MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND ORGANIZATIONAL

BEHAVIOUR

Q.1 “Today managers need to perform various

functions”: Elaborate the statement?
A Manager is the person responsible for planning and directing the work of a
group of individuals, monitoring their work, and taking corrective action when
necessary. For many people, this is their first step into a management career.
Managers may direct workers directly or they may direct several supervisors who
direct the workers. The manager must be familiar with the work of all the groups
he/she supervises, but does not need to be the best in any or all of the areas. It is
more important for the manager to know how to manage the workers than to know
how to do their work well. A manager may have the power to hire or fire employees
or to promote them. In larger companies, a manager may only recommend such
action to the next level of management. The manager has the authority to change the
work assignments of team members. A manager's title reflects what he/she is
responsible for. An Accounting Manager supervises the Accounting function. An
Operations Manager is responsible for the operations of the company. The Manager
of Design Engineering supervises engineers and support staff engaged in design of a
product or service. A Night Manager is responsible for the activities that take place
at night. There are many management functions in business and, therefore, many
manager titles. Regardless of title, the manager is responsible for planning,
directing, monitoring and controlling the people and their work.

Functions of Managers:

Managers just don't go out and haphazardly perform their responsibilities. Good
managers discover how to master five basic functions: planning, organizing,
staffing, leading, and controlling.

Planning: This step involves mapping out exactly how to

achieve a particular goal. Say, for example, that the organization's goal is to
improve company sales. The manager first needs to decide which steps are
necessary to accomplish that goal. These steps may include increasing
advertising, inventory, and sales staff. These necessary steps are developed into
a plan. When the plan is in place, the manager can follow it to accomplish the
goal of improving company sales.

Organizing: After a plan is in place, a manager needs to organize her team and
materials according to her plan. Assigning work and granting authority are two
important elements of organizing.

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Staffing: After a manager discerns his area's needs, he may decide to beef up
his staffing by recruiting, selecting, training, and developing employees. A
manager in a large organization often works with the company's human
resources department to accomplish this goal.

Leading: A manager needs to do more than just plan, organize, and staff her
team to achieve a goal. She must also lead. Leading involves motivating,
communicating, guiding, and encouraging. It requires the manager to coach,
assist, and problem solve with employees.
Controlling: After the other elements are in place, a manager's job is not
finished. He needs to continuously check results against goals and take any
corrective actions necessary to make sure that his area's plans remain on track.

All managers at all levels of every organization perform these functions, but the
amount of time a manager spends on each one depends on both the level of
management and the specific organization.

Roles performed by managers:

A manager wears many hats. Not only is a manager a team leader, but he or she
is also a planner, organizer, cheerleader, coach, problem solver, and decision
maker — all rolled into one. And these are just a few of a manager's roles.

In addition, managers' schedules are usually jam-packed. Whether they're busy

with employee meetings, unexpected problems, or strategy sessions, managers
often find little spare time on their calendars. (And that doesn't even include
responding to e-mail!)

In his classic book, The Nature of Managerial Work, Henry Mintzberg describes
a set of ten roles that a manager fills. These roles fall into three categories:

• Interpersonal: This role involves human interaction.

• Informational: This role involves the sharing and analyzing of
information.
• Decisional: This role involves decision making.

Business and management educators are increasingly interested in helping

people acquire technical, human, and conceptual skills, and develop specific
competencies, or specialized skills that contribute to high performance in a
management job. Following are some of the skills and personal characteristics

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that the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) is

urging business schools to help their students develop.

• Leadership — ability to influence others to perform tasks

• Self-objectivity — ability to evaluate yourself realistically
• Analytic thinking — ability to interpret and explain patterns in
information
• Behavioral flexibility — ability to modify personal behavior to react
objectively rather than subjectively to accomplish organizational goals
• Oral communication — ability to express ideas clearly in words
• Written communication — ability to express ideas clearly in writing
• Personal impact — ability to create a good impression and instill
confidence
• Resistance to stress — ability to perform under stressful conditions
• Tolerance for uncertainty — ability to perform in ambiguous situations

Category Role Activity

Informational Monitor Seek and receive information; scan periodicals and
reports; maintain personal contact with stakeholders.
Disseminator Forward information to organization members via
memos, reports, and phone calls.
Spokesperson Transmit information to outsiders via reports, memos,
and speeches.
Interpersonal Figurehead Perform ceremonial and symbolic duties, such as
greeting visitors and signing legal documents.
Leader Direct and motivate subordinates; counsel and
communicate with subordinates.
Liaison Maintain information links both inside and outside
organization via mail, phone calls, and meetings.
Decisional Entrepreneur Initiate improvement projects; identify new ideas and
delegate idea responsibility to others.
Disturbance Take corrective action during disputes or crises; resolve
handler conflicts among subordinates; adapt to environments.
Resource Decide who gets resources; prepare budgets; set
allocator schedules and determine priorities.
Negotiator Represent department during negotiations of union
contracts, sales, purchases, and budgets.

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Although all three categories contain skills essential for managers, their relative
importance tends to vary by level of managerial responsibility.

The Essentials of control activities are:

 Setting performance standards.

 Determining the yard-stick for measuring performance.
 Measuring the actual performance.
 Comparing actuals with the standard.
 Taking corrective actions, if actual do not match with standards.

The Levels of Management

Management can be classified into three levels. They are top management,
middle management and supervisory or first-level management. The number of
managerial jobs in an organization varies with the level of management.

 Top management sets the goals of the organization, evaluates the overall
performance of various departments involved in selection of key
personnel and consults subordinate managers on subjects or problems of
general scope.
 Middle level management is responsible for developing departmental
goals and initiate actions that are required to achieve organizational
objectives.
 Supervisory management takes charge of day-to-day operations at the
floor level and is involved in preparing detailed short-range plans.

THREE FACES OF A MANAGER

The manger of a small team has three major roles to play:

Planner

A Manager has to take a long-term view; indeed, the higher you rise, the further you
will have to look. While a team member will be working towards known and
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established goals, the manager must look further ahead so that these goals are
selected wisely. By thinking about the eventual consequences of different plans, the
manager selects the optimal plan for the team and implements it. By taking account
of the needs not only of the next project but the project after that, the manager
ensures that work is not repeated nor problems tackled too late, and that the
necessary resources are allocated and arranged.

Provider

The Manager has access to information and materials which the team needs. Often
he/she has the authority or influence to acquire things which no one else in the team
could. This role for the manager is important simply because no one else can do the
job; there is some authority which the manager holds uniquely within the team, and
the manager must exercise this to help the team to work.

Protector

The team needs security from the vagaries of less enlightened managers. In any
company, there are short-term excitements which can deflect the work-force from
the important issues. The manager should be there to guard against these and to
protect the team. If a new project emerges which is to be given to your team, you are
responsible for costing it (especially in terms of time) so that your team is not given
an impossible deadline. If someone in your team brings forward a good plan, you
must ensure that it receives a fair hearing and that your team knows and understands
the outcome. If someone is in your team has a problem at work, you have to deal
with it. I believe anyone can be a good manager. It is as much trainable skill as it is
inherent ability; as much science as art. Here are some things that make you a better
manager:

As a person:

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• You have confidence in yourself and your abilities. You are happy with
whom you are, but you are still learning and getting better.
• You are something of an extrovert. You don’t have to be the life of the party,
but you can’t be a wallflower. Management is a people skill - it’s not the job for
someone who doesn’t enjoy people.
• You are honest and straight forward. Your success depends heavily on the
trust of others.
• You are an include not an excluder. You bring others into what you do. You
don’t exclude other because they lack certain attributes.
• You have a ‘presence’. Managers must lead. Effective leaders have a quality
about them that makes people notice when they enter a room.

On the job:

• You are consistent, but not rigid; dependable, but can change your mind.
You make decisions, but easily accept input from others.
• You are a little bit crazy. You think out-of-the box. You try new things and
if they fail, you admit the mistake, but don’t apologize for having tried.
• You are not afraid to “do the math”. You make plans and schedules and
work toward them.
• You are nimble and can change plans quickly, but you are not flighty.
• You see information as a tool to be used, not as power to be hoarded.

Q.2 “Skills are the tool for performance”-Explain

various management skills. ?
All managers need to understand the nature of the job they are in. This
material will help identify the activities you carry out in your role of manager. This
will provide a basis for considering your strengths and weaknesses. Any weaknesses
identified should be used as improvement opportunities and careful thought will
need to be given to identifying how these could be addressed through the
opportunities available for training and development. The questions below will help
you focus on your own job and start to develop a picture of what your job is all
about. You will then use this to identify areas you regard as strengths and potential

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weaknesses. By knowing your strengths and weaknesses you will be able to

determine areas for improving your personal effectiveness.

