed in expanded metal baskets, and

centrifugal force to

extractors (Figure 40) are available that hold from

common

in the

honey

extracted from one side of the frames at a time.

is

two or four frame

size.

Figure 40. Two-frame tangential, hand-driven honey extractor.

Frames must be reversed when the first side is half extracted to avoid frame breakage.
Very simple machines require the frames to be removed, turned and replaced by hand. In
more sophisticated machines, the whole basket can be rotated. The second side of the
frame

is

then

fully

extracted after which the frames are once

the extraction of the

first side.

actual extraction time

is

These extractors are

more reversed to complete

power driven. The

either hand or

very short, and these extractors are ideal for the hobby beekeeper

with from one to ten colonies.

Radial extractors are available to hold from ten to one hundred or

frames (Figure 41). Frames are loaded

like the

more

full-depth

honey

spokes of a wheel, with bottom bars towards

the centre and top bars outwards to take advantage of the slight upward slant of the
cells.

Honey

is

extracted simultaneously from both sides of each frame.

wax

Extraction time varies depending on the weight of the frame and the viscosity of the honey.

To prevent damage
more

to the heavy frames, these

quickly as the frames

become

machines are run slowly

lighter. Radial extractors

mechanical system of increasing speed, or the speed

may be

may be

at first

fitted

and then

with a

regulated with electrical

controls.

Systems are available that incorporate uncapper, surge device, extractor and extractor
unloader in one long, integrated device. The frames are moved by chain, in a straight
direction,

from the uncapper through a holding area into the

horizontally.

These extractors seem

extracting cycle can be speeded up.

holding racks by the

full

radial extractor that rotates

to cause less breakage than vertical extractors, so the

The empty frames

are pushed out of the extractor onto

frames entering the extractor. The extracted frames are then

placed into empty supers. These systems can be upgraded so that they pick a super of

frames from a stack, remove the frames from the super and feed them directly into the
uncapper.

These systems extract

a lot of

honey with

drawback with these

long, stretched out

from where they are

filled.

them

to

where they are

minimum

systems

is

of labour

and heavy

lifting.

One

that the supers are emptied a long

The supers can be placed on a conveyor or set of rollers

needed. One very large beekeeping operation installed two

to

way
move

systems side-by-side but facing opposite directions so that the empty supers from one

machine were used

at the other

machine. Another drawback to these systems

is

that they

require a very long extracting room.

Many extractors
make

are

now made

of stainless steel to protect the quality of the

cleaning easier. Iron and steel will darken honey, especially

if

honey and

to

moisture and honey are

allowed to stay in contact with the metal.

The sump
Extracted honey drains by gravity into a
the extractor. Constructing the

frames in the extractor

critical time.

will

Honey from

sump

sump

so that

it

or holding tank, located below the level of

extends higher than the bottom of the

prevent an overflow of honey

if

the cappings often drains into the

usually water-jacketed to keep the

pump cannot operate at

sump as well. The sump is

the

honey warm, which improves

initial

separation of wax.

bubbles and foreign particles.

air

The sump should be covered

out of the honey. Baffles or coarse screens

to

keep

may be used to further aid

all

foreign material

settling, as well as to

keep foreign objects from running through the pump.

In

to be pumped out of the sump for further processing. The level of

sump should be controlled by a float that turns the pump on or off. If the

most cases, honey has

the honey in the

pump

is

turned on and

off

by hand, mistakes are bound

to happen.

The honey pump

Pumps

are used

if

gravity flow

settling tanks. Unfortunately,

is

not available to run extracted honey to strainers or

very easy to incorporate

it is

air into

not adjusted correctly. Because honey has a high viscosity, the

those used to

pump

thin liquids.

It

at less

than 40 per cent of

Allowing the honey to flow into the pump, rather than the

keep the pump primed and

will

reduce

air

pipes are, the less pressure will be needed to

power required. The intake pipe should be

intake and a 3.8
to

cm

(1.5") outlet.

bubbles.

move

the

pump

is

all

pump

The

maximum rating.

having to suck the honey,

larger the intake and outlet

the honey and, therefore, the less

larger than the outlet pipe, at least a 5

Right angles and long

keep the honey moving. Make sure

its

lifts

in the pipe require

cm

(2")

more power

pipes used are rated for use with food.

Incorporating a section of clear pipe into the system provides an easy

pump

if

should be larger than

should only be operated fast enough to keep up a

continuous flow of honey, generally

will

the honey

pump

way

to

monitor the

visually.

Beekeepers with larger operations frequently use a

honey and wax.

spin-float

system to separate their

A very specialized pump is required to pump the honey and all the cappings

from the sump. (The

spin-float is described

under Handling Beeswax Cappings.)

Setthng tanks
Tanks vary and may include anything from honey drums with honey gates (specialized taps
for thick fluids) in the bottom, to modified milk tanks to custom-made stainless steel or
galvanized tanks with baffles.

Commercial beekeepers who

removing foreign

particles

sell

and

air

honey

in

bulk use settling as their primary means of

bubbles from honey.

To accomplish

this result, tank

capacity should be available to allow two or three days settling before running
The beekeeper may
also wish to keep his

capacity, or a single adequately baffled

the outlet at the other. In areas where specialty honey, such as buckwheat,
or

er

est quality

honey separate

for

honey

into

may be used, each with a one day extracting

tank may be preferred, with the inlet at one end and

barrels for sale. Several adjoining tanks

beekeeper may have several tanks to keep

beekeeper may also wish

to

keep

different colors

his or her best quality

is

produced, a

and qualities separate. The

honey separate

for retail sales.

retail sales.

^fjfff

Tanks should be water-jacketed or located in a heated room to keep the honey at about
32C, which reduces viscosity, aids in settling and slows granulation. Covers will prevent
the contamination of the honey by airborne dust and dextrose crystals. Stainless steel is the
material of choice: galvanized tanks and tanks painted with special paint for food containers
are also adequate. Float alarms should be installed to

warn against

overfill.

Frequent cleaning of tanks should not be necessary: a layer of wax particles on top of the
honey helps the filtration of added honey. This wax layer may occasionally be skimmed
from the tank, allowed to drain in wire baskets and run through the wax handhng system. In

90

the meantime, tanks should not be drained so low as to reincorporate the wax layer into the

honey.

Straining honey
If

the beekeeper plans to sell honey directly to consumers and on the retail market, a

means of straining the honey may be necessary. Generally, strainers are located between
the sump and settling tanks or in the tanks themselves. A baffled and water-jacketed sump
removes the coarsest particles and warms the honey: both necessary prerequisites to the
movement of honey through a straining mesh.

To meet Canada No.

Grade, honey must be "free of any foreign material that would be

retained on a U.S. National Bureau of Standards standard 80

(45

mesh cm) and Swiss

silk bolting cloth (26

satisfactory for straining, provided the

granulation. Higher

honey

honey temperatures

mesh

screen." Nylon

mesh/cm), and Monel metal screen are

is

all

kept around 40C and contains no

will soften

wax

particles so that they clog

up the

strainer or pass through, resulting in a cloudy honey.

Bags

submerged

of straining cloth are

in

tanks and are supported by stainless steel cages,

so straining occurs below the honey surface and over a large surface area.

takes place above the tank, air will be incorporated as the honey

falls.

If

the straining

Straining bags should

be exchanged when they begin to get plugged up.

Packing honey
Once

settled and strained,

fitted

with a honey gate for

gate can be used.

and

honey
filling

then packed into bulk or

containers.

If

retail containers.

Each tank

is

tanks are joined together, a single honey

A scale is located under the gate or nearby for noting barrel weight before

after filling. Barrels should

food containers.

is

If

be clean and completely coated with paint recommended for

not, plastic barrel liners are available to

keep the honey from contacting

poor-quality barrels.

Honey gates on large tanks can be equipped with shut-off valves in case the gate is knocked
off or somehow damaged. Shut-off valves are highly recommended by those beekeepers
who have learned about them the hard way.
Retail containers

must be new and clean before

filling.

An

accurate scale will be necessary

to ensure a correct net weight. Containers should be attractively labelled with the

"honey," the beekeeper's

name and

word

address, the net weight of the honey, and the honey

grade where required by provincial or federal regulations (see Appendix D).

Handling Beeswax Cappings

A large percentage of the weight of wax cappings is made up of honey,

so this mixture must

be handled carefully to separate honey and wax while damaging neither. Several methods
that do not require extra heat are

used

for separation:

Draining
Beekeepers with small operations can uncap

directly into a drain tub of

some

sort, for

example, a screened super with a slanted galvanized metal tray attached to the bottom with
a drain at one

end or

screened washtub. Cappings are allowed to drain for 24 hours or

more

in a

warm room. The honey is

then drained into the sump or strainer and processed

as usual. Cappings can then be stored temporarily or melted

(see Rendering

Beeswax Cappings

down immediately

further on in this chapter).

Feeding cappings back to bees

Taking the cappings back to the bee yard and allowing the bees to clean them up
generally

recommended because

of the danger of inciting robbing

spreading American foulbrood disease.

colonies, they

may be

If

not

is

and the potential

for

the cappings are from frames from disease-free

spread on inner covers or placed in special bee-tight boxes atop

several hives in isolated yards. Oxytetracycline

time, as a precautionary measure,

if

may be

same

fed to these colonies at the

the whole operation occurs after the nectar flow has

ceased.

Centrifugal separation

The beekeeper may uncap directly into a cappings spinner or whirl-dry, which separates
much of the honey by centrifugal force. Cappings may also be augered or pumped into the
spinner. The spinner may be a modified extractor with wire baskets to retain the cappings.
Once sufficient honey has been removed, the cappings are dug out of the spinner for further
processing.

Wax press
Cappings may be pressed to remove much of the honey before further processing. Frames
may be uncapped directly into the press, the cappings then pressed into a solid cake and the

honey drained

The above

off.

four

methods may leave

a fair

amount

of

honey

in the cappings,

which can then

be removed during the subsequent melting process. The following methods

be applied to the cappings mixture; however, too

much

call for

heat to

heat will certainly discolor honey

and may damage the wax as well. Always take special care to check and adjust
temperatures.

Cappings melter
The cappings melter, at its simplest, separates wax and honey through warming, melts
wax and drains wax and honey off through spigots at different levels.

One type

of melter has a heat source in the

bottom

overhead radiant heat to melt the wax. The honey

molten wax

layer. If the

melter

is

to initiate separation

is

the

and a source of

protected from overheating by the

properly constructed and used, honey

may be run

directly

must be made to ensure it is correctly

adjusted. The color of the cappings honey must also be checked, as it only takes a very
small amount of discolored honey to darken an entire tank of honey. Honey darkened in the
into the

sump. Regular checks

of the melter

melter should be kept separate from the bulk of the crop.

Wax

is

run into plastic wash tubs or other containers with tapered sides and allowed to

harden into blocks, then removed and stored.

the honey and

require

initial

wax

are separated and the

An advantage

wax melted

all

in

of the cappings melter

one step.

All other

is

that

methods

separation and then subsequent melting of the wax.

Copper, iron, monel metal, zinc and brass will discolor melted wax and should never be

used

92

in

melter construction. Stainless steel

is

the material of choice; nickel and tin also

appear to be safe construction materials. Steam heat should not be used

melter because

melter are the safest means of heating the mixture. However

of the

in

the cappings

too hot for both honey and wax. Hot water coils in the bottom of the

it is

beeswax produced

in

Canada was processed

in the past, a

high proportion

galvanized Brand melters with copper

in

steam-heated grids to do the melting.

Spin-float separator
an effective means of separating honey from wax and of drying
The honey and wax from both the uncapper and extractor are continuously
pumped through a heat exchanger to warm the mixture. The honey passes from the heat
exchanger to the spin float, which uses centrifugal force to separate the wax from the
honey. The heavy honey accumlates on the outside of a spinning drum with the lighter wax
floating to the centre. The honey moves to the settling tank, and the wax is chipped off the
drum and falls to the ground. Cappings from the separator are dry enough to be shovelled.

The

spin-float separator is

the cappings.

This system works especially well with the types of uncapper that break cappings into
small pieces rather than slicing

them

off

The temperature

the combs.

of the mixture should

be monitored to prevent damage to the honey through overheating.

Rendering Beeswax Cappings

Cappings wax

is

clean, light in color

combs and

frames, old brood

and of a higher quality than wax obtained from broken

scrapings.

Because

of its higher quality, cappings

wax should

be kept separate from the others for rendering.

If

cappings are not processed in a cappings melter, they

chest or in a solar

wax

melter. Whichever

method

is

may be melted

in water, in a

steam

used, cappings containing honey

The
remove from

should never be stored for any length of time in containers such as pails or drums.

honey

and the mixture

will eventually crystallize,

will

then be very

difficult to

the containers. Sacks or plastic bags will be easier to manipulate.

Processing cappings in water

For the beekeeper with only a few kilograms of wax,

The pot

pot on the stove.

is filled

about one quarter

it is

full

wax in an old
As the water heats, the

feasible to melt the

of water.

cappings melt and any honey and particulate matter dissolve in the water, sink to the

bottom or

between the water and the layer of wax. The pot is then left overnight. The
is removed from the pot in a block. At this point, the bottom of the wax
require some scraping to remove the layer of impurities.
float

wax hardens and

block will

Alternatively,

most

wax may be ladled into containers. A melting pot with a

wax into molds. Once the wax is melted, boiling
wax level up to the spout, thus decanting the wax into

of the melted

spout near the rim can be used to pour the

water

may be added

containers.

Wax

water, as there

to bring the

should never be melted over an open flame or on a stove without using

is

an extreme danger of

fire.

The steam chest

Cappings

may be melted

then the honey

in the

in a chest

by using the steam from boiling water.

cappings cannot be salvaged as honey. Live steam

chemical alteration of the

wax and should be

avoided.

If

steam

is

used,

may cause some

The solar wax melter

A solar wax melter (Figure 42)

is

a glass-covered box, sloped in the direction of the

painted black inside and out for greater heat absorption.

months to melt cappings, burr comb, scrapings and

off queen excluders.

Figure 42. Solar

94

wax

melter (after Jaycox, University of

It

can be used during the

old combs, as well as to clean

Illinois).

sun and

summer
the wax

24"

39-1/4"

Side

View

Figure 42A.
Solar

wax

melter (after Jaycox, University of

The hinged glass Hd

retains heat

more

Illinois).

efficiently

if

made with two panes

by one or two centimeters. Weather-stripping between the

lid

of glass separated

and the box

will help retain

heat as well as keeping the melter bee-tight. Insulating the sides and bottom will also help

heat retention.

A sloping tray of galvanized metal, aluminum or stainless

wax while the melting occurs. A removable basket of galvanized mesh

may be used over the metal tray to facilitate the removal of residues.

steel, holds the

or expanded metal

95

The

tray should be 10-15

cm deep

and

at least large

enough

to hold

queen excluders.

Wax

and honey run down the tray and through a coarse screen into a container, such as a plastic
dish pan, placed under the tray edge.
all

wax and honey

pan.

is

The screen prevents slumgum

A layer of darkened honey forms under the wax,

spring feed
especially

if it is

when

and

from disease-free colonies. Slumgum

old

(the residue left

melted out of old combs) and unmelted wax from

combs

are melted.

If

enough slumgum

accumulate

is

when

the plastic

honey may be saved

this

will

falling into

for

in the basket,

collected,

it

may be

further

rendered using a wax press or steam chest.

Rendering Brood Combs

It is difficult

to recover the

wax from brood combs because

of the large

adherring to old cocoon material, propolis and pollen residues.

are generally used to extract

wax melter and then place

sacks.

If

this

mixture

is

soaked

the remaining

for several

wax

much wax as possible using

slumgum and cocoon residue in burlap

to recover as

hours

foreign material are thoroughly wetted, and

the melted wax.

of

or steam chests

wax from both brood combs and slumgum.

Beekeepers with smaller operations may wish

solar

amount

Wax presses

in cold water, the

when

the mixture

is

cocoons and other

heated, they do not absorb

Once heated, the sack is then agitated or squeezed to separate wax from
When cooled, the wax will harden on top of the water.

the other matter.

Commercial Processing of Beeswax

A number of beekeepers and businesses process
for a share of the

their operation

wax

obtained.

cappings and old frames either for a fee or

Many beekeepers

find that using this service streamlines

and reduces the equipment investment required.

Figure 43. Honey

for sale at a

farmers market.

Marketing Honey
Two major markets

exist for the

commercial beekeeper's honey crops: the Canadian

domestic market and the export market. Per capita consumption of honey

in

Canada

constant at just under a kilogram per year. About one-third of Canada's annual crop
available for export after domestic

The United

States, Japan,

needs are

is fairly

is

filled.

Germany, France and the United Kingdom are the major

customers for Canadian honey exports. Canada also exports honey to other European
countries, the Caribbean and the mid- and far-East.

excellent quality white

honey

that is in

Canada produces large quantities

demand worldwide, both

for

consumer

of

sales and for

blending with darker honeys to satisfy customer preference for light honeys.

Other leading exporters of honey are China, Mexico, Argentina and Australia. Argentina
and China produce lighter honeys and compete more directly with Canada. Mexico and
Australia produce darker honeys, so their honeys are not in such strong competition with

Canadian honey.

Some beekeepers choose

to sell directly to buyers in the United States and overseas,

generally working through a broker.

packers
for

is

As

well,

some

of the

honey sold

in bulk to

Canadian

destined for export as either bulk or packed honey. Developing an export market

honey takes time and experience and can involve some

risk to the

beekeeper or broker.

The beekeeper must know the

reputation of the buyer with

well as the honey grading regulations and

as

who pays

the shipping costs and

negotiations.

To

tariffs of

whom he or she

is

deahng as

the country in question. Concerns such

when payment will be made must be

included in

export honey, beekeepers need to be registered as producer-graders with

the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA).

On the domestic
consumer or

market, the commercial beekeeper can market honey directly to the

in bulk containers to

honey packers. Direct sales include

house or a roadside stand, farmers markets or to

retail outlets

Because of the large amount of honey produced and the

sales

from the honey

(Figure 43).

relatively small population in

most

areas of the Prairies, direct sales account for only a small percentage of prairie honey sales.

Beekeepers located near an urban centre may wish

to

market

their

honey

directly.

Before

doing so, they should be aware of provincial and federal regulations concerning honey sales

by contacting the Provincial Apiculturalist.

Farm gate
Farm

sales

gate sales take place from the honey house, the beekeeper's residence or a farmers

may vary from province

market. Rules for these sales

to province.

Whatever the

rules,

it is

important to provide a well labelled, quality product in a quality container.

Retail store sales

honey sold on the

All

market,

retail

Canadian Honey Regulations.

i.e.

not farm gate sales, must be sold according to the

A beekeeper who retails honey must be registered as a

producer-grader with the Canadian Food Inspection Agency.

Such registration requires an inspection

packed

under one kilogram,

official

in

and that honey be

The weight of the honey in kilograms or, if

grams must be marked clearly on the label in both of Canada's

in

languages. Labels

classification

be

of the beekeeper's premises

standard metric-sized containers.

in

must

both Canada's

official

marked with the word "honey," the colour

later,

in the regulations. All labelling

must

The beekeeper's name and address and the

number must also appear on the container. To avoid

languages.

producer- grader's registration

problems

also be

and the grade of the honey as specified

take the time to get a sample label approved by the government before

placing an order for a large quantity of labels.

If

honey

is

purchased from other beekeepers and then packed for resale, the beekeeper's

establishment must be registered as a packing plant. This certification

is

the CFIA. Retail honey crossing provincial borders and exported honey
federal jurisdiction and

must

also be

packed

also available from

comes under

in a registered establishment.

Direct retail sales, whether within the province or not, require greater care in settling and
straining

honey than do bulk

sales.

However,

sanitation in and around the

honey house

should be of a high standard regardless of the honey destination.

The three

prairie provinces

produce about 75 per cent of Canada's bulk honey. Most

commercial beekeepers market their honey

the prairie provinces, beekeepers
Co-operatives, or they

98

may

may

in

sell to

sell to private

200 L (45 gallon) drums

the Alberta or Manitoba

packers across Canada.

to

honey packers. In

Honey Producers'

From 35-55 per cent

amount

is

members

of prairie

honey

sold to private packers.

is

sold to the co-operatives (co-ops), while a similar

Membership

in

the co-ops must be applied

of the co-ops are expected to be able to ship 2,268

for,

and

kg (5,000 pounds) of honey

The co-ops supply barrels for the honey they will receive. An initial payment is
made upon shipment of the honey, with several subsequent interim payments and a final
payment being made about 15 months later.
annually.

The standard

unit of sale for

honey on the

honey. Smaller quantities can be sold, but

prairies
it is

is

a "carload lot"

sometimes

- about 70 drums

difficult to find a

buyer.

of

Terms

of

from packer to packer and beekeeper to beekeeper. The cost of

transportation and drums must also be taken into account. If drums are exchanged, they
private

honey

may be

of unequal quality.

sale vary

The beekeeper should

The beekeeper should make every

he or she

is

effort to

know

whom

the reputation of the packer with

and terms of sale should be settled before the honey leaves the honey

dealing,

made in full within a certain length of time after the honey is

shipped. Payment in full may be more helpful than installment payments for new
beekeepers with higher costs. The beekeeper must balance payment arrangements and
house. Payment

risk in deciding

is

generally

how

to

market

his or her honey.

make every

know
of the

packer with

whom

he or she

dealing.

may have

Sideline beekeepers
sales and too

little

beekeeper who

difficulty

for bulk sales.

will

then market

marketing their honey, having too

They may wish

it

to sell their

along with his or her

own

honey

much

to a local

for direct

commercial

product.

