Applied Linguistics

1.What is Applied Linguistics?

An interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates and offers solution to language
related real-life problems.

2.What is grammar?
Grammar is the knowledge speakers have about the rules of language. These rules allow the
speaker to combine sounds, form words, words into phrases and phrases into sentences.

3.Difference between descriptive and prescriptive grammar.

Descriptive grammar (definition #1) refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used

by speakers and writers. Prescriptive grammar (definition #2) refers to the structure of a
language as certain people think it should be used.

Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in
descriptive grammar (called linguists) study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words,
phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians (such as most
editors and teachers) lay out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use
of language. (See What Is a SNOOT?)

Interfacing With Grammar

To illustrate these different approaches, let's consider the word interface. The descriptive
grammarian would note, among other things, that the word is made up of a
common prefix(inter-) and a root word (face) and that it’s currently used as both a noun and
a verb. The prescriptive grammarian, however, would be more interested in deciding whether or
not it is “correct” to use interface as a verb.

4. The value of studying grammar.

The study of grammar all by itself will not necessarily make you a better writer. But by
gaining a clearer understanding of how our language works, you should also gain greater control
over the way you shape words into sentences and sentences into paragraphs. In short, studying
grammar may help you become a more effective writer.

Descriptive grammarians generally advise us not to be overly concerned with matters

ofcorrectness: language, they say, isn't good or bad; it simply is. As the history of the glamorous
word grammar demonstrates, the English language is a living system of communication, a
 continually evolving affair. Within a generation or two, words and phrases come into fashion and
fall out again. Over centuries, word endings and entire sentence structures can change or
disappear.

Prescriptive grammarians prefer giving practical advice about using language:

straightforward rules to help us avoid making errors. The rules may be over-simplified at times,
but they are meant to keep us out of trouble--the kind of trouble that may distract or even confuse
our readers.

5.Inductive versus deductive Approach.

a. Induction, Inductive language education  

The process of induction is GENERAL -> SPECIFIC.

In Second Language Acquisition, this means:  GENERAL

SAMPLES OF THE LANGUAGE to SPECIFIC RULES
by which the language appears to be governed.

The idea is that the teacher gives general samples of

compositions in the target language, and students are
supposed to induce (figure out) the specific rules.

b. Deduction, deductive language education  

The process of deduction is:  SPECIFIC -> GENERAL.

In Second Language Acquisition, this means from

SPECIFIC RULES of the language to GENERAL
PRODUCTION.

That means:  the teacher explicates (gives) some specific

rules and then the students DEDUCE (figure out) general
production of the target language.

6. Different Approaches.

A. The audio-lingual approach

•         The audio-lingual approach dominated foreign language teaching in the 1950s and 1960s.
•         Its rise is partly due to the fact that because of the rapid increase of international trade,
travel, and commerce, ever more people needed to learn English (the new lingua franca). That
includes ‘intellectually less gifted’ people.

•         The major aim is to enable all learners to use English in everyday oral communication.
Speaking is put before and above writing.

•         The claim is that by the imitation of good examples and the fast correction of errors
everyone can learn a second language. There is no need for abstract rule knowledge. (“Englisch
für alle”, 1964).

•         Pattern drills and the use of the language laboratory are typical of the teaching methods used
under the audio-lingual approach.

B. Cognitive-Code Approach

The term cognitive-code refers to any conscious attempt made to organize

material around a grammatical syllabus while allowing for meaningful practice

and use of language. Subskills in listening ,speaking, reading, and writing such

as sound discrimination, pronunciation of specific elements, distinguishing

between letters that are similar in appearance and so on are learned before the

student participates in real communication activities. Lessons are highly

structured using a deductive process, and often practicing the `rule of the day,’

A Mini-Lesson Using Cognitive-code Approach: Grade 2.

OBJECTIVE: To learn the "rule of the day" using deductive method. Introduce words beginning
with short and long vowel sound "i."

PK: Students know short and long vowels sounds of a and e.

TEACH: using picture-cards with the letter "i" on the back.

DEDUCE: iguana, ice, igloo, ice-cream, ink, ivy,insect, idea begin with the letter i

ACTIVITY: draw pictures for the above words. Make a collage. Play bingo

Although cognitive-code approach devotes "a great deal of time to temporally

related but often unmotivated (contextually unjustified) discourse," a teacher can

make learning more interesting and fun as mentioned above for K-3.

