Chapter 5

Polynomial and Rational Functions

Section summaries
Section 5.1 Polynomial Functions
The general form of a polynomial function is f (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 .
The degree of f (x) is the largest exponent in the formula. Linear functions f (x) = mx + b
and quadratic functions f (x) = ax2 + bx + c are the simplest cases. If |x| is large, then
the term an xn is much larger than the others, so the big picture of f (x) is that its graph
follows the pattern of xn , flipped over if an is negative.
The number of different x-intercepts of a polynomial of degree n is at most n, because
a polynomial equation of degree n has at most n roots. The same is true of any horizontal
linethe graph of a polynomial of degree n can cross the line at most n times. This means
that the graph has at most n 1 turning points (see the discussion on the top of page
321), and this helps you in graphing.
Finally, a polynomial has two types of behavior at an x-intercept. It may cross the
x-axis, like y = x3 , or it may just touch the x-axis, like y = x2 . If you can factor the
function completely, you can tell whether it crosses or touches by looking at the exponent
of the factor that corresponds to the root you are interested in. If the exponent is odd, the
graph will cross the axis because the y-values will change sign, but if the exponent is even,
the graph will just touch the axis and stay on the same side.
You should review the summaries on pages 336 and 338 very carefully.
Review problems: p340 #31,37,45,55,63,71,75

Section 5.2 Properties of Rational Functions

We have been building up to more and more complicated functions. This section deals
p(x)
with some basic properties of functions of the form f (x) =
, where p(x) and q(x) are
q(x)
1
1
polynomials. These are called rational functions. The functions f (x) = and f (x) = 2
x
x
are two familiar examples.
67

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CHAPTER 5. POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

1
Just as f (x) = has a graph that is asymptotic to the axes, a general rational function
x
can have horizontal and vertical asymptotes. It may or may not cross the x-axis.
x-intercepts: The only way f (x) can be zero is if the numerator is zero, so you can find
the x-intercepts by setting the numerator equal to zero, and solving the equation p(x) = 0.
vertical asymptotes: These can be found by looking at the values of x at which f (x) is
not defined (because of division by zero). You just need to set the denominator equal to
zero, and solve the equation q(x) = 0. Note: you must first make sure that the numerator
and denominator do not have any common factors.
horizontal asymptotes: if |x| is large, the function
f (x) =

am xm + am1 xm1 + + a1 x + a0
bn xn + bn1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0

am xm
, just like we learned for polynomials. If the numerator and debn xn
nominator have the same degree, this reduces to a constant, and gives the equation of the
asymptote. If the denominator has larger degree than the numerator, then y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. If the numerator has larger degree than the denominator, then there
is no horizontal asymptote (you will not be tested on oblique asymptotes). To just find
the horizontal asymptotes you do not need to use long division to write f (x) as a mixed
fraction.
behaves like y =

Review problems: p352 #15,21,27,35,39,41,45,47

Section 5.4 Polynomial and Rational Inequalities
The method of solution is given on page 370. In terms of the graph of a polynomial or
rational function, we need to determine when the graph is above or below the x-axis. We
first decide where the graph can change from positive to negative, and from negative to
positive. Then if we know that we have found an interval on which the graph cannot
change sign, it is enough to test one point in the interval. Just be very careful in working
these problems.
Review problems: p373 #5,13,25,29,33,51

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Sample Questions
5.1 #38. Form a polynomial function of degree 3 with zeros 2, 2, 3.
(a) f (x) = (x2 4)(x 3)2

(d) f (x) = (x2 4)(x + 3)

(b) f (x) = (x2 4)(x + 3)2

(e) None of these

(c) f (x) = (x2 4)(x 3)

5.1 A. The polynomial function f (x) has a zero at x = 2 with multiplicity 3. We know that
(a) since 3 is an odd number, the graph touches but does not cross the x-axis.
(b) since 3 is an odd number, the graph crosses the x-axis.
(c) since 2 is an even number, the graph touches but does not cross the x-axis.
(d) since 2 is an even number, the graph crosses the x-axis.
(e) none of these occurs.
5.1 B. Find all the zeros and their multiplicities for the polynomial p(x) = 11x(x1) 5 (x+6).
(a) 1 is a zero of multiplicity 5; 6 is a zero of multiplicity 1; 0 is a zero of multiplicity 1
(b) 1 is a zero of multiplicity 5; 6 is a zero of multiplicity 1; 0 is a zero of multiplicity 1
(c) 1 is a zero of multiplicity 5 and 6 is a zero of multiplicity 1
(d) 1 is a zero of multiplicity 5; 6 is a zero of multiplicity 1.
(e) None of these
5.1 C. Which of the following is the graph of f (x) = (x + 1)2 (x 2)?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
y
y
y