Marketing Beeswax
Most

of the

beeswax produced by the North American beekeeping industry goes

to the

cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. Other major markets include the candle-making,
industrial

and beeswax foundation industries.

Many beekeepers
for foundation.

save

some

or

all

of their

Beekeepers who wish

to

beeswax

market wax

for trade to

beekeeping supply houses

to other industries

may

find

it

easier to

beeswax usually require relatively small amounts

of wax on a steady basis throughout the year, whereas the beekeeper generally wants to
market all of his or her beeswax at one time.
deal through a broker. Industries that buy

Marketing Pollen
Selling pollen to places like the health food markets or manufacturers can be an important

source of income for beekeepers. However, take great care to ensure this pollen

is

pure

and clean for human consumption. Pollen that cannot meet such high requirements can be
sold for bee feed or animal feed.

Pollen traps must be

should be

made

often

made

of food-grade, easily cleaned materials, and the collections

enough

(a

minimum

of every third or fourth day depending on

moisture levels) to avoid the growth of moulds and yeasts. Pollen collected immediately
after

drug treatments or the adding of supers to hives must be kept separate and used only

for animal or

bee feed.

effort to

the reputation

is^

Once pollen has been

collected,

it

should be immediately dried or frozen at -10C (14F) or

colder until further processing. Freezing will help control any insect presence that

may be

in the pollen.

Raw pollen sales

A number of businesses will purchase raw, frozen pollen from beekeepers for further
processing and sale into other markets - both domestic and export. Beekeepers should

make sure they have

A 200 litre

(45 gallon)

market before a

drum

lot of

money and energy

about 135 kg (300

will hold

lb) of

are spent collecting pollen.

dried pollen.

Retail sales
air dry their own pollen and package it for sale at the same farm
where they sell honey. Pollen should be dried to a firm stage to ensure that it will
keep. Pollen also must be thoroughly picked through by hand, so no foreign particles get
into the package. Further care must be taken to make sure the container has only intact
pollen pellets. Large amounts of pollen powder detract from the saleability of the product.

Beekeepers can clean and

gate sales

Health food stores

These stores are an obvious place to sell pollen, but it takes time to develop this market.
Beekeepers placing pollen into these outlets have to be especially careful to provide a
quality product with a long shelf

containers or sold in bulk.

More

life.

The

pollen

may be

in attractive, well-labelled

importantly perhaps, producers of pollen have to keep their

product free of any insect eggs that

may hatch and

start to feed before the pollen is used.

Selling large quantities of pollen into these health food markets

in

may

require an investment

very expensive equipment.

Beekeepers
Many beekeepers wish to use

pollen as supplementary feeding for their bees in the spring.

Pollen sold for this use does not have to

meet the

strict

standards required for

human

consumption. However, any colonies used to collect pollen for bee feed must be
disease-free. Several bee diseases are easily spread in contaminated pollen.

Marketing Other Hive Products

Propolis
There

is

an increasing interest

in the

use of propolis as a "natural"

antibiotic.

From time

to

time, advertisements appear in the literature offering very attractive prices for propolis.

Prices vary, of course, depending on the purity of the product. For example, propolis from

hive scraps often has a

In the past,

lot of

wood

particles in

it.

some beekeepers have had unsatisfactory experiences when selling propolis to

The propolis has been shipped, and payment has either been slow, reduced

distant buyers.

or not

come

at

all. If

time

is

to be spent in collecting propolis, develop and investigate

prospective markets ahead of time.

Royal jelly
The production of royal jelly can fit into the management of bee colonies for the production
of queen bees. The production of royal jelly is very labour intensive. While royal jelly is

100

widely available

in

Canadian

retail outlets,

careful investigation should be

made

there

is

no defined marketinjj; system. Very

before embarking on a major royal j^lly production

plan.

Bee venom
There

is

market

for dried

bee venom, and devices are available

from honey bees. Most venom

strict

is

used

in

requirements for purity and quality. Like propolis and royal

examined very

carefully before the

for the collection of

venom

the pharmaceutical or medical field with very

beekeeper invests

jelly,

a lot of time

markets must be

and resources.

102

and Winter
Management
Fall

At the end

of the

main nectar

flow, hives are

beekeeper must now decide whether or not

reduced to two or three supers. The

to winter the colonies.

Robbing
At

this later

time of the year, robbing situations can develop quickly. Colonies have large

field forces that are

no longer involved

in collecting nectar

search for food sources. Weaker colonies

steps are taken.

bees are not

Any

flying,

and exposure of honey and syrup should be avoided.

may be moved

is

whether

an

efficient

it is

to

be

means

If

when

the

certain colonies

or turned, so their entrances are facing in the

opposite direction. Place entrance reducers on

colony,

unless preventive

hive manipulations must be done as quickly as possible or

are being "picked on," they

Since robbing

and pollen and that continue to

may be completely robbed

all

of spreading

colonies.

bee diseases, give

killed or wintered, after the last

antibiotics to each

honey super has been removed.

Package Operations
Colonies should be reduced to one or two boxes at the end of the main nectar flow. This will
usually be in mid-August in northern areas and one or

best to

kill

two weeks

the colonies fairly soon after the nectar flow

is

later in the south. It is

over, to retain

honey and pollen

stores in the brood chambers for next year's colonies. Large commercial operators

generally begin to

kill

colonies right

away

to get everything finished in short order.

Sometime between

Once

killed,

bees are generally shaken or blown from the brood chambers

in the

bee yard.

then loaded onto the truck and returned to the storage area. Sometime

Hive equipment

is

between the

and the following spring, brood chambers must be prepared for the next

fall

season's packages, as outlined in Chapter

or at

some time during the winter months

This sorting

5.
if

may be done

at

the

fall

and the

following spring,

the time of killing

a heated area is available.

brood chambers must

be prepared

Some beekeepers

prefer to hatch brood

combs before

for the

storing their equipment. This

next season's

approach avoids having capped brood hatch

in storage after the colonies are killed. Also, the

following year's bees will not have the task of uncapping and removing dead brood.

Combs

containing capped brood are placed in supers and stacked on a few remaining live

colonies. After

one or two weeks, these colonies are

killed after the

brood has emerged.

packages.

is any history of American foulbrood in the apiary, this procedure is not

recommended as it could serve to spread disease. Until they are killed, these colonies should be

Note: If there

medicated with antibiotics.

Using Calcium Cyanide

Calcium cyanide

marketed

in

is

to Kill

Honey Bee Colonies

presently registered in Canada for use in killing bee colonies.

beekeeping industry. Calcium cyanide reacts with moisture

cyanide, a clear gas smelling of bitter almond, and

it

in the air to release

little

demand

for this product.

Calcium cyanide

hydrogen

leaves a residue of calcium hydroxide, a

harmless dust. Since the closure of the United States border for

been

It is

both dust and granular formulations, the dust formulation being used by the

is

live

honey bees, there has

currently very difficult to find.

Hydrogen cyanide is powerfully toxic to humans as well as to insects as it acts to inhibit the
supply of oxygen to body cells. A dosage as low as 200 parts per million will quickly kill a
person through inhalation, ingestion or skin contact. For this reason, beekeepers must be
extremely careful in handling calcium cyanide. Symptoms of minor exposure are weakness,
dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, unsteadiness of gait and a feeling of suffocation.

Greater exposure

will

cause fainting, cessation of breathing and death.

If

exposure has

occurred, seek medical attention right away.

Calcium cyanide should be kept

in its original container, clearly labelled

locked or secure place vented to the outside.

It

and stored

in a

should not be carried in truck cabs or

left in

car trunks for any length of time. Containers should be checked periodically for corrosion or

breaks, and

When

empty containers should be crushed and buried.

using calcium cyanide in the

field,

don't

work alone and

try to

work upwind

chemical. Rubber gloves and safety goggles or respirators are recommended.

cyanide dust on your skin or in your eyes.

Do

of the

not get

Wash your hands and face between each

yard,

and change clothes as soon as possible after finishing for the day.
Colonies should be

Colonies should be killed during non-flying conditions, such as in cool weather or in the
early

killed during

morning or

late evening.

Calcium cyanide should be used according to the

directions: 12.5-25 g (1-2 tablespoons) of calcium cyanide are sprinkled

non-flying conditions,

such as

in

weather or

cool

in

sheet of cardboard and slipped into the hive entrance. Once the chemical

entrances are blocked and the hives kicked or jarred to

left for at least

30 minutes,

them from the

field.

the

early morning or late

complete

kill

after

stir

label

on a paper plate or
is

applied,

up the bees. The hives are then

which the hives are thoroughly aired before removing

This delay and the ventilation allow the hydrogen cyanide to effect a

and then dissipate before the beekeeper must handle the hive equipment.

evening.

Wintering Honey Bee Colonies

The races

of

honey bees used

in

Canadian beekeeping are of temperate

origin.

They

are

adapted, to a greater or lesser extent, to survive a long, cold winter by forming a cluster and

consuming food stored during the summer

to generate heat.

The technique

of wintering

colonies of bees in hives simply takes advantage of the colony's natural inclination, and

management techniques have been developed

104

that

complement the bees' tendencies.

Wintering honey bee colonies

is

wintering was a necessity, and

new

not a

much

Before package bees were available,

idea.

literature published in the early part of the twentieth

century had to do with the refinement of wintering techniques.

The advt

of the

package

industry changed Canada's beekeeping industry, and wintering was no longer essential in
the prairie provinces. However, over the past couple of decades, there has be en an
increasingly strong interest in wintering because by importing packages each year, the

beekeeper

also importing any problems present in the colonies producing the packages.

is

Diseases such as American foulbrood (AFB), European foulbrood (EFB), nosema and
chalkbrood

may

all

be transmitted by adult workers. The possibility of importing other pest

problems such as tracheal mites. Africanized bees or varroa mites

is

also cause for concern.

Beekeepers who have committed themselves

to wintering have done so for a number of

somewhat lower for wintering operations
labour and wintering costs. Buying package bees is considerably more

reasons. Economically, production costs are

despite extra sugar,

expensive than operating wintered hives.

With wintering, beekeepers can make their own stock selection and eliminate stock that
does not suit their needs. These beekeepers can then become, to some extent,
self-sufficient.

managed

The management

of wintered colonies is spread over a longer time.

correctly, wintered colonies will

of the nectar flow.

During

produce more honey, especially

later flows, for instance in

If

in the early part

August, package colonies catch up to

the productive capacity of wintered colonies.

Outdoor wintering requires special consideration to

The

colonies'

have

most important need

is

to

details

and the colonies' requirements.

be fed sugar syrup early

in the fall to

ensure they

sufficient resources for the winter.

Certain types of honey, such as canola honey, granulate in the

winter stores.

where much

Good

locations for winter apiaries

of the land

is

treeless.

may be

Severe winter

kill

beekeepers who winter their bees generally count on

combs and do not make good

areas

difficult to find, especially in

of colonies is always a possibility, and

at least a

10 per cent reduction in

may

colony numbers through starvation, queenlessness and spring dwindling. This figure

be as high as 30 per cent

winter that
itself a

is

in the first year, as the

beekeeper has put package stock

into

not necessarily well-adapted to winter survival. High winter mortality

is in

form of stock selection.

Other concerns involve hive equipment being exposed to the elements year-round;
therefore,

its life

expectancy

is

reduced. Spring

wintered than with package colonies.

Comb

management

is

sorting and culling

more demanding with

must be done during the

work is finished. Most importantly, wintered

must be requeened every one or two years, so the beekeeper must develop a
method of regular requeening and may find that queen rearing is necessary to obtain the
spring checks instead of after the field

colonies

desired stock.

Proper timing

is

crucial to the success of wintering,

must be moved, fed and wrapped or moved

beekeeper cannot wait
then,

it is

until

whether indoors or outdoors. Colonies

inside well before the onset of winter.

mid-October to decide to winter his or her colonies because by

too late for the proper preparations, and the chances of success are remote.

105

What

to winter

Only healthy, populous colonies with an abundance of young bees and proven young queens
should be prepared for winter.

A larger cluster will be more efficient at heat generation and

retention and will be able to maintain a larger brood area earlier in the spring than will a

Most

small cluster.

colonies that have built up to high populations through the

Weak

be strong enough to winter well.

summer will

colonies and those that have queen problems are not

as likely to survive the winter out-of-doors and should be united with other colonies or

destroyed. With indoor wintering, there

example,

may be

is

more leeway;

nuclei

made up

in

mid-summer,

for

successfully wintered indoors in just one brood chamber. Small, four- to

six-frame nucleus colonies are also wintered indoors successfully.

Some

experienced beekeepers feel the Carniolan and Caucasian races are better suited for

prairie wintering operations than the Italian race, although there is a

within each race. Italian strains will winter well but

wide range of variation

may consume more feed than the

darker strains, which winter in smaller clusters and with less food consumption.

Feeding colonies for winter

Feeding colonies

at

any time

and the

stressful for the bees,

is

Colonies should be managed to minimize this stress as

undue disturbance and disease

three aims in

flare-ups.

Keeping

this

much

fall

feeding

is

no exception.

as possible, to avoid both

concern

in

mind, beekeepers have

feeding:

fall

much

as necessary to provide

to feed as

to feed as quickly as possible to

all

the winter feed each hive requires

have feeding completed as soon as possible before cold

weather arrives

to feed as thick a syrup as possible to

minimize the work required by the colony to store

the feed for winter

Inner frame feeders, Boardman feeders and small pails or tins will not hold enough: a 15 kg
feeder pail or a hive top feeder

Chapter

makes

4.

less

Thick

(2:1)

work

is

recommended. Suitable feeder types are covered in

in a given volume than does thin, and

syrup supplies more food

for the

it

bees as well as for the beekeeper.

The sugar syrup must be

inverted, evaporated, stored and capped by the bees before the

onset of cold weather,

of

feed

much more

all

slowly,

if

which takes time. Once cold weather

at

all,

hence feeding should begin

arrives, colonies take the

in early

colonies will have the necessary food stores for winter. Feeding

is

September

to

ensure

generally finished by

early to mid-October in the north and by late October in the south.

The fall may be an opportune time

to control

some diseases

in the

honey bee colony. For

example, the most effective time to control nosema disease through feeding fumagillin
the

fall.

Agriculture for specific recommendations and

Hives should contain

is

at least four to six

usually abundant during the

a pollen shortage

brood rearing.

106

is in

Refer to the disease control guidelines supplied by your provincial Department of

fall

combs

summer and

is

disease control programs.

of pollen or

mixed pollen and honey. Pollen

collected and stored around the brood nest.

should occur, a protein supplement

may be

fed in early spring to boost

If

Outdoor Wintering
Colonies to be wintered outdoors must be located
early spring nectar and pollen flows (see Chapter

necessary, do so before

fall

sheltered apiary sites with access to

in
5,

Spring Management).

If

moving

is

feeding begins to allow the bees time to recover from the stress

of moving, as well as to save the beekeeper's back

colonies are not palletized. Colonies

if

should also be arranged in the desired groupings before feeding and should be

off

the

ground. either on cleated bottom boards or on pallets.

Colonies in two brood chambers must weigh between 63 and 73 kg (140 and 160

lb). If in

These weights
generally ensure a food supply until the next spring's nectar and pollen flows begin. Reduce
the bottom hive entrance before feeding begins to eliminate robbing, and keep the
entrances reduced to keep out mice.
three boxes, the total weight should be from 73 to 82 kg (160 to 180

An upper entrance

is

lb).

an important requirement for successful outdoor overwintering. The

colony cluster gives off water vapour as

it

respires, which rises to the top

and

of the hive

must be allowed to escape. Otherwise, this moisture condenses and freezes, forming an ice
blockage between the frames. As the cluster moves into the upper super, it will encounter
this ice block and starve. By the time the beekeeper begins the first spring checks, the ice
will have melted, and the beekeeper will wonder why the bees starved with a box of honey
available.

The lower entrance may not be used by the bees during

winter;

blocked with snow. This entrance should be reduced to a very small size

be blocked

An

will often

mm)

be

or

may

off entirely.

inner cover with a small entrance hole (7-8

and a feed hole

cm x

centre can be used both for

in the

Alternatively, year-round covers

and feed holes

drilled in the centre that are

when the upper

by the bees

will

entrance

is

keep the cover

fall

cm) cut from the deep side

mm (3/4") plywood cut to the

cm

entrances dadoed on one side

plugged when not

not required.

in place

cm

of the rim

feeding and wintering (see Figure 15).

may be made from 19

dimensions of the super. These covers have 7-8

over

it

(e.g.

The weight

in use.

of the

The covers

are turned

plywood and propolizing

throughout the year. For increased durability, paint

both sides and edges, or dip the covers in wax.

Although colonies can

live

through mild winters without added insulation, insulation

decrease both colony food consumption and mortality. Therefore, insulation

temper the changes

in

cluster heat and allow

ambient temperature, protect colonies from

more

cluster

movement within each

is

drafts, help

will

provided to

conserve

hive. Insulation also

keeps the

hive cavity drier.

Hives may be wrapped individually or in groups of two, four or more. Groups of four are the
most common and represent the most efficient use of insulation and of heat retention, with
two sides of each hive being exposed and two sides being protected. If hives are grouped in
larger numbers, those with three protected sides tend to stay too warm, remaining more
active through the winter and consuming more food.

Many insulating materials have been used for wintering beehives.

Early reports cite leaves,

sawdust, shavings and straw while more modern materials include fibreglass,

fibrefill

and

styrofoam. Recently, hives have been arranged in groups of four and wrapped with
fibreglass insulation and building paper.

which

is

then covered with a

R-20 insulation

common plywood lid.

is

placed on top of the four-pack,

Reduce the bottom

hive entrance before

feeding begins to
eliminate robbing,

and keep the

entrances reduced to

keep out mice.

upper entrances are provided through inverted inner covers and corresponding holes cut
through the insulation.
coinciding hole,

top entrance.

is

The

A 3" x 5"

(75

mm x 125 mm) piece of 3/8" (9 mm) plywood, with

nailed against the hive to

push the insulation snugly

in place

around the

insulation and lid are tied in place with twine, string, wire or tarp

hooks

(Figure 44).

Figure 44. Hives prepared for winter

wrapped with

in

insulated "four-pack" arrangement. Hives are

fibreglass insulation and 6 mil polyethylene and have a

common

cover.

Plywood rectangles coincide with top entrances.

(Photo D. Murrell)

Winter insulation wraps are commercially available or can be made

is

at

home. One such wrap

constructed using fibreglass batts totally enclosed in 6 mil black polyethylene.

consists of a single piece and avoids any exposed insulation.

relatively mouse-resistant

and

is

It is

easy to handle,

The wrap
is

easy and economical to construct. The polyethylene

protects the insulation from the elements and should greatly prolong the

life

of the wrap.

Commercial beekeepers across western Canada have used the wraps successfully.
fibreglass, 23" (58

cm) wide batts are placed on a 6-7 foot (2 m) wide sheet of 6 mil
One side of the sheet is folded over the other to cover the batts
completely. A medium hot iron is then used over aluminum foil or newspaper to bond the
overlapping polyethylene, thus sealing in the fibreglass. The ends are sealed, leaving the
corners open to allow air to escape. Templates are made to cut top entrances in the wrap
R-12

black polyethylene.

during construction.

A similar wrap

fibreglass insulation, or

can be constructed for top insulation using R-20

one can simply place two pieces of 15 inch R-20 batts inside a

standard barrel liner for the top insulation.

Mice and skunks can be a problem in colonies wintered outdoors. Take precautions to
prevent mouse damage in hives and insulation and to avoid the decimation of colony
populations in

108

fall

and spring by skunks, as outlined

in

Chapter

12.

Indoor Wintering
d

Colonies to be wintered indoors are fed with sugar syrup before being nr.
wintering building. As
early

September

to

is

ensure gross weights of 62-68 kg (140-150

lb) for

two-storey hives or

39-45 kg (85-100

lb) for

Once feeding has

finished and the weather has turned cold, the hives are

storage.

On

one-storey hives.

the prairies, this

movement

November. Where hives are on

quickly and with

little

pallets,

typically occurs during late

moving them with

disturbance to the bees.

however, greater time and labour

will

If

forklifts

moved

into winter

October or early

may be accomplished

hives are to be handled manually,

be required.

Several basic requirements for an indoor wintering

into the

the case for outdoor wintering, colonies should be led beginning in

include the following:

facility

temperature control

air circulation

ventilation

light exclusion

Before constructing or modifying a building for indoor wintering, beekeepers should

other indoor wintering

facilities

and contact their apiculture

office for

visit

updated information

on technology changes.

Ventilation principles of wintering buildings

Honey bee

colonies give offbeat, water vapour and carbon dioxide (CO2).

system removes these by-products by exhausting storage

air.

The temperature,

relative humidity

air

The

and replacing

and gas composition of the storage

ventilation

with outdoor

it

air is controlled

within a range most comfortable for the bees.