  

C. Communicative language teaching

 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and
foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of
learning a language. It is also referred to as “communicative approach to the teaching of
foreign languages” or simply the “Communicative Approach”.

7. Theories of language learning .

A. The behaviorist theory believes that “infants learn oral language from other human role
models through a process involving imitation, rewards, and practice.  Human role models in an
infant’s environment provide the stimuli and rewards,” (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004).  When a child
attempts oral language or imitates the sounds or speech patterns they are usually praised and
given affection for their efforts.  Thus, praise and affection becomes the rewards.  However, the
behaviorist theory is scrutinized for a variety of reasons.  If rewards play such a vital component
in language development, what about the parent who is inattentive or not present when the child
attempts speech?  If a baby’s language learning is motivated strictly by rewards would the
speech attempts stop merely for lack of rewards (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004)?  Other cases against
this theory include “learning the use and meaning of abstract words, evidence of novel forms of
language not modeled by others, and uniformity of language acquisition in humans” (Cooter &
Reutzel, 2004).

Behaviorism (1930-1950’s)
 
B. F. Skinner. (1957) Verbal Behavior.
 
      Knowledge is based on experience
 
      Learning is the establishment of stimulus-response connection
 
      The study of learning should be restricted to observable inputs and outputs

Behaviorism and Teaching Methodologies

 
      Audiolingual Method
 
 o    Memorize and repeat whole sentences designed to highlight where L1 and L2
differed
o    The goal: Learn new habits
 
      Reinforcement Methods
 
o    Students rewarded for correct productions to develop stimulus-response
connections
 Much like L1 acquisition theory of reinforcement

B .The innatist theory states that learning is natural for human beings.  They believe that babies

enter the world with a biological propensity, an inborn device, to learn language (Cooter &

Reutzel, 2004).  This human built in device for learning language has been coined the (LAD)

language acquisition device.  The innatist theory does somewhat explain how children can

generate or invent language they have never heard.  Researcher, N. Chomsky backed this theory

stating that children use the LAD to generate and invent complex speech.  Although this theory

provides what some claim is a reasonable explanation about acquiring language, this theory lack

sufficient evidence.  Some of the cases against this theory include, “timing of language learning

varies greatly within cultures, environment shapes how much and what language is learned, and

feedback from other language users affects language acquisition” (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004).

1. Innate Ideas
The philosophy of innatism is sometimes divided into two areas:

1. Knowledge innatism - this doctrine asserts that humans have access to knowledge that is
possessed innately.
2. Idea innatism - also known as concept innatism, this doctrine asserts that humans have
access to certain inborn ideas.

 Knowledge innatism seems to entail idea innatism.

 Idea innatism does not necessarily entail knowledge innatism, although this is debatable.
An innatist might endorse an innatist account of ideas, or of knowledge, or (the most common
innatist position) of both ideas and knowledge

2. The difference between innatism and nativism

In general usage the terms innatism and nativism are synonymous as they both refer to
notions of preexisting ideas present in the mind. However, more correctly innatism refers to the
philosophy of Plato and Descartes who assumed that innate ideas and principles are placed in the
human mind by a God or an equivalent being or process. While nativism represents an adaptation
of this, grounded in the fields of genetics, cognitive psychology and psycholinguistics. Nativists
hold that innate beliefs are in some way genetically programmed to arise in our mind, that is to
say that innate beliefs are the phenotypes of certain genotypes that all humans have in common.

C. The cognitive theory is often known as the compromise between the behaviorist

theory and innatist theory.  “Cognitivists believe that not only do cognitive and maturational

factors influence language acquisition, but also the process of language acquisition itself may in

turn affect cognitive and social skill development” (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004).  The behaviorist

theory explains why babies learn language while the innatist theory reveals why babies born to

English-speaking parents speak English instead of Spanish.  The cognitive theory seems to

explain the majority of the language acquisition questions and is a nice blend of the previous two

theories, behaviorist and innatist (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004).

          D. The social interactionist theory, “assumes that language acquisition is influenced
by the interaction of a number of factors – physical, linguistic, cognitive, and social,” (Cooter &

Reutzel, 2004).  This theory shares many of the same explanations as the other three theories. 