x
5 5

x
5 5

x
5 5

5.1 D. The function f (x) = x2 (x 2)(x + 3)2 has

(a) one zero of multiplicity 1 and one zero of multiplicity 2.
(b) one zero of multiplicity 1 and two zeros of multiplicity 2.
(c) one zero of multiplicity 1 and three zeros of multiplicity 2.
(d) three zeros of multiplicity 1 and one zero of multiplicity 2.
(e) None of these

x
5

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CHAPTER 5. POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

5.1 E. Which one of these functions might have the given graph?
(a) f (x) = x(x 1)(x 2)2

(d) f (x) = x2 (x 1)(x 2)

(b) f (x) = x(x 1)(x 2)

(e) f (x) = x2 (x 1)(x 2)

(c) f (x) = x(x 1)(x 2)

2
x

5.2 A. Find the domain of the function

f (x) =

x2
.
x+1

(a) All real numbers except 1

(d) All real numbers except 2

(b) All real numbers except 1

(e) None of these

(c) All real numbers except 2

5.2 B. (c) What is the domain of the function G defined by G(x) =

x+4
?
x3 4x

(a) all reals except 4

(d) {0, 2, 2}

(b) all reals except 2, 2

(e) {0, 2, 2, 4}

(c) all reals except 0, 2, 2

5.2 C. The graph of y =

1
1
looks like that of y = 2 but is shifted
2
(x 4)
x

(a) left 4 units

(d) up 4 units

(b) right 4 units

(e) None of these

(c) down 4 units

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5.2 D. Find the vertical asymptotes of the graph of

f (x) =

x2 3x
.
x2 2x 8

(a) x = 4 and x = 2
(b) x = 4 and x = 2
(c) x = 0 and x = 3
(d) x = 4, x = 2, x = 0 and x = 3
(e) None of these
5.2 E. The line x = 4 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of which of the following functions?
(a) f (x) = x 4
(b) f (x) =

2x 8
x4

(c) f (x) =

1
x2 16

(d) f (x) =

x4
x+3

(e) f (x) =

4x + 1
x+2

5.2 F. Find the x-intercepts and vertical asymptotes of the graph of f (x) =

x2 3x
x2 2x 8

(a) x-intercepts (4, 0), (3, 0), (2, 0), (0, 0), vertical asymptotes x = 4, x = 3, x = 2, x = 0
(b) x-intercepts (4, 0), (2, 0), vertical asymptotes x = 0, x = 3
(c) x-intercepts (4, 0), (2, 0), vertical asymptotes x = 0, x = 3
(d) x-intercepts (0, 0), (3, 0), vertical asymptotes x = 4, x = 2
(e) x-intercepts (0, 0), (3, 0), vertical asymptotes x = 4, x = 2

5.2 G. Find the vertical asymptotes of f (x) =

(x 1)(x + 2)(x 3)
.
x(x 4)2

(a) x = 1, 2, 3

(d) x = 4

(b) x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

(e) None of these

(c) x = 0, 4
5.2 H. Find the horizontal asymptote of the graph of
(a) y =

1
5

(b) y = 32
(c) x = 25

f (x) =

(d) x = 31
(e) None of these

x3
.
5x + 2

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CHAPTER 5. POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

5.2 K. Find the horizontal asymptote for the graph of f (x) =

(a) x = 32
(b) x =

(d) y =

5
2

5x 1
.
2x + 3

5
2

(e) None of these

(c) y = 32
2x2 + 1
.
2x3 + 4x2

5.2 #48. Find the horizontal asymptote (if any) of f (x) =

(a) y = 2

(d) y = 0

(b) y = 1

(e) None of these

(c) y = 1
5.2 L. Which one of these functions does not have a horizontal asymptote?
2x
5

(a) f (x) =

2
3x 5

(d) f (x) =

(b) f (x) =

2x2 + 1
3x 5

(e) f (x) = 2 +

(c) f (x) =

2x2 + 1
3x2 5

5.2 M. Find the asymptotes of the following function.

3x2

6
3x2 5

f (x) =

3x2 3x
x2 + x 12

(a) The horizontal asymptote is y = 0; the vertical asymptotes are x = 4 and x = 3.