In the late

the bees

fall

is

excess heat
air.

and early spring when outdoor temperatures are mild, the heat produced by

greater than the amount required to maintain the storage temperature. This
is

removed by exhausting warm storage

air

and replacing

conditions, the ventilation provided to control temperature

is

remove the water vapour and CO2 produced by the bees. No

humidity

is

When the

it

with cool outdoor

Under these mild

more than adequate to

Exhaust fans controlled by thermostats are used to exhaust

this heat.

special provision to control

required.

outdoor temperature

is

very cold,

all

the heat produced by the bees

is

required to

maintain the inside storage temperature. As a result, the thermostatically-controlled

exhaust fans seldom run. However, the bees continue to produce water vapour and CO2,

and unless these by-products are removed, they

eventually cause problems.

will

continue to build up and will

A low level of continuous ventilation is therefore

used to

control water vapour and CO2.

Figure 45 illustrates the heat and moisture balance for a wintering building under typical
winter conditions. Each colony produces approximately 3 to 10 grams of water vapour per

hour and 8 to 28 watts of heat. Under normal winter conditions, the heat and moisture
production are at the lower end of these ranges.

Inside Air
kg

Net water loss 3.0 g/kg of

warm

moist

60%

air 5C,

R.H.

air

Figure 45. Winter ventilation for overwintering hives

Moisture

is

removed by replacing storage

humidity (R.H.) of cold outdoor

holding capacity
1

kg

is

increased

of outdoor air at -25C

When this same

air is

when

it is

air is

with outside
it is

it

relative
its

water

air

can hold 3.4 grams of water vapour.

exhausted

vapour. Based upon typical conditions, a

is

Even though the

heated to the storage temperature. For example,

at

5C and 60 per cent R.H. and replaced

-25C and 100 per cent R.H., there

(litres/second) per hive

air.

introduced into the building,

heated to 5C, however, at a relative humidity of 60 per

Thus, for each kilogram of storage

air at

air

when

and 100 per cent R.H. contains only 0.4 grams of water vapour.

kilogram of

cent (a desirable storage humidity),

with outdoor

high

is

a net loss of 3.0

minimum continuous

grams

of

water

ventilation rate of 0.25 L/s

required in winter to remove the water vapour produced by the

bees.

Continuously exhausting
large

amount

of heat

warm

storage air and replacing

it

with cold outdoor

from the storage. To heat the minimum ventilation rate

air

removes a

of 0.25 L/s per

hive from -25C to 5C requires approximately 13 watts of power.

In addition to the heat lost through the ventilation system, heat is also lost

through the building components. This loss

Therefore, the total building heat loss

However, the colonies

typically

between the two heat flows

a

is

is

is

by conduction

approximately 4 watts per hive at -25C.

approximately 13 plus

4,

or 17 watts per hive.

produce 10 to 12 watts of heat per hive. The difference

approximately 5 to 7 watts per hive and must be supplied by

supplementary heating system.

Fan-forced electric heaters are normally used to provide this heat. For design purposes,

they should be sized on the basis of 10 watts per hive. This design allows for
safety, since the heat production rate of the

some

factor of

bees can vary considerably. The electric

heaters are thermostatically controlled to maintain the desired storage temperature.

A problem may occur in

temperatures
difficult to

110

at this

late spring prior to

removing the bees from storage. Outdoor

time of year can often rise to 15C or more. Therefore,

use outdoor

air to

maintain storage temperatures of 4 to 7C.

it

air

becomes

The approach

of

most beekeepers has been

to use high airflow rates, maintaining the

storage within a few degrees of the outdoor temperature. Since these pc^riods usually
only a few hours (mid-day), this method has proven relatively successfu

last

seems the bees

can tolerate storage temperatures as high as 15C for a short period, provu h d hey have a
t

good supply

of fresh air. Recirculating a high airflow is also important

remove the heat from the

because

it

helps

hives.

Design recommendations
1.

Building Size

The

interior building area normally varies

allowing from 0.7 to 0.9

m^

range allow plenty of room for

physically possible and

from 0.25 to 0.3 m^

per hive (24 to 30

air to circulate.

would reduce building

ft^

(2.7 to 3.2 ft^)

per hive,

per hive). Loading densities within this

Though higher
costs,

loading densities are

beekeepers who have tried

approach have frequently had more problems wintering.

It

this

appears the extra volume of

per hive in a larger room moderates temperature fluctuations and permits better

air

air

circulation.

2.

Building Construction
Practically

any building type or shape can be used for wintering bees. Insulation

and ceiling should be equivalent to RSI 3.5 and RSI

foundation should be insulated with 50

3.

Ventilation

System

The amount

of heat and moisture

5.0, respectively.

The

in the walls

building

mm (2 in.) of polystyrene insulation.

produced by the bees can vary widely. Feeding methods,

storage temperature, type of bees and

many

other

management

factors

all

affect the rate of

heat and moisture production. Ventilation and heating recommendations (Table 6) are
therefore based on "average" conditions and can be expected to provide a good storage

environment.
Relative humidities for storage typically range from 50 to 70 per cent. Ventilation rates

within the guidelines given in Table 6 will normally result in humidities within this range.

Table

6.

Ventilation

Recommendations
Fan Capacity

Total Capacity

(lys/hive)

(L/s/hive)

0.25

0.25

Step 2

0.50

0.75

Step 3

1.00

1.75

Step 4

3.25

5.00

Step

(minimum, continuous)

Recirculation

lntal<e

System

area (adjustable) - 10

Heater capacity -

5.00

cm%ive maximum

0 watts/hive

to 0.5

cm%ive minimum

Most wintering buildings on the

prairies

use a series of exhaust fans

recirculation fan and a polyethylene duct distribution

admitted through an adjustable opening near the recirculation

recirculated

room

air

in

system (Figure
fan.

combination with a

46). Intake air is

This

air is

mixed with

and distributed by the polyethylene duct. The recirculation fan and

polyethylene duct ensure uniform conditions are maintained throughout the room.
airflow past the hives increases heat transfer

from the hives. This cooling

The

effect is

warm period.

especially important after a temporary

Heater

Light trap

Thermostats

Exhaust

ooo

fans

Adjustable
air intake

light trap

Recirculation duct

and fan

Figure 46. Ventilation system for overwintering hives

Livestock building ventilation fans are readily available and are quite satisfactory for honey

bee wintering buildings.

A two-speed recirculation fan is often used.

low speed during the colder months when a minimum of fresh

switched to high speed

when

cooling

A continually running exhaust fan

becomes more

(Step

on by thermostats as additional cooling

is

can be operated on

Table 6) provides moisture control

1,

is

It

introduced and can be

critical.

weather. As the outdoor temperature increases, Steps

minimum temperature and

air is

required.

2,

in

very cold

3 and 4 are progressively turned

The heater thermostat

controls the

set at the lowest desired temperature, normally

approximately 4C.

To ensure

the Step 2 fan does not run

when

the heater

is

on, the setting

heater and Step 2 thermostats should be approximately 3C.

set in steps with a difference of approximately 2C

thermostats side by side, preferably

in the

between

The

steps.

centre of the room,

is

between the

fan thermostats are then

Mounting the

also important to ensure

proper sequencing of the heater and fans. Thermostats should not be located
air

from an

inlet,

Air mixing

The proper

path of

chamber
distribution of air in the building

recirculation system.

As

is

provided by the polyethylene duct

a result, the location of the exhaust fans is not critical. Locating

the fans at one end of the building

may be more convenient and cheaper

not affect air distribution (Figure 47).

112

in the

doorway or heater.

to install,

and

all

will

Figure 47. Air mixing chamber

Smaller storages (500 colonies or less) require very low airflow rates.

It is

often difficult to

wastes

find a suitable fan in the size range required. Over-ventilating with too large a fan

energy and causes low relative humidities

minimum

airflow is to use

the Step 2 rate and

is

one fan

for

in the storage.

both Step

One way

to provide a small

and Step 2 ventilation. The fan

is

operated intermittently by a timer to achieve a suitable Step

For example, an adjustable 10-minute cycle timer set to run "ON"

10-minutes provides a Step

1 rate of 1/3 rated fan capacity

for 3.3

sized for
1 rate.

minutes every

and a Step 2 rate of full fan

capacity.

The recommended

air inlet size is 1

for

every 5,000 L/s airflow.

An

inlet that is too

small will restrict the exhaust fans and will cause reduced airflows.

Too

during cold periods will allow heat to flow out of the building under

minimum

The maximum ventilation

rate.

Step

4, is

large an opening

approximately ten times the Step

requires the intake to be fully adjustable from

maximum to minimum. The

located close to the recirculation fan, so fresh air

is

ventilation.

1 rate.

This rate

intake should be

well mixed and evenly distributed as

it

enters the storage.

The

following Tables 7 through 10 offer design examples for ventilation with varying sizes

of floor space

and number of colonies.

113

Table

7.

Ventilation Design Example for 100 Hives

Space - Approximately 25

Floor

Recommended

Fans

Step

m
1

Actual Airflow

Airflow

Fan

Total

Recommended

Fan

Total

Capacity

Capacity

Fan*

Capacity

OapdClty

25

25

50

75

One

BF-8

Step

BF-8

BF-8,

on 20%

Same

30

30

140

140

-J

Step 2

Steps

100

175

Step 4

325

500

Recirculation Duct

\ Fan

BF-10

140

140

235

375

Airflow required: 500 17s

Recommended

fan:

BF2S-12

mm diameter x length of room

40 outlet holes, 50 mm diameter required

Poly tube: 380

Intake Area -0.1

Heater Size -

All fan

Table
Floor

8.

m^ maximum,

adjustable to 0.005

m^ mimimum

500 watts
models refer to Hurst Equipment Ltd.

Ventilation Design Example for 300 Hives

Space - Approximately 75 m^

Recommended

Fans

Actual Airflow

Airflow

(l/s)

Fan

Total

Recommended

Fan

Total

Capacity

Capacity

Fan*

Capacity

Capacity

50%

Same

70

70

140

140

75

75

Step 2

150

225

BF-8

Step 3

300

525

BF-10

235

375

Step 4

975

1500

BF-16

1240

1615

Recirculation Duct

Step

BF-8, on

[Fan

Airflow required: 1500 L/s

Recommended

fan:

BF2S-16

mm diameter x length of room

100 outlet holes, 50 mm diameter required

Poly tube: 600

Intake Area

0.3

m^ maximum,

Heater Size - 3000 watts

* All fan

114

(3

adjustable to 0.01 5

kW)

models refer

to

Hurst Equipment

Ltd.

m^ mimimum

Table
Floor

9.

Ventilation Design Example for 500 Hives

Space - Approximately

25

Recommended

Fans

Actual Airflow

Airflow

Fan

Total

Recommended

Fan

Totai

Capacity

Capacity

Fan*

Capacity

Capacfty

Stepi

125

125

BF-8

140

140

Step 2

250

375

BF-10

235

375

Step 3

500

875

BF-12

500

875

Step 4

1625

2500

BF-18

1745

2620

Recirculation Duct

Airflow required: 2500 L/s

Recommended

Intake Area

Option

Option

2:

two BF2S-1

m^ maximum,

0.5

Heater Size - 5000 watts

* All fan

(5

fan and poly tube:

one BF2S-20 fan with 600

6 fans with

adjustable to 0.025

mm poly tube, 40-50 mm holes.

mm poly tube, 100-50 mm holes.
1

600

m^ mimimum

kW)

models refer to Hurst Equipment Ltd.

Table 10. Ventilation Design Example for 1000 Hives

Floor

Space - Approximately 250 m^

Recommended

Fans

Actual Airflow

Airflow

(l/s)

(l/s)

Fan

Total

Recommended

Fan

Total

Capacity

Capacity

Fan*

Capacity

Capacity

250

250

BF-10

235

Step 2

500

750

BF-12

500

735

Step 3

1000

1750

BF-16

1240

1975

Step 4

3250

5000

BF-20

2310

4285

Step

Recirculation Duct

Airflow required: 5000 L/s

Recommended
Poly tube:

Heater Size -

Intake Area

m^ maximum,

.0

fan:

two BF2S-20

mm diameter x length of room

140 outlet holes, 50 mm diameter required

two 600

adjustable to 0.5

m^ mimimum

kW

* All fan

4.

235

models refer to Hurst Equipment Ltd.

Light
Build the storage
activity

room

to exclude as

much

and makes storage much more

light as possible.

difficult.

This

is

Too much

light

promotes bee

particularly true in late spring

outdoor temperatures are warm, and the bees sense that spring

is at

when

hand.

115

White

light bulbs

should be replaced with red ones, as bees cannot "see" the lower red rays

of the colour spectrum. This type of lighting will allow the

storage with

The most

place to exclude light

difficult

of light traps are used.

right angle turns.

beekeeper to work within the

disturbance to the bees.

little

The

principle of

is at

most

A common problem is

make an abrupt sharp

turn.

As

the air intake and fan openings. Several types

is

to force the ventilation air to

that discharged air

from the fan

is

make

several

often forced to

a result, the fan operates at a higher pressure and a

considerably reduced airflow.

Figures 48 and 49 show a design that effectively eliminates the light and causes minimal
restriction for the fan.

building since

it

The

trap for the exhaust fan should be installed

will affect the fan

performance less than

the fan. Painting the interior surface of the light traps a

installed

if

flat

on the inside of the

on the discharge side of

black will minimize reflection,

Table 11 shows the dimensions to use for fans of varying diameter.

helping to exclude

light.

Figure 48. Light trap

for intake fan

exterior wall

fan

polyethylene tube

light trap

air

Plan

116

View

through outlet holes

Figure 49.
Light trap for exhaust fan

and dimensions to use

for

surfaces painted

fans of varying diameter

flat

Table

1 1

black

Fan Diameters

Fan Diameter

Dimensions

(mm)

(min)

(mm)

"D"

"A"

"B"

200

25

75

250

38

115

300

64

200

400

100

300

450

125

375

500

150

450

Based on one

light trap

per fan open on four sides

117

Hive arrangement
Hives should be stacked
1

in

rows peqDendicular

to the air duct, with the

rows spaced about

m apart to facilitate air movement.

Storage room floors should be swept periodically to dispose of dead bees. The dust caused by

crushing the dead bees underfoot can often aggravate respiratory problems for the person(s)

working in

the building, or

it

can result in

the

harbour fungal spores that could be harmful

filters

to

development of allergies. Also, the dead bees

human health. For this

reason, face

may

masks with

should be used when working in the indoor wintering facility for long periods.

Feeding colonies indoors

At times,

it

may become necessary to feed bees

sugar syrup while they are in storage.

Frequently used feeding methods include gravity feeders, Boardman feeders and plastic

honey containers (500 g size). To use honey containers, punch four or five small holes
(3-4 mm in diameter) on one side of each container near the top rim. After the containers
are filled with syrup and the lids fastened, they are placed inverted on the bottom board

with the holes facing the hive entrance.

Indoor feeding

may

also require a modified hive stacking arrangement.

"off-set" stack that allows access to the top of

be used (Figure
directly

50). If feeding is to

is

needed

if

A staggered or

gravity feeders are to

be done through the entrance, the hives

on top of each other.

Figure 50.
Gravity feeders

F=

118

each hive

may be

stacked

The Queen
Natural Requeening
The

queen

role of the

(see Chapter

1).

brood production and colony cohesion has already been mentioned

in

Left to

its

own

devices, a

honey bee colony

will initiate

production of

new

queens whenever the amount of "queen substance" (queen mandibular pheromone)

available to the colony falls

The anatomical and

below

a critical level.

behavioral differences

shown by

adult

workers and queens (which are

both female) result from both quantitative and qualitative differences in the feed each
receives during larval development. Larvae being reared as workers receive a surplus of

food only up to about 2.5 days after hatching. After approximately 2.5 days, the worker
larvae are fed the

The

minimum

required for their development.

food fed to larvae being reared as queens

of the substances in royal jelly that affects the

is

commonly

development

referred to as "royal jelly."

of the larvae is the

One

common

hormone known as juvenile hormone. Research has shown that female larvae
hormone throughout their development will develop queen
characteristics, whereas female larvae that do not receive this hormone throughout their
insect

receiving juvenile

development

will

develop into workers.

A honey bee colony will raise queens naturally under three basic circumstances

or

The colony

is

thus

conditions:
able, under

Emergency queen rearing

Emergency queen

rearing occurs

"emergency

when

a colony suddenly

becomes queenless

as a result of

removed from the colony. When this situation occurs,

the colony begins feeding large amounts of royal jelly to a few selected existing larvae in
worker cells. The colony is thus able, under "emergency conditions," to use the fertilized
eggs in the worker cells as a source of replacement queens. This type of queen rearing
typically shows up in the colony with the "peanut shaped" queen cells hanging down from

conditions," to use

the queen dying or otherwise being

Supersedure
Supersedure occurs when the existing queen begins to

The

affect

decline in queen substance.

on the queen

is

fail,

usually as a result of aging,

usually reduced egg laying capacity and a

Under these circumstances, the colony will usually rear

in worker cells or larvae in queen cells.

replacement queen either from larvae

Swarming
When

a colony

in specially

becomes

large or congested in

prepared swarm

cells.

its

Before these

current living space, queens will be reared

new queens emerge,

the old queen will

One of the
Swarm cells are

leave the colony, taking with her a portion of the existing adult bee population.

new queens

will

in

the worker cells as a

source of

replacement queens.

the face of brood comb.

injury or disease.

the fertilized eggs

normally take over as the queen of the "parent" colony.

ll

typically located

frames (Figure

Figure 51

preparing to

around the peripheries of the brood comb and along the bottom bars of the

51).

Swarm

cells.

Queen

cells occurring

on the bottom of frames usually indicate the colony

is

swarm.

(Photo D. Dixon)

Queen honey bee mating takes

place aerially outside the hive.

the queen takes one to several mating flights during the

During these mating

adult.

attractant

the queen

flights,

(pheromone) that assists drones

drones, the queen returns to the hive and

flies

first

or

generally believed that

after

emerging as an

from the hive and releases

in locating her.

may

It is

week

a chemical

After mating with one or several

may not go on

another mating

flight

before beginning to lay eggs.

Usually, once a

queen has started

laying,

she

will not

go on any more mating

flights.

Therefore, continued egg fertilization depends on the quantity of spermatozoa acquired and
stored in a specialized organ, the spermatheca, during the

first

few weeks

On average, queens produce fertilized eggs from one to

queens may produce fertilized eggs for a shorter or longer time.

adult

If

life.

the weather

she

is

may begin

not conducive to mating

to lay unfertilized

drones. Drone-laying also occurs

queen

in

when

egg

by using her forelegs as calipers. She lays a

unfertilized

egg

in the larger

built out

120

by workers (Figure

drone

52).

is

physiologically ready,

queen has depleted her stock

fertilized

a cell she is about to lay an

by the bullet-shaped cappings on

the virgin queen

eggs after about three weeks, which then develop into

prime condition can lay both

queen inspects

when

of the queen's

three years, but individual

all

cells.

and unfertilized eggs

in,

of

sperm.

at will.

A mated

When

the

she measures the dimensions of the

fertilized

egg

in a

worker

A drone-laying queen

cell

cell

and an

can be noticed immediately

her brood, including the worker

cells that

have been

Figure 52. Drone

by worker

cells

appear as bullet-shaped protruding from the face

of the

comb, here surrounded

cells.

(Photo D. Dixon)

When a queen is failing

However,

if

and reducing her egg output, the colony

will try to

supersede her.

only unfertilized eggs are present, supersedure will not be possible, and a

queenless condition

will result.

experienced beekeeper by

its

A queenless colony is immediately noticeable to the

peculiar buzzing, described as a roaring sound. In addition,

the workers in a queenless colony are usually agitated and run about on the frames, often

with their wings spread.

A further check will show a lack

of eggs.

Queenless colonies and colonies with drone-laying queens may be requeened using one of
the slow release methods described below.

destroyed or the

new queen will

The

old drone-laying

not be accepted. Very

weak

queens must

first

be

colonies are better off united

with strong colonies that have a healthy queen (queen-right).

Laying Workers
When

a colony is without a queen, there is no inhibitory effect of the queen substances on

worker ovary development, and one or several workers may begin to lay eggs. The
presence of many eggs deposited on the sides of cells in a disorderly arrangement, some

upright and

some

lying

flat,

signifies the

presence of laying workers. The disorder occurs

because the workers' abdomens are too short to reach to the ends of the

cells.

This laying

pattern should not be confused with that of a queen in prime condition held back from
capacity by too small a cluster of bees; often such a queen will lay
cell,

but these eggs are

all

deposited in the ends of each

cell in

more than one egg

in a

an orderly manner.

Since workers cannot mate, their eggs will develop into drones, usually small from being
raised in worker cells and from undernourishment.

Once

a queenless colony has laying

workers, requeening will generally be unsuccessful. The beekeeper

is

then better

off

shaking the bees in front of another colony or on the ground away from other hives and
letting

them

drift to

other colonies in the yard.

Requeening as a Management Tool

Wintered colonies should be requeened every one or two years as a part of colony

management. Without regular requeening, the beekeeper ends up with a proportion

colonies not operating at

full

of the

capacity because of older and failing queens.

