Fundamentals of Resistance Training: Progression and Exercise Prescription

Physical Fitness and Performance
Fundamentals of Resistance Training:

Progression and Exercise Prescription
WILLIAM J. KRAEMER1 and NICHOLAS A. RATAMESS2
Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT; and 2Department of
Health and Exercise Science, The College of New Jersey, Ewing, NJ
1
ABSTRACT
KRAEMER, W. J., and N. A. RATAMESS. Fundamentals of Resistance Training: Progression and Exercise Prescription. Med. Sci.
Sports Exerc., Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 674 688, 2004. Progression in resistance training is a dynamic process that requires an exercise
prescription process, evaluation of training progress, and careful development of target goals. The process starts with the determination
of individual needs and training goals. This involves decisions regarding questions as to what muscles must be trained, injury prevention
sites, metabolic demands of target training goals, etc. The single workout must then be designed reflecting these targeted program goals
including the choice of exercises, order of exercise, amount of rest used between sets and exercises, number of repetitions and sets used
for each exercise, and the intensity of each exercise. For progression, these variables must then be varied over time and the exercise
prescription altered to maintain or advance specific training goals and to avoid overtraining. A careful system of goal targeting, exercise
testing, proper exercise technique, supervision, and optimal exercise prescription all contribute to the successful implementation of a
resistance training program. Key Words: STRENGTH, MUSCLE, EXERCISE PROGRAM DESIGN, CONDITIONING
exercise instruction (e.g., technique, breathing, correct use

of equipment), goal setting (so the program can target specific areas of interest), a method of evaluation of training
progress toward training goals, the correct prescription of
the acute program variables, and the inclusion of specific
methods of progression targeting particular areas of muscular fitness. It is important that resistance training should be
supervised by qualified professionals for the prevention of
injury and for maximizing the health and performance benefits (70). In this article, we will review resistance training
program design and the associated factors that need to be
considered. In addition, we will consider progression during
resistance training in relation to individual training status
and goals, and will highlight some of the important concepts
of progression recently recommended by the American College of Sports Medicine (3).
esistance training is a modality of exercise that has

grown in popularity over the past two decades, particularly for its role in improving athletic performance by increasing muscular strength, power and speed,
hypertrophy, local muscular endurance, motor performance,
balance, and coordination (62). Traditionally, resistance
training was performed by few individuals (e.g., strength
athletes and those who strived to gain muscle hypertrophy
such as body builders). However, we now have a better
understanding of the health-related benefits of resistance
training; resistance training is now a popular form of exercise that is recommended by national health organizations
such as the American College of Sports Medicine and the
American Heart Association (2,3,65) for most populations
including adolescents, healthy adults, the elderly, and clinical populations (e.g., those individuals with cardiovascular
disease, neuromuscular disease). The key factor to successful resistance training at any level of fitness or age is
appropriate program design. Program design entails proper
RESISTANCE TRAINING
INDIVIDUALIZATION/GOAL SETTING
The act of resistance training, itself, does not ensure
optimal gains in muscle strength and performance. Rather, it
is the magnitude of the individual effort and systematic
structuring of the training stimulus that ultimately determines the outcomes associated with resistance training.
Thus, resistance-training programs need to be individualized
(e.g., based on individual goals) in order to maximize the
outcomes (29). Program individualization involves several
steps. Before the initiation of a resistance training program,
it is important that at-risk individuals (e.g., those individuals
Address for correspondence: William J. Kraemer, Ph.D., Professor, Human

Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Unit 1110, The University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT; E-mail: William.Kraemer@uconn.edu.
Submitted for publication April 2003.
Accepted for publication October 2003.
0195-9131/04/3604-0674
MEDICINE & SCIENCE IN SPORTS & EXERCISE
Copyright 2004 by the American College of Sports Medicine
DOI: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000121945.36635.61
674
with a physical ailment) obtain medical clearance. This

ensures that resistance training is beneficial rather than
harmful to those individuals with predisposing injuries or
illnesses. Once an individual is deemed healthy to participate, the second step involves goal setting via a needs
analysis. A needs analysis consists of answering questions
based upon the goals of resistance training. Individualized
resistance training programs are most effective because they
ensure that all goal-oriented issues are included within the
design. Some common questions that need to be addressed
are (29):
Are there any health/injury concerns which may limit
the exercises performed or the exercise intensity?
What type of equipment (e.g., free weights, machines,
bands/tubing, medicine balls, functional) is available
and preferred?
What is the targeted training frequency and are there
any time constraints that may affect workout duration?
What muscle groups need to be trained (generally all
major muscle groups are trained, but some may require
prioritization based upon strengths/weaknesses or the
demands of the sport or activity)?
What are the targeted energy systems (e.g., aerobic or
anaerobic)?
What types of muscle actions (e.g., concentric [CON],
eccentric [ECC], isometric [ISOM]) are needed?
If the individual is training for a sport or activity, what
are the most common sites of injury?
The program goals must then be determined. Some common goals of resistance training include increases in muscle
size, strength, power, speed, local muscular endurance, balance, coordination, and flexibility, reductions in body fat,
improvements in general health (e.g., lower blood pressure,
strengthen connective tissue, reduce stress), and rehabilitation from injury. Most programs aim to collectively improve
several of these components in an integrative approach as
opposed to only focusing on one facet. Along with goal
setting, the magnitude of improvement and the nature of the
program need to be established. Is the program recreational
or does maximal performance need to be increased? Recreational training involves resistance training for moderate
improvements in muscle strength, local muscular endurance, and hypertrophy for general fitness, whereas competitive training involves resistance training to maximize muscle hypertrophy, strength, power, and/or local muscular
endurance. Some forms of competitive resistance training
include power lifting (e.g., competing to maximize muscle
strength in specifically the squat, bench press, and deadlift
exercises), weightlifting (e.g., the Olympic sport that involves maximizing muscle strength and power for performance in the clean and jerk and snatch lifts), body building
(e.g., using resistance training to optimize muscle hypertrophy, definition, and symmetry while reducing body fat to
optimize appearance), strongman/woman competitions
(e.g., competitions involving numerous events that exemplify muscle strength, power, and local muscular endurance), and athletics (e.g., strength training to improve athPROGRESSION AND RESISTANCE TRAINING
letic performance). Lastly, maintenance programs are also

popular. Maintenance training involves resistance work to
maintain the current level of muscular fitness rather than to
develop further gains. A feature/benefit of maintenance
programs is that in the short term, reductions in training
volume, frequency, and intensity may be used without a
significant reduction in muscular fitness. These programs
are used commonly by athletes during the competitive season and in the general fitness setting. However, it is important to note that long-term maintenance training could result
in detraining if the training threshold is not met. Therefore,
maintenance programs should be included in cyclical fashion and as part of longer programs designed for progression.
RESISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAM DESIGN
The resistance training program is a composite of acute
variables that include: 1) muscle actions used, 2) resistance
used, 3) volume (total number of sets and repetitions), 4)
exercises selected and workout structure (e.g., the number of
muscle groups trained), 5) the sequence of exercise performance, 6) rest intervals between sets, 7) repetition velocity,
and 8) training frequency (29,62). Altering one or several of
these variables will affect the training stimuli and potentially favor conditions by which numerous ways exist to
vary resistance training programs and maintain/increase participant motivation. Therefore, proper resistance exercise
prescription involves manipulation of each variable specific
to the targeted goals.
Muscle actions. Most resistance training programs
include primarily dynamic repetitions with both CON