(b) The horizontal asymptote is y = 3; the vertical asymptotes are x = 4 and x = 3.
(c) The horizontal asymptote is y = 3; the vertical asymptotes are x = 4 and x = 3.
(d) The horizontal asymptote is y = 4; the vertical asymptote is x = 3.
(e) None of these

5.4 #5. Solve the inequality x3 4x2 > 0.

(a) (4, )

(d) (, 0)

(b) (0, )

(e) None of these

(c) (, 4)

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5.4 #13. Solve the inequality (x 1)(x 2)(x 3) 0.
(a) (, 1] [2, ]

(d) [1, 2] [3, )

(b) (, 2] [3, ]

(e) None of these

(c) (, 1] [2, 3]

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CHAPTER 5. POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Answer Key
5.1 #38. (c)
5.1 A. (b)
5.1 B. (b)
5.1 C. (c)
5.1 D. (b)
5.1 E. (e)
5.2 A. (a)
5.2 B. (c)
5.2 C. (b)
5.2 D. (b)
5.2 E. (c)
5.2 F. (d)
5.2 G. (c)
5.2 H. (a)
5.2 K. (c)
5.2 #48. (d)
5.2 L. (b)
5.2 M. (c)
5.4 #5. (a)
5.4 #13. (c)

Solutions
5.1 #38. Form a polynomial function of degree 3 with zeros 2, 2, 3.
Solution: (c)
The polynomial should include a linear factor for each zero, so we should
use f (x) = (x + 2)(x 2)(x 3) = (x2 4)(x 3).
5.1 A. The polynomial function f (x) has a zero at x = 2 with multiplicity 3. Answer: (b)
Since the multiplicity of the zero is 3, which is an odd number, the graph crosses the x-axis.
5.1 B. Find all the zeros and their multiplicities for the polynomial p(x) = 11x(x1) 5 (x+6).
Solution: (b)
Setting the factors x, x 1, and x + 6 each equal zero shows that the zeros
are 0, 1, and 6. The next step is to look at the exponent of each factor: x has exponent
1, so the multiplicity of the root 0 is 1; x 1 has exponent 5, so the multiplicity of the root
1 is 5; x + 6 has exponent 1, so the multiplicity of the root 6 is 1.

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5.1 C. Which of the following is the graph of f (x) = (x + 1)2 (x 2)?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
y
y
y

x
5 5

x
5 5

x
5 5

x
5

Solution: (c)
The function has roots 1 and 2, so these must be x-intercepts on the
graph. All four graphs pass this test, so we have to look at it more deeply. The multiplicity
of 1 is 2, so the graph should only touch the axis at x = 1. Since the multiplicity of 2
is just 1, the graph should cross the axis at x = 2. This eliminates answers (a) and (d).
We could plot one more point: since f (0) = 2, the y=intercept must be 2, and this
eliminates answer (b).
5.1 D. The function f (x) = x2 (x 2)(x + 3)2 has
Answer: (b) one zero of multiplicity one and two zeros of multiplicity two.
Solution: x = 0 has multiplicity 2; x = 2 has multiplicity 1; x = 3 has multiplicity 2.
5.1 E. Which one of these functions might have the given graph?
(a) f (x) = x(x 1)(x 2)2

(d) f (x) = x2 (x 1)(x 2)

(b) f (x) = x(x 1)(x 2)

(e) f (x) = x2 (x 1)(x 2)

(c) f (x) = x(x 1)(x 2)

y

2
x

Solution: (e)
The roots must be x = 0, x = 1, and x = 2, and this is true for every
formula. Since that graph touches the x-axis at x = 0 but does not cross, the root x = 0
must have even multiplicity. The graph crosses the x-axis at x = 1 and x = 2, so these
roots must have odd multiplicity. This eliminates the formulas in (a), (b), and (c).
Finally, to tell the difference between (d) and (e), check the value of the function at
x = 2. In (d) we get f (2) = (2)2 (2 1)(2 2) = 48, so this doesnt agree with the
graph, so the answer must be (e).

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CHAPTER 5. POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Alternatively, you can see that for large values of x the formula in (d) behaves like
f (x) = x4 , while the formula in (e) behaves like f (x) = x4 . The behavior of the graph is
like f (x) = x4 , so the answer must be (e).
5.2 A. Find the domain of the function
Solution: (a)

f (x) =

x2
x+1 .