Allowing colonies to requeen themselves only through supersedure and emergency queen
rearing will often result in

may

Others

some

not reach their

colonies dying as a result of queen failure in the winter.

maximum populations

in the

summer because

of

queen

failures

during the spring build-up period.

Some beekeepers

prefer to requeen only those colonies that they notice need requeening;

however, for optimum overall control of queen quality and productivity, the beekeeper
should requeen at least 50 per cent of the colonies each year.
Colonies

may be requeened at any time

during the spring and

summer

seasons.

The

pre-flow period lends itself best to requeening, as brood chambers are being checked
regularly in any case. Post-flow requeening can be just as successful in terms of queen

acceptance but will take more time as colonies are very strong, and old queens are hard to
locate.

There

is

also the danger of inciting robbing at this time of year.

Methods of Queen Introduction

To

increase the likelihood a queen will be accepted, colonies should be queenless for three

to five days before a

new queen

is

introduced.

confined alone in a cage. This approach

is

The queen

to

be introduced should be

used so that the bees cannot injure her but

able to feed her through the screen while they are

will

be

becoming acquainted with her presence

in the hive.

New queens
the

first

when the colonies are unwrapped or moved outdoors, when

made in April and May. Colonies that are strong but queenless,
queen as shown by poor brood pattern, drone brood in worker cells and

should be on hand

spring checks are

or that have a failing

a lack of brood should be

requeened immediately.

Queens can be confined alone

in a

screened cage with the exit opening

filled

with queen

cage candy, an icing sugar and corn syrup mixture. There should be enough candy for the

workers

to take

one or two days

The queen can be

of

to eat their

way

into the cage to release the queen.

held under a shallow push-in cage

which are pressed

lightly in the

comb. Some

made

cells of

be included with the queen. This cage should be removed

little

122

disturbance as possible.

of 3

mm wire cloth, the edges

honey and emerging brood should

in

about three days, with as

The queen can be released directly after treating her with a light spray of vanilla extract
(or some other aromatic substance) and sugar syrup. This result can be accomplished by
placing the queen on the face of a frame among the workers and then immediately
spraying the queen and surrounding workers with a light mist of the vanilla/sugar syrup
mixture.

The spray apparently masks any foreign odours on the queen that may cause the
workers to reject her. By the time the bees have cleaned up the spray, the queen
usually accepted. This method works best when the honey bee colony has been
queenless for

is

at least three to five days.

Banking Queens
When

a large order of

or she

may wish

queens

to store

and the beekeeper cannot use them

arrives,

them

in a

queen bank. This bank

is

all

right away,

he

a strong, single storey

queenless colony with a high proportion of young bees and plenty of pollen and honey or
syrup.

A special holding frame for the

cages

contain two or three tiers of cages.

corks are

is

The

constructed with support and holding bars to

attendant workers are

each end of each cage. Cages are then placed

left in

down, and the holding frame

is

removed from each

cage, and

in the holding frame,

placed in the queenless colony.

The young workers

candy
will look

most or all of the queens. The population must be replenished weekly with young
workers if the queen bank is to be used for an extended period. The subsequent
performance of banked queens generally falls off in proportion to the length of time they
were stored.
after

Queen Cage Candy

The candy used

in

queen cages can be made from

icing sugar so that the

candy becomes

stiff

icing sugar

and

and does not stretch.

com

syrup, using

A drop

enough

of glycerine will

ensure the candy does not dry out.

Queen Rearing
Queens may be reared

Whether the beekeeper wishes

queens

and summer, when nectar and pollen are abundant and

young bees for wax-building and royal jelly production.

in late spring

colonies are strong with plenty of

to rear only a

few queens

for his or

her

own use

or enough

queen rearing remain the same.

Obtain young larvae from these queens

for sale to other beekeepers, the basic principles of

Choose breeder queens

and place them

that have the desired traits.

in cell-building colonies

Once hatched, queens must be cared

Any beekeeper

primed to feed and care

for while maturing,

interested in rearing queens should

references included in Appendix

first

for developing queens.

mating and beginning to

consult the

lay.

recommended

(Laidlaw, Laidlaw and Eckert), which outHne

queen

rearing in detail.

123

Using naturally-produced queen

If

cells

only a few queens are needed, the beekeeper

may wish

to

use queen

from colonies

cells

that are swarming, superseding or queenless.

Swarming colonies are usually

with ample food stores and

at their peak,

many young bees,

and are thus able to raise well-fed queens. The beekeeper should choose the largest swarm
cells

from a colony with desirable characteristics and carefully cut the capped

comb. Then, place the

nuclei.

The main disadvantage

swarming

cells

a colony

swarm

in using

may also be used for new

is in

from the

cells is in the possible

perpetuation of the

its

queen

queens,

if

produced

at the right

time of year

the peak of condition.

The beekeeper may

removing

cells

other colonies that have been dequeened or in mating

trait.

Supersedure

when

cells either in

queens by simply removing the queen from a colony and

raise

10 to 11 days

cells

method

Variations on this

later.

control by the beekeeper in the process of

lead to greater

queen rearing by choosing breeder queens and

giving their eggs to queenless cell builders as outlined below.

Characteristics

Breeder colonies
preferred by

most

The breeder queen

will

new queens and

be the mother of the

should therefore possess

all

beekeepers are a

the traits the beekeeper wishes to retain in his or her stock. Characteristics preferred by

gentle temperament,

most beekeepers are

a gentle

temperament, good wintering

ability

and good honey

production. Other characteristics include disease resistance, lack of a tendency to propolize,

good wintering

ability

compactness of the brood nest and desirable storage patterns.

and good honey

If

this

queen

is

to

be used as the breeder queen for any length of time, she

confined to a

is

production.

single super or to a nucleus.

The breeder colony

emerging brood and uncapped honey, and

pollen frames or supplement.

A frame

is

is

provided with frames of capped and

fed continuously with a thin sugar syrup and

of foundation

may be added

to

occupy bees of

wax-secreting age. Young bees or emerging brood are added at least once a week.

queen

grafting

On the

given an empty

is

is

comb

to lay

to be done, or a light

comb

in,
if

generally a good-quality dark worker

cells are to

be raised

third day after laying, these eggs begin to hatch.

of the correct age for use

by the beekeeper

in

From

and cut from

The
comb if

this

comb.

12 to 24 hours later, they are

in grafting or transfer to cell building colonies.

An empty new comb can then be given every four days. Alternatively, the queen may be
given a new comb each day by confining her in a frame-sized cage of queen excluder
material.

The comb

of freshly-laid

eggs

is

then placed outside the excluder or

in

an

incubator colony until the eggs have hatched and the larvae are 12 to 24 hours old.

Cell building colonies

Cell building colonies are those that receive the

queens.

The

cell building

colonies

may be

young female larvae and raise them into

more commonly queenless.

queen-right, but are

Commercial beekeepers use a combination

of queenless cell starters and queenless or

queen-right cell builders or finishers, the former receiving the newly grafted larvae and the
latter receiving

124

them 24 hours or more

later.

To

many young bees and drones and ample

close resemblance to colonies that have the

These colonies are prepared

must be very strong and crowded

raise large, well-fed queens, the cell building colonies

with

week

about a

in

nectar and pollen. In short,

cell builders

bear a

swarming impulse.

the following manner:

before the colony

is

to

be used, the queen

removed from

is

a strong two- or

three-storey colony and the bees shaken into one or two boxes

the colony

carefully

is

checked

for

queen

cells a

week

later or the

day before

it

to be

is

used, and these cells are destroyed

the cell builder should hold frames of pollen and honey, capped and emerging brood,

empty frames and

young

a frame of foundation, which will occupy the wax-secreting bees

one or two frames of brood are added each week

at least

may be added

adult bees

the cell builder

keep up

to

strength, and

its

as well

continuously fed with sugar syrup and frames of pollen throughout the

is

queen-rearing period

Rearing queens without grafting

To

rear queens without grafting, the breeder queen

preferably light in colour, for egg-laying.

later, this

comb

outlined above.

marked by
the

is

When

is

given an empty worker comb,

the eggs begin to hatch about three days

transferred to the cell building colony, prepared nine days earlier as

Two

days

later,

the

comb is checked for queen cells, and those present are

comb above each cell, being careful not to damage

inserting a small nail into the

cells.

About

week

later,

the

comb

is

checked again, and any unmarked

ensuring that queens are produced only from younger larvae.

from the comb's introduction to the

The queens

cell builder,

from the comb and placed

carefully cut

in

the

comb

is

No

thus

removed, and the

cells are

mating nuclei or previously dequeened colonies.

emerge in two or three days and with good weather,

two weeks.

will

laying within

cells are destroyed,

later than nine or ten days

will

be mated and

Other methods of rearing queens without grafting involve more manipulation and cutting of
the comb, and these approaches are outlined in references in Appendix

Some

and Eckert).

of these

methods can be used

to rear large

numbers

B
of

(Laidlaw, Laidlaw

queens

successfully.

Rearing queens by

grfifting

The system

queens by grafting

of rearing

method involves

is

usually used for large scale

grafting or transferring larvae of uniform age

queen

rearing.

The

from worker comb to queen

cups, which are previously prepared and attached to the removable bars of a cell-holding

some combination of cell builder, starter and finisher colonies are used.
Queens can be reared for several weeks by following an orderly, day-to-day schedule.

frame. Breeder and

Queen cups

made from lengths of 9.5 mm

smoothed at one end with sandpaper. The correct size may be
the rounded end into a natural queen cup. A series of these cell dipping

are prepared by constructing cell dipping sticks

dowelling, rounded and

tested by fitting
sticks

may be made up and

Cell cups are then

wax

attached to a strip of wood, or a single stick

formed by dipping these forming sticks

to a depth of about 1

cm, allowing this

first

wax

may be used

into cold water, then into

alone.

melted

coat to harden, and then dipping

more times, each time to a shallower depth. After immersing in cold water, the wax
removed with a gentle twist. About 15 queen cups are fastened to each cell bar with
melted wax. Commercial queen cups are also available.
several

cup

The

is

grafting

room should be

at least

dehydration of the young larvae.

giving off heat.

The breeder

Alternatively, grafting

24C and high

in relative

A fluorescent table lamp

humidity to prevent

gives satisfactory lighting without

colonies and cell builders should be located nearby.

may be done

in the apiary in the front seat of the truck

if

adequate

relative humidity is maintained.

Grafting can be done with a variety of tools, and with experience, each beekeeper will find

the most suitable one. Commercial grafting tools are available.

sand the bent

tip of a

sable-hair paint brushes

Before grafting,

cell

Some beekeepers flatten and

may find that fine

piece of copper wire for grafting, while others

work

well.

bars should be prepared and the queen cups primed with a 50 per cent

water: royal jelly solution to prevent desiccation and to aid in floating the young larvae off
the grafting tool.

A frame containing newly-hatched larvae

incubator colony to the grafting room.

visible.

The

grafting needle

is

The

light

is

taken from the breeder or

should be adjusted so that larvae are easily

slipped under each larva, which

and transferred to the queen cup. In the queen cup,

it is

is

then

lifted

from the

floated off the needle

on

its

cell

own

royal jelly or onto a previously primed jelly bed.

Once each cell bar is completed, it is placed upright in the holding frame and covered with
damp cloth. When the holding frame is filled, it is carried upright to the cell builder and
turned very carefully just before placing between a frame of pollen and a frame of brood.
the grafting

is

slow, each bar should be placed in the cell builder as

it is

If

completed, to

prevent chilling and drying of the larvae.

Developing queens are susceptible to injury through careless handling. Holding frames

must never be shaken

to

remove bees;

rather,

bees should be gently brushed

off

with a soft

bee brush. Shaking and jarring may dislodge larvae from their bed of royal jelly and may

damage the developing pupae.

When queen

cells are ripe (Figure 53),

they

may be removed from

either incubated overnight or taken directly to mating nuclei or

are usually

removed

at

the cell builder and

dequeened colonies. Cells

nine or ten days after grafting. Care must be taken so that the cells

are not chilled or overheated; a small cooler containing a hot water bottle and a sponge or

styrofoam block with holes to hold the queen cells

kept in their proper orientation with the capped

queen may be dislodged and

126

injured.

tip

may be used

for transport. Cells

must be

pointed downwards, or the developing

Figure 53. Mature

to

(ripe)

queen

cells,

on

cell

bar frame, ready for use

in

mating colonies or

in

colonies

be requeened.

Queen mating

colonies

Mating colonies range from miniature nuclei

Nuclei can be

made up

to full-sized colonies requiring a

of standard depth supers divided into

two bee-tight

new

queen.

sections, each

holding four frames, with individual entrances facing in opposite directions and covered

with sacking so that each nucleus can be worked separately. Each nucleus contains a frame
of honey, a frame of brood, and

Nuclei

may be moved

two

relatively

empty frames,

to a separate yard to prevent drifting

all

with accompanying bees.

back to parent colonies.

If left in

moved away from the parent colonies and reoriented.

must be arranged in such a way as to aid the queens in orientation, with

the original yard, they should be

Mating nuclei

plenty of landmarks and entrances facing in different directions.

127

128

Bee Health
Numerous diseases, predators and conditions affect the health and vigor of the honey bee
colony. The beekeeper must know the appearance of healthy bees and brood (Figures 54
and 55) so that deviations from the norm will be recognized. Knowing the symptoms of the

common diseases

will

be worthwhile in diagnosis and treatment.

abnormal brood and adult appearance and

for signs of

A quick check for

unwelcome predation

is

a part of

regular colony maintenance.

Figure 54. Healthy frame of brood.

A band

of pollen

present between the honey and uniformly capped

Figure 55. Healthy larvae

is

(Photo M.

cells.

in

various stages.

Smith)

Honey Bee Brood Diseases

American foulbrood
American foulbrood (AFB), caused by the hactenum Bacillus larvae (recently reclassified as
is probably the most serious of all the honey bee brood
diseases. If unchecked, AFB can spread in and amongst colonies, causing severe weakening
and colony death. Spores of the bacterium remain viable for many years and are capable of

Paenibacillus larvae var. larvae),

The provincial Bee Acts were

AFB, and disease inspection programs continue

causing fresh outbreaks whenever conditions are favorable.

first

written mainly to control the spread of

to the present day.

Life Cycle

and Spread of AFB

Infection begins

when

the young larva ingests

appear to be most susceptible

AFB

spores along with

when under three days

old: as

its

brood food. Larvae

they grow older, they become

resistant to infection. Spores germinate and the vegetative forms reproduce in the larval
gut, migrating into the tissues of the larva

the tissues.

The bee

capped. Death

once the

is

and continuing to multiply there while feeding on

dies in the prepupal or early pupal stage, after the cell has

due to toxins released by the

larval tissues

2.5 billion spores.

have been

utilized.

bacteria,

The remains

which begin
of

to

been

form more spores

one dead larva hold an estimated

The dead
so,

larva

is

eventually uncapped by house bees trying to clean out the

cell.

In doing

spores contaminate their mouth parts and are spread throughout the hive from bee to

bee and eventually to more young larvae. The adults themselves are not affected by AFB.

American foulbrood

is

spread

among

colonies through robbing and drifting bees. Often, a

colony weakened through disease cannot defend

may also be
strength or

may then carry AFB

itself

and

is

completely cleaned out by

own colonies. The disease

among colonies when equaHzing colony
making up brood chambers and even when buying and selling infected

robbing bees, which

spores back to their

spread by the exchange of equipment

equipment.
Pollen and honey

may

carry

AFB

spores and, therefore, should only be fed to bees

from disease-free colonies. Package bees from infected colonies can carry enough
spores with them to cause a

new

outbreak of AFB in the

new hive

they are placed

when

AFB
in.

Symptoms
As the

larval tissues

break down, they turn a uniform coffee color and lose

to a larva, eventually forming a

gooey mass (Figure

all

resemblance

56).

Figure 56.
Larva dead from American
foulbrood after being

capped

over, cross

sectional view.

(Photo M. V. Smith)

Since the larva dies after capping, the decaying mass

cell

exhibit

some ropiness

(Figure 58).

pupal tongue remains upright.

130

stretched out in the bottom of the

drawn out with a toothpick or stick (Figure 57). If the remains are
flat brown or black scale, adhering tightly to the bottom of the
This scale is the stage containing the dormant spores. Occasionally, the
if

not removed, they dry into a

cell

is

rather than coiled up in the position of a younger larva. At one stage, the dead larva will

Figure 57. Ropiness, characteristic

of

Figure 58. American foulbrood scale on

American

floor of cells,

foulbrood disease.

(Photo M. V. Smith)

Advanced stages of AFB will exhibit a spotty brood pattern and the presence of dark brown,
sunken and punctured cappings (Figure 59). This appearance is due both to the uncapping
of dead larvae by the house bees and to the queen's reluctance to lay in cells containing
scale. A distinctive odor, which smells somewhat like rotting fish, may be present.

Figure 59.
Spotty brood pattern
indicating

American

foulbrood.

(Photo S.E. Bland)

Diagnosis, Prevention

and Treatment of AFB

A positive diagnosis is made by examining dead larvae and scale under a microscope for the
presence of AFB spores. Samples for examination may be sent to the apiculture office.
Samples

of

dead larvae or scale

comb may be
The

first

may be

sent in

wax paper in an envelope,

or a small piece of

cut from the suspect frame and sent in a box or other container.

step in American foulbrood control

is

to prevent its establishment in colonies.

Prevention techniques include the purchase and use of disease-free equipment, the storage
of

equipment

in bee-tight buildings

and management techniques that minimize robbing and

drifting.

The

antibiotic oxytetracycline is useful

both in preventing colony breakdown with

AFB

disease and in treating infected colonies after visible signs of the disease have been

removed. Oxytetracycline may be fed to colonies as a preventative measure. Should

AFB

spores then be brought into the colonies, the disease does not estabhsh

itself as

long as the

effects of the antibiotic are present.

Along with spring and

fall

feeding of oxytetracycline, the beekeeper should regularly

examine combs of uncapped brood

Whenever combs

for discoloured larvae, the first indication of disease.

are to be exchanged

among

brood chambers are made up, each comb

is

colonies, they are

carefully

examined

checked

first,

and when

for evidence of scale or fresh

breakdown.

When

looking for scale, hold the frame with the bottom bar pointing away, at such an angle

that the

bottom side of the

cell is clearly visible.

Good

light is essential, especially

inspecting dark combs. Sunlight or a 200 or 300 watt light bulb are

recommended

when
light

sources.

Diseased colonies require both immediate and long-term treatment.

If

the diseased colony

removed and the colony treated with

oxytetracycline. Treatment should be given weekly until six weeks before the honey flow
and again after the flow. A colony weakened from a severe case of AFB should be killed,
and the dead bees and combs burned. Infected brood combs may be melted down to salvage
the wax but must never be exposed to bees in the meantime.
is

strong, frames containing infected brood should be

Infected equipment should be operated separately for at least two disease-free years.

quarantine yard

treated with oxytetracycline and observed closely.

is

honey and pollen are rotated so

The

Frames containing

that the stores are used up, allowing the bees to clean out

each comb while being fed oxytetracycline. Any combs showing fresh breakdown are culled

and burned or melted down. American foulbrood disease can be controlled and effectively
eradicated over several years with constant vigilance, regular inspections, removal of
infected

combs and appropriate feeding

of drugs.

European foulbrood
European foulbrood (EFB)
organisms.

is

brood disease associated with a complex of bacterial

The hdiCtehum Melissococcus pluton

(formerly Streptococcus pluton White)

main causative organism, while secondary bacteria such as Bacillus

the tissues of the dead larva.
certain conditions,

Life Cycle
Typically,

may

EFB

is

alvei enter

is

the

and feed on

not usually a serious brood disease although under

can be quite severe.

it

and Effects of EFB

EFB

also die.

kills

young larvae

The bacterium

is

(less than

48 hours

old),

but occasionally, older larvae

ingested with the brood food and multiplies in the larval gut,

occupying the space between the food and the gut lining and competing with the larva for
food. Within five days, the larval mid-gut
larva.

Nurse bees

will eject

some

is full

of bacteria,

of these larvae that

which effectively starve the

have an abnormally high demand for

food.

Larvae infected with

EFB

generally die in the curled stage before capping occurs, although

death sometimes occurs after capping as well. While cleaning out the

become contaminated with M. pluton and pass

remains are not removed, they

will

it

cells,

house bees

on to other adults and larvae.

If

the larval

dry into a scale and be a source of future infection.

The

disease can spread from colony to colony through robbing and drifting, exchange of hive

equipment, feeding pollen from diseased colonies and installation of infected packages
(similar to the spread of

132

AFB).

European foulbrood appears

from reaching

full

and early summer; the onset

in colonies primarily in spring

usually coincides with the first nectar flow.

If

the disease

is

severe,

it

may prevent

colonies

strength in time for the main nectar flow. Stresses such as brood nest

expansion, inclement spring weather and moving colonies for pollination

involved in the appearance of

may be

factors

EFB.

Symptoms of EFB
Because the larvae usually dies before capping, dead larvae appear curled and contorted
(Figures 60 and 61). The larval color changes first from pearly white to translucent and then
to yellow

and brown. In addition, the tracheae or breathing tubes may become apparent

in

each segment and along the sides as silvery lines (Figure 60). Larval scale retains the
curled shape and

is

easily

removed from the comb

(as

opposed to

AFB

scale,

which adheres

to the cell wall).