 The manager with regard to the job:

Below is a list of the types of activities that managers undertake with regard to the
job. Read through the list and for each activity try to think of a specific example
related to your experience as a manager.

A manager:

• Makes forecasts.
• Analyses.
• Thinks creatively and logically.
• Calculates and weighs risks.
• Makes decisions.
• Determines goals.
• Sets priorities.
• Prepares plans.
• Schedules activities.
• Establishes control systems.
• Sets and agrees budgets.
• Monitors progress.
• Exercises control.
• Determines information needs.
• Establishes and uses management information systems.
• Manages his or her time.
• Copes with stress.
• Adjusts to change.
• Develops his or her skills and knowledge.

 The manager with regard to the team:

Having looked at the manager with regard to the job you can now consider activities
that a manager may carry out with regard to the team. Read through the list and for
each activity try to think of a specific example related to your experience as a

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manager.

A manager:

• Builds and maintains the team.

• Selects staff.
• Sets performance standards.
• Designs jobs.
• Improves the quality of working life.
• Identifies team needs.
• Provides opportunities for training and development.
• Monitors and appraises performance.
• Resolves conflicting objectives.
• Adopts appropriate management styles.
• Communicates effectively.
• Negotiates, persuades and influences.
• Makes presentations.
• Conducts and participates in meetings.
• Writes reports and correspondence.
• Interviews.
• Counsels and advises.
• Appraises staff.
• Develops team members.

 The manager with regard to the organization.

Now turn your attention to activities that a manager may carry out with regard to the
organization. Again read through the list and for each activity try to think of a
specific example related to your experience as a manager.

Many of these activities are attributed to senior managers. Don't worry if you are
unable to relate some of these to your current role.

A manager:

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• Identifies organizational opportunities.

• Sets organizational goals.
• Identifies organizational problems.
• Creates conditions for change.
• Implements, manages and copes with change.
• Designs new organization and team structures.
• Establishes reporting lines.
• Develops internal communication systems.
• Takes account of environmental factors affecting the organization
(economic, technological, social, and political).

CORE SKILLS IN MANAGEMENT & SUPERVISION ===

1. Define the problem

This is often where people struggle. They react to what they think the problem is.
Instead, seek to understand more about why you think there's a problem.
2. Look at potential causes for the problem
a. It's amazing how much you don't know about what you don't know. Therefore, in
this phase, it's critical to get input from other people who notice the problem and
who are affected by it.
b. It's often useful to collect input from other individuals one at a time (at least at
first). Otherwise, people tend to be inhibited about offering their impressions of the
real causes of problems.
c. Write down what your opinions and what you've heard from others.
d. Regarding what you think might be performance problems associated with an
employee; it's often useful to seek advice from a peer or your supervisor in order to
verify your impression of the problem.

3. Identify alternatives for approaches to resolve the problem

a. At this point, it's useful to keep others involved (unless you're facing a personal
and/or employee performance problem). Brainstorm for solutions to the problem.
Very simply put, brainstorming is collecting as many ideas as possible, and then
screening them to find the best idea. It's critical when collecting the ideas to not pass
any judgment on the ideas -- just write them down as you hear them. (A wonderful
set of skills used to identify the underlying cause of issues is Systems Thinking.)

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4. Select an approach to resolve the problem

When selecting the best approach, consider:
a. which approach is the most likely to solve the problem for the long term?
b. Which approach is the most realistic to accomplish for now? Do you have the
resources? Are they affordable? Do you have enough time to implement the
approach?
c. What is the extent of risk associated with each alternative?
(The nature of this step, in particular, in the problem solving process is why problem
solving and decision making are highly integrated.)
5. Plan the implementation of the best alternative (this is your action plan)
a. Carefully consider "What will the situation look like when the problem is
solved?"
b. What steps should be taken to implement the best alternative to solving the
problem? What systems or processes should be changed in your organization, for
example, a new policy or procedure? Don't resort to solutions where someone is
"just going to try harder".
c. How will you know if the steps are being followed or not? (These are your
indicators of the success of your plan)
d. What resources will you need in terms of people, money and facilities?
e. How much time will you need to implement the solution? Write a schedule that
includes the start and stop times, and when you expect to see certain indicators of
success.
f. Who will primarily be responsible for ensuring implementation of the plan?
g. Write down the answers to the above questions and consider this as your action
plan.
6. Monitor implementation of the plan
Monitor the indicators of success:
a. Are you seeing what you would expect from the indicators?
b. Will the plan be done according to schedule?
c. If the plan is not being followed as expected, then consider: Was the plan
realistic? Are there sufficient resources to accomplish the plan on schedule? Should
more priority be placed on various aspects of the plan? Should the plan be changed?
7. Verify if the problem has been resolved or not
One of the best ways to verify if a problem has been solved or not is to resume
normal operations in the organization. Still, you should consider:
a. what changes should be made to avoid this type of problem in the future?
Consider changes to policies and procedures, training, etc.
b. lastly, consider "What did you learn from this problem solving?" Consider new
knowledge, understanding and/or skills.
c. Consider writing a brief memo that highlights the success of the problem solving

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effort, and what you learned as a result. Share it with your supervisor, peers and
subordinates.

A. Technical Skills:
Technical skills include knowledge of and proficiency in certain specialized field,
such as engineering, computers, accounting, or manufacturing. These skills are
more important at lower level management since these managers are dealing
directly with employees doing the organizational work. Solid technical skills are
becoming increasingly important, and I don’t see that changing any time soon.
While computers have become easier to use in many ways, the leading edge is
more complicated than ever. This complexity scares many people away from
developing their technical skills, but let’s considers some of the reasons you may
want to go beyond the basics. This skill requires the ability to use a special
proficiency or expertise to perform particular tasks. Accountants, engineers,
market researchers, and computer scientists, as examples, possess technical
skills. Managers acquire these skills initially through formal education and
then further develop them through training and job experience. Technical skills
are most important at lower levels of management. These skills include the
knowledge of and proficiency in activities involving methods, processes and
procedures. This includes the abilities of a manager in using the knowledge, tools,
and techniques of a specific discipline or field such as accounting, engineering,
manufacturing etc. Examples of such skills also include the preparation of
financial statements, the ability to develop a new code for the computer program.
These skills are needed for the first line managers, since they are responsible for
delivering the actual performance. First line managers also spend a considerable
amount of their time in training their subordinates.

1. Enjoy significantly higher paying work.

Whether you’re employed or self-employed, strong technical skills allow you to

leverage technology to the hilt, and that leverage pays. The better you understand
the technology you use, the more value you can efficiently extract from it. People
gladly open their wallets to pay those with in-demand technical skills.
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2. Save money.

You’ll save money every time you can solve a technical problem on your own
instead of having to hire someone at a high hourly rate. This can add up to
substantial savings over time. You can also save money by taking advantage of low-
cost, high-tech solutions. For example, using VOIP Internet phone service will save
you a bundle over traditional phone service, and it only takes a minor amount of
technical skill to install. I actually disconnected my whole house from the telephone
company’s lines, so I could use all the inside jacks for VOIP.

3. Save time.

You’ll save time by solving technical problems quickly instead of scratching your
head in confusion. There are many technical problems that baffle novices but which
require only a quick fix from someone with adequate technical skills.

4. Prevent problems.

You’ll prevent problems before they occur by intelligently maintaining and

upgrading your technology. Even a simple skill like keeping your video and sound
drivers up-to-date can prevent compatibility problems down the road, especially if
you play computer games.

5. Reduce frustration.

Technology isn’t particularly frustrating if you understand how it works. A lack of

understanding is frustrating. If something breaks, and you know how and why it
broke, then it’s just a fact to be dealt with rather than an act of divine cruelty.

6. Make intelligent technology purchases.

I don’t know many geeks who buy their computers at retail stores. It’s a lot smarter
to buy online if you know what to look for. You’ll get better value, higher quality
components, and more control over the final product.

A fun project I did in 2004 was to build my own PC from scratch. I handpicked
each component and ordered everything online. I built the equivalent of a $2000
retail PC for about $900. I used Price Watch to find great deals on all the

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components, and I followed the step-by-step assembly instructions from My Super

PC. I’ve been very pleased with its performance over the past couple years.

