ME6352 Manufacturing Technolgy: Unit I Casting 8
ME6352 Manufacturing Technolgy: Unit I Casting 8
ME6352 Manufacturing Technolgy: Unit I Casting 8
Aim:
The automobile components such as piston, connecting rod, crankshaft, engine
block, front axle, frame, body etc., are manufactured by various types of
production processes involving casting, welding, machining, metal forming,
power metallurgy etc. Hence B.E. Automobile Engineering students must study
this course Manufacturing Technology.
Objectives:
To study and understand manufacturing of
various types of production
processes involving casting, welding, machining, metal forming, power
metallurgy etc
To study and understand manufacturing of automobile components such as
piston, connecting rod, crankshaft, engine block, front axle, frame, body etc
UNIT I CASTING 8
Casting types, procedure to make sand mould, types of core making, moulding
tools, machine moulding, special moulding processes CO2 moulding; shell
moulding, investment moulding, permanent mould casting, pressure die casting,
centrifugal casting, continuous casting, casting defects.
UNIT II WELDING 8
TEXT BOOKS
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REFERENCES
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UNIT I - CASTING
CASTING:
Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually
poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then
allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected
or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are usually
metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more
components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is
most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or
uneconomical to make by other methods
Casting, one of the oldest manufacturing processes, consists of pouring a
molten metal into a mold cavity, where it solidifies in the shape of the cavity.
Casting can produce complex shapes (including internal cavities) and large parts
with small material wastage.
A disadvantage of casting is that during
solidification, coring occurs, and as a result, solute elements are concentrated at
the grain boundaries. If these elements form brittle particles, the cast alloy will
have a low ductility. A post-casting normalizing heat treatment may reduce the
solute segregation.
In this lab, you will make a sand mold and assist in the melting and casting
processes. You will get exposure to the process parameters in casting: fluid flow,
heat transfer, metal solidification rates, and design of the metal feeding system.
Thermocouples embedded in thick and thin sections of each mold will be used to
generate direct cooling curves. Inflection temperatures will be compared to the
equilibrium liquidus and solidus of the alloy system.
Make a mold from the oil bonded sand. Place one thermocouple in the
thin section and one in the thick section of the mold.
2.
3.
Place the mold in the sandbox. Connect the thermocouples to the leads
from the PC data acquisition system.
4.
Skim the oxide from the surface of the melt. Remove furnace from the
crucible, start the data collection program, and pour the metal into the
sand mold.
5.
6.
After solidification and cooling (>10 min.) remove the casting from the
mold and inspect it.
Iron,
steel,
Al,
brass,
bronze,
Magnesium
and
certain Zinc alloys.
Various Casting processes
Sand casting,
Die Casting,
Centrifugal Casting,
Shell-Mold Casting,
Investment Casting,
Permanent-Mold Casting etc.
Composite Molds:
Made of two or more different materials (such as sand, graphite,
and metal) combining the advantages of each material. Used to improve
mold strength, cooling rates and overall economics of the process.
Sand Casting
Sands
Most sand casting operations use silica sand (SiO2).
Inexpensive and suitable as mold material because of its resistance to high
temperatures
Two general types of sands:
Naturally bonded (bank sands) and
Synthetic (lake sands).
Synthetic sand is preferred (because its composition can be controlled
more accurately).
Important factors in selecting sand for molds:
Sand having fine, round grains can be closely packed and forms a smooth
mold surface. Good permeability of molds and cores allows gases and
steam evolved escape easily. The mold should have good collapsibility to
avoid defects in the casting such as (hot tearing and cracking).
The mold must be strong enough to hold the weight of the metal.
The mold must resist the erosive action of the rapidly flowing molten metal
during pouring.
The mold must generate a minimum amount of gas when filled with molten
metal.
The mold must provide enough venting so that any gases formed can
pass through the body of the mold itself, rather than penetrate the metal.
Classification of molds
Depending on the materials used, Molds are classified as follows:
Green-sand molds: Molds made with damp molding sand.
Skin-dried molds:
Two methods.
First-The sand around the pattern to a depth of about inch is mixed with a
binder so that when it is dried it will leave a hard surface on the mold. The
remainder of the mold is made up of ordinary green sand.
Second-The entire mold is made with green sand and then coat its surface with
a spray or wash, which hardens when it is applied.