Figure 60.
Larvae
over.

Figure 61.

killed

The

by European foulbrood

silvery tracheae

the bottom

prior to

can be seen

in

capping

the larva at

Close-up of European foulbrood

killed larva.

(Photo M. V. Smith)

left.

(Photo M. V. Smith)

In severe cases, a spotty brood pattern and a sour odor

may be present. Some death does

may resemble larvae killed by

occur in the stretched-out stage (Figure 62), and these larvae

AFB, so care must be taken

to distinguish the

two diseases by searching

for

more

definitive

symptoms.

Figure 62.
Larva

killed

foulbrood

in

by European
the prepupal

stage after capping. This

may

be confused with

American foulbrood.
(Photo M. V. Smith)

Heavily infected colonies should be isolated, and equipment quarantined and kept separate.

Frames containing more than

few infected larvae may be removed and destroyed. Since

European as well as American foulbrood, diseased

marked for further inspection and
treatment (see Appendix E, Recommendations for Feeding Antibiotics).
oxytetracycline

effective against

is

colonies are treated with oxytetracycline and are

Chalkbrood
Chalkbrood was

first

discovered in Canada in 1971. Since then, the disease has spread

across the country and

in the spring

is

found

in

every province. Chalkbrood often increases

in intensity

and early summer, causing increased brood mortality but only rarely

severe enough to cause economic impact. Chalkbrood

is

is it

often associated with increased

stress on the colony such as increased brood rearing and inclement weather.

Chalkbrood

is

caused by a fungus, Ascosphaera apis Maasen ex Claussen (Olive et

which has female and male forms. Either form can

infect

and

forms must be present for spores to be produced. The spore

kill

is

honey bee

Spiltoir),

larvae, but both

the dormant, resting stage.

most susceptible to the disease at three to four

tract. Growth of the vegetative form, the
mycelium, occurs out of the hind end of the gut once the larva has been capped over. The
Spores are ingested by the

larva,

which

is

days of age, and germinate in the digestive

dead prepupa looks white and

chalklike

"mummy," white

fluffy at first

but quickly dries

down

to a hard, shrunken,

or grey to black as spores are formed on

its

surface (Figure 63).

Figure 63.
Chalkbrood

killed larvae

showing both white and

grey

The worker bees

eventually uncap and

"mummies"

remove these mummies (Figure

64),

which can then

be found on the bottom board and around the hive entrance. Spores, viable for up to 15
years,

may remain

in

hive equipment and serve as a source of reinfestation. Generally the

highest infection levels are found in mid-June.

134

Figure 64.
Chalkbrood

mummies

exposed

the

in

comb

after

uncapping.

commonly appears when the colony is under stress from other

may be present with no symptoms of the disease occurring in
strong and otherwise healthy colony, whereas a weak colony may break down.

Chalkbrood
factors.

The

is

a disease that

A high level

of spores

incidence of chalkbrood varies from year to year and from region to region. In most

shows only a few chalkbrood mummies in the late spring, and the
symptoms disappear in the summer. However, some colonies may have many mummies

cases, the colony

brood combs, on the bottom board and

amount

No

of

with a corresponding decrease

in

in

capped brood.

chemical

is

means

As with other
management and strong healthy honey bee colonies

registered in Canada for use against chalkbrood.

stress-related diseases, proper

best

in front of the hive,

of prevention

and control of chalkbrood. Spores

may be

immature bees, the queen, pollen and equipment from infected

are the

spread via adult and

hives.

Shipment of queens and package bees throughout the United States and Canada has been
suggested as one explanation for the wide and rapid spread of the disease. Pollen for
feeding back to bees should not be trapped from colonies with chalkbrood or any other
disease. Old brood

combs with

a high

number

of

mummies may be

destroyed, and sheltered

apiary sites with good air drainage should be used. Poor ventilation and moisture

accumulation

may be

avoided by the addition of an upper entrance to wintering colonies.

Severely affected colonies

may be

killed or

requeened, as some genetic susceptibility

may

exist.

Sacbrood
Sacbrood
early

is

a viral disease of the brood that tends to appear in colonies in the spring and

summer build-up

Symptoms

period.

include uncapped or partly uncapped dead larvae/pre-pupae scattered

throughout the brood area and capped

might be mistaken
colour as

it

for foulbrood

begins to

die.

cell,

cell,

but instead appear bloated (Figure 65).

a sacbrood larva retains

larva dying of foulbrood

where brood has emerged. Sacbrood

a

darker

Closer examination of dead individuals will reveal they have not

sunk into the bottom of the

from the

cells in areas

because the larva changes colour from white to

from a

leathery and appears to be

its

cell intact.

fluid-filled.

shape (Figure 66).

With sacbrood

The head changes

It is

If

larva, the skin is

removed
remove a

carefully

not possible to

hardened and

color to a dark brown, followed by

a darkening of the rest of the body.

There

is

no gooeyness or ropiness with sacbrood,

in

contrast to foulbroods.

Figure 65.

Figure 66.

Cross-section showing a sacbrood

killed larva.

Note the

Fluid-filled

sacbrood larva upon removal from the

cell.

bloated appearance and darkened head, characteristic

Larvae are removed easily, unlike American foulbrood.

of the disease.

(Photo M.V. Smith)

(Photo M.V. Smith)

There

is

no chemical treatment

for sacbrood.

As with

all

honey bee diseases, management

techniques that minimize stress will help. Sacbrood virus

short time; breaking the brood cycle

Heavily-infected colonies

queen can be placed

in a

While sacbrood disease

may therefore

may be requeened with

is

apparently only infective for a

also break the disease cycle.

less susceptible stock. Alternatively, the

cage and prevented from brood rearing for three to five days.

is

not considered too serious, occasional severe outbreaks have

been reported.

Adult Honey Bee Diseases

Nosema
Nosema
nosema

disease

disease

is

caused by a single-celled protozoan Nosema apis Zander. Because

affects adult

honey bees,

it is

not as easily detected as

that exhibit decaying larvae, ropiness, foul odors

beekeeper

is

some

of the brood diseases

and other notable symptoms. The

often unaware colonies are suffering from

nosema

until the disease is

well-estabHshed and the damage done. Yet nosema has been described by

being more economically damaging than

America put together. Nosema disease

all

the other bee diseases

affects

some authors

common

in

as

North

every segment of the beekeeping industry,

from queen and package producers to crop pollinators and honey producers.
Life cycle

and effects of nosema

The dormant

stage of Nosema apis

is

a long-lived spore that is resistant to dehydration

and

temperature extremes. Spores are ingested by the adult bee and pass through the honey

stomach
cells of

These
cells

136

to the ventriculus or true stomach. There, the spores

the gut lining, where they multiply and eventually

cells are

fill

germinate and enter the

each

cell

with

new

spores.

then shed into the ventriculus and burst, releasing the spores to invade

and to pass out of the bee

in its feces.

new

ouirm
Should defecation occur within the hive, the spores are picked up by house-cleaning bees
and spread to other bees during food sharing. Once flying weather prevails, infected bees
will defecate or die

away from the

hive, thereby lessening the chances of infecting other

bees.

Honey bee

colonies are

most susceptible

up of old bees and when replacement

wintered colonies and

in

the

first

to

nosema when the population

is

small or

made

slow. Colonies are susceptible in the early spring in

is

month

after hiving packages.

The

incidence of the disease

varies through the year, with a major peak in late winter and spring, low levels during the
active

summer season and

Nosema

a gradual build-up in the

fall.

impairs digestive processes and causes premature aging and death in worker bees.

Nosema

Essentially, infected bees starve to death because they cannot digest any food.

causes the hypopharyngeal glands, which produce protein-rich royal

brood rearing

is

curtailed. Severely infected

jelly, to

atrophy; thus,

bees look swollen and act as though

in a stupor,

crawling about in the hive or in front of the hive with wings unhooked.

Nosema

can be found in drones and the queen and will cause degeneration of the queen's

Nosema

ovaries, resulting in supersedure or queenlessness.

queen supersedure

These

effects

in

is

probably the major cause of

package colonies.

on the queen and on the workers

population, curtailed brood rearing and

will lead to a

queen problems,

all

dwindhng

of

of the adult

which lead to reduced honey

yields.

Diagnosis, Treatment

The

and Prevention of Nosema

only positive diagnosis of

nosema disease

is

to

examine the contents

of the bee's

may be done by the beekeeper if a

sample of bees may be sent to the apiculture office

digestive tract for the presence of spores. Examination

compound microscope

is available,

or a

(sampling procedure described later in this section).

The

antibiotic fumagillin is effective against

colonies.

Nosema

apis in both package and wintered

A combination of good management and the regular use

nosema incidence

of fumagillin will

keep

minimum. The best natural defense is a strong healthy colony, with a

prolific queen and plenty of young bees to replace any dying bees. Food stores must be
adequate at all times. Apiary sites should be sheltered from wind and have good air drainage.

Nosema may be

to a

present in packages shaken from infected colonies.

nosema outbreak and queen problems,

To ensure

against a

fumagillin should also be fed in syrup to newly-hived

packages.
Control of nosema disease in the overwintering operation will take a
of feeding medicated syrup in the

fall

to repress spring outbreaks.

levels will drop each spring until the disease level

feeding of fumagillin each

To

fall

will

keep nosema

is

will

be stored

in the

of

two years

fumagillin, spore

not economically damaging. Further

in check.

control the disease, the colonies should be given fumagillin in the

medicated syrup

minimum

With

combs and will

retain

fall

feed.

The

its antibiotic activity

through

the winter, supressing the build-up of spores and preventing a spring outbreak of

nosema

disease.

The best time

to

sample overwintered colonies

may

done

also be

in the early

presence of nosema spores

for the

March-April period. At this time, nosema spore levels

will

be

at their highest.

is in

the

Sampling

fall.

Sampling for nosema

Every colony may be sampled
second or third colony
for a

in a

if

yard

few moments and picking

them

the beekeeper
is

off

owns only

sampled. This sampling

few colonies. Otherwise, every

is

done by blocking the entrance

about ten bees and placing them in a container or placing

directly in alcohol (rubbing alcohol or ethanol).

It is

not necessary to keep bees from

each colony separate. Field bees are taken rather than house bees.

Samples are sent

in

cardboard containers or in alcohol to the apiculture office immediately

upon collection. Plastic bags, prescription bottles and so on should not be used as they allow
the development of other organisms that break down bee tissues and obscure the presence
of nosema spores. Results of the diagnosis can be used to predict the need for fall feeding of
whole operation.

fumagillin to that yard only or to the

Bee

paralysis

Symptoms

of

bee paralysis are only occasionally noted by beekeepers, generally

in a single

colony in an apiary. Adult worker bees appear hairless, greasy or shiny and black with
disjointed wings and distended

abdomens. They are unable

to

fly,

seem

to

have some

paralyzed legs and exhibit crawling and trembling behavior. Healthy bees attempt to

remove the crawlers from the

hive,

may be

and large numbers of dead and dying bees

around the hive entrance.

Bee paralysis

is

of

This disease

is

caused by a virus, and there

bees to virus infections. Thus, requeening

little

economic

importance

and

is

in

Canada

colony. Alternatively,
paralysis

is

of

little

if

the colony

is

is

terribly

economic importance

variability in genetic resistance

will likely clear

in

up the disease

by honey

in the affected

weakened, the bees may be destroyed. Bee

Canada and

is

rarely seen.

rarely seen.

Anomalies

in

Colony Condition

The honey bee colony may show

superficially

conditions not caused by disease organisms but that

adults that do not appear healthy to distinguish

of

may

resemble the foulbroods. Close examination should always be made of brood or

between disease symptoms and symptoms

any of the following conditions.

Gassed brood
When

colonies are intentionally destroyed using calcium cyanide, the uncapped brood

be killed either by cyanide or by subsequent chilling or starving. Capped brood

is

may

somewhat

protected from cyanide fumes and often hatches out even after the adults have been killed.

Dead brood darkens and degenerates and may look

is

as though

it

died of disease.

When

there

doubt, take samples to the apiculture office for examination.

Starvation
Starvation
suffer
will

if

is

especially

there

common

in

the spring build-up period. Both adults and brood will

not enough food in the hive. Lack of food or a reduction in adult numbers

cause house bees to remove brood from the combs and eat

hive entrance.

138

is

it

or drop

it

in front of the

A pollen
hive.

shortage

may be

recognized (too

Severe food shortage

will

late)

by the presence of dead pupae

cause starvation

in the adult population.

trembling bees, along with empty honey frames, signify the colony

Once the bees show these symptoms, they take

Dying bees crawl head-first

into cells

is

in front of

the

Slow-moving and

on the verge of death.

a long time to recover.

where they remain

after death.

Warm 2:1

sugar syrup

should be sprayed over the bees and in empty combs next to the cluster to revive starving
bees.

Starvation can easily be prevented,

first

and secondly, by supplying more food

by supplying adequate food stores before winter

in the spring or

checks must be made to determine when feeding

at least

14-18 kg honey

(five or six

honey frames)

time, especially during the brood rearing period,

immediately.

The

will

whenever necessary. Early spring

be necessary. The colony should have

at all times.

A lack of capped honey at any

means the colony must be

adult population can starve in as

little

fed

as 12 hours.

Dysentery
Honey bee

adults normally void their feces

confined to the hive.

If

when

in flight

and do not defecate when

bees are confined over a long period and are feeding on poor quality

food stores, the accumulation of large amounts of indigestible matter and water in the

rectum

will

cause defecation

in the hive.

Dysentery symptoms include spattered entrances and frames. Dysentery may be a factor

in

the premature death of adult bees, thus weakening the colony. Avoid poor quality food for

winter stores, including frames of high moisture or granulating honey, burnt honey,

honeydew, or syrup made from other than refined sugar (see Chapter

4).

Mites
Several species of mite are parasitic on honey bees.

bees but apparently do no harm.

Two

Some

species live externally on honey

of the parasitic mites are currently found in Canada.

Both are serious pests that, if not controlled, will affect adult longevity, brood production
and honey production. Eventually, they will cause the colony to die.
Both the varroa mite and the honey bee tracheal mite are

difficult to

detect without close

examination, and they spread rapidly within an apiary by drifting bees.

Varroa disease
The mite Varroa jacobsoni Oudemans

is

honey bee parasite native

to southeast Asia.

has been widely distributed throughout the world as a result of the unrestricted
of

It

movement

honey bees by humans.

Varroa parasitizes both brood and adult honey bees. Female mites lay eggs
late instar (late

in the cells of

moult) larvae, preferring drone larvae but parasitizing workers as well.

mite nymphs feed on the haemolymph (blood) of the larvae and pupae by piercing their

body walls (Figure

67).

The

Figure 67.
Varroa jacobsoni feeding

on developing pupa.
(Photo Akratanakul)

As mite numbers
cell.

When this

in a

colony increase,

more than one

adult mite will reproduce in a brood

happens, damage and loss of haemolymph causes weight loss and

the death of the immature bees, or the bees

may

may cause

hatch abnormally small and with deformed

wings.

Adult mites attach themselves to adult honey bees and often crawl between the overlapping

abdominal plates (Figure 68), where they are

difficult to

see and impossible to dislodge.

There, the mites feed on adult haemolymph, causing weakening and some mortality.
there

is

no brood production

in the hive,

such as

in the winter, adult

When

mites will remain on

the adult bees.

Figure 68.
Varroa mites between

abdominal plates.
(Photo H. Laidlaw)

A heavy varroa infestation will result in the

dwindling, weakening and eventual death of

honey bee colonies. Symptoms are not easily noticeable in the early stages; however, after
some time, the beekeeper will notice poor build-up and a general weakened condition of the

By

mites, adult bees

mites have likely spread within and amongst apiaries. To see the
must be examined, and brood must be uncapped and removed from cells.

The best method

to detect early varroa infestations is to place a sticky board (stiff white

colony.

this point, the

paper or plastic sheet) on the bottom board. The sticky board should be covered with a wire
screen (8 mesh/inch) to keep bees from the board.
fluvalinate strip.

The board

is

The

removed and examined

hive

for

is

treated with formic acid or a

mites 24 hours

later.

Adult varroa

mites bear a superficial resemblance to the bee louse (Braula coeca) (Figure 69).

140

ctiArvu
Figure 69.

The varroa mite (bottom),

Varroa jacobsoni compared

with the bee louse

(top),

Braula coeca.
(Photo H. Laidlaw)

Once varroa become established

in a hive or apiary,

they are virtually impossible to

eliminate. Varroa can be controlled with treatments using formic acid or fluvalinate

impregnated

strips.

treatment of hives

Consult your provincial apiculturist for treatment

is

essential to

keep varroa

and maintain productive hives. Varroa cannot

killing colonies

at

low levels and

live for

is

details.

Annual

prevent colony mortality

many days away from

and using cold storage for equipment may be

varroa-free source of replacement bees

will

live bees, so

effective, providing a

available.

Acarine disease/tracheal mite

The honey bee

tracheal mite, Acarapis woodi (Rennie), spends its entire life on the adult
honey bee (Figure 70). Adult female mites transfer from one host bee to another by clinging
to their hair. Once on another young bee, they move into the main thoracic tracheae or

breathing tubes or occasionally to the bases of the wings.

Figure 70.
Microscopic enlargement
of adult mite leaving

tracheal tube.

The mites

feed on the bee's

haemolymph

(blood) by piercing the tracheae with their

new host, eggs and young mites are

Growth and mating take place within the tracheae, and new adult females leave to
find another host. The mites cause some damage to tracheae, flight muscles and nerves and
likely affect oxygen uptake by the bee, thereby shortening the bee's life span. Acarine
mouthparts. Within a short time after infesting a

present.

disease caused by the mites appears to cause weakening and dwindling of colonies
especially in winter, contributing to winter losses.

mi

The honey bee

tracheal mite has

been found

in

Canada since the

late 1980' s.

Mites spread

within an apiary by drifting bees. Within two to three years after an apiary becomes

damage to
The mites cannot be seen by the naked eye, and colonies do not display any
symptoms that can be used for field diagnosis until the infestation becomes severe. A
infested, mite populations will increase to levels that begin to cause serious

colonies.

positive diagnosis can only be obtained by examining the prothoracic tracheae under a

microscope for the presence of mites.

Tracheal mites can be controlled, but not eliminated, using formic acid or menthol
treatments. Consult your provincial apiculturist for treatment recommendations. Annual

treatments in spring or
mites.

If

fall

will

ensure strong colonies and

will

minimize the

effect of the

they are not controlled, the bee colony population will dwindle, honey production

will eventually

be affected and winter mortality

will increase.

Other parasitic mites

Two

other mites are found on Apis bee species in tropical Asia.

Baker (Figure 71)

Tropilaelaps clareae Delfinado and

Euvarroa sinhal Delfinado and Baker

As

yet, these mites

have not been reported

in

northern Asian, European or American

countries.

Figure 71.
Adult of Tropilaelaps
clareae.

External mites
There are three named species oiAcarapis

Acarapis externus Morgenthaler

A. dorsalis Morgenthaler

A. vagans Schneider

that live externally

on adult honey bees.

These mites are widespread and are probably present wherever honey bees are
These mites do not appear to harm the honey bees.

kept.

Honey Bee Colonies

Insect Pests of
Ants

Ants are a major honey bee colony pest

occasionally, be a severe

they are

difficult

problem

in tropical

in colonies in

and

warm temperate

Canada.

If

climates and may,

ants enter hives to find food,

pests for the guard bees to catch and remove.

continual stream of ants

The

entering the hive will anger the bees and put the colony on the defensive.

may

ants

even decimate the colony population.

Species such as carpenter ants

may cause

bottom boards. Some ant species tend

structural

damage to hive parts, especially

warm, protected space between

to start nests in the

inner and outer covers. These ants do not generally bother the bees below but constitute a

nuisance to the beekeeper.

If

ant nests are found in the apiary, they

may be

destroyed with gasoline, diesel

two per cent dust may be used under the backs

insecticide. Diazinon as a

care that the chemical does not

Chlorpyrifos granules also

kill

come

ants.

into contact with the

off

or

Take

bees or brood.

Bottom boards must be

exposed to the pesticide, and hives should be up

oil

of hives.

solid so that the

bees are not

the ground. Commercial ant bait traps

are available that can be placed under the appropriate hives or along ant

trails.

Wasps
The beekeeper can often notice wasps hovering around hive entrances and exposed supers.
Bees usually manage to overcome the occasional intruding wasp quite effectively, and wasp
predation on honey bees

is

not a threat to honey production under our conditions.

Wax moths
Two

species of

moth feed

specifically

on pollen, honey and hive debris. These wax moths

can be a problem in stored hive equipment and occasionally in weak colonies. The female

moth

lays eggs

on comb, preferring dark combs to

light.