Since technology depreciates so rapidly, and since component quality can vary
widely, knowing how to buy great value at a great price is a very practical skill.
With most rapidly advancing components like CPUs, hard drives, and video cards,
there’s a fairly narrow price-performance sweet spot. Spend too little, and you’re
throwing money away on obsolescent goods. Spend too much, and you’re
overpaying for imperceptible performance gains. Decent technical knowledge can
help you target those sweet spots with all your technology purchases, so you get the
best bang per buck.

7. Empower yourself.

I remember thinking how great it was in high school when I began using a decent
word processor while many other students were still using typewriters. Editing was
certainly much easier, so I got more done in less time.

8. Access information efficiently.

Whenever you want to know something now, you can go online and get the
information in seconds. Sites like Google, Wikipedia, and Wiki How truly place
information at your fingertips, but it still takes a bit of technical skill to craft
intelligent queries when you’re searching for something obscure.

Need to buy a new suit? Want to see what movies are playing near you? Want to
become an early riser? If someone has figured it out, it’s probably online. With an
internet connection at hand, we all become walking Wikipedia’s.

9. Earn money online.

This is one of the coolest benefits of technical know-how. With the right technical
skills, you can build your own income-generating web site. Your computer (or
some online server) will work tirelessly to make you money 24/7. Even if it just

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pays for your coffee, that’s still better than buying your own coffee, isn’t it? If it
fails, at least you learned something, and you can certainly try again. But what if it
really works? You might not need a job for the rest of your life. That seems like a
pretty good reason to go for it.

Given how disgustingly cheap technology is, I think it’s silly not to devote at least
one of the millions of machines on this planet to the task of paying your bills. Most
computers are just sitting there idle waiting for something to do, so put some
of those resources to good use. I’m not talking about getting VC money and trying
to make the next Google. My suggestion is to start a simple web business you can
run by yourself in your spare time with no expenses except web hosting (no more
than $20/month).

I’ve been earning income online since 1995, and I love it. It does require some
technical skill to build an income-generating web site, but those skills are highly
learnable, and it’s a lot easier today than it was 10 years ago. (For example, see
How to Make Money from Your Blog). Sure I can write well enough, but without
the technical skills to build traffic, this site would be a ghost town. I do the creative
work, technology handles the grunt work, and visitors benefit from the value
provided. It’s a pretty nice system.

10. Feel more confident and comfortable with technology.

Competence builds confidence. As you develop your technical skills, you’ll feel
more comfortable with all forms of technology. This will encourage you to branch
out and leverage technology even more. You can listen to audio books on your
portable MP3 player, take pictures with your digital camera, and so on. You’ll feel
in control of technology instead of intimidated by it.

The more technical experience you gain, the faster you’ll adapt to new technology.
You may fall behind the curve at some point, but you’ll quickly catch up with a few
days’ research.

B. Human Skills:
Human skills also referred to as human relation skills or interpersonal skills are one’s ability to
work effectively with others on a person-to-person basis and to build up cooperative group

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relations to achieve specified objectives. In the group discussion situation, your human skills
will be reflected in your following actions. includes his/her ability to understand other people
and interact effectively with them. Examples of such skills include leading, motivating and
communicating, with subordinates, peers and outsiders. Possession of these skills is essential
for managers, working in all levels. The human skills are also important in creation of an
environment in which people feel secure and free to express their opinions.

A. The basic tenets of human skills are that treat everyone in the group as equal, not inferior, to
you. This must be reflected by your words as well as body language.

B. Have positive attitudes towards fellow candidates. Your positive attitude will not only be
appreciated by other candidates but by evaluators too as people with positive attitudes are
appreciated by everyone. Though each of the candidates is your competitor, do not treat them as
your competitors but treat them as your colleagues and have respect for them and their views.

C. When you listen to views of anyone, evaluate these empathetically, that is, putting yourself
in his position so that you can understand why he has those views. If you look at the views from
this perspective, you can appreciate the views in a better way though it is not necessary that you
agree with others’ views either totally or partially.

D. Show emotional maturity while interacting with others. If someone criticizes yours views, do
not take it on personal basis but take it on professional basis and keep yourself cool and do not
lose your temper.

E. If someone’s view seems to be absurd or irrelevant to the topic, do not let him down by
saying such words which are not in accordance to the etiquette of gentlemen.

C. Conceptual Skills:
Conceptual skills refer to the ability to form concepts. These are various levels of
cognitive (mainly verbal) abstractions beginning with the exercise of detonating
simple physical objects (e.g. a cat) to higher level abstractions which go beyond the
physically visible (e.g. truth). In everyday use, we also say someone has conceptual
skills that are able to look at patterns of objects and events and label them (with a
concept word), which identifies, organizes and makes sense of the pattern, trend, or
configuration of objects or events, with a putative explanatory intent.

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Conceptual Skills are the skills managers must have to think and to conceptualize
about abstract and complex situations. Using these skills, managers must be able to
see the organization as a whole, understand the relationships among various
subunits, and visualize how the organization fits into its broader environment. These
skills are most important at the top level management. This refers to the ability to
think and conceptualize abstract situations. These abilities are required for making
complex decisions. Such skills are inclusive of the diagnostic skill, which enables an
understanding of the `cause-effect' relationship. Further, it helps to see the situation
as a whole, as well as in parts. (i.e., individually). These skills are essential for the
top management as they have to understand how the various parts of the
organization relate to one another and associate the organization with the external
environment.

D. Design Skills:
It enables a manager to handle and solve any kind of unforeseen problems that
may crop up in the organization. Top management should posses design skills, in
plenty. It is basically their job to handle/tackle any unforeseen consequences that
may occur in the organization. Such problems could arise due to internal factors or
external factors and/or both.

Q.3 What is Negotiation? Explain the process of

Negotiation?
A) Introduction:

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Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an

agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective advantage,
or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is the primary method of
alternative dispute resolution. Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit
organizations and government branches, legal proceedings, among nations and in
personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life. The
study of the subject is called negotiation theory. The word "negotiation" is from the
Latin expression, "negotiatus", and past participle of negotiate which means "to
carry on business".

B) Approaches to negotiation:
Negotiation typically manifests itself with trained negotiator acting on behalf
of a particular organization or position. It can be compared to mediation where a
disinterested third party listens to each side’s arguments and attempts to help craft
an agreement between the parties. It is also related to arbitration which, as with a
legal proceeding, both sides make an argument as to the merits of their "case" and
then the arbitrator decides the outcome for both parties.

There are many different ways to segment negotiation to gain a greater

understanding of the essential parts. One view of negotiation involves three basic
elements: process, behavior and substance. The process refers to how the parties
negotiate: the context of the negotiations, the parties to the negotiations, the tactics
used by the parties, and the sequence and stages in which all of these play out.
Behavior refers to the relationships among these parties, the communication
between them and the styles they adopt. The substance refers to what the parties
negotiate over: the agenda, the issues (positions and - more helpfully - interests), the
options, and the agreement(s) reached at the end.

Another view of negotiation comprises 4 elements: strategy, process and

tools, and tactics. Strategy comprises the top level goals - typically including
relationship and the final outcome. Processes and tools include the steps that will be
followed and the roles taken in both preparing for and negotiating with the other
parties. Tactics include more detailed statements and actions and responses to others'
statements and actions. Some add to this persuasion and influence, asserting that
these have become integral to modern day negotiation success, and so should not be
omitted.

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TYPES OF NEGOTIATION IN ORGANIZATIONS:

TYPES PARTIES INVOLVED EXAMPLES
Day-to-day/ Managerial 1) Different levels of 1. Negotiation for pay,
Negotiations Management. terms and working
2) In between conditions.
colleagues. 2. Description of the
3) Trade unions. job and fixation of
responsibility.
4) Legal advisers
3. Increasing
productivity.
Commercial Negotiations 1. Management. 1. Striking a contract
2. Suppliers. with the customer.
3. Government. 2. Negotiations for the
4. Customers. price and quality of
5. Trade unions. goods to be
6. Legal advisors. purchased.

7. Public. 3. Negotiations with

financial institutions
as regarding the
availability of
capital.
Legal Negotiations 1. Government 1. Adhering to the laws
2. Management of the local and
national
3. Customers government.