and ECC muscle actions, whereas ISOM muscle actions
play a secondary role. Greater force per unit of muscle
size is produced during ECC actions. Eccentric actions
involve less motor unit activation per specific level of
tension (55), require less energy per level of force (24),
and are critical for optimal hypertrophy, yet may result in
more delayed onset muscle soreness (21) as compared
with CON actions. Dynamic muscular strength improvements are greatest when ECC actions are included in the
training program (20). The role of muscle action manipulation during resistance training is minimal considering
that most programs include CON and ECC muscle actions in a given repetition. However, some advanced
programs may include different forms of ISOM training
(e.g., functional isometrics), the use of supramaximal
ECC muscle actions (53), and accommodating resistance
devices such as bands and chains in order to maximize
gains in strength and hypertrophy. These techniques have
not been extensively investigated but are believed to
favor improvements in muscular strength.
Exercise selection. Two general types of free weight
or machine exercises may be selected in resistance training: single- and/or multiple-joint. Single-joint exercises
stress one joint or major muscle group, whereas multiplejoint exercises stress more than one joint or major muscle
group. Both single- and multiple-joint exercises have
been shown to be effective for increasing muscular
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise
675
strength in the targeted muscle groups. Single-joint exercises, e.g., leg extension and leg curl, have typically
been used to target specific muscle groups and are
thought to pose less risk of injury due to the reduced level
of skill and technique involved. Multiple-joint exercises,
e.g., bench press, squat, hang pulls, and power clean,
involve a more complex neural activation and coordination, and due to the larger muscle mass involvement (and
subsequent amount of weight used), these exercises have
generally been regarded as the most effective exercises
for increasing muscular strength and power (29). In fact,
total-body exercises such as the power snatch and power
clean have been regarded as the most effective exercises
for increasing muscle power because they require fast force
production to successfully complete each repetition (31).
Exercises stressing multiple or large muscle groups
have shown the greatest acute metabolic responses (9).
For example, exercises such as the squat, leg press, leg
extension, and bent-over row have been shown to elicit
greater rates of oxygen consumption than exercises such
as the behind-the-neck shoulder press, bench press, upright row, and arm curl (9). In addition, these exercises
have elicited the greatest acute hormonal responses (67).
Deadlifts (25), squat jumps (105), and Olympic lifts (67)
have produced greater acute 22-kDa growth hormone and
testosterone responses compared with exercises such as
the bench press and seated shoulder press. Thus, the
amount of muscle mass involved in a movement significantly impacts the acute metabolic demands and anabolic hormonal response, which have direct implications
for resistance training programs targeting improvements
in local muscle endurance, lean body mass, and reductions in body fat.
Exercise order and workout structure. The sequencing of exercises and number of muscle groups
trained during a workout significantly affects the acute
expression of muscular strength (97). For example, there
are three basic workout structures: 1) total-body workouts, 2) upper/lower body split workouts, and 3) muscle
group split routines. Total-body workouts involve performance of exercises stressing all major muscle groups
(i.e., one to two exercises for each major muscle group).
They are common among general fitness enthusiasts,
athletes, and Olympic weightlifters. Upper/lower body
split workouts involve performance of upper-body exercises during one workout and lower-body exercises during another. These are common among general fitness
enthusiasts, athletes, power lifters, and body builders.
Muscle group split routines involve performance of exercises for specific muscle groups during the same workout (e.g., a chest/triceps workout where all exercises
for the chest are performed then all exercises for the
triceps are performed). These types of workouts are most
popular among body builders or individuals striving to
maximize muscle hypertrophy. All three workout structures are effective for improving muscular fitness, and it
appears that individual goals, time/frequency, and personal preferences often determines which type of work676
Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine
out will be used. The major differences between these

structures are the magnitude of specialization observed
during each workout (i.e., three to four exercises for a
specific muscle group may be performed during a muscle
group split routine workout as opposed to one to two
exercises for a muscle group in a total-body workout) and
the amount of recovery between workouts (i.e., a major
muscle group may be trained 1 to 2 wk1 for a split
routine, 2 to 3 wk1 for an upper/lower-body split, and
3 or more times per week for a total-body workout during
most typical lifting programs). Only one study has compared workout structures and similar improvements in
previously untrained women between total-body and upper/lower-body split workouts were found (15). Other
studies have compared total-body resistance training to
either upper-body-only or lower-body-only training
(16,66). We have shown the importance of the total-body
resistance training (as opposed to upper-body-only training) in women for improving overall muscular strength,
hypertrophy, power, and physical performance (63,66).
In the elderly, similar improvements have been observed
in lower body strength between total-body and lowerbody workouts (of equal volume and intensity) (16).
Upon determination of the workout structure (e.g.,
muscle groups trained), general recommendations can be
made depending on whether one is training for strength,
hypertrophy, power, and/or local muscular endurance.
Considering that multiple-joint exercises have been
shown to increase muscular strength, hypertrophy, and
power, maximizing performance of these exercises may
be necessary for optimal gains. This recommendation
includes performance of these exercises early in the training session when fatigue is minimal. Multiple-joint exercises have been used extensively for power training.
The inclusion of these exercises (e.g., power clean, push
press, and variations) is necessary as these exercises have
been shown to require rapid force production (31). These
exercises do require additional time for learning and
proper technique is essential. Therefore, these exercises
need to be performed initially in the workout when fatigue is minimal. The sequencing of exercises for local
muscular endurance training may not be as important in
comparison with strength and power training as fatigue is
a necessary component of local muscle endurance training. Therefore, similar strategies may be used for local
muscular endurance training although variations can also
be used. Some sequencing strategies (although others are
possible) for strength and power training include:
When training all major muscle groups in a workout:
1. perform large muscle group exercises before small
muscle group exercises;
2. perform multiple-joint exercises before single-joint
exercises;
3. for power training, perform total-body exercises (from
most to least complex) before basic exercises such as
the squat or bench press;
http://www.acsm-msse.org
4. rotate upper and lower body exercises or opposing

(agonist-antagonist relationship) exercises.
When training upper-body muscles on one day and lowerbody muscles on a separate day:
1. perform large muscle group exercises before small muscle group exercises;
exercises;
3. rotate opposing exercises (agonist-antagonist relationship).
When training individual muscle groups:
exercises;
2. perform higher-intensity [i.e., higher percent of onerepetition maximum (1 RM)] exercises before lowerintensity exercises.
Loading. Loading describes the amount of weight
lifted or the resistance one exercises with and is highly
dependent upon other variables such as exercise order,
volume, frequency, muscle action, repetition speed, and
rest interval length (62). Altering the training load can
significantly affect the acute metabolic, hormonal, neural, and cardiovascular responses to training
(28,35,58,59,67,93). Load prescription depends upon individual training status and goals. For example, light
loads of approximately 4550% of 1 RM or less may
increase dynamic muscular strength in previously untrained individuals (4), as this initial phase of lifting is
characterized by improved motor learning and coordination (92). Heavy loads are not required to increase
strength at this level of training while the individual is
learning correct form and technique. However, greater
loading is needed to increase maximal strength as one
progresses from intermediate to advanced levels of training. Ha kkinen et al. (35) reported that loads greater than
80 85% of 1 RM were needed to produce further neural
adaptations during advanced resistance training. This is
important because neural adaptations (e.g., enhanced recruitment, rate coding, and synchronization) are crucial
to maximal strength development as they precede hypertrophy during intense training periods. Although motor
unit activity does increase with fatigue (e.g., the last few
repetitions of a set), there appears to be specific motor
unit recruitment patterns during the lifting of very heavy
or near-maximal loads that does not appear attainable
with light-to-moderate loading. Muscle hypertrophy results in lower motor unit activity needed to generate a
given force (84). In order to continually recruit these
higher-threshold motor units, progressively heavier loads
are needed (84). Maximizing strength, power, and hypertrophy may only be accomplished when the maximal
numbers of motor units are recruited. Thus, heavy loading in experienced individuals is needed to recruit the
high-threshold motor units that may not be activated
during light-to-moderate lifting. In addition, other tissues
PROGRESSION AND RESISTANCE TRAINING
such as bone respond more favorably to heavy loading,