The

larvae or

wax worms tunnel

through combs, consuming pollen, honey and debris. In addition, they disturb and damage
the honey bee brood, breaking up the structure and integrity of the combs.
are extremely destructive, destroying

Generally,

wax moths

many combs

are not a problem in areas

winter at sub-zero temperatures.

heated shed in the winter,

it

If

seems

where hive equipment

hive equipment
to

Wax moth

larvae

in a short time.

is

is

stored through the

be only a matter of time

until

stored over

summer

wax moths

or in a

find

it.

precautionary measure, such equipment should be stored in "moth-tight" stacks with

As

lids,

and cracks between supers should be taped up. Paradichlorobenzene crystals or mothballs
can be sprinkled on paper between each super to repel the moths.

moths are found

debris and webbed comb, which harbor the

Expose the hive equipment to sub-zero
temperatures to kill the moth larvae. The use of vapona for wax moth control is not
recommended. Beeswax will absorb the vapona vapours permanently, and subsequent use
of the combs will kill bees and brood.
If

different

life

in stored

equipment,

all

stages, should be destroyed.

Wax moths may ruin comb honey both on the

hive and in storage.

removed from the hive when capped and should be stored

Comb honey

at cold or freezing

should be

temperatures

for

wax moth

keep

it

The
wax moths.

Several other species of

moth

common pests

moths, are

best control

control.

free of

recommendations

that feed

in stored

will likely

is

to use

all

hive equipment annually as the bees will

on stored products, such as grain and dried

bee hive equipment on the

prairies.

The above

fruit

control

be effective against these species as well.

The bee louse

The bee

louse, Braula coeca, is not a true louse but a wingless fly adapted to clinging to the

branched hairs of the adult honey bee. The adult louse feeds on pollen and nectar

at the

bee's mouth. Eggs are laid on the cappings of honey cells, and the larvae tunnel through the

The bee

cappings as they feed.

colonies, but

comb honey

if

louse

is

generally considered harmless to honey bee

numerous, they may become a pest by detracting from the appearance of the

The

cappings.

adult louse bears a superficial resemblance to the varroa mite

(Figure 69).

Unwelcome

Intruders

Mice
Mice tend

to find their

way

into overwintering colonies

and stored hive equipment.

If

entrances are not blocked or screened, mice will enter hives over winter and will nest in
the bottom brood chamber, chewing holes through brood frames in the process of
nest-building.

rendering

it

Mice

also tunnel through the insulation surrounding wintering colonies, often

unusable for the next year. In stored equipment, mice will destroy combs by

building nests and chewing on the

wax for pollen and dead

brood.

Overwintering hive entrances should be blocked down to a small size when winter wraps
are put on.

Some beekeepers

mm

entrance (8
safe

from mouse entry owing

rodent bait

block the lower entrance completely; others leave a small

in the centre, too small for

mice

to their location

may be placed on inner

to enter.

and small

Upper entrances are generally

size.

Poisoned grain or commercial

covers, with the feeder holes blocked, below the

insulation and under hives.

If

the storage shed

queen excluders or

is

not rodent-proof, the stacks should be, with cracks blocked up and

tight-fitting lids

in the

shed should be

come

into contact with

above and below each stack. Rodent

bait or grain

in flattened tin cans with small openings, so other animals

used

do not

it.

Skunks
Skunks can be a major problem in apiaries, especially in the spring and fall. Nocturnal by
nature, skunks will scratch at hive entrances until bees emerge, then will lap up the bees
caught

Skunks
in

in their fur. Stings

will

do not seem to bother them.

switch from hive to hive in an apiary, decimating the adult honey bee population

each hive and angering the colony to a point where

and damage winter wrapping material and

hives. Signs of

skunk

may even

visitation include scratches

it

cannot be handled. Skunks also tear

nest in the insulation on top of the

on hive

fronts,

matted and torn

vegetation, scratches or holes in the ground in front of the entrances and extremely angry

and weakened colonies.

144

CMAFm
As skunks tend to stay in the vicinity and return to the apiary, trappin^j or shooting are
effective means of control. A completely closed box trap is apparently better for keepinj^
skunk from releasing
available

its

scent and

from the apiculture

may

office.

the

also help retain any odor. Plans for such a trap are

Trapped skunks may be gassed, shot or released

elsewhere.

A piece of screening extending up and out from the

the winter wrap from scratching by skunks.

If

hive entrance will protect the hive and

the skunk tries to climb the screen,

A board with many

underbelly will be exposed to bee stings.

its

sharp nails pointed upwards

placed on the ground in front of the hive entrance also helps deter skunks from scratching
at the hive.

Bears
Beekeeping operations can

suffer

tremendously from bear depredation

in

bee yards. Not

only do bears eat the bees and brood, they usually destroy and scatter hive equipment and

can cause thousands of dollars worth of damage to apiaries.

The extent

of bear

damage

varies from year to year depending on factors like the severity

of the previous winter, the reproduction

of territory

and survival rate of young bears and the

availability

and natural food sources. Bears have to learn that honey bee colonies are a food

source, but once they discover that

fact,

they tend to return to the apiary or to

visit

other

apiaries.

Bear damage to apiaries can usually be avoided. Putting apiaries

habitat,

such as stream banks and bush,

Apiaries should be located

frames,

Using

will

mean an

near preferred bear

away from these areas and should be kept clean

of

broken

comb and other attractants.

electric fences

around apiaries

is

the most effective

means

Fences must be properly constructed and maintained to be

place and in operation before a bear problem develops.
a fence

in or

increased chance of bear problems.

may

of keeping bears out.

effective,

and they must be

Once the bear has

not stop further entry.

Construction should consist of posts 1.25

heights of 25 cm, 50

cm

be included.

m tall and 6-8 m apart, with at least 3 wires at

and 75 cm. Steel telephone wire or electroplastic wire

over barbed wire for ease of handling.

is

prefered

A gate wide enough for trucks to pass through should

12-volt battery, preferably of a type used in recreational vehicles, and a

quality fencer are necessary. Solar fencers are preferable since batteries

The fences

in

a taste for brood,

or batteries

may be

located within the fence

if

good

may run down.

problems with two-legged

intruders are anticipated.

The

fence

may be

baited with bacon rind or a punctured sardine can so that the

of contact for the bear are the nose and tongue. Vegetation

herbicide in a 50

cm

strip

first

under the fence to avoid shorting out the fence.

Detailed information on bear fences

may be

obtained from the apiculture office or wildlife

offices.

If

points

must be mowed or treated with

bear damage continues, shooting or trapping and removal are the alternatives.

Beekeepers should contact

their wildlife division for information and regulations.

The Africanized honey bee

The

Africanized honey bee

is

now

present in South, Central and North America. This bee

originates from stock of Apis mellifera scutellata, a tropical

was introduced
this strain has

European

into Brazil in 1956. Since its introduction

migrated

strains.

in all directions

honey bee

strain

from Africa that

and escape from managed hives,

and has largely displaced the previously introduced

This bee has changed the scope of beekeeping in tropical and subtropical

areas of the Americas.

The

Africanized bee differs from European strains in several ways.

smaller cavities, and exposed nesting sites are

common.

It

hive abandonment (absconding) often occurs, whereas absconding

strains.

Honey

store less

storage characteristics

honey than do European

differ: tropical

It

much

tends to nest in

has a high swarming rate and

is

rare in European

African and Africanized strains tend to

strains. Africanized

worker bees are smaller and have

shorter lifespan than European worker bees.

The best known trait

of the Africanized

bee

is its

well-developed defensive behavior.

Tropical African and Africanized honey bees have a greater tendency to react to colony
disturbance. Large

numbers

of

workers

will take part in this

colony defense and will follow

intruders further and attack for a longer period than will European strains. Both

human and

animal deaths have been attributed to these prolonged attacks.

Researchers

feel the Africanized

honey bee

will not

be able to withstand winter conditions

throughout most of the United States and Canada. However, the presence of this strain

be disruptive

in

queen and package-producing areas

of the southern U.S.

and

Should stock with strong defensive and swarming tendencies be brought into Canada
packages,

its

presence here, even during the summer,

may cause

stinging to non-beekeepers. This stock could also affect

The onus

in

increased incidences of

honey production.

on the

is

beekeeper

may

California.

to take

an

active role in

protecting his or her

Pesticide Poisoning of
Because honey bees are

Honey Bees

insects, they are

insecticides. Pesticides are a necessary

very susceptible to the toxic effects of

and unavoidable aspect of today's agriculture, but

the death of honey bee colonies through pesticide poisoning

colonies from
pesticide effects.

be avoided. The onus

is

is

unnecessary and can usually

on the beekeeper to take an active role

in protecting his or

her

colonies from pesticide effects.

Toxicity of pesticides to honey bees

Pesticides enter honey bees

most commonly by

direct contact, through contact with spray

They may also be taken in orally or

may affect the digestive tract so that the

droplets in the air and with sprayed plant surfaces.

through the respiratory system. The pesticides

adult bee can

no longer nourish

itself,

or the nervous system so that legs, wings and organ

systems no longer function properly. Death may be immediate,

the

field,

House bees and brood may

Pesticides

may also have

which case bees die

in

also be affected

if

pesticides are carried back to the hive.

sub-lethal effects on the colony, disrupting egg-laying and normal

colony functioning and causing chilling or starvation of brood.

1^

in

or delayed, so that they die in or near the hive.

Bee poisoning may occur when crops on which the bees

poisoning

may

are foraging are sprayed. But

also occur indirectly, through drift of sprays to adjoining fields or through

contamination of flowering weeds such as dandelions and hawk's-beard

in

the field or

orchard. Dichlorvos, the active ingredient on a no-pest strip, has a high affinity for
will

be absorbed into exposed beeswax combs, subsequently being released

and

killing

or sheds

The
to

both adult bees and brood. Vapona strips should never be used

where combs are

pesticide formulation

is

major factor affecting both

that increases the

more

toxicity

honey bees come

Thus, dusts and sprays of wettable

toxic than fine sprays, and granular formulations are

usually very low in toxicity because the toxic

Incorrect dosage and application times

may

compound

the correct rate and at the correct time of day.

effect,

breaking

is

not available for direct contact.

greatly increase toxicity and hazard to

are not harmful to honey bees

they have a short residual

if

immediate and residual

of pesticide the

toxic than sprays of liquid formulations such as emulsifiable

concentrates. Coarse sprays are

Many pesticides

its

amount

into contact with will generally increase its toxicity.

bees.

doses

honey houses

stored.

honey bees. Any formulation

powders are often more

in

wax and

in lethal

if

These

down

honey

applied in the correct formulation, at

pesticides

to a safe level

may be

highly toxic, but

soon after application. Thus,

they are applied at dusk after the bees have stopped foraging, or in some cases in the

early

morning before foraging begins, there

bees reach the

Some

no longer any toxic

pesticides and formulations are extremely toxic to

applied to flowering crops or

and

is

may be

by the time the

weeds

at

all,

while

some

honey bees and must not be

are relatively non-toxic to honey bees

applied during flowering, but never while bees are foraging. Residual toxicity of

may

a pesticide

effect

field.

also be affected

by temperature.

Symptoms

of bee poisoning

Symptoms

bee poisoning vary depending on the type of pesticide used. Large numbers of

dead bees

of

in front of the hives is a typical sign, as is

severe dwindling of the adult

Dying bees may appear paralyzed, stupefied and unable to fly or walk without
tumbling. Bees may regurgitate the nectar, causing them to look wet; their abdomens may
be swollen, and the bees may be very aggressive. Abnormal brood patterns may be seen, or
the queen may stop egg laying altogether, and house bees may begin supersedure cells.
population.

Chilled and dead brood

may be seen in combs or in front of the hive. Colonies may be

may be knocked back enough that honey production

completely dead, or the population

be reduced.

See Table 12

for pest

problems that have the potential to

through spray programs.

affect

beekeeping operations

will

Table 12. Some pest problems with

potential affects on

honey bees through

or colonies or through spray drift to flowers in adjacent fields

Insect

Time

of

Year

Plant Species

Recommended Treatment
(1997)*

(stage of crop)

Forest Tent

direct spraying of

and along roadsides.

May, June

Caterpillar

oneiteroeits

Dipel, Thuricide

and bush

Uylox 420

Methoxychlor EC^
Maiatnion bU bu
oevin ALn
Diazinon EC^
Cot/in \A/D^
oevin
vvr

Flea Beetles

late

May - mid-June

(seedling)

Canola

IN-FURROW OR SEED

Mustard

Lindane^

ruraaan du
Cniintpr "iR^

FOLIAR SPRAYS
Decis 5.0 EC^

Malathion 500 EC^

Supracide 25 EC^

Furadan 480
Sevin

liq.

Guthion 240

May - mid-June

Clover

late

Cutworms

(seedling)

F^

susp.^

SC

Canola, Flax,

Lorsban 4E^

Canola, Alfalfa

Decis 5.0 EC^

Sweet Clover

Sevin XLR^

July (bloom)

May - mid-June

Sweet Clover

late

Weevil

(seedling)

Malathion 500 EC^

Fall

Cygon 480 EC^

Guthion 240 SC^

Sevin

Lygus and

late

June

Alfalfa Plant

late

July (bloom)

(pre bloom)

Alfalfa (seed)

liq.

susp.^

Dylox 420
Decis 5.0 EC^

Bugs

Supracide 25 EC^

Cygon 480 EC^

AHaKa Weevil

Alfalfa

Looper

mid-June (pre bloom)

mid

Summer

late

June, July

(pre bloom, bloom)

148

Alfalfa (seed)

Malathion 500 EC^

Guthion 240 SC^

(bloom)

Alfalfa (seed)

Lorsban 4E^

bees and/

'

Table 12. (continued)

Insect

Time of Year

Plant Species

Grasshoppers

all

summer

Recommended Treatment
(1997)*

(stage of crop)

All

Crops

Pastures

All /^DO DO
ALL
CROPS

Hopper Stopper''
Sevin XLR^

Malathion 500 EC

OILSEEDS
ivioniior

4ou

CEREALS
Decis 5.0 EC^
Guthion 240 SC'
o
Sevin

I-

susp.

liq.

Cygon 480 EC'

Hopper Spray 400 EC^

FORAGES
Guthion 240 SC'

Cygon 480 EC^

Supracide 25 EC'
'
'

Wheat Midge

late July,

early

August

Diamondback

late July,

Moth

(bloom, post bloom)

August

Wheat,

Lorsban 4E

Barley

Cygon 480 EC'

Mustard

Dylox 420 EC^

Canola

Malathion 500 EC^

Guthion 240 SC^
_

_i

Supracide 25 EC
Decis 5.0 EC^
Bertha

mid-August

Canola

Lorsban 4E'

Armyworm

(bloom, post bloom)

Flax

Monitor 480
Lannate

l'

L'

Decis 5.0 EC^

Aphids

August

Forage Crops

ALL CROPS
Cygon 480 EC'
Sys Tern 480 EC'

CEREALS
Systox 240 SC^

FORAGES
Malathion 500 EC^

Supracide 25 EC'

Ants

2%

Beekeeping

Diazinon

season

(MUST NOT

in

bee hives

dust under back of hives

contact bees or comb)

Table 12. (continued)

Time

Insect

Recommended Treatment

Plant Species

Year

of

(1997)*

(stage of crop)

Flies,

Honey

July,

Bees,

Wasps

honey house

August

Bee-tight building

in

Bee escapes

in

windows

Flyswatters

DO NOT USE VAPONA

Wax Moths

Year-round

Store

in

stored supers

in

sub-zero temperatures

Paradichlorobenzene crystals

between supers
Bacillus thuringiensis
(Certan)'^

DO NOT USE VAPONA

*

Recommendations from Saskatchewan Agriculture's Crop

Protection Guide (1997). Additional

guidelines can be found in Alberta Agriculture's Crop Protection with Chemicals 1998,

Agdex

606-1.

Toxicity ratings from Carl Johansen, Entomologist Washington State University, Pullman,

Washington.

Do

Highly toxic to honey bees.

Apply only during

late evening.

Apply only during

late evening, night or early

Can be applied

at

not apply to crops or

weeds

in bloom.

morning.

any time with reasonable safety to bees.

Preventing losses
Most growers and spray

applicators do not

threatened by a pest outbreak, the grower

want
is

to kill

honey bees. But

if

a crop

going to spray, bees or no bees.

is

It is

up to the

beekeeper to protect colonies from being severely set back or destroyed.

Here are several approaches

that should allow for insecticide use with a

minimum

of risk to

bees:

Initiate

and maintain contact with the farmers and commercial pesticide applicators

in

them know where your colonies are located. Clearly post your name,
address and telephone number at each apiary location so that you can be easily contacted

your area and

by

let

farmers and pesticide applicators.

local

Become

familiar with the

common

insect pests in your area and

when

take place, so you will be aware of the problems facing the grower and

may be

spray programs

when

the bees

threatened (Table 12).

Pesticide applicators should be encouraged to use the pesticides that are least toxic to

bees.

Restricting the application of

morning,

when bees

many

insecticides to the late evening or very early

are not foraging, lessens the possibility of causing injury to honey

bees and other pollinating insects.

Insecticides should not be applied to crops in bloom. Today,

be kept

in the prairie

provinces that almost every blooming

bees actively foraging

150

in the area.

it is

so

common for bees

field is likely to

to

have honey

Should spraying be imminent and the movement of colonies impractical, bees

may be

confined to the hive for a few hours to minimize contact with the pesticide. However,
care must be taken to prevent overheating of the colony during periods of confinement.

Screened colonies can be assisted with cooling by supplying water-filled combs and by
covering the hive with wet burlap and keeping

it

warm

wet. During

should not be confined for more than a few hours.

The

days, strong colonies

length of confinement will depend on

the residual toxicity of the pesticide in use.

Documenting bee
Pesticide

These

kills

reports,

kills

should be reported to the apiculture

if

clearly

office,

documented, are very useful

in

even

if

litigation is not intended.

determining both the severity of

the pesticide poisoning situation and the ways to avoid similar situations in the future.

The documentation

of pesticide kills

is

necessary, especially

if

the beekeeper intends to

if a number of bees
them and freeze them immediately. When transported,
the bees should be kept frozen with dry ice, as pesticide residues break down quickly at

pursue compensation for losses. Watch for symptoms of dying bees, and
are dead, collect several handfuls of

warm temperatures.
If litigation is

intended, an impartial witness should be present

Photographs of the affected apiary

of day of pesticide spraying,
after,

will

when samples

are collected.

be useful. Records must be kept of the date and time

weather conditions both

the pest target, the crop, the pesticide,

its

at the

time and two days before and

formulation and rate of application and the

distance of the apiary from the sprayed fields.

It will

be

difficult for

or affected by spray

the beekeeper to win a court case unless the apiary

drift,

or the bees are foraging on land

if

the aerial applicator

is

sprayed directly
is

drift.

spraying a field during daylight hours with a pesticide labeled

clearly only for application before

is

the beekeeper that

However, the beekeeper should report the

provincial licensing authorities under the following conditions:

mistakenly sprayed or affected by spray

applicator to

owned by

dawn

or after dusk, or

using a pesticide or formulation not registered for use on the crop in question and does
not have a special permit.

Reporting the applicator

between

all

is

a dramatic

concerned parties

will

measure, and hopefully, previous communications

have resolved any potentially hazardous spraying

The beekeeper must still depend on the local growers for apiary sites and bee
even though many growers would see much lower returns without the pollinating

situation.

forage,

bees. Early and continued communication between beekeeper and grower will be

more

effective in preventing

bee losses and maintaining good

will

much

than action after the

fact.

Appendix A
Glossary of Apiculture Terms
Abdomen

- Segmented posterior part

of

bee

Apiary - The

location and

containing heart, honey stomach, intestines,

colonies, hives and other

reproductive organs and sting.

assembled

in

one

site for

sum

total of

equipment
beekeeping

operations.

Acarapis woodi (Rennie) - Scientific name

of honey bee tracheal mite, which infests
tracheae of bees.

Apiculture - The science and art of raising

honey bees for economic benefit or personal
enjoyment.

Acarine disease -

A malady of adult bees

caused by a mite, Acarapis woodi, infesting

Apis - Genus

to

which honey bees belong.

the thoracic tracheae.

Apis adreniformis - Similar

Acid board - See fume board.
African bee - See Apis mellifera

found
scutellata.

in

to A. florea;

southeast Asia.

Apis cerana - This species

found

is

throughout Asia, and in certain countries,

After-swarms - Swarms
hive after the

may leave
or prime swarm has

first

that

the

departed.

is

Apis dorsata -

sting that alerts other bees to danger.

is

the principal alarm

odour; 2-heptanone, found in worker bee

mandibular glands,

is

a secondary alarm

odour.

name

Alighting board - Extended entrance to

American foulbrood (AFB) - Contagious

disease of bee larvae caused by Bacillus
(also

bee

Apis florea - Being the smallest of the four

species of honey bees, it is often called the
dwarf bee. This species

though

it

is

native to Asia only,

is

more western

in distribution

known

as Paenibacillus

than

the other Asian species (A.florea has recently

Apis laboriosa - Similar

in limited

White

for giant

honey bees.

been inadvertently introduced

beehive on which incoming bees land.

larvae

all

chemical substance

released from the vicinity of a worker bee's

Isopentyl acetate

Scientific

of Asia; largest of

Alarm odour - A

it

the honey bee of commerce.

to

into Africa).

A dorsata; found

high altitude areas of Asia.

Apis koschevnikovi - Similar

found

in

to

A cerana;

southeast Asia.

larvae var. larvae).