Vygotsky’s work is often placed with this theory because of the emphasis he placed on the

importance of social interaction to learn language.  M.A.K. Halliday believes that children learn

language out of need to function in society.  Babies acquire language in order to survive, have

their needs met, and express themselves (Cooter & Reutzel, 2004).
 1.Advantages

 Creating a supportive community to lower students’ anxiety and help them overcome
threatening affective factors, such as making errors or competing with peers.

 This situational approach to language learning encourages the meaningful use of

language which the learner can store, synthesize and use in new situations.

2.Disadvantages

 The teacher may be too nondirective and rely heavily on inductive strategies of learning.

 There is the risk that the group might not accept the common task of learning, as some
students may be more motivated to acquire the language than others.

3. What is the Zone of Proximal Development?

- Vygotsky (1978) maintained the child follows the adult's example and gradually develops the
ability to do certain tasks without help or assistance. He called the difference between what a
child can do with help and what he or she can do without guidance the "zone of proximal
development" (ZPD).
- Proximal Zone (Distal zone) -> Learning (social interaction) -> Present knowledge :
Cognitive development

E. Mentalist Theory
 
           Noam Chomsky (1957) Syntactic Structures.
 
      Linguistics should be concerned about deeper, abstract, universal properties of language
 
Compare to behaviorist concern with observed input-output, and observable differences
between languages
 
 
      Goal of linguistics: discover the underlying grammar that generates an infinite set of
grammatical sentences
 
o    How do we know meaningless sentences are grammatical?
 
  Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
*Colorless sleep ideas green furiously.
 
o    How can we disambiguate two meanings?
 
Behaviorist investigation only concerned with actual output.  Need to look “deeper” into
the structure
  
Visiting relatives can be boring.
 
“Relatives who visit can be boring.”
“To visit relatives can be boring.”
 
o    Surface and abstract/underlying structures posited
 
  Who do you want to see?
  Who do you wanna see?
  Who do you want to feed the dog?
*Who do you wanna feed the dog?
 
You want to see who?
You want who to feed the dog?
 
Whoi do you want to see ti?
Whoi do you want ti to feed the dog?

 
 
      Domain of linguistic investigation:
Linguistic competence.
 
o    Investigated by self introspection of native speaker
 
o    Any evidence from performance was irrelevant.
 
o    Language considered an innate part of the brain
 
 Notion of the “black box”, a place in the brain that controls language, but we have
no direct access to it.

Mentalist Theories Influenced Ideas about

L1 and L2 Acquisition
 
      Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
 
o     Innate mental organ
o     Used in L1 and L2 acquisition
o     Evolved to search for patterns in the input and formulate “rules” of grammar
 
      Lead to the “Active Construction of a Grammar” theory in L1 acquisition
 
 o     Children were searching out patterns
o     Lead to the construction of an underlying grammar
 
      Lead to the idea of an “interlanguage” in L2 acquisition
 
o     Learners of L2 followed fairly consistent sequence of acquisition
o     Commonalities due to factors beyond L1 characteristics
 L2 learners using LAD to form new underlying grammars

4.What is universal grammar?

Universal grammar (UG) is a theory of linguistics postulating principles of grammar shared

by all languages, thought to be innate to humans (linguistic nativism). It attempts to
explainlanguage acquisition in general, not describe specific languages. Universal grammar
proposes a set of rules intended to explain language acquisition in child development.

The idea can be traced to Roger Bacon's observation that all languages are built upon a common
grammar, substantially the same in all languages, even though it may undergo in them accidental
variations, and the 13th century speculative grammarians who, following Bacon, postulated
universal rules underlying all grammars. The concept of a universal grammar or language was at
the core of the 17th century projects for philosophical languages. The 18th century in Scotland
saw the emergence of a vigorous universal grammar school. Later linguists who have influenced
this theory include Noam Chomsky, Edward Sapir and Richard Montague, developing their
version of the theory as they considered issues of the Argument from poverty of the stimulus to
arise from the constructivist approach to linguistic theory. The application of the idea to the area
of second language acquisition (SLA) is represented mainly by the McGill linguist Lydia White.