and this has implications for resistance training programs
designed to improve, for example, bone health (29).
There exists an inverse relationship between the
amount of weight lifted and the number of repetitions
performed. Several studies have shown that training with
loads corresponding to 80 85% of 1 RM and beyond
(e.g., 1 6 RM) were most effective for increasing maximal dynamic strength (10,17). This loading range appears to maximally recruit muscle fibers and will specifically increase dynamic 1 RM strength (35). Although
significant strength increases have been reported using
loads corresponding to 70 80% of 1 RM (e.g., 6 12
RM) (56), it is believed that this range may not be as
effective in increasing maximal strength in advanced
resistance-trained individuals compared to heavier loading (e.g., 85% of 1 RM). The 6 12 RM loading range
is typically used in programs that target muscular hypertrophy (61). Although heavy loading is effective for
increasing muscle size (17), it has been suggested that the
6 12 RM loading range may provide the best combination of load and volume (62). Loads lighter than this
(1215 RM and lighter) rarely increase maximal strength
(4,17) but are very effective for increasing absolute local
muscular endurance (17,101). Although each training
zone has its advantages, devoting 100% of training to
one general RM zone or intensity (e.g., 80% of 1 RM)
runs a very high risk of the athlete encountering training
plateaus or becoming overtrained. It is important to note
that intensity is exercise-dependent. For example, Hoeger
et al. (45) reported that 80% of 1 RM was a load corresponding to a 10 RM for exercises such as the bench
press, leg extension, and lat pulldown; however, this
intensity corresponded to only a 6 RM for the leg curl,
7 8 RM for the arm curl, and a 15 RM for the leg press.
Therefore, it appears that optimal strength, hypertrophy,
and local muscular endurance training requires the systematic use of various loading strategies (27,64,69).
Given that both force and time components are relevant to maximizing power, training to increase muscular
power requires two general loading strategies. First, moderate-to-heavy loads are required to recruit high-threshold fast-twitch motor units that are needed for strength.
However, as depicted by the force-velocity curve, higher
loads are accompanied by slower velocities such that
performing heavy resistance training will potentially increase force production but not speed. Thus, the second
strategy is to incorporate light-to-moderate loads performed at an explosive lifting velocity. Depending on the
exercise in question, this loading range may encompass
30 60% of 1 RM. Wilson et al. (107) reported that 30%
of 1 RM was the optimal loading that produced the
greatest power output during ballistic jump squat training. However, Baker et al. (7,8) reported a higher loading
range (45 60% of 1 RM) was necessary to optimize
power during jump squats and the ballistic bench press
for power-trained athletes. A recent study has shown that
jump squat training with 30% of 1 RM was more effecMedicine & Science in Sports & Exercise
677
tive for increasing peak power than jump squat training

with 80% of 1 RM (71). With ballistic resistance exercise, the load is maximally accelerated either by jumping
(e.g., jump squats) or by releasing the weight using
specialized equipment (e.g., Plyo Power System) (76,77).
However, traditional repetitions result in a deceleration
phase that limits power development throughout the complete range of motion. During traditional weight training
exercises performed at an explosive velocity, a recent
study has shown that 40 60% of 1 RM may be most
beneficial for the bench press and 50 70% for the squat
(98), thereby demonstrating that a slightly higher load is
necessary for power training when nonballistic repetitions are performed. Thus, training for maximal power
requires various loading strategies performed at high
velocity.
Training volume. Training volume is generally estimated from the total number of sets and repetitions performed during a training session. Several systems including the nervous, metabolic, hormonal, and muscular have
been shown to be sensitive to training volume
(38,39,56,64,68). Altering training volume can be accomplished by changing the number of exercises performed per session, the number of repetitions performed
per set, or the number of sets performed per exercise.
Typically, heavy loads with low repetitions using moderate-to-high number of sets (i.e., characteristic of
strength and power training) (35) are generally considered low-volume programs due to the low number of
repetitions performed per set. Without altering the intensity of these programs, volume may be increased by
either increasing the number of sets and/or exercises
performed or by increasing training frequency. However,
care must be taken, because intensity and volume are
inversely related; increases in training volume with lowrepetition programs should be closely monitored and
intensity possibly reduced in order to lower the risk of
overtraining (30). Moderate-to-heavy loads, moderate-tohigh repetitions, and multiple sets per exercise are characteristic of hypertrophy training (although strength and
local muscle endurance are also enhanced with these
programs) and are generally regarded as high-volume
programs when several exercises are performed per
workout (e.g., at least six to eight exercises). Total work,
in addition to the forces developed, has been implicated
for gains in muscular hypertrophy (75). This has been
supported, in part, by greater hypertrophy associated with
high-volume, multiple-set programs compared with lowvolume, single-set programs in resistance-trained individuals (56,64,69,89). Traditional strength training (high
load, low repetition, and long rest periods) has produced
significant hypertrophy (17,35,103); however, it has been
suggested that the total work involved with traditional
strength training may not maximize hypertrophy (29).
Very light-to-moderate loads performed for multiple sets
of high repetitions (characteristic of local muscular endurance training) are considered to be very high in total
volume but not optimal for hypertrophy. Thus, the overall
678
volume selected for the program should be based on

individual training status and goals as numerous possibilities exist for effective progression.
Although training volume has been examined in many
facets, one facet that has received less attention is the
number of sets per muscle group or workout. Indeed,
there are few data that directly compare resistance training programs of varying total sets, thus leaving numerous
possibilities for the strength and conditioning professional when designing programs. Much of the resistance
training literature has examined the number of sets performed per exercise and it has generally been found that
two to six sets per exercise produce significant increases
in muscular strength in both trained and untrained individuals (10,17,47,56,89). However, similar strength increases have been found in novice individuals who
trained using 2 and 3 sets, and 2 and 4 sets (80); 3 sets
have also been reported as being superior to one and two
(11). Thus, the number of sets selected per exercise
should vary depending on the training goals. Typically,
three to six sets are most common during resistance
training, but more and less have also been used
successfully.
Another related issue to training volume that has received considerable attention is the comparison of singleand multiple-set resistance training programs. In most of
the studies to date, one set per exercise performed for
8 12 repetitions at an intentionally slow lifting velocity
has been compared with both periodized and nonperiodized multiple-set programs. A common criticism of
these investigations is that the number of sets per exercise
was not separated from other variables such as intensity,
frequency, and repetition velocity, therefore making it
difficult to ascertain whether the observed differences
were the results of the number of sets per exercise or from
some other uncontrolled variable. However, the purpose
of some of these studies was to make general program
comparisons in response to the emergence in popularity
of single-set programs and the subsequent claims associated with their efficacy. This concern notwithstanding,
comparisons between one popular single-set training program and various multiple-set programs of various intensities have yielded conflicting results. Several studies
have reported similar strength increases between singleand multiple-set programs, whereas others reported multiple-set programs superior (11,14,81,102) in previously
untrained individuals. These data have prompted the notion that untrained individuals respond favorably to both
single- and multiple-set programs. Considering that the
early phase of resistance training is characterized by
neural adaptations, e.g., improvements in muscle activation and coordination (92), it may be that the overall
training volume is not critical during the first 6 12 wk.
It has been recently shown that muscle mass may also
play a key role in determining strength increases. Paulsen
et al. (81) reported that 6 wk of lower-body training with
three sets was superior to one set in untrained individuals.
However, similar improvements between one and three
sets were observed in selected measures of upper-body