Apis mellifera - The common honey bee

Antennae - Slender jointed feelers, which

bear certain sense organs, on heads of

found throughout the western world though

originally

from the near-east. Humans have

carried i4/?/s mellifera from

insects.

Europe

to

all

continents.

Anther -

Part of flower that develops and

contains pollen.

Apiarist - Beekeeper.

153

Apis mellifera scutellata - The African

Bee house - A house

bee. This

maintain colonies of bees, usually in rows

is

a race oiApis mellifera that has

become estabhshed and spread throughout

constructed to

along the side with openings to the outside.

south and central America and recently found

Beekeeper, commercial -

southern USA.

in the

A beekeeper

managing 200 or more hives as

Apis nigrocincta - Similar

found

in

to

A cerana;

source of livelihood.

Honey crop

main or sole
generally

sold in bulk. Operations of over 400 hives

Suluwezi.

generally require additional help.

Apis nuluensis - Similar

in

to

A cerana; found

Borneo.

Artificial

insemination - See instrumental

Beekeeper, hobby - A beekeeper tending

up to 50 hives, generally to fulfill an interest
and to have some honey to sell privately.

insemination.

Beekeeper, sideline Bacillus larvae White (Paenibacillus

larvae var. larvae) - Bacterial organism

A beekeeper tending

50-200 hives, generally to

fulfill

an interest

and to supplement income.

causing American foulbrood.

Bee louse Balling a queen -

number

An

attack on a

queen by a

worker bees intent on killing her

by pulling at her legs and wings, stinging and
suffocation. In this process, the bees form a
of

fly

Relatively harmless wingless

found in colonies. Larvae can damage

honeycomb.

Scientific

name

is

Braula coeca

Nitzsch.

paralysis - Condition of adult bees,

small cluster or tight ball of bees around the

Bee

queen.

caused by a virus that prevents them from

flying or

performing other functions normally.

Bee blower - A blower driven with a

gasoline engine used to

remove bees from

Bee bread -

Stored pollen

in

comb.

Bee brush - A brush

for

Bee plants -

Plant species visited by bees

for nectar and/or pollen.

supers of honey.

full

or whisk broom used

removing bees from combs.

Bee dance - Movement

of bee on comb
means of communication, usually same
movement is repeated over and over.

as

Bee space - The natural space found

between combs built by bees. This space is
big enough to permit free passage of bees. It
measures 5 to 9 mm. Spaces larger than a
bee space will be filled with burr comb or full
honey comb. Spaces less than a bee space
will

be sealed with propolis. Langstroth

applied this observation to North American

hive equipment construction.

Bee escape - Device

one

to let bees pass in only

direction, usually inserted

between

supers of honey and brood nest

removal of bees from honey

is

when

desired.

Beeswax - A complex

mixture of organic

compounds secreted by

four pairs of glands

on the underside of the worker bee's

abdomen and used by bees

Bee glue - See

propolis.

Its

melting point

is

for building

comb.

from 62C-64C

(143.6F to 147.2F).

Bee gloves - Long gloves made

of cloth or

tree -

A hollow tree

leather to protect the hands and wrists from

Bee

stings.

colony of bees.

Bee gum - A

hollow log used for housing a

colony of bees.

Beehive - Domicile

154

for colony of

honey bees.

occupied by a

- Screen or net worn over head and

from bee stings.

Bee

veil

neck

for protection

Bee venom -

Burr comb - Comb

Poison injected througli bee

built out

from wood

frame or comb, but usually unattached on one

end because the space exceeds "bee space."

sting.

Bee yard - See

apiary.

Candy - See queen cage

section -

Beeway

Comb honey

candy.

sections

with a built-in beeway or bee space.

Cap - Covering

Bottom board -

Capped brood - Brood whose cells have

been sealed by the bees with a porous cover
to isolate the immature bees within, during

Floor of beehive.

Brace comb - Small pieces

comb made

of

as

connecting links between combs or between

a

comb and

the hive

itself.

of cell.

their nonfeeding pre-pupal and pupal periods.

See burr comb.

Capped honey - Honey

Braula coeca - The scientific name of a
wingless fly known as bee louse. It is of little

stored in sealed

cells.

Cappings melter - Various types

economic importance. See bee louse.

of melters

used to liquefy the wax from cappings.

Breathing pores - See

spiracles.

Cappings - The

Brood - Immature

or developing stages of

bees: includes eggs, larvae and pupae.

full

thin wax covering of cells

Same term used for material
from the surface of a honey-filled comb

of honey.

sliced

before extracting the honey.

Brood chamber - The

the brood

is

include one or

combs

part of a hive

reared and food

is

where

stored.

May

more hive bodies and the

within.

Carniolan bee - Apis mellifera carnica.

Gentle greyish-black bee originally from
southern Austria, northern Yugoslavia and
the

Danube

Valley.

Brood comb - Wax comb from brood

chamber

of hive containing brood. Usually a

Castes - The three forms

of bees: workers,

drones and queen.

dark color.

Brood food - Secretion

of highly nutritious

used to feed young larvae and queens,

produced in the hypopharyngeal glands in the
heads of adult bees.
food,

Brood nest - Area

of hive

where bees are

densely clustered and brood

is

reared.

Brood rearing - The raising of young bees

from eggs to larvae to pupae to young adult
stage.

Caucasian bee - Apis mellifera caucasica.

Dark bee originating in the Caucasus
mountains, noted for its heavy propolizing
characteristic.

Cell - Single unit of space in comb in which

honey is stored or a bee can be raised;
worker cells are about 4 cells per square cm
(25 cells per square inch) of comb, drone
cells are

about 2 1/2 cells per square

cm

(18 per square inch).

Build-up - The natural increase

in

cup - An artificial queen cell base made

beeswax for rearing queen bees.

Cell

population of honey bees within a colony,

of

reaching peak population at the

commencement

of the

main nectar

flow.

Chilled brood - Immature bees that have

died from being too cold, frequently because

Bulk comb honey - Comb honey produced

in shallow

of

mismanagement.

frames and usually sold as a

complete unit

in the frame.

See chunk comb

honey.

155

Chunk comb honey - Type

of honey pack
honey comb is placed in
container of hquified honey or wrapped "dry"
in

which

a piece of

Deep super - A super used to hold

standard, full-depth frames; the usual depth
is

241

mm or 244 mm (9 1/2" or 9 5/8").

in plastic container.

Demaree - The beekeeper who invented a

honey - Honey

Clarified

heated, then filtered to

that has

remove

all

popular method of

been

wax

or

method.

other particles.

swarm

control, also

used

as a verb, "to demaree," in describing this

It

queen

consists of separating the

from most of the brood.

Cleansing

flight

- Flight bees take

after

confinement, during which they would void

Dextrose - Also known

their feces outside the hive.

the principal sugars of honey. Also found in

as glucose, one of

nectar.

Clipped queen - Queen whose wing

(or wings) has been clipped for identification
purposes or swarm control.

Diastase - Enzyme that aids

starch to sugar.

The

in converting

diastase level

used as

is

an index of the heating history of a honey.

within a hive

Cluster - The form or arrangement of bees

when ambient temperature

Dividing - Separating

drops below 14C (57F).

or

Colony - An aggregate of several thousand

worker bees, drones and a queen bee living

Division board -

together in a hive or in any other dwelling as

super.

one

chamber or
two parts.

social unit.

more new

a colony to

A thin vertical board of the

same length and height

It is

form two

colonies.

as the inside of a

used to reduce the size of the

to vertically divide the hive into

Comb - A back-to-back arrangement of two

series of hexagonal

wax

cells that hold eggs,

brood, pollen or honey.

Division board feeder in

Comb

foundation - Manufactured sheets of

beeswax with the foundation of worker cells

embossed

syrup to bees.

Drawn combs

into the wax.

built out

Comb honey - Honey in the comb usually

produced

in small

A wooden or

compartment or trough hung in a hive

place of a frame and used for feeding sugar

plastic

wooden or

cells

beeswax or

plastic foundation.

plastic sections.

Drifting -

Compound eyes - The two

- Combs having the

by honey bees from a sheet of

The tendency

of bees to transfer

large lateral

to colonies other than their

own because

eyes of the adult honey bee composed of

lack of visual cues to orient

them

many

"home"

visual elements called ommatidia.

Cross-pollination - Transfer of pollen from

of a

to their

hive.

Drone - Male

bee.

anther of one plant to stigma of different

plant of

same

Drone brood - The male brood

species.

that

is

reared in larger cells than worker brood.

Cyanogas - A commercial

preparation of

calcium cyanide used to

bees that are

kill

diseased or a nuisance in buildings and other

undesirable places.

It

forms hydrogen

cyanide gas on contact with moist

atmosphere.

It is

a very poisonous material

and must be handled with care. The gas

lighter than air.

156

is

Drone comb - Wax comb with about

cells

per square

cm

2 1/2

(18 per square inch).

Combs

with a high proportion of drone cells

are not

recommended

in the

brood chamber.

Drone-layer -

A queen that

Fertile

lays only

which result in drones,

because she no longer has any sperm, was
poorly mated or was not mated at all.
unfertilized eggs,

Dwindling - Rapid or unusual depletion

of

queen - A queen

inseminated

that has

drone spermatozoa and

is

capable of laying

fertilized eggs.

Field bees - Worker bees that are usually

21 or more days old and work

hive population.

collect nectar, pollen,

Dyce process - A patented

been

or naturally with

artificially

in the field to

water and propolis.

process

involving pasteurization and controlled

Flash heater - Device

granulation to produce a finely granulated

cooling the honey within a few minutes.

honey product

that spreads easily at

Foundation - See comb foundation.

A condition

of adult

Frame - Four assembled pieces

bees

designed to hold comb.

resulting from an accumulation of feces

within the gut.

winter and

is

It

bar,

usually occurs during

It

of

wood

consists of one top

one bottom bar and two end bars.

caused by unfavorable

A simple

wintering conditions and poor quality food.

Fructose -

Dysentery

predominant one

is

and

room

temperature.

Dysentery -

for heating

detected by fecal spotting

in

sugar, usually the

honey. Also found in

nectar. (See levulose).

around the entrance and within the hive.

Often associated with nosema disease.

Fume
Embed

- To force wire

into

by heat, pressure or both

strengthening the comb.

comb

for the

foundation

purpose of

board -

A board the

of a super with a 3-4

cm

absorbent cloth, on which

several bee repellents.

length and width

rim and a lining of

is

placed one of

The fume board

is

then placed on the bee hive, and the bee

Emerging brood - Young

coming out

adult bees first

Entrance blocks - Pieces

of

wood used

in

regulating the size of hive entrances.

Escape board -

A board having one or more

and used to remove bees

from supers above the bee escape.
bee escapes

in

repellent drives the bees out of the

honey

super.

of their cells.

it

Fumidil-B -

A trade name for fumagillin,

antibiotic for controlling

nosema

Galleria mellonella (L.) - Scientific

of greater

the

disease.

name

wax moth.

Glucose - See dextrose.

European foulbrood - A brood

disease of

bees caused hy Melissococcus (Streptococcus)

Grafting - A process of removing a worker

from its cell and transferring it to an

larva

pluton.

queen cup
queen by bees.

artificial

Excluder - See queen excluder.

to

have

it

reared into a

Extractor - A machine that rotates

honeycombs at sufficient speed to remove
honey from the cells by centrifugal force.

Granulated honey -

Feces - Excreta

of bees.

Hive - Human-constructed home

Fermentation -

A chemical breakdown of

sugar caused by yeasts; in honey,

fermentation

is

Crystallized honey.

Green honey - Unripe honey.

Hive body -

for bees.

A wooden box that encloses the

frames.

caused by the genus

Zygosaccharomyces

Hive stand hive.

A structure that supports the

Hive

tool -

A metal device used to open

Isle of

hives, pry frames apart, clean the hive, etc.

Hoffman frame - Frames

widened

early and

little

for acarine disease.

Italian bees - Apis mellifera ligustica.

with end bars

at the top to act as a

Wight disease - An

used name

spacing device.

originating from Italy,

Bees
most common race in

North America.

Honey bee - The common name

mellifera.

for Apis

Order Hymenoptera, Family Apidae.

Langstroth frame - A frame measuring 48

long (top bar) by 23 cm deep

cm

Honeydew - Sweet secretions from aphids

(19" X 9 1/8").

and scale insects.

Langstroth hive - Hive with movable

Honey flow - See

nectar flow.

frames. Dimensions such that the bee space

is

allowed between surfaces.

Honey gate - A faucet used for removing

honey from

tanks.

Honey house - A building used for

extracting

honey packaging honey, storing

supers, etc.

Larva - The second stage in the complete

development of an insect, such as the honey
bee, having complete metamorphosis or four
stages - egg, larva, pupa, adult. The plural of
the term

Honey pump - Pump

for transferring

honey

from one container to another.

Honey stomach (honey

is

larvae.

Laying worker -

A worker bee that lays

eggs that develop into drones. Laying

sac) -

The

part of

workers usually develop in colonies that have

been queenless for a long period.

the bee's digestive tract (crop) adapted to

carrying nectar, honey or water, located in

Legume - One

the front part of the abdomen.

which includes clover,

Honey sump - See sump.

Leguminosae,

of the family
alfalfa,

Levulose - Fructose or

peas and beans.

fruit sugar,

one of

the major sugars, with glucose, of honey.

Hormone -

Substance produced

in small

quantity in one part of body (usually in gland

of internal secretion)

and transported to

other parts, where

exerts

it

its action.

Mandibles - The jaws of an insect. In the

honey bee and most insects, the mandibles

move

in a horizontal rather

than in a vertical

plane.

Hymenoptera - An

order of insects to

which all bees belong, as well as

and sawflies.

ants,

wasps

Manipulation of colonies - Using hive

equipment to best advantage in aiding colony
development.

Inner cover - A lightweight cover used

under a standard telescoping cover on a bee
hive.

Instrumental insemination - The

introduction of drone spermatozoa into the
genital organs of a virgin

queen by means

flight - The flight taken by a virgin

queen during which time she mates in the air
with one or more drones. Normally queens
mate six to eight times during one or more
mating flights.

Mating

of

special instruments.

Mead - Wine made

from honey.

Invertase - An enzyme produced by honey

Metamorphosis - Changes

bees that speeds inversion of sucrose to

egg to

glucose and fructose.

adult.

of insect

from

Migratory beekeeping - The moving

of

Overstocking -

colonies of bees from one locality to another

there are too

during a single season, for pollination or to

given

take advantage of two or

A condition

many

reached when

colonies of bees for a

locality.

more nectar flows

Package bees - Two

or different crops.

or three pounds of

bees that are shaken from combs of beehives

Movable frame - A frame

or

comb

constructed on the principle of the "bee

space."

When

unattached to
burr
is,

comb

placed in a hive,
its

it

remains

into wire

mesh cages

sale. Into

each package

and

for transportation
is

placed a caged,

mated queen.

surroundings (by pieces of

or heavy deposits of propolis) and

Paralysis - See bee paralysis.

therefore, easily removed.

Nectar -

A sweet carbohydrate

secretion by

glands or nectaries in different parts of

plants, chiefly in the flowers.

of honey.

Parthenogenesis - The development of

young from unfertilized eggs. In honey bees,
the unfertilized eggs produce only drones.

The raw source

See nectaries. See sucrose.

Pfund grader -

A device

used to give

numerical value to honey color.

Nectaries - Plant glands that secrete nectar.

Pheromone - A chemical
Nectar flow - The time of year when the
production of nectar by various plant species
is great enough that bees gather and store
the nectar and convert

it

secretion released

externally by one animal that stimulates a

response

in a

second animal of the same

species.

to honey.

Piping -

Fix - A trade name for

fumagilHn, used to control nosema disease.

series of sounds

made by queens.

No Ceema

Pistil

- Female part

of flower consisting of

stigma, style and ovary.

Nosema

disease - Disease of adult bees

caused by protozoan spore-forming mid-gut

parasite,

Nosema

Play flights - Short orientation

by young bees

apis Zander.

flights

in front of the hive

and

young bees with

vicinity to acquaint the

Nucleus - A small colony of bees often used

in queen rearing, or mating or increasing

immediate surroundings. These are

sometimes mistaken for robbing or

colony numbers.

preparation for swarming because they

involve large

Nurse bees - Young worker bees

that feed

numbers

taken

in its

of bees at

their

may

one time,

usually mid-afternoon.

larvae.

Pollen - The male sex

cells of plants

Observation hive - A hive, usually only

large enough for one frame, made with clear

gathered by worker bees from the anthers of

sides to permit observation of the bees at

fats and vitamins that are consumed by the

young nurse bees and elaborated into brood

work.

flowers. Pollen provides protein, minerals,

food or "royal jelly."

Ocellus - A simple eye with a single lens.

The honey bee has three ocelli on the top of
its

Pollen basket (corbiculum) spines, located

Ommatidium - One

A flattened

concave depression surrounded by curved

head.
of the visual units

comprising the compound eye.

tibiae of

the pollen gathered from flowers to the hive.

The mass

Out apiary - An apiary kept at a distance

from the home or honey house of the

on the outside of the

the bee's hind legs and adapted for carrying

of pollen within each corbiculum

is

referred to as a pollen pellet.

beekeeper.

159

Pollen insert -

A pollination device

inserted

which handplaced. As the bees leave

into the entrance of a colony into

collected pollen

is

the hive and pass through the trap,

some

the pollen adheres to their bodies and

of

Queen cage - A
and

small cage in which a queen

worker bees may be confined

five or six

for shipping and/or introduction into a colony.

May

may not

or

contain candy.

is

carried to the blossoms, resulting in

Queen cage candy - Candy made by

cross-pollination.

kneading powdered sugar with invert sugar

syrup until

Pollen substitute -

A food material used to

it

forms a

stiff

dough, used in

queen cages.

substitute wholly for pollen to supply the

needed protein, vitamins and

diet. It

fats to a bee's

includes water, sugar and other

Queen
is

yeast.

length.

Pollen supplement -

A mixture
(as

of pollen

special elongated cell

in

which the queen

more in
The inside diameter is about 8 mm.
hangs down from the comb in a vertical
reared.

materials such as soy flour and/or brewer's

and other protein sources

cell

resembling a peanut shell

usually an inch or

It is

It

position.

above) along

with sugar and water, fed to colonies to

Queen cup - A cup-shaped cell that hangs

supplement their protein needs.

vertically in a hive.
plastic

Pollen trap - Device installed over colony

is

entrance that scrapes and accumulates pollen

queen

and

placed in

it

made

beeswax or
cell if an egg
and if bees add wax to it. See
It is

may become

of

queen

cell.

from the pollen baskets on the hind legs of

Queen excluder - A device made

bees returning to their hives.

wood and wire

Pollination -

The

transfer of pollen from the

about 5

of wire, or

or zinc, having openings of

mm that permit workers to pass

anthers (male) to the stigma (female) of

through but exclude queen and drones.

flowers.

used to confine the queen to a specific part of

the hive, usually the brood chamber.

Prime swarm - The

first

swarm

It is

to issue,

usually with the old queen, from the parent

Queenless - Without

a queen.

colony.

Queen mailing cages - Cages

cm in which a mated queen with

Proboscis - Tongue of bees and other

8 X3 X2

insects.

10 attendant workers and a soft candy for

6 to

food are placed for the purpose of travel

Propolis - Resins and gums gathered from

through the mail.

trees and used by bees in sealing cracks,

nuclei - Small colonies in

repairing cells and covering objectionable

Queen mating

material within the hive. Also referred to as

which unhatched queen cells are placed and

from which virgin queens will make mating

bee glue.

flights.

Pupa - Third

stage in the development of an

insect having complete metamorphosis. In

this stage, the

organs of the larva are

transformed into those that

adult.

See

will

be used as an

Queen-rearing colonies - Colonies

managed in such a way as to produce queen
cells.

larva.

Queen-right - With a queen.

Queen -

Sexually developed female bee,

larger and longer than

Queen banks -

worker bee.

Colonies

queens are placed

in

which caged

for storage until use.

Queen substance - Queen mandibular

pheromone produced from glands in head

of

queen, has strong effect on colony behavior

and the sexual development of worker bees

and is also a sex attractant during queen
mating

Sex attractant - A chemical substance that

same species, male
or female, for the purpose of mating, The sex
attracts an animal of the

attractant \nApis mellifera

decenoic

is

9-keto-(E)-2-

acid.

flights.

Shaking - The process

of placing bees

from

Rendering wax - The process of melting

combs and cappings and refining the wax.

parent colonies into packages or vise versa.

Ripe honey - Honey from which bees have

depth sizes less than the depth of a standard

evaporated sufficient moisture so that

super.

Shallow super - Any one

contains no

more than

Robbing bees - Bees

other than their
carry

it

to their

it

17.8 per cent water.

that enter colonies

own to remove honey and

own hive. Usually occurs in

early spring and

Commonly, shallow supers vary from

11 to 18

cm

(4-7") in depth.

Skep - A basket made

applied to bees stealing

honey from other colonies, cappings, recently

extracted honey supers, etc.

honey bees. Since individual

readily movable for disease
inspection, their use is illegal in North

a domicile for

America.

Slumgum - The refuse from melted comb

and cappings

Royal jelly - A highly nutritious glandular

secretion of young adult worker bees; it is
used to feed the queen and the young brood.

after the

wax has been rendered

or removed.