1. Day-to-day / Managerial Negotiations:

Such types of negotiations are done within the organization and are related to the
internal problems in the organization. It is in regards to the working relationship
between the groups of employees. Usually, the manager needs to interact with the
members at different levels in the organization structure. For conducting the day-to-
day business, internally, the superior needs to allot job responsibilities, maintain a
flow of information, direct the record keeping and many more activities for smooth
functioning

2. Commercial Negotiations:

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Such types of negotiations are conducted with external parties. The driving
forces behind such negotiations are usually financial gains. They are based on a
give-and-take relationship. Commercial negotiations successfully end up into
contracts. It relates to foregoing of one resource to get the other.

3. Legal Negotiations

These negotiations are usually formal and legally binding. Disputes over
precedents can become as significant as the main issue. They are also contractual in
nature and relate to gaining legal ground.

IS NEGOTIATION NECESSARY?

Negotiation, at times can be a lengthy and cumbersome process. By asking whether

it is necessary, time may sometimes be saved and unnecessary compromise avoided.
On occasions, a request to negotiate may best be met by pointing out that the party
making the request has no standing in the matter. If a manager has the undoubted
authority to act, making a decision rather than negotiating about it may be the best
tactic.

C) Other Negotiation Styles:

Shell identified five styles/responses to negotiation. Individuals can often have
strong dispositions towards numerous styles; the style used during a negotiation
depends on the context and the interests of the other party, among other factors. In
addition, styles can change over time.

1. Accommodating: Individuals who enjoy solving the other party’s problems

and preserving personal relationships. Accommodators are sensitive to the
emotional states, body language, and verbal signals of the other parties. They
can, however, feel taken advantage of in situations when the other party
places little emphasis on the relationship.
2. Avoiding: Individuals who do not like to negotiate and don’t do it unless
warranted. When negotiating, avoiders tend to defer and dodge the
confrontational aspects of negotiating; however, they may be perceived as
tactful and diplomatic.
3. Collaborating: Individuals who enjoy negotiations that involve solving tough
problems in creative ways. Collaborators are good at using negotiations to
understand the concerns and interests of the other parties. They can,
however, create problems by transforming simple situations into more
complex ones.

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4. Competing: Individuals who enjoy negotiations because they present an

opportunity to win something. Competitive negotiators have strong instincts
for all aspects of negotiating and are often strategic. Because their style can
dominate the bargaining process, competitive negotiators often neglect the
importance of relationships.
5. Compromising: Individuals who are eager to close the deal by doing what is
fair and equal for all parties involved in the negotiation. Compromisers can
be useful when there is limited time to complete the deal; however,
compromisers often unnecessarily rush the negotiation process and make
concessions too quickly.

D) 10 Ways to Generate More Ideas:

1. Establish common goals of what this "collaboration" would create. A more
workable deal? Some common long term goals? A closer partnership?
2. Establish the rules of engagement. The purpose of the exercise is to resolve
differences in creative ways that work better for both parties. All ideas are
possibilities, and research shows that combining ideas from different cultures
can result in better outcomes than those from a single culture.
3. Trust is key, and difficult to establish in many cultures. Certain techniques
might speed that process a little. Being offsite, for example. Establishing
physical proximity that unconsciously signals intimacy.
4. Add diversity (gender, culture, extroverts, different work specialties, experts,
outsiders) to the group. Indeed, the diversity associated with international
teams and alliances is the real goldmine of creativity in negotiations.
5. Use storytelling. This both helps establish who you are and what point of
view you are bringing to this collaboration.
6. Work in small groups. Add physical movement. Tell the participants to
relax, play, sing, have fun, and silence is ok.
7. Work holistically and using visuals. If, for example, there are three sticking
points where neither side is happy, agree to work on those points by
spending a short time – 10 minutes – on each point where both sides offer
"crazy" suggestions. Use techniques of improvisation. Neither side should be
offended by the crazy ideas. No one should criticize. Explain that by
exploring crazy ideas that better ideas are often generated.
8. Sleep on it. This enables the unconscious to work on the problems, and gives
negotiators time to collect opinions before meeting again the next day. Other
kinds of breaks, coffee, etc. are also helpful. The overnight part is
particularly important. Anthropologist and consumer expert Clotaire Rapaille
[9]
suggests that the transitions between wakefulness and sleep allow new

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kinds of thinking “…calming their brainwaves, getting them to that tranquil

point just before sleep” (page 8).
9. Doing this process over several sessions allows both sides to feel that
progress is being made, and actually generates better and more polished
ideas that both sides can invest in.
10. It is the process of creating something together, rather than the specific
proposals, which creates bonding around a shared task and establishes new
ways of working together. Each side feels honored and all can feel that
something is being accomplished.

E) Process of Negotiation:
There are eight stages in the process of negotiation.

This is a unique combination framework that puts together the best of many other
approaches to negotiation. It is particularly suited to more complex, higher-value
and slower negotiations.

1. Prepare: Know what you want. Understand them.

2. Open: Put your case. Hear theirs.
3. Argue: Support your case. Expose theirs.
4. Explore: Seek understanding and possibility.
5. Signal: Indicate your readiness to work together.
6. Package: Assemble potential trades.
7. Close: Reach final agreement.
8. Sustain: Make sure what is agreed happens.

There are deliberately a larger number of stages in this process as it is designed to

break down important activities during negotiation, particularly towards the end. It
is an easy trap to try to jump to the end with a solution that is inadequate and
unacceptable.

Note also that in practice, you may find variations on these, for example there may
be loops back to previous stages, stages overlapping, stages running parallel and
even out of order.

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The bottom line is to use what works. This process is intended to help you
negotiate, but do not use it blindly. It is not magic and is not a substitute for
thinking. If something does not seem to be working, try to figure out why and
either fix the problem or try something else. Although there are commonalities
across negotiations, each one is different and the greatest skill is to be able to read
the situation in the moment and adapt as appropriate.

1) Prepare:

The overall action in preparation is to be ready for every stage of the actual
negotiation. In preparation, you may walk through many scenarios and prepare for
many eventualities.

How much time should you spend in preparation? As much as is appropriate. If

you are buying a fridge, you may read a few reviews. If you are buying a house or
a business, then much more serious preparation is needed. The sections below are
rather long, especially if you follow all the links. This reflects how useful it can be
to think through the whole negotiation process before you start.

Identify your boundaries:

What will be your opening offer? If it is too high, you might insult the other
person or frighten then off. If it is too low, you may lose out. To do this, you may
need to consider the agreement zones that might occur. Your opening offer will be
based on a combination of the range of 'reasonable value' of the things that you
want, the situation of the other person and the dynamics that you want to cause
within the negotiation itself. In practice, if the other person makes an opening offer
first, which can be a useful action, you may revise your opening offer.
Nevertheless, it is still worth deciding where you will start.

Count your resources:

Look at everything you have at your disposal that you can bring to bear on this
negotiation. What do you have that the other person might value? When buying
something, what extra money could you bring to the table? Do you have people
you can call on for support? Can you use time in any way? Finding variables is a
key activity that can significantly increase your options. Look to the variables in
the resources that you have. What could you increase or decrease? What could be
expanded? What could be exchanged?

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Develop your concession strategy:

When you know where to start, you can now develop the concession strategy,
whereby you will make exchanges in order to gain final agreement. This will
include the use of variables where you can made trades in many different areas.

Set up the meeting:

Finally, set up the negotiation meeting itself, if this is appropriate. If you

can choose the time and the place, you can add further control over the tone of the
meeting. Choose a right time for the negotiation can be very useful. Finally, invite
the other person to join you. In a surprise negotiation, you might invite them to a
'meeting' in which you spring the negotiation on them, hoping to gain advantage
from their confusion. Being personally prepared includes knowledge of the
situation and others as described above. It also includes mental and emotional
preparation. If it is a big negotiation, then you may want to catch up on any lost
sleep or maybe take a day or two to wind down. Preparation also includes your
appearance. As necessary get your hair styled, buy new clothes and ensure you are
clean and well-groomed on the day. A smart appearance signals a smart mind,
which can make all the difference.

2) Open:

The purpose of the opening stage of negotiation is to position yourself and your
needs, letting the other person know what you want, both as a outcome and in the
process of negotiation.

The importance of opening:

The first few seconds

The beginning of any relationship is critically important as each person sizes

up the other, categorizing them against stereotypes and other internal models. The
negotiation thus effectively starts well before the talking starts in earnest. When
meeting the other person, you should thus seek to create the desired impression

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right from the start. If you want to negotiate collaboratively, then you might start
with an agreeable and friendly greeting, whilst for a competitive approach, you
may take a strongly assertive or even aggressive position in order to intimidate and
dominate the other person.