8. What is the Critical Period Hypothesis?`

The Critical Period Hypothesis is the subject of a long-standing debate

in linguistics and language acquisition over the extent to which the ability to
acquire language is biologically linked to age. The hypothesis claims that there is an ideal
'window' of time to acquire language in a linguistically rich environment, after which this is
no longer possible.

The Critical Period Hypothesis states that the first few years of life is the crucial time in
which an individual can acquire a first language if presented with adequate stimuli. If
 language input doesn't occur until after this time, the individual will never achieve a full
command of language — especially grammatical systems.

9. Synthetic versus analytic language.

A synthetic language, in linguistic typology, is a language with a high morpheme-per-

word ratio. This linguistic classification is largely independent of morpheme-usage
classifications (such as fusional, agglutinative, etc.), although there is a common tendency for
agglutinative languages to exhibit synthetic properties.

While the term analytic, referring to a morphological type, is synonymous with the

term isolating in most contexts. However, it is possible to define analytic as referring to the
expression ofsyntactic information via separate grammatical words instead of via morphology
(with bound morphemes). Obviously, using separate words to express syntactic relationships
would lead to a more isolating tendency while using inflectional morphology would lead to the
language having a more synthetic tendency.

10. Identify and describe two social factors affecting language learning and

teaching in the classroom.

1. An element that affects the teaching and learning of English in the Caribbean is lack of

motivation of the students. Students are comfortable using there mother tongue/ native

language and they se no real reason to learn English “beyond satisfying the statutory and

examination requirements” (Robertson 1995). Additionally there are not sufficient and

adequately knowledgeable individuals who can pose as competent speakers of English to present

themselves as role models to the students. Subsequently, students are of the opinion that they

already master the competence of speaking English because of the general overlap that exist

between the two codes.

2. Other elements that affect the teaching and learning of English in the Caribbean come from

the society at large. Firstly, ministry officials, policy planners and curriculum implementers

focus on mainly on policies, plans and documents that cater to the passing of an examination

therefore they are ignorant about the needs and goals of learning language (English). They place

no primary focus on the long term learning of English; therefore curriculums are centred on

examination principles and content resulting in effective teaching of English. Robertson posits

that education administrative in the Caribbean “rely exclusively on the CXC syllabus’” and

“these syllabuses are in the first place, rather examination rather than teaching

documents….schools do not attempt to articulate the various and integrate the English

curriculum across the various levels in schooling,” and in doing so they do not provide adequate

support for language learning and teaching.

11. What is constrastive analysis?

The systematic study of a pair of languages with a view to identifying their structural
differences and similarities. (Wikipedia.org)
Contrastive analysis is concerned with comparing the structure of the speaker’s first /native
language (L1) with the target language (TL) or second language (L2), the language which the
speaker is trying to learn in order to identify how the L1 influences the learner’s ability to
acquire L2.

Contrastive Analysis approach was widely accepted in the 1960’s but was soon rejected in
the1970’s because it was exploited by behaviourists (Ronald Sheen, PhD 1996).
Behaviourist was becoming unpopular in the classroom, because of its approach to teaching
language through a series of drills. Contrastive analysis was closely associated with
behaviourisms, hence it was rejected.

1.Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis

 
Where two language are similar, positive transfer will occur; where they are different, negative
transfer or interference will result: a priori predictions.
 
Type of Difficulty L1: English     L2: Example
 Spanish
  por
1. Split x
  for
x para
y
     
2. New Ø - - - - - - -  x Marking grammatical gender
     
3. Absent x - - - - - - -  Ø Do as a tense carrier
 
   
4. Coalesced x his/her is realized as a single
x form su
Y
     
5. Correspondence x - - - - - - -  x -ing = -ndo used as a complement
with verbs of perception
(hear talking, oir hablando)
 

12. What is Error analysis?

Error analysis deals with thelearners’ performance in terms of the cognitive processes they make
use of in recognizing or coding the input they receive from the target language. Therefore, a
primary focus of error analysis is on the evidence that learners’ errors provide with an
understanding of the underlying process of second language acquisition.