strength over the same time period. Nevertheless, singleand multiple-set programs appear beneficial for novice
resistance training. However, long-term resistance training studies have predominantly shown that a higher volume of resistance exercise is necessary to generate a
higher rate of progression. In resistance-trained individuals, multiple-set programs have been shown to be superior for muscle strength, local muscular endurance,
power, and hypertrophy increases in most studies
(56,64,87,95). No study has shown single-set training to
be superior to multiple-set training in either trained or
untrained individuals. Finally, it is important to point out
that not all exercises need to be performed with the same
number of sets and that emphasis of higher or lower
training volume is related to the program priorities as
well as the muscle(s) trained in an exercise movement.
Low volume programs can provide a solid variation
during the larger training cycle (mesocycle), and they
therefore have a place when properly incorporated into a
conditioning program.
Rest intervals. Rest interval length is dependent
upon training intensity, goals, fitness level, and targeted
energy system utilization. The amount of rest between
sets and exercises significantly affects the metabolic (57),
hormonal (58,59), and cardiovascular (28) responses to
an acute bout during resistance exercise, as well as performance of subsequent sets (56) and training adaptations
(83,90). It has been shown that acute force and power
production may be compromised with short (i.e., 1 min)
rest periods (56), although these short rest intervals are
beneficial for hypertrophy and local muscle endurance
training. For example, Kraemer (56) reported differences
in performance with 3- versus 1-min rest intervals. All
participants were able to perform 10 repetitions with 10
RM loads for 3 sets when 3-min rest periods were used
for the leg press and bench press. However, when rest
periods were reduced to 1 min, 10, 8, and 7 repetitions
were performed, respectively. Strength and power training (e.g., heavy loads, one to six repetitions with long rest
intervals) predominantly stress the ATP-PC system,
whereas hypertrophy/strength (e.g., moderate-to-heavy
loads, 6 12 repetitions with moderate-to-short rest intervals) is supported mostly by energy provided by ATP-PC
and glycolysis, with minor contributions from aerobic
metabolism. Local muscle endurance training (e.g., high
repetition, short rest intervals) involves a higher contribution of energy from aerobic metabolism. Thus, the rest
interval influences the relative contribution of the three
energy systems.
Longitudinal resistance training studies have shown
that greater strength increases result from long when
compared with short rest periods between sets, e.g., 23
min versus 30 40 s (83,90). When training for absolute
strength or power, rest periods of at least 35 min are
recommended for multiple-joint exercises (3). Robinson
et al. (90) reported a 7% increase in squat performance
after 5 wk of training when 3-min rest intervals were used
compared to only a 2% increase when 30-s rest periods

were used. Pincivero et al. (83) reported significantly
greater strength gains (5 8%) when 160-s rest intervals
were used compared with 40 s. Strength and power
performance is highly dependent upon anaerobic energy
release, primarily via the phosphagens (ATP-PC). Studies show that the majority of phosphagen repletion occurs
within 3 min (26). Therefore, performance of maximal
lifts require maximal energy substrate availability before
the set with minimal or no fatigue. This emphasizes the
importance of recovery during optimal strength and
power training. It is important to note that rest interval
length will vary according to the goals of that particular
exercise, i.e., not every exercise will use the same rest
interval. Muscle strength may be increased using short
rest periods but at a slower rate compared with long rest
periods, thus demonstrating the need to establish goals,
i.e., the magnitude of strength improvement sought, before selecting a rest interval.
Stressing the glycolytic and ATP-PC energy systems
may enhance training for hypertrophy in addition to
heavy resistance exercise. For this aspect of hypertrophy
training (e.g., characteristic of body building programs),
less rest between sets appears to be effective (12 min or
less). These rest intervals appear to be a potent anabolic
hormone stimulator, stimulator of local blood flow, and
result in significant metabolite (e.g., lactate) production
(56,57). Recently, the importance of blood flow for increasing muscle protein synthesis has been demonstrated
(12). Biolo et al. (12) reported an increase in amino acid
transport of 60 120% (depending on the amino acid) 3 h
after resistance exercise. Interestingly, arterial amino acid
concentrations did not change but the 90% increase in
muscle blood flow accounted for much of the increase in
amino acid transport. A recent study has shown a greater
effect on muscle protein synthesis when amino acids
were taken before the workout to optimize amino acid
delivery and transport during the workout via greater
blood flow (104). Studies that have restricted blood flow
and used light loading during resistance exercise (thereby
increasing the concentrations of metabolites and the anaerobic nature of the exercise stimulus) have shown
prominent increases in muscle hypertrophy comparable
with heavier loading, thus demonstrating the utility of
blood flow and/or metabolite accumulation during resistance training (91). This may, in part, be one explanation
as to the efficacy of body-building programs that use
moderate loading, high volume with short rest intervals
for increasing muscle hypertrophy. However, considering that heavy resistance exercise has been effective for
increasing hypertrophy, it appears maximal hypertrophy
may be attained through the combination of strength and
hypertrophy training (e.g., variation in rest interval length
depending on the loading).
The rest interval selected has a great impact when
training for local muscular endurance. Local muscular
endurance has been shown to improve during resistance
training (4,17,66), with greater effects observed with
679
absolute muscular endurance (the maximal number of

repetitions performed with a specific pretraining load)
(4,48) and only limited effects in relative local muscular
endurance (endurance assessed at a specific relative intensity, or % 1 RM) (70). Training to increase local
muscular endurance requires the individual: 1) to perform
high repetitions (long-duration sets) and/or 2) minimize
recovery between sets. Minimizing recovery between
sets is an important stimulus with regards to the adaptations within skeletal muscle necessary to improve local
muscular endurance (e.g., increased mitochondrial and
capillary number, fiber type transitions, buffer capacity).
It has been shown that body builders (who typically train
with high volume and short rest periods) demonstrate a
significantly lower fatigue rate in comparison with power
lifters (who typically train with low-to-moderate volume
and longer rest periods) (57). These data demonstrate the
benefits of high-volume, short rest interval workouts for
improving local muscular endurance.
Another consideration when selecting rest intervals
between sets is the number of exercises performed per
muscle group during a workout. In our laboratory, we
have been using a resistance exercise protocol for a series
of studies that consists of four sets of four exercises
(squat, bench press, bent-over row, and shoulder press)
using 70% of 1 RM for 10 repetitions per set with 2-min
rest intervals between all sets. Considering that 70% of 1
RM is less than a 10 RM load, we have observed that 2
min of rest is not enough for some of these multiple-joint
exercises to be completed for the full 10 repetitions. In
particular, significant reductions in the loading for the
shoulder press have been observed in all trials. This
appears due to the fact that participants preexhausted
their shoulder and triceps muscles previously with the
bench press exercise. Thus, loads were significantly reduced and the 2-min rest interval was not sufficient as
further load reductions were necessary with each subsequent set. Therefore, rest intervals will vary for each
exercise in a workout, and one must consider the fatigue
associated with previous exercises when performing exercises later in the workout.
Repetition velocity. The velocity that dynamic repetitions (i.e., cadence) are performed at, affects the neural
(23,35,36), hypertrophic (47), and metabolic (9) responses to resistance exercise. Studies examining isokinetic resistance exercise have shown strength increases
specific to the training velocity with some carryover
above and below the training velocity (e.g., 30s1) (29).
Several investigators have trained individuals between 30
and 300s1 and reported significant increases in muscular strength (18). It appears that training at moderate
velocity (180 240s1) produces the greatest strength
increases across all testing velocities (51). Data obtained
from isokinetic resistance training studies support velocity specificity and demonstrate the importance of training
at fast, moderate, and slow velocities to improve isokinetic force production across all testing velocities (29).
680
Dynamic constant external resistance training poses a