Spray used are: linseed oil, molasses water, gelatinized starch etc.
In both of them mold is dried either by air or by a torch to harden the surface and
drive cut excess moisture.
Dry sand molds: Fairly coarse molding sand mixed with a binding material is
used. Flasks are of metal, since molds must be oven baked before being used. It
is free from gas troubles due to moisture. Skin-dried and dry-sand molds are
widely used in steel foundries.
Loam molds: It is first built up with bricks or large iron parts; these parts are then
plastered over with a thick Loam mortar, the shape of the cavity being obtained
with sweeps or skeleton patterns. The mold is then allowed to dry thoroughly. It
needs long time to make and is not used extensively.
Furan molds: Dry, sharp sand is thoroughly mulled with phosphoric acid which
acts as an accelerator==> furan resin is added and mulling is continued==>the
sand materials begins to air harden almost immediately.
CO2 molds: Clean sands is mixed with sodium silicate and the mixture is
rammed about a pattern. When CO2 gas is pressure-fed into the mold, the sand
mixture hardens. Very smooth and intricate castings are obtained. Used for core
making.
Metal molds: these are used mainly in the die-casting of low-moltingtemperature alloys. Accurate with smooth finish. Eliminate much machine work.
Special molds: Plastics, cement, plaster, paper, wood and rubber are all mold
materials used to fit particular applications.
Molding processes
Bench molding: is for small work, done on a bench of a height convenient to the
molder.
Floor molding: When castings increase in size, with resultant difficulty in
handling, the work is done on the foundry floor. This type of molding is used for
practically all medium and large size castings.
Pit molding: Extremely large castings are frequently molded in a pit instead of a
flask. The pit acts as the drag part of the flask and a separate cope is used
above it. They sides of the pit are brick kind, and on the bottom there
Machine molding: Machines have been developed to do a number of operations
that the molder ordinarily does by hand. Ramming the sand, rolling the mold,
forming the gate and drawing the pattern can be done by these machines.
After ramming the excess sand is leveled off with a straight bar called a
strike rod.
Small vent holes are made through the sand to within a fraction of an inch
of the pattern to insure the escape of gases.
The drag is then turned over so that the cope may be placed in position.
Before turning a little sand is sprinkled over the mold and a bottom board
is placed on top. After rolling over the drag the molding board is removed
exposing the pattern.
The surface of the sand is smoothed over with a trowel and covered with a
fine coating of dry parting sand.
The cope is then placed on the drag, the pins on either side holding it in
proper position.
To provide, a place for the iron to enter the mold, a tapered pin known as
sprue pin is placed an inch to one side of the pattern.
The operations of filling, ramming, and venting the cope proceed in the
same manner as in the drag.
The sprue pin is withdrawn, and funnel shaped opening is scooped out at
the top so that there will be a fairly large opening in which to pour the
metal.
The cope half of the flask is then carefully lifted off and set to one side.
Before the pattern is withdrawn, the sand around the edge of the pattern is
usually moistened with a swab so that the edges of the mold hold firmly
together when the pattern is withdrawn.
To loosen the pattern, a draw spike, is driven into it and rapped lightly in all
directions.
The pattern is withdrawn by lifting the draw spike.
Before closing, a small passage, known as a gate must be cut between
the cavity and the sprue opening.
Sometimes a hollow, known as riser is provided in the cope to supply hot
metal as the casting cools and shrinks.
The mold surfaces may be sprayed, swabbed, or dusted with coating
materials such as silica flour and graphite.
The pattern, usually one piece, is placed on a board and the drag is
molded in the conventional way.
Vent holes are added and the drag is turned over for molding the cope.
No parting sand is applied for the cope and drag will not be separated until
the casting is removed.
The polystyrene pattern, including the gating and pouring system are left
in the mold.
Molten metal is poured rather rapidly into the sprue, the polystyrene
vaporizes and the metal fills the remaining cavity.
Gating System
The passage way for bringing the molten metal into the mold cavity. It
includes: pouring basin, downgate or vertical passage known as a sprue, gate
through which the metal flows from the sprue base to the mold cavity, a runner in
large castings, which takes the metal from the sprue base and distributes it to
several gate passage ways around the cavity.
Characteristics of good gating system:
Metal should enter the cavity with as little turbulence as possible at or near the
bottom of the mold cavity.