Be confident

Whatever style you use, it is important to be confident and

show that you know what you are doing and where you are going.
If you seek to be collaborative, then this encourages the other
person to trust you. If you intend to be competitive, it positions
you as capable of doing whatever it takes.

State your case

The context around a negotiation provides information that justifies and

explains the need. Thus, for example, when selling your car, you might start by
explaining how your wife is pregnant and will be giving up work soon, thus setting
the context for your explaining later how you cannot accept a low price. Be careful
with this to legitimize your later arguments whilst not showing that you are in a
weak negotiating positions, for example that you are desperate to sell the car. Also
match the length of the story to the negotiation -- if it is a quick exchange, and then
keep it to a few words. If you are expecting to negotiate all day, then a somewhat
longer explanatory preamble may well be appropriate.

State the need

Explain what you need as a result of the contextual situation. Show that your need
is real and legitimate. Make it clear what you want from the other person. In some
situations this is clear and simple, whilst in others you may have multiple needs,
for example if you are negotiating an employment contract then there may be
many terms and conditions to consider.

Listen to their case

When it is your turn to listen, do so actively. Listening is not just being polite
-- there are many reasons why you should listen, especially in a negotiation.
Showing respect and interest will get them to give you more information, and in
negotiation information really is power. The first stage of listening is, basically, to
listen without interruption. The only interaction you have with them is active
listening methods that encourage them to talk. You can pause them to paraphrase

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back what you have heard and you can ask them for clarification, but keep such
interruptions to a minimum.

Then probe for understanding

When they have made their case, you can then ask deeper questions to probe
for further information. If they have left out areas that you might have expected
them to cover, it may be because they are not comfortable talking about this.
Sustain a gentle approach of interest, curiosity and general inquiry. If you make it
sound like an audit or inquisition, then they may well stop talking. Your goal is to
make it easy for them to tell you more about their situation.

Understand the person

Think about the person with whom you are negotiating. Listen to the inner
person, discovering their beliefs, values, preferences and schemas. Find out what
power they have and how they might use it.

I can see that you do not take risks lightly...

Find what they really want

Understand how they prefer to satisfy their needs. Identify their interests and goals
that underlie the positions they are taking. When you know what is driving them,
you will have many alternative routes to satisfying them.

3) Argue:

In the argument stage, the serious exchange of views begins. This can be
uncomfortable as the goal is to strengthen your own position whilst weakening the
other person's position. Note that in a collaborative negotiation, the argument may
be gentile and polite to the point where it does not seem like argument.
Nevertheless, the points may still apply to some extent.

a) Erode their position:

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Respond to the positions and claims of their opening statements and

subsequent arguments, pointing out the limitations, falsehoods and irrelevancies.
Depending on your approach, your attack on their position may be aggressive,
rational, empathetic or apologetic. Overall, you are seeking to refute their
argument, and the way you do this will set the tone for the rest of the negotiation.
Note that erosion of their position is effective only when they feel less certain or
that they have less to bargain with. Simply asserting that they are wrong may only
serve to annoy them and make them more determined.

Minimize benefits to you

If they are claiming that something they have is of value to you, you can show
how what is on offer is not that important. This is relatively easy to do as only you
determine value of what you might get.

Weaken their truth

When they make assertions, question them more closely. Change probabilities.
Show how things asserted as always true are only sometimes true. Probe for the
evidence behind asserted truths. Test the reasoning they are using. Then use what
you discover to undermine what they are proposing as unquestionable truth.

Manage their needs

When they tell of the things that they want from the negotiation and you would
find it difficult to give them this, then show how they cannot possibly get these or
otherwise reduce what they will ask for. Show how requirements are not
legitimate. Indicate how they can get what they want elsewhere. Hint that what
they want is not yours to give.

Strengthen your truth

Where you have stated something as true in your opening argument, add
rationality and cause. Use clear forms of reasoning that show how you are
speaking the whole truth, and that anything else is falsehood. Demonstrate
objective evidence that proves your case. Show your impartiality by considering
the (weakened) arguments against your case.

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4) Explore:

So far, no agreements have been made, and early positioning may have
made the way forward difficult to see. Having established what you each want,
however, you can now move towards one another, seeking a way forward. It is
generally a mistake to go fast during a negotiation and taking time to explore can
pay back significantly later. Exploration not only gains you more information
about the other person and their needs, it also builds the relationship between you,
making it easy to reach agreement.

• Discover areas of agreement and difference

In many negotiations it can be surprising how much both parties may agree. It
is easy for areas of difference to overshadow that the people involved are not that
different after all.

Find areas of similarity

Particularly when you are far apart, a good first step in getting together is to
find those things where you agree with the other person. Finding agreement with
the other person demonstrates similarity and hence creates bonding with them.
This may also be done during earlier stages.

Find areas of agreement

When you are negotiating, the focus on what you want as opposed to what they
want can make it seem like you are miles apart, when in fact you may be quite
near to an equitable solution. Finding areas of agreement helps to shrink the areas
where you have to negotiate. By saying 'we agree on this and that', you can find
the specific areas where negotiation is needed.

Find areas of difference

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When you know where you agree, then finding where you really disagree is
easier. The fact that you agree makes it easier to work together and accept areas of
difference.

An effective way to enable others to accept differences is to accept the person,

even though you do not agree with what they want. At the very least, you can
accept that they have the right to have different views and wants to you.

A common source of difference is that is not always clear is that people are driven
by fundamentally different goals.

5) Signal:

Signaling is a relatively short phase of activity in which (usually) both parties

prepare to move from their initial position. After early positions and explorations,
signaling is a conciliatory move that indicates a willingness to negotiate.

Show readiness to move

A signal is a subtle indicator to the other person that you may be willing to
negotiate. This is seldom done openly as this would contradict the opening and
argument. Signaling is not making a verbal statement and effectively saves face,
providing an excuse to subsequently move from your original position (or to
backtrack if the other person is not ready to collaborate).

Qualify statements

Add qualifiers that indicate how you might just be persuaded to do something
that you would not normally do or that you may agree to something other than
what you originally wanted.

• Indicate possibility

Use words that indicate possibility, opening out the potential for a different
future that you may have painted in your opening statement.

Use open body language

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Open body language sends even more subtle signals of readiness, with
indications of welcome (such as open arms) and relaxed, smiling face. Body
signaling can be enhanced by starting with closed body language and then moving
to an open position at the same time that you use verbal signaling. Use gestures
that move in time with your signals. Match the other person's movements to show
empathy.

Wait for their signal

When you have signaled to the other person, the next step is to wait for them to
signal in return. Watch their face when you signal. Are there signs of hope
appearing? Do they seem to have recognized that you have gone from arguing
your case towards moving towards them? Also watch their body language. When
you signal, does their stance change? When you move from matching their body
language to a more open position, do they follow you?

Hear the signals

Listen for their verbal signals. Hear the tone of voice that they use. Is it more
relaxed? Are they using qualifiers and indicating possibility?

Do not concede

If they do not signal, it can be tempting to try something more overt, such as
conceding on something. It can seem that they are blind to signals and if you move
to concession, then they will get this signal and concede in return. But what you
have actually done by this is to show that if you make a move and they do not
reciprocate, then you will give something more. This is simply encouragement for
them to wait for more concessions.

Respond to their signals

When they signal in return (or maybe they signaled first), respond by opening
your body language further and responding with a further encouraging signal.
Show that you approve of their movement by rewarding them with more attention
and acceptance.

6) Package:
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In this stage, the goal is to build potential solutions. The final agreement is not yet
being hammered out and you are still dealing in possibilities. By sustaining an
atmosphere of openness, you make it possible for both you and them to consider
alternatives exchanges without feeling obliged to complete the exchange.

Identify agreeable trades:

In putting together potential agreements, start by looking for things that you
can exchange and where they might concede to you.

Trade in variables:

When looking for things to exchange, find the variables of the things in which you
are dealing. If you are talking about action, consider when and where it will occur.
If you are talking about money, consider who pays what to whom when and how
often. If you are dealing in physical items, consider size, quantity, weight and
other attributes.

Use elegant negotiable

Your elegant negotiable are those things that you have that you do not value
very highly, but the other person finds particularly attractive. They are thus easy
for you to give away but are valued by the other person. The danger with elegant
negotiable is that you give them away without realizing that you can use them to
get something valuable in exchange. This is one reason why you should do lots of
listening before diving into making trades.