different stress when examining repetition velocity. Because force mass acceleration, significant reductions in force production are observed when the intent is
to perform the repetition slowly. In interpreting this, it is
important to note that two types of slow-velocity contractions exist during dynamic resistance training, unintentional and intentional. Unintentional slow velocities
are used during high-intensity repetitions in which either
the loading and/or fatigue are responsible for the velocity
of movement. That is, the individual exerts maximal
force but due to the heavy loading or onset of fatigue, the
resultant velocity is slow. One study has shown that
during a 5 RM bench press, the concentric phase for the
first three repetitions was approximately 1.21.6 s in
duration, whereas the last two repetitions were approximately 2.5 and 3.3 s, respectively, due to fatigue (72).
These data demonstrate the impact of loading and fatigue
on repetition velocity in individuals performing each
repetition with maximal effort.
Intentional slow-velocity repetitions are used with submaximal loads where the individual has greater control of
the velocity. It has been shown that concentric force
production was significantly lower (e.g., 771 vs 1167 N)
for an intentionally slow velocity (5-s CON: 5-s ECC) of
lifting compared with a traditional (moderate) velocity
with a corresponding lower neural activation (53). This
suggests that motor unit activity may be limited when
intentionally contracting at a slow velocity. Although
intentionally slow repetition velocity may provide some
benefit for local muscular endurance and hypertrophy
training, the lighter loads may not provide an optimal
stimulus for improving 1 RM strength in resistancetrained individuals (i.e., although novice individuals may
benefit in the initial phases of training). It has recently
been shown that when performing a set of 10 repetitions
using a very slow velocity (10-s CON: 5-s ECC) compared with a slow velocity (2-s CON: 4-s ECC), a 30%
reduction in training load resulted and that this led to
significantly less strength gains in most of the exercises
tested after 10 wk of training (52). Compared to slow
velocities, moderate (1- to 2-s CON: 1- to 2-s ECC) and
fast (1-s CON: 1-s ECC) velocities have been shown to
be more effective for enhanced muscular performance,
for example, number of repetitions performed, work and
power output, volume (74), and for increasing the rate of
strength gains (43). Recent studies examining training at
fast velocities with moderately high loading have shown
this to be more effective for advanced training than
traditionally slower velocities (50). This technique requires the individual to accelerate the load maximally
throughout the range of motion during the CON action to
maximize bar velocity (i.e., the attempt to maximize
velocity throughout the movement stresses areas of the
range of motion where momentum minimizes the effort
needed by the individual to complete the exercise). A
major advantage is that this technique can be used with
heavy loads (i.e., with small deceleration phases) and is
considered effective, especially for multiple-joint exercises (50).

The repetition velocity is very important for power
training. Power production is increased when the same
amount of work is completed in a shorter period of time,
or when a greater amount of work is performed during
the same period of time. Neuromuscular contributions to
the development of maximal muscle power may include:
1) maximal rate of force development; 2) muscular
strength at slow and fast repetition velocities; 3) stretchshortening cycle performance; and 4) coordination of
movement pattern and skill (29,37,78). In order to maximize power training, heavy resistance training needs to
be accompanied by explosive exercises (13). One limitation to performing high-velocity repetitions with free
weights is the deceleration phase. The deceleration phase
is that point near the end of the CON phase in which bar
velocity decreases before completion of the repetition.
The length of this phase depends upon the load used and
the average velocity as the load is decelerated for a
considerable proportion (24 40%) of the concentric
movement (22,76). This percentage increases to 52%
when performing the lift with a lower percentage (81%)
of 1 RM lifted (22) or when attempting to move the bar
rapidly in an effort to train more specifically near the
movement speed of the target activity (76). Thus, power
increases may be most specific only to the initial segment
of the range of motion as power/speed development
throughout the full range of motion is limited because the
load can not be maximally accelerated throughout and
safely released. Ballistic resistance exercise (explosive
movements which enable acceleration throughout the full
range of motion) has been shown to limit this problem
(71,76). Examples of ballistic resistance exercises include the loaded jump squat, bench throw, and shoulder
throw (7,8,19,107). Loaded jump squats with 30% of 1
RM (75) have been shown to increase vertical jump
performance more than traditional back squats, plyometrics, and jump squats performed at 80% of 1 RM
(71,107). Recently, it has been reported that peak power
was significantly greater for the shoulder throw than the
shoulder press at both 30 and 40% of 1 RM (19). These
studies indicate the importance of minimizing the deceleration phase when maximal power is the training goal
and that explosive lifting velocities are critical for developing maximal power.
Training for local muscle endurance, and in some
aspects hypertrophy, may require a spectrum of velocities
with various loading strategies. Studies examining isokinetic exercise have shown that a fast training velocity,
i.e., 180s1, is more effective than a slow training
velocity, i.e., 30s1, for improving local muscular endurance (1). Thus, fast contraction velocities are recommended for isokinetic training. However, it appears that
fast, moderate, and slow velocities are effective for improving local muscular endurance during dynamic constant external resistance training, depending on the number of repetitions performed (17,70). The critical
component to local muscle endurance training is to prolong the duration of the set. Two effective strategies used
to prolong set duration are 1) moderate repetition number
using an intentionally slow velocity and 2) high repetition
number using moderate-to-fast velocities. Intentionally
slow velocity training with light loads (i.e., 5-s CON: 5-s
ECC and slower) places continued tension on the muscles
for an extended period and may be more metabolically
demanding than moderate and fast velocities when the
same number of repetitions are performed. However, it is
difficult to perform a large number of repetitions using
intentionally slow velocities. Both slow velocity, moderate repetitions and moderate-to-fast velocity, high repetitions training strategies increase the glycolytic and oxidative demands of the stimulus, thereby serving as very
effective means of increasing local muscle endurance.
Frequency. The number of training sessions performed during a specific period of time (e.g., 1 wk) may
affect subsequent resistance training adaptations. Frequency also includes the number of times certain exercises or muscle groups are trained per week. It is dependent upon several factors such as volume and intensity,
exercise selection, level of conditioning and/or training
status, recovery ability, nutritional intake, and training
goals. For example, training with heavy loads increases
the recovery time needed before subsequent sessions
especially for multiple-joint exercises involving similar
muscle groups. The use of extremely heavy loads, especially when heavy eccentric training is performed, may
require 72 h of recovery whereas large and moderate
loads may require less recovery time. In particular, it has
been shown that untrained women of various ages only
recovered approximately 94% of their strength 2 d after
a lower-body workout consisting of 5 sets of 10 repetitions with a 10 RM load (34), thus demonstrating that
lesser-trained individuals may need longer recovery periods. Numerous resistance-training studies have used
frequencies of 23 alternating days per week in previously untrained individuals (18,44). This has been shown
to be an effective initial frequency whereas 12 dwk1
appears to be an effective maintenance frequency for
those individuals already engaged in a resistance training
program (32). In a few studies: 4 5 dwk1 were superior
to 3, 3 dwk1 superior to 1 and 2 d, and 2 dwk1
superior to 1 for increasing maximal strength (32,49).
An increase in training experience does not necessarily
require a change in frequency for training each muscle
group but may coincide with alterations in other acute
variables such as exercise selection, volume, and intensity. Increasing training frequency may enable greater
specialization, for example, greater exercise selection and
volume per muscle group in accordance with more specific goals. Performing upper/lower body split or muscle
groups split routines during a workout are common at this
level of training in addition to total-body workouts (29).
Advanced training frequency varies considerably. It
has been shown that football players (with varied training
backgrounds) training 4 5 dwk1 achieved better results
681
than those who trained either 3 or 6 dwk1 (46). Advanced weightlifters and body builders use high frequency training, e.g., four to six sessions per week. The
frequency for elite weightlifters and body builders may
be even greater. Double-split routines (two training sessions per day with emphasis on different muscle groups)
are so common during training (40) that this can result in
the completion of 8 12 training sessions per week. Frequencies as high as 18 sessions per week have been
reported in Olympic weightlifters. The rationale for this
high-frequency training is that frequent short sessions
followed by periods of recovery, supplementation, and
food intake allow for high-intensity training via maximal
energy utilization and reduced fatigue during exercise
performance (29). One study reported greater increases in
muscle cross-sectional area and strength when training
volume was divided into two sessions per day rather than
one (42). Elite power lifters typically train 4 6 dwk1
(29). It is important to note that not all muscle groups are
trained specifically per workout using a high frequency.
Rather, each major muscle group may be trained 2 to 3
wk1 despite the large number of workouts.
A recent study examined training frequency with a
particular focus on resistance training overreaching (86).
Overreaching is a short-term training phase in which the
volume, frequency, and/or the intensity of resistance exercise is increased above normal. The rationale is to
overwork (in order to suppress performance and build up
tolerance) and then taper to produce a subsequent rebound in performance (30). In our study (86), we trained
experienced participants for 4 wk using total-body resistance training consisting of two 2-wk phases of overreaching (phase 1: 3 8 12 RM, eight exercises; phase
2: 5 35 RM, five exercises). Overreaching was
achieved by training each major muscle group on consecutive days for 5 dwk1 (note: the participants had just
completed a 4-wk base training phase of 2 dwk1 so the
overreaching program resulted in a large increase in
frequency and volume). After the first week, 1 RM squat
and bench press significantly decreased (5.2 and 3.4 kg,
respectively) in one group of participants who did not
ingest an amino acid supplement. However, significant
increases in 1 RM squat and bench press were observed
after the second, third, and fourth weeks of training. In
addition, further increases in strength were observed following a 2-wk reduced volume/frequency phase. These
results supported the concept of overreaching and indicated that a large short-term increase in training volume
and frequency can produce significant increases in performance. However, it is important to note that overreaching for an extended period of time may lead to
overtraining in which significant declines in performance
may be observed.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PROGRESSION
Ultimately, the goal of a resistance training program is to
improve some component of fitness or health until a certain
682
level has been attained. For improvements to occur, the