Erosion of the passageway or cavity surfaces should be avoided by properly
regulating the flow of metal.
Metal should enter the cavity so as to provide, directional solidification if possible.
The solidification should progress from the mold surfaces to the hottest metal so
that there is always hot metal available to compensate for shrinkage.
Clay or other foreign particles should be prevented from entering the mold cavity.
Skimming gates may be used to trap slag or other light particles into the second
sprue hole. The gate to the mold is restricted somewhat to allow time for the
floating particles to rise into the skimmer.
Three types of gate are used in mold:
Parting gates
Top gates
Bottom gates
Top gate: Conductive to a favorable temperature gradient but
be high
erosion may
Bottom gate: Offers smooth flow with a minimum of erosion but unfavorable
temperature gradient.
Riser: Risers are often provided in molds to feed molten metal into the main
cavity to compensate for the shrinkage.
There are two types of riser
Open Riser: Top of the open riser in open, it is cylinder shape
Advantages: An open riser is easy to mold,
Air can be removed from it.
Disadvantages:It is not placed in the drag.
More difficult to remove from the Casting.
Close/blind riser: Blind risers are domelike risers, found in the cope half of the
flask, which are not the complete height of the cope.
Advantages: Can be placed at any position of the mold
Can be easily removed from the casting.
Disadvantages:
Difficult to mold
May draw liquid metal from solidifying casting.
Chills:
Chills are metal inserts used to control solidification by carrying heat away from
the solidifying metal at a rapid rate.
Chills are the metal shapes inserted in molds to speed up the solidification of a
particular portion of the casting.
Chills equalize the cooling rate of thin and thick sections and thus prevents hot
tears.
Chills promote progressive and directional solidification.
Types chills (I) External (II) Internal.
External Chills: It is rammed up in the mold walls. An external Chill is excellent for
controlling cooling rates in critical region of castings.
Internal Chills: These are of same material as the molten metal. Thus are placed
in the mold cavity before casting when molten metal enters into mold cavity,
melts the block, which is used as internal chills, and prevents shrinkage void.
Patterns:
Used to mold the sand mixture into the shape of the casting.
Patterns Materials:
Strength and durability of the material selected for patterns must reflect
the number of castings that the mold will produce.
Sometimes combination of materials is used to reduce wear in critical
regions.
Patterns are usually coated with a partings agent to facilitate their removal
from the molds.
Types of pattern
Solid or single piece pattern: generally used for simpler shapes and low quantity
production. They are generally made of wood and are inexpensive.
Split pattern: many patterns cannot be made of a single piece because of the
difficulty in molding. To eliminate the difficulty the patterns are made split, half
rests in lower part and half in upper part.
Gated patterns: in production work where many castings are required, patterns
are made of metal to give them strengths and to eliminate any warping tendency.
The gates or runners for the molten metal are formed by connecting parts
between the individual patterns.
Loose piece pattern: consists of loose pieces, which are necessary to facilitate
withdrawing it from the mold.
Match plates: provide a substantial mounting for patterns. It consists of a flat
metal or wooden plate to which the patterns and gate are permanently fastened.
Sweep pattern: they are used where the shape to be molded can be formed by
the rotation of a curved line element about an axis:
Rapid prototyping:
A recent development to mold and pattern making
For example, in investment casting wax patterns can now be replaced with
accurate resin patterns by rapid prototyping.
In this case CAD data are used directly (without the need for dies) to make the
pattern at a fraction of the time and cost of dies for making wax patterns.
Pattern allowances:
Shrinkage: metals shrink when they cool.
Steel
Draft:
Cost iron
1/8 inch/foot
Brass
3/16 inch/foot
inch/foot
+ ve allowance.
Aluminium
5/32 inch/foot
and Magnesium
When a pattern is drawn from a mold, the tendency to tear away the
edges of the mold in contact with the pattern is greatly decreased if the surfaces
of the pattern are slightly tapered known as draft.
1/8 to in/foot (exterior)
in/foot (interior)
Finish: positive allowance is provided for machining. For small and average-sized
casting finish allowance is 1/8 inch.
Distortion: distortion allowance applies only to those castings of irregular shape
which are distorted in the process of cooling because of metal shrinkage.