Help them think

Use the Columbus technique and Socratic questioning to draw them out. Help
them understand variables and elegant negotiable. Support them in problem-
solving, clarifying the problem on which you are working together, identifying
causes and why things have happened, finding focus for resolution and creatively
identifying possible solutions.

7) Close:
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Move to closure

As your packaging reaches a complete solution, you can move towards the idea
of closing on a final deal.

Signal readiness to close

Show your own readiness by using signals to indicate that you want to reach
agreement. Use words like 'right' and 'ok'. Use ready body language that aligns
with your words. Watch their response, and if they signal in return, move further
towards closure.

Attempt closure

When things seem ready, you can use a trial close to nudge the other person
closer to agreement. If they do not seem ready, probe for reasons and return to
packaging or handle objections as appropriate.

Summarize the exchange

A good thing to do at closure is to summarize what you believe has actually

been agreed. This assures that the other person also agrees and that there is a
common understanding of who will do or give what.

Handle final objections and doubts

The realization of impending closure can cause people to panic in case they
have forgotten something. This may occur as sudden appearance of objections and
other reasons why they might not want to complete the deal. You can use
objection-handling techniques to manage such situations.

Handle last-minute tricks

Tricky tactics such as the quivering quill may be used just before the close as
the other person attempts to squeeze a few more drops of blood out of you. Handle
opposition such as this with professional aplomb, showing that you are immune to
deception or coercion.

Confirm the agreement

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The final step of closure is to confirm the agreement and sign on the dotted
line. 'It's not over until the fat lady sings' is a common saying. In negotiation, it is
not over until the ink is dry and the exchange has irrevocably been made.

Shake hands

Although you may not literally shake hands, it can be a very effective thing to
do at the point of agreement. It symbolizes the closure and is such a powerful
social symbol in many different cultures that the other side will think twice about
backing out.

8) Sustain:

When the deal is closed and seems to be complete, the end may not yet be in sight.
Many negotiations have a future element, where the main agreement is for future
action. 'There's many a slip twixt cup and lip', as they say, and an earlier
commitment might not be delivered as promised.

Sustaining commitment is thus about making sure that people stay closed and that
what was agreed in the Close stage stays agreed and gets delivered as promised.

Sustain their commitment

When commitments were made in the excitement and pressure of the
negotiation, they may look a little less attractive in the cold light of day.
Particularly if there is a longer delay until the promises are completed, the
situation may change and the negotiated agreement may move from being rather
attractive to being rather unattractive. And sometimes commitment just wanes, all
by itself. Understanding strong and weak commitment is thus important.

There are many techniques for sustaining commitment, such as:

• Burning bridges: Ensure there is no way back.

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• Evidence stream: Show them time and again that the change is
happening.
• Golden handcuffs: Keep key people with delayed rewards.
• Involvement: Give them an important role.
• Reward alignment: Align rewards with desired behaviors.
• Rites of passage: Use formal rituals to confirm change.

Keep your promises

You too have made promises in the negotiation, which you must scrupulously
keep. If you break promises, you will likely cause betrayal effects and lose any
commitment.

Remember Kano's needs: deliver basic needs solidly, performance needs carefully,
and then add icing to the cake with some excitement needs. These need not (and
should not) be over the top. The formula is 'delight = expectation + 1'. If you
deliver just a little more than is expected, you can create a very happy and loyal
customer. 'Under-promise and over-deliver' is an effective motto.

Renegotiate as necessary

If the situation changes and the agreement are really not worth keeping in its
current form, then rather than pull out without saying anything, it is better to go
and talk to the other party. Where possible and appropriate, re-negotiation the deal,
sealing commitment in a newer, more appropriate agreement. If the other person
also benefits from this, they will be doubly committed to the new arrangements.

It is good to follow the general rule:

Do not negotiate unless you have to – or

unless you can obtain some direct or
indirect advantage by doing so.

Q.4 Explain Classical Conditioning Theory?

A) Introduction:

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Classical conditioning (also Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) is a

form of associative learning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov.[1] The
typical procedure for inducing classical conditioning involves presentations of a
neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of some significance. The neutral stimulus
could be any event that does not result in an overt behavioral response from the
organism under investigation. Pavlov referred to this as a conditioned stimulus (CS).
Conversely, presentation of the significant stimulus necessarily evokes an innate,
often reflexive, response. Pavlov called these the unconditioned stimulus (US) and
unconditioned response (UR), respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly
paired, eventually the two stimuli become associated and the organism begins to
produce a behavioral response to the CS. Pavlov called this the conditioned
response (CR).

Popular forms of classical conditioning that are used to study neural

structures and functions that underlie learning and memory include fear
conditioning, eye blink conditioning, and the foot contraction conditioning of
Hermissenda crassicornis.

B) Pavlov's experiment:

One of Pavlov’s dogs with a surgically implanted cannula to measure salivation,

Pavlov Museum, 2005. The original and most famous example of classical
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conditioning involved the salivary conditioning of Pavlov's dogs. During his

research on the physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov noticed that, rather than
simply salivating in the presence of meat powder (an innate response to food that he
called the unconditioned response), the dogs began to salivate in the presence of
the lab technician who normally fed them. Pavlov called these psychic secretions.
From this observation he predicted that, if a particular stimulus in the dog’s
surroundings were present when the dog was presented with meat powder, then this
stimulus would become associated with food and cause salivation on its own.

In his initial experiment, Pavlov used a metronome to call the dogs to their food and,
after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the metronome.

Thus, a neutral stimulus (metronome) became a conditioned stimulus (CS) as a

result of consistent pairing with the unconditioned stimulus (US - meat powder in
this example). Pavlov referred to this learned relationship as a conditional reflex
(now called conditioned response).

C) Types:

Forward conditioning:

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Diagram representing forward conditioning. The time interval increases from left to
right.

During forward conditioning the onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US. Two
common forms of forward conditioning are delay and trace conditioning.

Delay Conditioning:

In delay conditioning the CS is presented and is overlapped by the presentation

of the US.

• Trace conditioning:

During trace conditioning the CS and US do not overlap. Instead, the CS is

presented, a period of time is allowed to elapse during which no stimuli are
presented, and then the US is presented. The stimulus free period is called the trace
interval. It may also be called the "conditioning interval"

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Simultaneous conditioning:

During simultaneous conditioning, the CS and US are presented and terminate at

the same time.

Backward conditioning:

Backward conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus immediately follows

an unconditioned stimulus. Unlike traditional conditioning models, in which the
conditioned stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response
tends to be inhibitory. This is because the conditioned stimulus serves as a signal
that the unconditioned stimulus has ended, rather than a reliable method of
predicting the future occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus.

Temporal conditioning:

The US is presented at regularly timed intervals, and CR acquisition is

dependent upon correct timing of the interval between US presentations. The
background, or context, can serve as the CS in this example.

Unpaired conditioning:

The CS and US are not presented together. Usually they are presented as
independent trials that are separated by a variable, or pseudo-random, interval. This
procedure is used to study non-associative behavioral responses, such as
sensitization.

CS-alone extinction:

The CS is presented in the absence of the US. This procedure is usually done
after the CR has been acquired through Forward conditioning training. Eventually,
the CR frequency is reduced to pre-training levels.

D) Procedure variations:

In addition to the simple procedures described above, some classical

conditioning studies are designed to tap into more complex learning processes.
Some common variations are discussed below.

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Classical discrimination/reversal conditioning:

In this procedure, two CSs and one US are typically used. The CSs may be the
same modality (such as lights of different intensity), or they may be different
modalities (such as auditory CS and visual CS). In this procedure, one of the CSs is
designated CS+ and its presentation is always followed by the US. The other CS is
designated CS- and its presentation is never followed by the US. After a number of
trials, the organism learns to discriminate CS+ trials and CS- trials such that CRs are
only observed on CS+ trials. During Reversal Training, the CS+ and CS- are
reversed and subjects learn to suppress responding to the previous CS+ and show
CRs to the previous CS-.

Classical ISI discrimination conditioning:

This is a discrimination procedure in which two different CSs are used to signal
two different interstimulus intervals. For example, a dim light may be presented 30
seconds before a US, while a very bright light is presented 2 minutes before the US.
Using this technique, organisms can learn to perform CRs that are appropriately
timed for the two distinct CSs.

Latent inhibition conditioning:

In this procedure, a CS is presented several times before paired CS-US training

commences. The pre-exposure of the subject to the CS before paired training slows
the rate of CR acquisition relative to organisms that are not CS pre-exposed. Also
see Latent inhibition for applications.