1.Two areas of Error Analysis

Theoretical analysis of errors, as mentioned before, primarily concerns the process
and strategies of language learning and its similarities with first language acquisition.
In other words, it tries to investigate what is going on in the minds of language
learners. Secondly, it tries to decode the strategies of learners such as
overgeneralization and simplification, and thirdly, to go to a conclusion that regards the
universals of language learning process whether there is an internal syllabus for
learning a second language.

While applied error analysis, on the other hand, concerns organizing remedial courses,
and devising appropriate materials and teaching strategies based on the findings of
theoretical error analysis.

2.Types of Errors
 
   
Interlingual
Interference Is the book of my friend.
   
Intralingual  
Overgeneralization I wonder where are you going.
 
Simplification I studied English for two year.
(redundancy reduction)
 
Communication Based Using “airball” for balloon (coinage)
 
Induced errors She cries as if the baby cries.
(teacher’s presentation) of material, as FOR
if = like) She cries like a baby.
 
 

3.Approaches for Error Identification and Analysis .

Where is the problem? Identification of Error
What is the type of problem? Definition/Classification of Error
How can you explain the problem? Explanation/ Exemplication
1. State type of grammar .
2. Give correct form to show
constrast with inappropriate or
deviated form.
3. Give example to show rule in action.
4.Classifying Errors

Ellis (1997) maintains that “classifying errors in these ways can help us to diagnose
learners’ learning problems at any stage of their development and to plot how changes
in error patterns occur over time.” This categorization can be exemplified as follows:
Omission:
Morphological omission *A strange thing happen to me yesterday.
Syntactical omission * Must say also the names?
Addition:
In morphology * The books is here.
In syntax * The London
In lexicon * I stayed there during five years ago.
Selection:
In morphology * My friend is oldest than me.
In syntax * I want that he comes here.
Ordering:
In pronunciation * fignisicant for ‘significant’; *prulal for ‘plural’
In morphology * get upping for ‘getting up’
In syntax * He is a dear to me friend.
In lexicon * key car for ‘car key’

13. Distinguish between error and mistake.

An error reflects gap in a learners knowledge. While mistake is knowing it is wrong but cannot
be bothered to correct it.

Error:  a systematic deviation made by learners who have not yet mastered the rules of the L2. 
 
*A learner cannot self-correct an error because it is a product reflective of their current stage of
L2 development.*
 
Mistake: a random performance slip caused by fatigue, excitement, etc.
 
*Learners can readily self-correct mistakes.*
14. Difference between L1 and L2.
L1 is the native language while L2 is the second or target language.

15.Difference between learning and acquisition.

Children acquire language through a subconscious process during which they are unaware
of grammatical rules. This is similar to the way they acquire their first language. They get a feel
for what is and what isn’t correct. In order to acquire language, the learner needs a source of
natural communication. The emphasis is on the text of the communication and not on the form.
Young students who are in the process of acquiring English get plenty of “on the job” practice.
They readily acquire the language to communicate with classmates.

While language learning, on the other hand, is not communicative. It is the result of direct
instruction in the rules of language. And it certainly is not an age-appropriate activity for your
young learners. In language learning, students have conscious knowledge of the new language
and can talk about that knowledge. They can fill in the blanks on a grammar page. Research has
shown, however, that knowing grammar rules does not necessarily result in good speaking or
writing.r A student who has memorized the rules of the language may be able to succeed on a
standardized test of English language but may not be able to speak or write correctly.

16. Differences Between First and Second Language Acquisition/Learning

1st Language 2nd Language

always acquired usually learned
continual input/interaction with caregiver sporadic interaction
no emotional barrier may be emotional barrier
no explicit methodology focus on method
motivation to comprehend may be less motivation
no "inter-language" reliance on "inter-language"

Second language teaching methods

 Grammar-translation -- emphasis on memorization

  Audio-lingual -- emphasis on developing verbal habits
 Communicative approach -- emphasis on language function rather than form

17. Role of formal instruction in language learning and teaching

1. Instruction does not circumvent the processes responsible for the sequence of
development evident in transitional structures such as negatives an interrogative in
naturalistic SLA.

2. When classroom learners are required to produce structures beyond their

competence, idiosyncratic forms are likely to result.
3. The distorted input may prolong certain stages of development and slow down the
emergence of some grammatical features.

4. Classroom learners are able to make use of knowledge acquired through formal
instruction when they are focused on form.