Shake: when a removable pattern is rapped in the mold before it is withdrawn,
the cavity in the mold increases slightly. A shake allowance should be considered
by making the pattern slightly smaller to compensate for the rapping of the mold.
Cores
Cores are utilized for castings with internal cavities or passages.
A core is a body, usually made of sand, used to produce a cavity in or on
acasting.
Examples: forming the water jacket in a water cooled engine block and
forming the air space between the cooling fins of an air cooled engine.
Cores are placed in the mold cavity before casting to form the interior
surfaces of the casting.
Desirable properties:
Strength (green and dry)
Permeability
Ability to withstand heat or refractoriness
Collapsibility
Friability
A minimal tendency to generate gas
Core making
Core sand is placed in a core box. It can be blown into the box, rammed or
packed by hand, or jolted into the box. The excess sand is struck off, and a drier
plate is placed over the box. The core box is then inverted, vibrated or rapped,
and drawn off the core. The core is then put in a core oven and backed.
Core prints
Recesses that are added to the pattern to support the core and to provide vents
for the escape of gases.
Core shifting: shifting of cores from its proper place is a major cause of defective
castings.
Anchor: a core is subjected to an appreciable buoyant force when immersed in
the liquid metal poured into the mold cavity.
Chaplets: serve to support cores that tend to sag or sink in inadequate core print
seats. Chaplets also serve as anchor to keep the core in place during the casting
process.
A chaplet is usually made of the same metal as, and becomes part of the casting.
Types of cores
Large cores are made by jolt-rollover, sand slinger and other machines.
Small and medium size irregular shape cores are usually made by hand. But if
quantity is high, they are produced on a core blowing machine. This machine
blows sand by compressed air through a core plate with holes arranged to pack
the sand evenly and firming in the core box.
Core backing:
The cores that are bonded by oils must be baked for ultimate hardness and
strength. The purpose of baking is to drive off moisture, oxidize the oil, and
polymerize the binder.
A uniform temperature and controlled heating are necessary for baking an oilbonded sand core. With linseed oil the temperature is raised at a moderate rate,
and is held at about 200C for about 1 hr and then is allowed to fall slowly to
room conditions.
Molding machines:
Serve:
advantageously into a mold. Sand slinger can be deliver large quantities of sand
rapidly and are specially beneficial for ramming big molds.
Casting defects:
Blow holes
Gas holes
Seam and plate
Misrum
Cold shut
Hot tear
Shrinkage Cavities.
1.Blow holes:
Small holes visible on the surface of the casting are called open blows
where as occurring below the surface of the casting.
Causes>>
High moisture in sand resulting in low permeability, very hard
ramming of sand and improper venting of mold.
2.Gas holes:
These are the holes appearing on the surface when it is machined or cut
into sections.
Causes>>using faulty or poor quality metal, use excessive moist sand.
3.Seam and plate:
Seam is an impressed line on casting surface and plate is in the form of a
layer of metal, partially separated from the main body of the casting section by
scale (plate of hard material).
Causes>>Interrupted metal flow due to abrupt changes in casting section adn
sharp section.
4.Misrun:
6.Hot tear:
Intergrannular (along grain boundaries) failure at a high temperature the
larger sections for intensive strain induced by solid contraction of adjacent
thinner section.
Causes>>
7.Shrinkage Cavities:
An internal void in a casting from the volume contraction that occurs
during solidification. It causes for any casting.
Design consideration
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Design rules:
External corner should be rounded with raddi that are 10% to 20% to section
thickness. By rounding corners, the resistance of ductile metal to fatigue or
static stress is increased.
In Joining section of unequal sizes the raddi plays an important role, A raddi
of (a) 0.1 t the resistance to fatigue stress is united (b) 1t, there is 40 to 50%
more stress endurance. (c) 4t, 120% more stress endurance than that with
0/1t radius.
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING :
Since its inception at the beginning of nineteenth century several
applications developed have survived commercial exploitation. The main
feature of centrifugal casting that differentiates it from all other static casting
processes is pouring of molten metal into a mould that is rotated during
solidification. The castings produced by this process are completely free
from porosity defect and are strong (at par with similar forgings). This is due
to whirling out of metal towards the periphery because of centrifugal force.
Lighter impurities are also removed as being lighter these remain at the
center.