program used must be systematically altered so that the
human body is forced to adapt to the changing stimuli.
Thus, progression may be defined as the act of moving
forward or advancing toward a specific goal (3). Although
it is impossible to continually improve at the same rate over
long-term training, the proper manipulation of program variables can limit training plateaus (that point in time where no
further improvements takes place) and consequently enable
achievement of a higher level of muscular fitness. Three
general principles of progression are: 1) progressive overload, 2) variation, and 3) specificity.
Progressive overload. Progressive overload de-
scribes the gradual increase of stress placed upon the

body during exercise training. Tolerance of increased
stress-related overload is of particular concern for the
practitioner and clinician monitoring program progression. In reality, the adaptive processes of the human body
will only respond if continually required to exert a greater
magnitude of force to meet higher physiological demands. Considering that physiological adaptations to a
standard resistance exercise protocol (i.e., a protocol with
no variation in any program variable) may occur in a
relatively short period of time, a systematic increase in
the demands placed upon the body is necessary for further improvement. There are several ways in which overload may be introduced during resistance training. For
strength, hypertrophy, local muscular endurance, and
power improvements, either: 1) load (resistance) may be
increased, 2) repetitions may be added to the current load,
3) repetition speed with submaximal loads may be altered
according to goals, 4) rest periods may be shortened for
local muscular endurance improvements or lengthened
for strength and power training, 5) volume may be increased within reasonable limits, and/or 6) any combination of the above. It has been suggested that only small
acute increases in training volume (2.55%) should be
imposed initially until adaptation has occurred (29), but
this needs further study as larger increases have been
successfully prescribed in advanced athletes.
The importance of progressive overload can be observed when examining the interplay between neural and
muscular adaptations during strength and power training.
The nervous system plays a significant role in the
strength increases observed in the early stages of adaptation to training (92,93). That is, improvements in motor
unit recruitment, firing rate, and synchronization take
place and account for early increases in strength and
subsequent increases in training loads (93). Within a
short period of time (i.e., 4 8 wk of training), muscle
hypertrophy becomes evident (60,82,99), although
changes in the quality of proteins (99), fiber types
(60,99), and protein synthetic rates (82) take place much
earlier. From this initial phase onward there appears to be
an interplay between neural adaptations and hypertrophy
in the acute expression of muscular strength (93). In order
for further neural adaptations to occur with training, a
progressively greater amount of resistance needs to be
lifted (35,84). It has been shown that less muscle mass is

recruited during resistance training with a given workload once hypertrophy adaptation has taken place (84).
These findings indicate that progressive overload is necessary for maximal muscle fiber recruitment and, consequently, muscle fiber hypertrophy and strength increases.
Further evidence for the importance of heavy loads (and
neural adaptations) with progression during strength and
power training was found with advanced weightlifters
who showed significant strength improvements over a
2-yr period with little or no muscle hypertrophy (41). It
appears that this interplay is closely related to the training
stimulus involved and that progressive overload incorporated into the program design is necessary for maximizing strength, power, hypertrophy, and local muscular
endurance.
Specificity. There is a relatively high degree of task
specificity involved in human movement and adaptation
that encompasses both movement patterns as well as
force-velocity characteristics (5). All training adaptations
are specific to the stimulus applied. The physiological
adaptations to training are specific to the 1) muscle actions involved (20); 2) speed of movement (51); 3) range
of motion (54); 4) muscle groups trained (66); 5) energy
systems involved (57,96); and 6) intensity and volume of
training (17,87,95). For example, if the training goal was
to increase vertical jump ability, then the resistance training program would include specific exercises (e.g., squat,
jump squat, power clean) that mimic the vertical jump,
and these exercises would be performed at a high velocity
to maximize power output. Although there is some carryover of training effects (29,54,66), the most effective
resistance training programs are those that are designed
to target specific training goals.
Variation. Training variation requires that alterations
in one or more program variables be made over time to
allow for the training stimulus to remain optimal. It has
been shown that systematically varying volume and intensity is most effective for long-term progression compared with programs that did not vary any acute program
variable (27,100). The concept of variation has been part
of program design for many years. The importance of
training variation, or periodization, became apparent for
resistance training as a result of the work of Selye (94).
His theory (general adaptation syndrome) proposes that
the body adapts via three phases when confronted with
stress: 1) shock, 2) adaptation, and 3) staleness. Shock
represents the response to the initial training stimulus in
which soreness and performance decrements are produced. Performance then increases during the second
stage, adaptation, in which the body adapts to the training stimulus. Once the body has adapted, no further
adaptations will take place unless the stimulus is altered.
This produces the third stage, staleness, in which a performance plateau is encountered.
Systematic variation has been used as a means of
altering program design to optimize both performance
and recovery (38,39,85). However, the use of periodizaPROGRESSION AND RESISTANCE TRAINING
tion is not limited to elite athletes or advanced training