Conditioned inhibition conditioning:

Three phases of conditioning are typically used:

Phase 1:
A CS (CS+) is not paired with a US until asymptotic CR levels are reached.
Phase 2:
CS+/US trials are continued, but interspersed with trials on which the CS+ in
compound with a second CS, but not with the US (i.e., CS+/CS- trials).
Typically, organisms show CRs on CS+/US trials, but suppress responding
on CS+/CS- trials.
Phase 3:

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In this retention test, the previous CS- is paired with the US. If conditioned
inhibition has occurred, the rate of acquisition to the previous CS- should be
impaired relative to organisms that did not experience Phase 2.

Blocking:

This form of classical conditioning involves two phases.

Phase 1:
A CS (CS1) is paired with a US.
Phase 2:
A compound CS (CS1+CS2) is paired with a US.
Test:
A separate test for each CS (CS1 and CS2) is performed. The blocking effect
is observed in a lack of conditioned response to CS2, suggesting that the first
phase of training blocked the acquisition of the second CS

Q.5 How are culture and society responsible to built

value system?
• The Inglehart-Welzel Cultural Map of the World, created by political
scientists Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel based on the World Values
Survey. Groups, societies, or cultures have values that are largely shared by
their members. The values identify those objects, conditions or
characteristics that members of the society consider important; that is,
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valuable. In the United States, for example, values might include material
comfort, wealth, competition, individualism or religiosity.
• The values of a society can often be identified by noting which people
receive honor or respect. In the US, for example, professional athletes are
honored (in the form of monetary payment) more than college professors, in
part because the society respects personal values such as physical activity,
fitness, and competitiveness more than mental activity and education. This
may also be the case because the society takes its education for granted and
repays its teachers with non-tangible honors of relatively equal value with
that of the athlete.
• Surveys show that voters in the United States would be reluctant to elect an
atheist as a president, suggesting that belief in God is a value. There is a
difference between values clarification and cognitive moral education.
Values clarification is, "helping people clarify what their lives are for and
what is worth working for. Students are encouraged to define their own
values and understand others' values. Cognitive moral education is based on
the belief that students should learn to value things like democracy and
justice as their moral reasoning develops.
• Values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more general and
abstract than norms. Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations,
while values identify what should be judged as good or evil. Flying the
national flag on a holiday is a norm, but it reflects the value of patriotism.
Wearing dark clothing and appearing solemn are normative behaviors at a
funeral. They reflect the values of respect and support of friends and family.
Different cultures reflect different values.
• Over the last three decades, traditional-age college students have shown an
increased interest in personal well-being and a decreased interest in the
welfare of others. Values seemed to have changed, affecting the beliefs, and
attitudes of college students.
• Members take part in a culture even if each member's personal values do not
entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in the culture.
This reflects an individual's ability to synthesize and extract aspects valuable
to them from the multiple subcultures they belong to.
• If a group member expresses a value that is in serious conflict with the
group's norms, the group's authority may carry out various ways of
encouraging conformity or stigmatizing the non-conforming behavior of its
members. For example, imprisonment can result from conflict with social
norms that have been established as law.

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Q.6Write short notes on

A) Locus of control:
1. Introduction:

Locus of control is a term in psychology which refers to a person's belief

about what causes the good or bad results in his or her life, either in general or in a
specific area such as health or academics. Understanding of the concept was
developed by Julian B. Rotter in 1954, and has since become an important aspect of
personality studies.

Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe that they
can control events that affect them. Individuals with a high internal locus of control
believe that events result primarily from their own behavior and actions. Those with
a high external locus of control believe that powerful others, fate, or chance
primarily determine events. Those with a high internal locus of control have better
control of their behavior, tend to exhibit more political behaviors, and are more
likely to attempt to influence other people than those with a high external locus of
control; they are more likely to assume that their efforts will be successful. They are
more active in seeking information and knowledge concerning their situation.

2. Locus of control personality orientations:

Rotter (1975) cautioned that internality and externality represent two ends of
a continuum, not an either/or typology. Internals tend to attribute outcomes of
events to their own control. Externals attribute outcomes of events to external
circumstances. For example, college students with a strong internal locus of control
may believe that their grades were achieved through their own abilities and efforts,
whereas those with a strong external locus of control may believe that their grades
are the result of good or bad luck, or to a professor who designs bad tests or grades
capriciously; hence, they are less likely to expect that their own efforts will result in
success and are therefore less likely to work hard for high grades.

Internals were believed by Rotter (1966) to exhibit two essential

characteristics - high achievement motivation and low outer-directedness. This was
the basis of the locus of control scale proposed by Rotter in 1966, although this was
actually based on Rotter's belief that locus of control is a unidimensional construct.
Since 1970, Rotter's assumption of unidimensionality has been challenged, with
Levenson, for example, arguing that different dimensions of locus of control, such
as belief that events in one's life are self-determined, are organized by powerful

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others and are chance-based, must be separated. Weiner's early work in the 1970s,
suggested that, more-or-less orthogonal to the internality-externality dimension, we
should also consider differences between those who attribute to stable causes, and
those who attribute to unstable causes. This meant that attributions could be to
ability (an internal stable cause), effort (an internal unstable cause), task difficulty
(an external stable cause) or luck (an external, unstable cause).

3. Scales to measure locus of control:

The most famous questionnaire to measure locus of control is the 13-item

forced choice scale of Rotter (1966), but this is not the only questionnaire - indeed,
predating Rotter's work by five years is Bialer's (1961) 23-item scale for children.
Also of relevance to locus of control scale are the Crandall Intellectual Ascription of
Responsibility Scale (Crandall, 1965), and the Nowicki-Strickland Scale.[3] One of
the earliest psychometric scales to assess locus of control, using a Likert-type scale
in contrast to the forced-choice alternative measure which can be found in Rotter's
scale, was that devised by W.H. James, for his unpublished doctoral dissertation,
supervised by Rotter at Ohio State University, although this remained an
unpublished scale.[4] Many measures of locus of control have appeared since Rotter's
scale, both those, such as The Duttweiler Control Index (Duttweiler, 1984), which
uses a five-point scale, and those which are related to specific areas, such as health.
These scales are reviewed by Furnham and Steele(1993), and include those related
to health psychology, industrial and organizational psychology and those
specifically for children, such as the Stanford Preschool Internal-External Control
Index,[5] which is used for three to six year olds. Furnham and Steele (1993) cite data
which suggest that the most reliable and valid of the questionnaires for adults is the
Duttweiler scale.

4. Applications of locus of control theory:

Locus of control's most famous application has probably been in the area of
health psychology, largely thanks to the work of Kenneth Wallston. Scales to
measure locus of control in the health domain are reviewed by Furnham and Steele
(1993). The most famous of these would be the Health Locus of Control Scale and
the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale, or MHLC (Wallston,
Wallston, & DeVellis, 1976; Wallston, Wallston, Kaplan & Maides, 1976). The
latter scale is based on the idea, echoing Levenson's earlier work, that health may be
attributed to three possible outcomes - internal factors, such as self-determination of
a healthy lifestyle, powerful others, such as one's doctor, or luck. Some of the scales
reviewed by Furnham and Steele (1993) relate to health in more specific domains,
such as obesity (for example, Saltzer's ) (1982) Weight Locus of Control Scale or
Stotland and Zuroff's (1990) Dieting Beliefs Scale), or mental health (such as Wood

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and Letak's (1982) Mental Health Locus of Control Scale or the Depression Locus
of Control Scale of Whiteman, Desmond and Price, 1987)and cancer (the Cancer
Locus of Control Scale of Pruyn et alia, 1988).

In discussing applications of the concept to health psychology, Furnham and

Steele also refer to Claire Bradley's work, linking locus of control to management of
diabetes mellitus. Empirical data on health locus of control in various fields has
been reviewed by Norman and Bennett (1995). These authors note that data on
whether certain health-related behaviours are related to internal health locus of
control have been ambiguous. For example, they note that some studies found that
internal health locus of control is linked with increased exercise, but they also cite
several studies that have found only a weak or no relationship between exercise
behaviours (such as jogging) and internal health locus of control.

They note similar ambiguity for data on the relationship between internal
health locus of control and other health-related behaviours, such as breast self-
examination, weight control and preventative health behaviours.