Set the denominator equal to 0. Exclude x = 1 to avoid division by 0.

5.2 B. What is the domain of the function G defined by G(x) =

x+4
?
x3 4x

Solution: (c)
Set x3 4x = 0. This gives x(x2 4) = 0, or x(x 2)(x + 2) = 0. The
numbers 0, 2, and 2 must be excluded. Answer: all real numbers except 0, 2, 2.
5.2 C. The graph of y =

1
(x4)2

looks like that of y =

1
x2

but is shifted

Solution: (b)
right 4 units. One way to remember which way it is shifted is to observe
1
that the graph of y = x12 has a vertical asymptote at x = 0, while the graph of y = (x4)
2
has a vertical asymptote at x = 4.
5.2 D. Find the vertical asymptotes of the graph of

f (x) =

x2 3x
.
x2 2x8

Solution: (b)
Set the denominator equal to 0. x2 2x 8 = 0
The vertical asymptotes occur at x = 4 and x = 2.

(x 4)(x + 2) = 0

5.2 E. The line x = 4 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of which of the following functions?
x4
1
(a) f (x) = x4 (b) f (x) = 2x8
(d) f (x) = x+3
(c) f (x) = x2 16
(d) f (x) = 4x+1
x4
x+2
Solution: (c)
To have a vertical asymptote at x = 4, the denominator must have a factor
2(x4)
of x 4. This seems to be true for both (b) and (c). Actually, f (x) = 2x8
x4 = x4 = 2
for all values except x = 4. In the function in (b), the graph is a horizontal line at y = 2,
with the point (4, 2) missing, so it has no vertical asymptote. The correct answer is that
1
only f (x) = x2 16
has a graph with a vertical asymptote at x = 4.
5.2 F. Find the x-intercepts and vertical asymptotes of the graph of f (x) =

x2 3x
x2 2x8

Solution: (d) x-intercepts (0, 0), (3, 0), vertical asymptotes x = 4, x = 2

Set the numerator
2
equal to 0 to find the x-intercepts. x 3x = 0 x(x 3) = 0 x = 0 and x = 3.
Set the denominator equal to 0 to find the vertical asymptotes.
x2 2x 8 = 0
(x 4)(x + 2) = 0 x = 4 and x = 2
5.2 G. Find the vertical asymptotes of f (x) =
Solution: (c)

(x1)(x+2)(x3)
.
x(x4)2

Set the denominator equal to 0 to get x = 0 and x = 4.

5.2 H. Find the horizontal asymptote of the graph of

Solution: (a)

f (x) =

x3
5x+2 .

Multiplying both the numerator and denominator by

1
x

gives f (x) =

1 x3
,
5+ x2

and in this form we see that as x increases the function gets closer and closer to 51 .
The shortcut is to remember that the highest powers of x dictate the behavior, so f (x) will
x
behave like 5x
= 51 for large values of x.

77
5.2 K. Find the horizontal asymptote for the graph of f (x) =

5x1
2x+3 .

Solution: (d)
For large values of x the function behaves like f (x) =
asymptote is y = 52 .
5.2 #48. Find the horizontal asymptote (if any) of f (x) =

5x
2x ,

so the horizontal

2x2 +1
.
2x3 +4x2
2

= x1 , so
Solution: (d)
For large values of x, the function behaves like f (x) = 2x
2x3
y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. Remember that if the denominator has higher degree than
the numerator, then y = 0 will be a horizontal asymptote.
5.2 L. Which one of these functions does not have a horizontal asymptote?
2x2 +1
2x2 +1
2x
2
3x5 (b) f (x) = 3x5 (c) f (x) = 3x2 5 (d) f (x) = 3x2 5 (e) f (x) = 2 +

(a) f (x) =

6
3x2 5

Solution: (b)
If the degree of the numerator is larger than the degree of the denominator,
then there is no horizontal asymptote. This happens for (b).
5.2 M. Find the asymptotes of the following function.

Solution: (c)
For large values of x, the function behaves like
horizontal asymptote.
To find the vertical asymptotes, solve x2 + x 12 = 0.
asymptotes are x = 4 and x = 3.

3x2 3x
x2 +x12
2
f (x) = 3x
,
x2

f (x) =

(x + 4)(x 3) = 0

so y = 3 is a
The vertical