Features
Following are the main features of centrifugal casting process:
Process is suitable only for products, which have rotational symmetry.
Semi-centrifugal Casting
the ejector die, is now ejected and at the same time the plunger uncovers
the filling hole, letting the liquid metal from the furnace to enter the
gooseneck.
Air pressure required for injecting the metal into the die is that of
the order of 30-45 kg/cm 2. Depending upon its size, this hot chamber die
casting machine can produce about 60 or more castings upto 20 kg each
per hour and several hundred castings per hour for single impression
castings weighing a few grams.
Cold Chamber Process
The hot chamber process is used for most of the low melting
temperature alloys such as zinc, lead and tin. For materials such as
aluminum and brass, their high melting temperatures make it difficult to cast
them by hot chamber process, because gooseneck of the hot chamber
machine is continuously in contact with the molten metal. Also liquid
aluminum would attack the gooseneck material and thus hot chamber
process is not used with aluminum alloys. In the cold chamber process, the
molten metal is poured with a ladle into the hot chamber for every shot. This
process reduces the contact time between the liquid metal and the hot
chamber.
The operation starts with the spraying of die lubricants throughout
the die cavity and closing the die when molten metal is ladled into the hot
chamber of the machine either manually or by means of an auto ladle. An
auto ladle is a form of robotic device, which automatically scoops molten
aluminum from the holding furnace and pours it into the die at the exact
instance when required in the casting cycle. The pouring temperature can
be precisely controlled with the help of auto ladle and hence the desired
casting quality can be had. Then the plunger forces the metal into the die
cavity and maintains the pressure till it solidifies. In the next step, the die
opens. The casting is ejected. At the same time, plunger returns to its
position completing the operation.
Cold chamber and hot chamber die casting differs from each other in the
following respects :
Melting unit is not an integral part of the cold chamber die casting machine.
Molten metal is brought and poured into the die casting machine with the
help of ladles.
In case of cold chamber process high pressures tend to increase the fluidity
of molten metal possessing relatively lower temperature and hence castings
produced are denser, dimensionally accurate and free from blowholes.
In case of cold chamber process die components experience less thermal
stresses due to lower temperature of the molten metal. However, dies are
required to be made stronger in order to bear high pressures.
Cold chamber process has a longer cycle time compared to hot chamber
process.
In case of cold chamber process as metal is ladled from a furnace, it may
loose superheat and may cause defects such as cold shuts.
Applications
The typical products made by die casting are carburetors, crank
cases, magnetos, handle bar housings, parts of scooters and motor cycles,
zip fasteners, head lamp bezels, and other decorative automobile items.
SHELL MOULDING :
Shell moulding is a process in which the sand mixed with a
thermosetting resin is allowed to come in contact with a heated metallic
plate, so that a thin and strong shell of mould is formed around the pattern.
Then the shell is removed from the pattern and the cope and the drag are
removed together and kept in a flask with the necessary backup material
and molten metal is poured into the mould.
Process
Generally, dry and fine sand (90 to 140 GFN) which is completely
free of the clay is used for preparing the shell moulding sand. The grain size
to be chosen depends on the surface finish desired on the casting. Too fine
a grain size requires large amount of resin which makes the mould
expensive.
The synthetic resins used in shell moulding are essentially
thermosetting resins, which get hardened irreversibly by heat. The resins,
most widely used, are the phenyl formaldehyde resins. Combined with sand,
they give very high strength and resistance to heat. The phenolic resins
used in shell moulding usually are of the two stage type, that is, the resin
has excess phenol and acts like a thermoplastic material. During coating
with the sand, the resin is combined with a catalyst hexa-methylene
tetramine in a proportion of about 14 to 16% so as to develop the
thermosetting characteristics. The curing temperature for these would be
around 150oC and the time required would be 50 to 60 sec.
The first step in preparing the shell mould is the preparation of the
sand mixture in such a way that each of the sand grain is thoroughly coated
with resin. To achieve this, first the sand, hexa and additives, which are all
dry, are mixed inside a Muller for a period of 1 min. Then the liquid resin is
added and mixing is continued for another 3 minutes. To this cold or warm
air is introduced into the Muller and the mixing is continued till all the liquid
is removed from the mixture and the coating of the grains is achieved to the
desired degree.