but has been used successfully as the basis of training for
individuals with diverse backgrounds and fitness levels.
In addition to athletics, periodized resistance training has
been shown to be effective for health and recreational
training goals (100).
Although numerous ways exist in which programs may
be varied, two general models have been examined in the
literature. One model is the classic model, which is characterized by high initial training volume and low intensity (100). As training progresses, volume decreases and
intensity increases in order to maximize strength, power,
or both (27). Typically, each training phase is designed to
emphasize a particular physiological adaptation. For example, hypertrophy is stimulated during the initial high
volume phase, whereas strength and power are maximally developed during the later high-intensity phase.
Comparisons of classic strength/power periodized models to nonperiodized models have been previously reviewed (27). These studies have shown classic strength/
power periodized training superior for increasing
maximal strength, e.g., 1 RM squat, cycling power, motor
performance, and jumping ability (79,99,106). However,
a short-term study (e.g., 12 wk) has shown similar performance improvements between periodized and multiple-set nonperiodized models in resistance-trained individuals (6). It has been shown that longer training periods
are necessary to underscore the benefits of periodized
training compared with nonperiodized training (106).
The results of these studies demonstrate that both periodized and nonperiodized training are effective during
short-term training, whereas variation is necessary for
long-term resistance training progression.
A second examined model is the undulating model.
The undulating program enables variation in intensity
and volume within each 7- to 10-d cycle by rotating
different protocols over the course of the training program. Undulating methods attempt to train the various
components of the neuromuscular system within the
same 7- to 10-d cycle. During a single workout only one
characteristic is trained in a given day, e.g., strength,
power, local muscular endurance. For example, in loading schemes for the core exercises in the workout, the use
of heavy, moderate, and lighter resistances may be randomly rotated over a training sequence (M, W, F), for
example, 35 RM loads, 8 10 RM loads, and 1215 RM
loads may used in the rotation. We have recently reported
significant improvements in various parameters of muscle fitness using a similar 3 dwk1 undulated program
with each workout dedicated to either power, strength, or
hypertrophy in young and older men (78). This model
compares favorably with the classical model and nonperiodized multiple-set programs (6). Recently, this model
has been shown to be more effective for increasing 1 RM
bench press and leg press after 12 wk of training compared with the classic model (88) although more research
683
is needed. This model has also been shown to have

distinct advantages in comparison with nonperiodized,
low-volume training in women (64,69).
EFFECT OF TRAINING STATUS AND
PROGRESSION
Initial training status plays an important role in the rate of
progression during resistance training. Training status reflects a continuum of adaptations to resistance training such
that level of fitness, training experience, and genetic endowment each make a contribution. Untrained individuals (those
with no resistance training experience or who have not
trained for several months to years) respond favorably to
most protocols, thus making it difficult to evaluate the
effects of different training programs at this level of training
(27,33). The rate of strength gain differs considerably between untrained and trained individuals; trained individuals
have shown much slower rates of improvement (38 41). A
review of the literature reveals that muscular strength increases approximately 40% in untrained, 20% in moderately trained, 16% in trained, 10% in advanced, and
2% in elite over periods ranging from 4 wk to 2 yr (3).
Although the training programs, durations, and testing procedures of these studies differed, the data clearly show a
specific trend toward slower rates of progression with training experience. This has recently been shown via metaanalysis of 140 studies (89). In this study, statistically
greater effect sizes (ES) were observed in untrained individuals compared with resistance-trained individuals with
respect to training intensity (ES range of 0.651.80 for
trained vs 1.60 2.80 for untrained), frequency (ES range of
0.70 1.40 for trained vs 1.20 1.90 for untrained), and volume (ES range of 0.471.17 for trained vs 1.16 2.28 in
untrained) on progression.
The difficulty in continuing gains in strength appears to
occur within as little as several months of training. Each
subsequent improvement brings the individual closer to
his/her genetic limit. It is well documented that changes in
muscular strength are most prevalent early in training when
the window of adaptation is greatest (33). Investigations
which have examined the time course of strength gains to
various training protocols support this view (44,73). Shortterm studies (1116 wk) have shown that the majority of
strength increases take place within the first 4 8 wk (44).
FIGURE 1General-to-specific
progression.
model
of
resistance
training
Similar results have been observed during 1 yr of training

(73). These data demonstrate the rapidity of initial strength
gains in untrained individuals but also show slower gains
with further training. Decisions must be made regarding the
exercise prescription as to the cost-benefit ratio of putting
additional attention, time, and effort into strength improvement as gains become increasingly more difficult. In certain
circumstances small changes in strength require large
amounts of training time as the individual approaches his/
her genetic ceiling. Furthermore, the increase observed may
be far less than the gains observed earlier in a persons
training history. Such small gains may be the difference
between winning and losing in certain types of elite athletic
competitions but may be less important in other situations.
The increased time needed to obtain small gains in strength
might not be the best use of available training time, unless
the small gains are directly related to needed performance
abilities. For example, some athletes may need a strength
cap for those exercises that are already strong (i.e., maintaining the present training to focus on other areas) so more
attention and time could be given to weaknesses. Thus,
clinical judgments often have to be made regarding the
exercise prescription. This requires a solid knowledge of an
TABLE 1. Recommendations for progression during strength training.

Novice
Intermediate
Advanced
Loading
Volume
Rest intervals
ECC and CON

Single and multiple-joint
Large small muscles
Multi single
High low intensity
6070% 1 RM
13 812 reps
12 min
Velocity
Frequency
Slow to moderate
23 dwk1
ECC and CON

Large small muscles
Multi single
High low intensity
7080% 1 RM
Multi sets 612 reps
23 mincore
12 min for others
Moderate
24 dwk1
ECC and CON

Single and multiple-joint with multi-emphasis
Large small muscles
Multi single
High low intensity
70100% 1 RM
Multi sets 112 reps
3 mincore
12 min for others
Unint. slow to fast
46 dwk1
Muscle action
Exerc. selection
Exerc. order
, indicates the preceding exercise is to be performed before the succeeding exercise.
684
TABLE 2. Recommendations for progression during hypertrophy training.