Smoker - Device used to

smoke on bees

Sacbrood -

of coiled straw or

wicker, once used in the inverted position as

combs are not

fall.

Robbing - Term

of several super

produce and blow

to help in calming them.

A viral disease of honey bee

wax extractor - Glass-covered box
which wax combs are melted by sun's rays,
and the beeswax is recovered.
Solar

larvae causing death of the larvae.

in

Sealed brood - Brood

in late larval

and

pupal stages with cells sealed. See capped

Spermatheca - A

brood.

small organ connected

with the vagina of the queen in which the

Self-spacing frames - Frames made with a

spacing device so that

when they

are pushed

spermatozoa received

in

mating with drones

are stored.

together they stand a bee space apart. See

Spiracles - Openings

Hoffman frame.

in the

body wall

through which the bee breathes: external

Self-pollination - Transfer of pollen to

openings of tracheae.

stigma within the same flower or to a

different flower of the

same

plant.

Stamen - Male

part of flower

on which

pollen-producing anthers are borne.

Septicemia - Usually minor disease of adult

bees caused by Pseudomonas apiseptica
(Bumside).
Scent gland - Nasanov gland of worker
honey bees located dorsally between sixth
and seventh segments of abdomen.

Stigma - Receptive

part of pistil

where

pollen germinates.

Sting - Modified ovipositor of female

Hymenoptera developed

into organ of

defense.

Sucrose - Cane

sugar: also the major sugar

in nectar.

161

Sump - Temporary holding area

between extractor and tank.
Supers -

for

honey

Ventriculus - The stomach of the bee

located in the abdomen between the honey
stomach and the small intestine.

A hive box or hive bodies with or

without frames.

Virgin queen - Unmated queen.

Supersedure - Replacement of the existing

queen by a young queen produced by the

beeswax. They are located

bees within the colony from their

own

larvae

Wax glands - The eight glands that secrete

in pairs

on the

last

four visible ventral abdominal segments.

or eggs.

Wax moth Surplus honey - The honey removed from

the hive that is over and above that which
bees need for their own use.

whose

Lepidopterous insect (moth)

larvae destroy

wax combs.

Wax press - An appliance used in rendering

beeswax.

Swarm - The

aggregate of worker bees,

drones and a queen that leaves the mother

colony to establish a
is

new colony. Swarming

the natural reproduction and dispersal of

honey bee

bees

colonies.

Terramycin - A

trade

oxytetracycline, a drug

Wild bees - Solitary or sub-social bees other

than honey bees of the genus Apis. The term
is sometimes used to refer to a nest of honey

name for
commonly used

in a tree or wall of a building.

Windbreaks to

Specially constructed fences

or natural barriers to reduce the force of the

prevent European and American foulbrood.

wind

Thorax - The middle region

Wired foundation - Foundation with

of the bee's

body that carries the wings and

in

an apiary.

strengthening wires embedded in

legs.

it.

Tracheae - The breathing tubes within an

Wired frames - Frames with wires

insect opening externally via the spiracles.

sheets of foundation in place.

holding

Tropilaelaps clareae - One of few parasitic

Worker bee - A female bee whose

mites associated with honey bees. So far

reproduction are only partially developed and

known

that

only in Asia.

is

responsible for carrying on

routine

Uncapping - The process of removing the

wax cappings from cells containing honey.

work

to extraction.

by steam or

The knives

are usually heated

electricity.

Unite - Combine one colony with another.

Unsealed brood - Brood

in

egg and

larval

stages only.

Varroa jacobsoni - One

of four parasitic

mites associated with honey bees. Has been

spread from Asia to Europe, North, Central
and South America and has become a serious
pest of Apis mellifera.

all

the

of the colony.

Worker comb - Honeycomb

4 cells/cm^ (25

Uncapping knife - A knife used to shave or

remove the beeswax cappings or honey cell
caps from combs of sealed honey preparatory

organs of

cells

with about

per square inch).

Appendix B
Additional References
Books

Periodicals

ABC and XYZ of bee culture.

Root

Co.,

1974. ed. A.L

Medina, Ohio.

Frisch, K. Von. 1967. The dance language

and

orientation of bees. Oxford University Press,

Canadian Beekeeping. Orono, Ontario,

LOB IMO.

American Bee Journal. Dadant and Sons,

Hamilton, ILL. 62341.

London.

Bee Culture.
The hive and

the

honey

and Sons, Hamilton,

bee.

1975. ed. Dadant

Box

Root

A.I.

Co.,

706. Medina, Ohio. 44258-0706.

Illinois.

Bee World. International Bee Research

Association, 18 North Road, Cardiff, England,

Honey 1975. ed. Eva Crane. William

Heinemann Ltd., London.

CFl 3DY.
Box

Honey bee pests, predators, and diseases. 1978.

ed. Roger A. Morse. Cornell University

Speedy Bee.

Press, Ithaca, N.Y.

Pamphlets

998, Jesup Georgia 31545.

Johansson, T.S.K. and M.P. Johnasson. 1978.

Pamphlets pertaining to various aspects of

Some important operations

beekeeping are available from the provincial

in bee

management. International Bee Research

Association, London.

apiculture office.

Honey
Laidlaw,
rearing.

HH, JR

1979. Contemporary queen

Dadant and Sons, Hamilton,

HH, JR. and J.E. Eckert

& Pests.

Canadian

Illinois.

A
Laidlaw,

bee Diseases

Association of Professional Apiculturists

1962.

Queenrearing. University of California Press,

Guide

to:

Pollination.

Managing Bees for Crop

Canadian Association of

Professional Apiculturists

Berkeley, CA.

Winston, M.L. 1987. The Biology of the Honey

Harvard University Press, Cambridge,

Bee.

Mass.

163

164

APPINDIX

Appendix C
Apiculture Personnel in the Western Provinces
Box 3015

Alberta
Kenn Tuckey,

Provincial Apiculturist

Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural

Development
RR 6, 17507 Fort Road
Edmonton, Alberta T5B 4K3
Telephone (403) 415-2314
Fax (403) 422-6096
(toll free, in

Lethbridge, Alberta TIJ 4B1

Telephone (403) 382-3122
Fax (403) 382-3148

1501 Provincial Bldg.

Alberta, call (403) 310-0000 and

10320 - 99 St.
Grande Prairie, Alberta T8V 6J4
Telephone (403) 513-3592
Fax (403) 539-3467

ask for 415-2314)

E-mail kenn.tuckey(a)agric.gov.ab.ca

4913

Douglas Colter, Chief Apiary Inspector,

Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural
Development
Box 90
Falher, Alberta

TOH IMO

free as above)

Don

Nelson,

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

Canadian Food Inspection Agency

205 - 7000 - 113 Street,
Edmonton, Alberta T6H 5T6
Telephone (403) 495-5575
Fax (403) 495-3359
36

St.

local

provincial apiculturist.

TOH OCO

Telephone (403) 354-5122

Fax (403) 354-8171
E-mail nelsond@em.agr.ca

Alberta Beekeepers Association

beekeepers associations, please contact the

Beaverlodge, Alberta

NW.

Calgary, Alberta

Telephone (403) 340-4202

Fax (403) 340-4260

For information regarding the

Research Station
Box 29

3650

St.

11434 - 168 St. #102

Edmonton, Alberta T5M 3T9
Telephone (403) 489-6949
Fax (403) 487-8640
E-mail bees@compusmart.ab.ca

E-mail douglas.colter@agric.gov.ab.ca

Dr.

50

Gertie Adair, Business Coordinator

Telephone (403) 837-2211

Fax (403) 837-8228
(toll

Red Deer, Alberta T4N 1X8

Saskatchewan
John Gruszka, Provincial Apiculturist
offices

Saskatchewan Agriculture and Food

Box 3003
Prince Albert, Saskatchewan SGV 6G1
Telephone (306) 953-2790
Fax (306) 953-2440
E-mail jgruszka(a)agr,gov.sk.ca

Dr. Art Davis

T2L 2L1

Telephone (403) 299-7667

Fax (403) 221-3296

Dept. of Biology
University of Saskatchewan

Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N

Telephone (306) 996-4732
Fax (306) 996-4461

OWO

E-mail davisa(a)duke.usask.ca

165

Canadian Food Inspection Agency

Manitoba Beekeepers Association

Contact the provincial apiculturist for contacts

offices

in the

Box 8060, 3085 Albert

local

St.

Regina, Saskatchewan S4P 4E3

Telephone (306) 780-5172
Fax (306) 780-5177

350 Third Avenue North

Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7K 6G7
Telephone (306) 975-4084
Fax (306) 975-4339
100

Manitoba Beekeepers Association and

beekeepers associations.

British Columbia
Paul van Westendorp, Provincial

Saskatchewan Beekeepers Association

Contact the provincial apiculturist for
current contacts in the Saskatchewan

Beekeepers Association and

beekeepers associations.

local

Apiculturist, B.C.M.A.F.F.

1767 Angus Campbell Road

Abbotsford, B.C.

V3G 2M3

Telephone (604) 556-3129

Fax (604) 556-3030
E-mail paul.vanwestendorp@gems8.gov.bc.ca

Kerry Clark, Apiculture Specialist

B.C.M.A.F.F.
1201 - 103rd Avenue
Dawson Creek, B.C. VIG

4J2

Manitoba

Telephone (250) 784-2231

Fax (250) 784-2299

Don

E-mail kclark@galaxy.gov.bc.ca

Dixon, Provincial Apiculturist

Manitoba Agriculture
204 - 545 University Crescent
Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 5S6
Telephone (204) 945-3861
Fax (204) 945-4327
E-mail ddixon@gov.mb.ca

Rheal Lafreniere, Extension Apiarist

John Gates, Apiculture Specialist

B.C.M.A.F.F.
4607 - 23rd Street
Vernon. B.C. VIT 4K7
Telephone (250) 260-3015
Fax (250) 549-5488
E-mail jgates@galaxy.gov.bc.ca

Manitoba Agriculture

204

545 University Crescent

Winnipeg, Manitoba

R3T 5S6

Telephone (204) 945-3861

Fax (204) 945-4327
E-mail rlafren@gov.mb.ca
Dr.

Rob

Currie, Professor

Entomology
University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2
Telephone (204) 474-6020
Fax (204) 275-0402
Department

Mark Winston, Professor

Department of Biological Sciences
Simon Eraser University
Burnaby, B.C. V5A 1S6
Telephone (604) 291-4459
Fax (604) 291-3496
Dr.

E-mail winston@sfu.ca

of

E-mail currier@cc.umanitoba.ca

Canadian Food Inspection Agency

Room 613 - 269 Main Street
Winnipeg, Manitoba R3C 1B2
Telephone (204) 984-6186
Fax (204) 983-5926

Canadian Food Inspection Agency

101 - 620 Royal Avenue, Box 2523
New Westminster, B.C. V3I 5A8
Telephone (604) 666-0975
Fax (604) 666-1963
British Columbia

Honey Producers

Association
Contact the provincial apiculturist

Fran Kay
Editor, BeesCene

RR 2,

S-26, C-32

Chase, B.C.

VOE IMO

Telephone/Fax (250) 679-5362

E-mail frankay@mail.ocis.net

III

first

or

Appendix

Canada Honey Grading Regulations

Here are excerpts from the Canada Agricultural Products

Act,

Honey

Regulations, pertaining

to grading honey.

Table

Section 8

Honey may be

and

classified as to colour

graded under these Regulations only

Grades of Honey

if

1.

by the work

of

honey
(a)

bees;
(b)

it

is fluid,

composition meets the requirements

or,

name

of

honey

meeting the
in section 8,

more than 17.8 per cent

where its container is

marked "pasteurized" or "pasteurise,"

not more than 18.6 percent moisture;

viscous or

partly or wholly crystallized;

(c) its

contains not

moisture

has a consistency that

the grade

is

requirements as set out

blossoms or from secretions of or on the

living parts of plants

"Canada No. 1"

that, in addition to

the food derived from the nectar of

(a) it is

III

(b) is free

from any foreign material that

would be retained on a U.S. National

Bureau of Standards standard 80-mesh

set out in Table IV of Schedule 1 for a

kind of honey specified therein;

screen;
(d)

it

has
(c)

a diastase activity, determined after

(i)

contains not

more than 0.1 percent water

where its container is

insoluble soHds or,

processing and blending, as

marked "pressed" or
"de presse," not more than

represented by a diastase figure on

the Gothe scale of not less than 8

water insoluble

0.5 percent

solids;

where the hydroxymethylfufural

content

is

not

more than 40 mg/kg. or

(d)

has a flavour characteristic of

classification

(ii)

a diastase activity, determined after

and

is

free

its

colour

from any

objectionable flavour,

aroma or

where

marked

taint;

processing and blending, as

represented by a diastase figure on

(e)

the Gothe scale of not less than 3

(e)

it is

clean,

is

not

more than 15 mg/kg;

wholesome and

fit

for

container

is

is clear, bright,

"liquid" or

uniform

in

colour and free from visible crystals; and

where the hydroxymethylfufural

content

its

"Hquide,"

human

(f)

where

its

container

or "en creme" or

is

is

marked "creamed"

otherwise marked to

indicate that the contents are granulated,

consumption; and
(f)

it

has a smooth fine texture and complete

has not, in the opinion of the Minister,

any deterioration seriously affecting

edibility,

and uniform granulation.

its

appearance or shipping quality.

167

"Canada No. 2" is the grade name of

honey that, in addition to meeting the

2.

requirements set out

contains not

(a)

moisture

or,

(f)

indicate that the contents are granulated,

in section 8,

gritty,

the grade

is

name

honey

requirements set out in section

60-mesh

more than 0.1 percent water

where its container

8,

(a)

contains not

more than 20 percent moisture;

(b)

contains not

more than 0.1 percent water

where its container is

insoluble solids or,

is

marked "pressed" or "de presse", not

more than 0.5 percent water insoluble

marked "pressed" or "de presse," not

more than 0.5 per cent water insoluble

solids:

solids;

its

honey flavour

may be
is

slightly off but

(c)

not substantially

and

has a flavour that

honey flavour

is

may be

slightly off but its

not substantially impaired.

impaired;
(e)

of

meeting the

insoluble solids or,

has a flavour that

(d)

fairly

a U.S. National

of Standards standard

contains not

"Canada No. 3"

that, in addition to

screen;
(c)

and has a complete and

uniform granulation.
3.

Bureau

coarse

or gritty, but not extremely coarse or

from any foreign material that

would be retained on

may be medium

has a texture that

more than 18.6 percent

where its container is

marked "pasteurized" or "pasteurise,"

not more than 20 percent moisture;
(b) is free

where its container is marked "creamed" or

"en creme" or is otherwise marked to

where

its

container

is

marked

"hquide," has a colour that

and cloudy or turbid or

slightly

and shows not more than

crystalization in the

"liquid" or

may be

dull

uneven

slight signs of

form of a

light

suspension or minor sedimentation of

crystals;

and

Schedule
(ss. 2, 5, 6, 8,

Table

1.

35 and 36)

Prepackaged Honey

Class

Designation on Honey Classifier

"Reading on Pfund Honey Grader"

not

more than 30 millimetres

1.

"White"

not darker than White

2.

"Golden"

darker than White but not

more than 30 millimetres

darker than Golden

but not more than 50 millimetres

darker than Golden but not

more than 50 millimetres

3.

4.

"Amber"

"Dark"

168

darker than

Amber

but not

darker than

Amber

more than 85 millimetres

more than 85 millimetres

Table

Honey Packed

II.

Designation on Honey Classifier

"Reading on Pfund Honey Grader"

"Extra White"

not darker than Extra White

not more than 13 millimetres

"White"

darker than Extra White but not

more than 13

darker than White

but not

Class
1

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Bulk Containers

in

"Golden"

"Light

Amber"

"Dark Amber"

"Dark"

Table

darker than White but not

more than 30 millimetres

darker than Golden

but not

darker than Golden but not

more than 50

darker than

Amber

darker than

Amber

but not

more than 50 millimetres

more than 85

but not

millimetres

more than 85

millimetres

millimetres

more than 114

darker than Dark

but not

darker than Dark

more than 114

millimetres

millimetres

Composition of Certain Kinds of Honey

IV.

Column

millimetres

more than 30 millimetres

Column

Column

II

Composition

Column

III

IV

Lavender, Ruginia,

Blossom Honey

Alfalfa or Banksia

other than the kinds

of

Honey

Honeydew Honey

Menziesii Honey

named

1.

Apparent reducing

not less than 60 per cent

not less than 65 per cent

not less than 65 per cent

in

Column

III

sugar calculated
as invert sugar

2.

Moisture

not

more than 20 per cent

not

more than 20 per cent

not more than 20 per cent

3.

Apparent sucrose

not

more than 10 per cent

not

more than 10 per cent

not

more than

4.

Water-insoluble

(a)

not more than 0.1 per

(a)

(a)

not more than 0.1 per

solids

cent,

(b)

not

where not pressed

more than

cent,

0.5 per

not

more than

cent,

(b)

where pressed

not

where

more than

cent,

0.1 per

not pressed

0.5 per

cent,

(b)

where pressed

not

5 per cent

where not pressed

more than

cent,

0.5 per

where pressed

5.

Ash

not

6.

Acid

not more than

not more than

not

40 milliequivalents

40 milliequivalents

40 milliequivalents

per 1,000 grams

per 1,000 grams

per 1,000

more than

per cent

not

more than

0.6 per cent

not more than 0.6 per cent

more than
grams

Sections 29 and 30
Container sizes for graded honey
a.

any net weight up to

e.

750 g

i.

3 kg

m. 30 kg

f.

Ikg

j.

5 kg

n.

g.

1.5 kg

k.

7 kg

h.

2 kg

1.

and including 150 g

b.

c.

d.

250 g

larger containers the

net weight of which

is

375 g

15 kg

measured

multiples of

in
1

kg

500g

169

170

Appendix
Recommendations

Feeding Antibiotics

for

Handling and storage of antibiotics

Antibiotics are subject to degradation under

containing 25 g active ingredient per

heat and sunlight. Oxytetracycline and

fumagiUin must not be added to hot water or

hot sugar syrup as the heat will destroy the
antibiotics,

and they

will

be rendered useless.

Antibiotics should be added after the solution

is

Terramycin Animal Formula-25 and

Oxytet-25 are both water soluble powders

cool or tepid.

package. Other strengths and formulations

can be used, but the dosage must be varied

according to the activity of the formulation.

Follow the directions for use on the package.

Oxytetracycline can be used as a preventive

Because sunlight degrades

antibiotics,

should not be fed in exposed glass

they

jars, as

with boardman feeders, or jars above an inner

treatment against American foulbrood;

however,

it is

not

recommended

as a cure.

Before feeding oxytetracycline, hives must

be examined for signs of AFB and

cover unprotected from sunlight.

all

infested

frames removed and destroyed.

Oxytetracycline and fumagillin should not be

used

on the package.

after the expiry date

They should be stored

in

Oxytetracycline

may best be

administered as

a dry mixture of 5 parts icing sugar: 1 part

moisture-proof

containers in a refrigerator or freezer and not

Oxytetracycline 25 (by weight).

resulting mixture

be exposed to heat or sunlight.

30

is

The

applied at a rate of

mL (2 tablespoons) per colony across the

Antibiotics should only be used at the

ends of the top bars so as to avoid direct

recommended dosages for maximum

effectiveness. Lower dosages will result

brood mortality. Only mix enough to use

contact with open brood, as this can cause

in

immediately because the mixture

decreased protection while increased

dosages

foulbrood

Caution

All feeding of

symptoms should be

and fumagillin) must cease at

weeks prior to the main honey flow to

prior to the

sugar syrup

The bacteria causing both American and

European foulbrood are susceptible

to

oxytetracycline. This drug does not

kill

the

bacteria in the brood food.

is

marketed by several

companies under different trade names

two most common are Terramycin by

Pfizer and Oxytet-25 by Medivet).
(the

also be administered in

mL (1
L

teaspoon)

(1 gallon) for

overwintered and package colonies.

It

Oxytetracycline

may

at a rate of 5

One

package (400 g) of Terramycin is sufficient

for 450 L (100 gallons) sugar syrup.

bacteria but acts to suppress germination and

ingested with the

weeks

flow.

oxytetracycHne-25 per 4.5

Oxytetracycline

when

honey

Oxytetracycline

prevent honey contamination.

multiplication

treated with

the mixture every 7 to 10 days until 3

antibiotics

(oxytetracycline
least three

will loose

potency with storage. Colonies exhibiting

may harm bees and brood.

has been shown that oxytetracycline

breaks down in solution and loses

its

effectiveness with time. Therefore,

medicated syrup should be used immediately

and should be consumed within one week.

Otherwise, the dusting method should be

used

for spring medication.

171

"

Conversions
1

mm =

kg

Us =

Pa

0.004

in.

m^=

10.75

ft^

0.039

2.12

W=

RSI

0.155

water

in.^

3.414 BTU/hr

= 25.4 mm
= 0.454 kg
cfm = 0.472 lys
in. water = 250 Pa
ft^ = 0.093 m^
in} = 6.45 cm^
BTU/hr = 0.293 W
"R = 0/176 RSI
in.

1 lb

2.12 cfm

1cm^ =
1

in.

lb

5.68 "R

1
1
1

"

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