Since the sand resin mixture is to be cured at about 150 oC
temperature, only metal patterns with associated gating are used. The metal
used for preparing patterns is grey cast iron, mainly because of its easy
availability and excellent stability at temperatures involved in the process.
But sometimes-additional risering provision is required as the cooling in
shell mouldings is slow.
The metallic pattern plate is heated to a temperature of 200 to 350
degrees depending on the type of pattern. It is very essential that the
pattern plate is uniformly heated so that the temperature variation across
the whole pattern is within 25 to 40 degrees depending on the size of the
pattern. A silicone agent is sprayed on the pattern and the metal plate. The
heated pattern is securely fixed to a dump box, wherein the coated sand in
an amount larger than required to form the shell of the necessary thickness
is already filled in.
Then the dump box is rotated so that the coated sand falls on the
heated pattern. The heat from the pattern melts the resin adjacent to it thus
causing the sand mixture to adhere to the pattern When a desired thickness
of shell is achieved, the dump box is rotated backwards by 180 degrees so
that the excess sand falls back into the box, leaving the formed shell intact
with the pattern. The average shell thickness achieved depends on the
temperature of the pattern and the time the coated sand remains in contact
with the heated pattern.
The shell along with the pattern plate is kept in an electric or gas
fired oven for curing the shell. The curing of the shell should be done as per
requirements only because over curing may cause the mould to break down
as the resin would burn out. The under curing may result in blow holes in
the casting or the shell may break during handling because of the lack of
strength.
The shells thus prepared are joined together by either mechanical
clamping or adhesive bonding. The resin used as an adhesive may be
applied to the parting plane before mechanical clamping and then allowed
for 20 to 40 seconds for achieving the necessary bonding.
Since the shells are thin, they may require some outside support so
that they can withstand the pressure of the molten metal. A metallic
enclosure to closely fit the exterior of the shell is ideal, but it is too
expensive and therefore impractical. Alternately, a cast iron shot is generally
preferred as it occupies any contour without unduely applying any pressure
on the shell. With such a backup material, it is possible to reduce the shell
thickness to an economical level.
Advantages
Shell moulding castings are generally more dimensionally accurate
than sand castings. It is possible to obtain a tolerance of 0.25 mm for steel
castings and 0.35 mm for grey cast iron castings under normal working
conditions.
A smoother surface finish can be obtained in shell castings. This is
primarily achieved by the finer size grain used. The typical order of
roughness is of the order of 3 to 6 microns.
Draft angles are lower than required in sand castings. The
reduction in draft angles may be between 50 to 75% which considerably
saves the material costs and the subsequent machining costs.
Sometimes, special cores may be eliminated in shell moulding.
Since the sand has a high strength the mould could be designed in such a
manner that the internal cavities can be formed directly with the shell mould
itself without the need of the shell cores.
Also, very thin sections of the type of air cooled cylinder heads can
be readily made by the shell moulding because of the higher strength of the
sand used for shell moulding.
Permeability of the shell is high and therefore no gas inclusions
occur.
Very small amount of sand needs to be used.
Mechanization is readily possible because of the simple processing involved
in shell moulding.
Applications
Cylinders and cylinder heads for air cooled I. C. engines,
automobile transmission parts, cast tooth bevel gears, brake beam, track
rollers for crawler tractors, transmission planet carrier, steel eyes, gear
blanks, chain seat bracket, refrigerator valve plate, small crank shafts are
some of the common applications of shell mould castings.
UNIT II
WELDING
Welding is a materials joining process which produces coalescence of
materials by heating them to suitable temperatures with or without the
application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone, and with or
without the use of filler material.
Welding is used for making permanent joints. It is used in the manufacture
of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine frames,
structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship
building.
TYPES
The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and forced
together by external pressure
The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify
(Ex) Gas welding, Arc welding
Classification of welding processes:
(i). Arc welding
1. Carbon arc
2. Metal arc
3. Metal inert gas
4. Tungsten inert gas
5. Plasma arc
6. Submerged arc
7. Electro-slag
(ii). Gas Welding
Oxy-acetylene
Air-acetylene
Oxy-hydrogen
(iii). Resistance Welding
1. Butt
2. Spot
3. Seam
4. Projection
5. Percussion
Thermit Welding
Newer Welding
Electron-beam
Laser
Related Process
Oxy-acetylene cutting
Arc cutting
Hard facing
Brazing
Soldering
Arc welding methods
1. Metal arc welding
It is a process of joining two metal pieces by melting the edges by an
electric arc. The electric arc is produced between two conductors. The electrode
is one conductor and the work piece is another conductor. The electrode and the
work piece are brought nearer with small air gap. (3mm app.)