Norman and Bennett argue that a stronger relationship is found when health
locus of control is assessed for specific domains than when general measures of
locus of control are taken. ("Overall, studies using behaviour-specific health locus
scales have tended to produce more positive results (Lefcourt, 1991). Moreover,
these scales have been found to be more predictive of general behaviour than more
general scales, such as the MHLC scale" (Norman & Bennett, 1995). Norman and
Bennett cite several studies which have used health-related locus of control scales in
specific domains, including smoking cessation (Georgio & Bradley, 1992), diabetes
(Ferraro, Price, Desmond & Roberts, 1987), tablet-treated diabetes (Bradley, Lewis,
Jennings & Ward, 1990), hypertension (Stantion, 1987), arthritis (Nicasio et al.,
1985), cancer (Pruyn et al., 1988) and heart and lung disease (Allison, 1987). They
also argue that health locus of control is better at predicting health-related behaviour
if studied in conjunction with health value, i.e. the value people attach to their
health, suggesting that health value is an important moderator variable in the health-
locus of control relationship. For example, Weiss and Larsen (1990) (cited in
Norman & Bennett, 1995) found increased relationship between internal health
locus of control and health when health value was assessed. Despite the importance
that Norman and Bennet (1995) attach to use of specific measures of locus of
control, there are still some general textbooks on personality, such as Maltby, Day
and Macaskill (2007), which continue to cite studies linking internal locus of control
with improved physical health, mental health and quality of life in people
undergoing conditions as diverse as HIV, migraines, diabetes, kidney disease and
epilepsy (Maltby, Day & Macaskill, 2007).

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Other fields to which the concept has been applied include industrial and
organizational psychology, sports psychology, educational psychology and the
psychology of religion. Richard Kahoe has published celebrated work in the latter
field, suggesting that intrinsic religious orientation correlates positively, extrinsic
religious orientation correlates negatively, with internal locus.[6] Of relevance to both
health psychology and the psychology of religion is the work prepared by Holt,
Clark, Kreuter and Rubio (2003), in preparing a questionnaire to assess spiritual
health locus of control. These authors distinguished between an active spiritual
health locus of control orientation, in which "God empowers the individual to take
healthy actions"[7] and a more passive spiritual health locus of control orientation,
where people leave everything to God in the care of their own health.

5. Locus of control and age:

is sometimes assumed that as people age, they will become less internal and
more external, but data here have been ambiguous. Longitudinal data collected by
Gatz and Karel (cited in Johnson et al., 2004 imply that internality may increase up
to middle age, and thereafter decrease. Noting the ambiguity of data in this area,
Aldwin and Gilmer (2004) cite Lachman's claim that locus of control is ambiguous.
Indeed, there is evidence here that changes in locus of control in later life relate
more visibly to increased externality, rather than reduced internality, if the two
concepts are taken to be orthogonal. Evidence cited by Schultz and Schultz (2005),
for example Heckhausen and Schulz (1995) or Ryckman and Malikosi, 1975 (cited
in Schultz & Schultz, 2005), suggests that locus of control increases in internality up
until middle age. These authors also note that attempts to control the environment
become more pronounced between the age of eight and fourteen. For more on the
relationship between locus of control and coping with the demands of later life, see
the article on aging.

6. Gender-based differences in locus of control:

As Schultz and Schultz (2005) point out, significant differences in locus of control
have not been found for adults in a U.S. population. However, these authors also
note that there may be specific sex-based differences for specific categories of item

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to assess locus of control - for example, they cite evidence that men may have a
greater internal locus for questions related to academic achievement (Strickland &
Haley, 1980; cited in Schultz & Schultz, 2005).

7. Self-efficacy:

Self-efficacy is another related concept, introduced by Albert Bandura. Although

someone may believe that how some future event turns out is under their control,
they may or may not believe that they are capable of behaving in a way that will
produce the desired result. For example, an athlete may believe that training eight
hours a day would result in a marked improvement in ability (an internal locus of
control orientation) but not believe that he or she is capable of training that hard (a
low sense of self-efficacy). Self-efficacy has been measured by means of a
psychometric scale[11] and differs from locus of control in that whereas locus of
control is generally a measure of cross-situational beliefs about control, self-efficacy
is used as a concept to relate to more circumscribed situations and activities.
Bandura has emphasised how the concept differs from self-esteem - using the
example that a person may have low self-efficacy for ballroom dancing, but that if
ballroom dancing is not very important to that person, this is unlikely to result in
low self-esteem.

8. Summary, critique and the future:

Locus of control has been a concept which has certainly generated much research in
psychology, in a variety of areas. Usefulness of the construct can be seen in its
applicability to fields such as educational psychology, health psychology or clinical
psychology. There will probably continue to be debate about whether specific or
more global measures of locus of control will prove to be more useful. Careful
distinctions should also be made between locus of control (a concept linked with
expectancies about the future) and attribution style (a concept linked with
explanations for past outcomes), or between locus of control and concepts such as
self-efficacy. The importance of locus of control as a topic in psychology is likely to
remain quite central for many years.

B) Machiavellianism

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1) Introduction”

Machiavellianism is, according to the OED, "the employment of cunning

and duplicity in statecraft or in general conduct", deriving from the Italian
Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccolò Machiavelli, who wrote Il Principe (The
Prince) and other works. Machiavellian and variants became very popular in the
late 16th century in English, though "Machiavellianism" itself is first cited by the
OED from 1626. The word has a similar use in modern psychology.

Machiavelli, according to the popular view, although this is disputed at least

in part by most Machiavelli scholars, held that people were by nature untrustworthy,
malevolent and self-serving, and thus those in power could only maintain their
position through exploitative and deceitful actions.[1]

2) In Political Thought:

Machiavellianism was seen as a foreign virus infecting English politics,

originating in Italy, and having already infected France. It was in this context that
the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572 in Paris came to be seen as a product
of Machiavellianism, a view greatly influenced by the Huguenot Innocent Gentillet,
who published his Discours contre Machievel in 1576, which was printed in ten
editions in three languages over the next four years.[2] Gentillet held, quite wrongly
according to Sydney Anglo, that Machiavelli's "books [were] held most dear and
precious by our Italian and Italionized [sic] courtiers" in France (in the words of his
first English translation), and so (in Anglo's paraphrase) "at the root of France's
present degradation, which has culminated not only in the St Bartholemew massacre
but the glee of its perverted admirers".[3] In fact there is little trace of Machiavelli in
French writings before the massacre, and not very much after, until Gentillet's own
book, but this concept was seized upon by many contemporaries, and played a
crucial part in setting the long-lasting popular concept of Machiavellianism that so
infuriates scholars of his actual thought, who assert it is inaccurate and distorted.[4]

The English playwright Christopher Marlowe was an enthusiastic proponent

of this view. In the Jew of Malta (1589-90) "Machievel" in person speaks the
Prologue, claiming to not be dead, but to have possessed the soul of (the Duke of)
Guise, "And, now the Guise is dead, is come from France/ To view this land, and
frolic with his friends" (Prologue, lines 3-4)[5] His last play, The Massacre at Paris
(1593) takes the massacre, and the following years, as its subject, with the Duke of
Guise and Catherine de' Medici both depicted as Machiavellian plotters, bent on evil
from the start.

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The Anti-Machiavel is an 18th century essay by Frederick the Great, King of

Prussia and patron of Voltaire, rebutting The Prince, and Machiavellianism. It was
first published in September 1740; a few months after Frederick became king, and
are one of many such works.

3) In Psychology:

Machiavellianism is also a term that some social and personality

psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others
for personal gain. In the 1960s, Richard Christie and Florence L. Geis developed a
test for measuring a person's level of Machiavellianism. This eventually became the
MACH-IV test, a twenty-statement personality survey that is now the standard self-
assessment tool of Machiavellianism. People scoring above 60 out of 100 on the
MACH-IV are considered high Machs; that is, they endorsed statements such as,
"Never tell anyone the real reason you did something unless it is useful to do so,"
(No. 1) but not ones like, "Most people are basically good and kind" (No. 4). People
scoring below 60 out of 100 on the MACH-IV are considered low Machs; they tend
to believe, "There is no excuse for lying to someone else," (No. 7) and, "Most
people who get ahead in the world lead clean, moral lives" (No. 11). Christie, Geis,
and Geis's graduate assistant David Berger went on to perform a series of studies
that provided experimental verification for the notion of Machiavellianism.

Machiavellianism is one of the three personality traits referred to as the dark

triad, along with narcissism and psychopathy. Some psychologists consider
Machiavellianism to be essentially a subclinical form of psychopathy, although
recent research suggests that while Machiavellianism and psychopathy overlap, they
are distinct personality constructs

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