Novice
Intermediate
Advanced
Loading
Volume
Rest intervals
ECC and CON

Large small muscles
Multi single
High low intensity
6070% 1 RM
13 812 reps
12 min
ECC and CON

Large small muscles
Multi single
High low intensity
7080% 1 RM
Multi sets 612 reps
12 min
Velocity
Frequency
Slow to moderate
23 dwk1
Slow to moderate
24 dwk1
ECC and CON

Large small muscles
Multi single
High low intensity
70100% 1 RM with emphasis 7085%
Multi sets 112 reps with emphasis 612
23 minheavy
12 min or less for others
Slow, moderate, and fast
46 dwk1
Muscle action
Exerc. selection
Exerc. order
individuals strength profile for a variety of muscles. Furthermore, one must understand the basic physiological adaptations associated with strength-training programs.
GENERAL-TO-SPECIFIC MODEL OF
PROGRESSION
There have been a limited number of studies that examined different models of progression over long-term resistance training. Most resistance training studies have been
short-term (i.e., 6 24 wk) and have used mostly previously
untrained individuals. All of these studies have shown significant improvements in muscular strength during the
short-term. However, little is known about adaptations and
improvements in strength in response to longer training
periods. Resistance-trained individuals have shown a slower
rate of progression (38,41). In addition, advanced lifters
have demonstrated a complex cyclical pattern of training
variation to optimize performance (38 41). It appears from
the available literature that resistance-training progression
occurs in an orderly manner from a general program design
initially to a more specific design with higher levels of
training when the rate of improvement becomes slower (see
Fig. 1). For example, most studies using untrained individuals have shown great improvements regardless of the type
of training program (37). This has been evident in both the
volume and intensity (4,101) chosen. Loads of 4550% of
1 RM and less (i.e., performed with very high repetitions)
may increase strength in untrained individuals (4,101),
whereas trained lifters appear responsive only to heavier
loading (35,38). It is difficult to differentiate program
design in untrained individuals as these individuals do not

appear to be sensitive to either volume, or in some cases
intensity, this early in training. Therefore, it is recommended that a general program design be used with these
individuals.
Longer-term studies (i.e., 16 wk and longer) have clearly
demonstrated the need for training variation (56,64,69,106).
Performance plateaus have been observed with nonperiodized programs whereas periodized resistance training has
been shown to continually increase performance over 24 wk
of training. In a recent study, Marx et al. (69) showed that
similar improvements were observed during the first 3
months of training comparing a nonperiodized single-set
(8 12 repetitions) with a periodized, multiple-set program.
However, only the periodized multiple-set group improved
over the subsequent 3 months of training. These findings
were similar to those reported by Kraemer et al. (64), who
examined periodized multiple-set training versus single-set
nonperiodized training in women collegiate tennis players
over 9 months. The nonperiodized group improved over the
first 3 months only whereas the periodized training group
improved over the entire 9-month period. These data demonstrate the importance of varying the progression of resistance training. Therefore, advanced training targeting progression is more complex and requires great variation
specific to training goals. Figure 1 is a simplified schematic
representing a theoretical continuum of the amount of variation needed in resistance training for progression. The
narrow segment of the triangle (e.g., novice) suggests limited variation is needed in this population, as most programs
TABLE 3. Recommendations for progression during power training.

Muscle action
Exerc. selection
Exerc. order
Loading
Volume
Rest intervals
Velocity
Frequency
Novice
Intermediate
Advanced
ECC and CON

Multiple-joint
Large small muscles
Most complex least
High low intensity
6070%strength
3060%velocity/tech.
Similar to strength
23 mincore
12 min for others
Moderate
23 dwk1
ECC and CON

Multiple-joint
Large small muscles
Most complex least
High low intensity
7080%strength
3060%velocity/tech.
13 36 reps
23 mincore
12 min for others
Fast
24 dwk1
ECC and CON

Multiple-joint
Large small muscles
Most complex least
High low intensity
80% for strength
3060% for velocity
36 16 reps
3 minheavy
12 minmoderate
Fast
46 dwk1
685
TABLE 4. Recommendations for progression during endurance training.

Muscle action
Exerc. selection
Exerc. order
Loading
Volume
Rest intervals
Velocity
Frequency
Novice
Intermediate
Advanced
ECC and CON

Variety
5070% 1 RM
13 1015 reps
12 minhigh reps
1 minmod. reps
Slowmoderate reps
Moderatehigh reps
23 dwk1
ECC and CON

Variety
5070% 1 RM
Multi sets 1015 reps or more
12 minhigh reps
1 minmod. reps
Slowmoderate reps
Moderatehigh reps
24 dwk1
ECC and CON

Variety
3080% 1 RM
Multi sets 1025 reps or more
12 minhigh reps
1 minmod. reps
Slowmoderate reps
Moderatehigh reps
46 dwk1
are effective at this level. It is important to begin gradually

(i.e., learn proper technique, allow large recovery time);
therefore, a simple program design is recommended. However, as one progresses, the triangle becomes wider. This
suggests that more variation (i.e., specific training cycles) is
necessary in order to optimally progress.
Recently, the American College of Sports Medicine (3)
has published recommendations for progression for
strength, power, hypertrophy, and local muscle endurance
training. These recommendations expand the previous position stand (2) for novice training. Tables 1 4 summarize
these recommendations.
SUMMARY
In summary, specific needs and goals should be addressed
before resistance training. The resistance training program
design should be simple at first for untrained individuals but
should become more specific with greater variation in the
acute program variables during progression. Manipulation
of the program variables may be performed in numerous
ways, many of which are beneficial to progression suffice
they adhere to general principles. Progression may be maximized by the incorporation of progressive overload, specificity, and training variation in the program.
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Physical Fitness and Performance

Fundamentals of Resistance Training:

exercise instruction (e.g., technique, breathing, correct use

esistance training is a modality of exercise that has

Address for correspondence: William J. Kraemer, Ph.D., Professor, Human

with a physical ailment) obtain medical clearance. This

letic performance). Lastly, maintenance programs are also

include primarily dynamic repetitions with both CON

Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine

out will be used. The major differences between these

4. rotate upper and lower body exercises or opposing

such as bone respond more favorably to heavy loading,

tive for increasing peak power than jump squat training

Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine

volume selected for the program should be based on

sets were observed in selected measures of upper-body

compared to only a 2% increase when 30-s rest periods

absolute muscular endurance (the maximal number of

Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine

Dynamic constant external resistance training poses a

considered effective, especially for multiple-joint exercises (50).

Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine

level has been attained. For improvements to occur, the

scribes the gradual increase of stress placed upon the

lifted (35,84). It has been shown that less muscle mass is

tion is not limited to elite athletes or advanced training

is needed. This model has also been shown to have

Similar results have been observed during 1 yr of training

TABLE 1. Recommendations for progression during strength training.

ECC and CON

ECC and CON

ECC and CON

, indicates the preceding exercise is to be performed before the succeeding exercise.

Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine

TABLE 2. Recommendations for progression during hypertrophy training.

ECC and CON

ECC and CON

ECC and CON

, indicates the preceding exercise is to be performed before the succeeding exercise.

design in untrained individuals as these individuals do not

TABLE 3. Recommendations for progression during power training.

ECC and CON

ECC and CON

ECC and CON

, indicates the preceding exercise is to be performed before the succeeding exercise.

PROGRESSION AND RESISTANCE TRAINING

Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise

TABLE 4. Recommendations for progression during endurance training.

ECC and CON

ECC and CON

ECC and CON

are effective at this level. It is important to begin gradually

Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine

14. BORST, S. E., D. V. DEHOYOS, L. GARZARELLA, et al. Effects of

27. FLECK, S. J. Periodized strength training: a critical review.

48. HUCZEL, H. A., and D. H. CLARKE. A comparison of strength and

69. MARX, J. O., N. A. RATAMESS, B. C. NINDL, et al. The effects of

Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine

88. RHEA, M. R., S. D. BALL, W. T. PHILLIPS, and L. N. BURKETT. A