When current is passed an electric arc is produced between the electrode
and the work piece. The work piece and the electrode are melted by the arc.
Both molten piece of metal become one. Temperature of arc is about 4000c
Electrodes used in arc welding are coated with a flux. This flux produces a
gaseous shield around the molten metal. It prevents the reaction of the molten
metal with oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. The flux removes the
impurities from the molten metal and form a slag. This slag gets deposited over
the weld metal. This protects the weld seam from rapid cooling. Fig.1 shows arc
welding process.
Equipments:(Refer Fig 2)
Electrode holder
Electrode
Protective shield
Gloves
Wire brush
Chipping hammer
Goggles
1
2
3
4
5
Transformer)
More efficiency
Power consumption less
Cost of equipment is less
Higher voltage hence not safe
Not suitable for welding non ferrous
Less efficiency
Power consumption more
Cost of equipment is more
Low voltage safer operation
suitable for both ferrous non ferrous
metals
6 Not preferred for welding thin
metals
preferred for welding thin sections
sections
7 Any terminal can be connected to
the work or electrode
GAS WELDING
Oxy-Acetylene welding
In gas welding, a gas flame is used to melt the edges of metals to be
joined. The flame is produced at the tip of welding torch. Oxygen and
Acetylene are the gases used to produce the welding flame. The flame will
only melt the metal. A flux is used during welting to prevent oxidations and to
remove impurities. Metals 2mm to 50mm thick are welded by gas welding.
The temperature of oxyacetylene flame is about 3200c. Fig 3 shows Gas
welding equipments.
Gas Welding Equipment
1. Gas Cylinders
Pressure
Oxygen 125 kg/cm2
Acetylene 16 kg/cm2
2. Regulators
Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2
Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm 2
Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of the work pieces
welded.
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Check valve
7. Non return valve
TYPES OF FLAMES
Oxygen is turned on, flame immediately changes into a long white inner
area (Feather) surrounded by a transparent blue envelope is called
Carburizing flame (30000c)
Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone surrounded by the
transparent blue envelope is called Neutral flame (It has a balance of fuel
gas and oxygen)
If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more pointed,
while the envelope becomes shorter and more fierce is called Oxidizing
flame
Ferrous metal is heated in to red hot condition and a jet of pure oxygen is
projected onto the surface, which rapidly oxidizes
Oxides having lower melting point than the metal, melt and are blown
away by the force of the jet, to make a cut
Cutting torch has preheat orifice and one central orifice for oxygen jet
Piercing, used to cut a hole at the centre of the plate or away from the
edge of the plate
Weld joint
There are 5 basic joint types in welding
Butt joint: Two materials are in the same plane, joined from the edges.
Corner joint:The corners of two materials form a right angle and joined.
Types of weld
1. Fillet weld: Used in T joints,corner joints, lap joints.
2. Groove weld:Used in butt joints.
3. Plug weld: Used in lap joints.
4. Slot weld: Used in lap joints.
5. Spot weld: Used in lap joints.
6. Seam weld: Used in lap joints.
7. Flange weld:Used in edge joints.
8. Surfacing weld:Not a joining process, it is used to increase the thickness
of the plate, or provide a protective coating on the surface.
Fig 9 Brazing
Advantages
Dissimilar metals which canot be welded can be joined by brazing
Very thin metals can be joined
Metals with different thickness can be joined easily
In brazing thermal stresses are not produced in the work piece.
Hence there is no distortion
Using this process, carbides tips are brazed on the steel tool
holders
Disadvantages
Brazed joints have lesser strength compared to welding
Joint preparation cost is more
Can be used for thin sheet metal sections.
Soldering
It is a low temperature joining process. It is performed at
temperatures below 840F for joining.
Soldering is used for,
Fig 9 Soldering
Electrical Connections
Questions:
PART A Short Questions
Define the term welding.
What is plastic welding? Give some examples.
What is fusion welding? Give some examples.
List the different equipments and accessories used in electric arc welding.