Small HVAC System Guide
Small HVAC System Guide
Small HVAC System Guide
COMMISSION
DESIGN GUIDELINES
October 2003
500-03-082-A12
Managed By:
New Buildings Institute
Cathy Higgins
Program Director
White Salmon, WA
CEC Contract No. 400-99-013
Prepared For:
Donald Aumann,
Contract Manager
Nancy Jenkins,
PIER Buildings Program Manager
Terry Surles,
PIER Program Director
Robert L. Therkelsen
Executive Director
DISCLAIMER
This report was prepared as the result of work sponsored by the
California Energy Commission. It does not necessarily represent
the views of the Energy Commission, its employees or the State
of California. The Energy Commission, the State of California, its
employees, contractors and subcontractors make no warrant,
express or implied, and assume no legal liability for the
information in this report; nor does any party represent that the
uses of this information will not infringe upon privately owned
rights. This report has not been approved or disapproved by the
California Energy Commission nor has the California Energy
Commission passed upon the accuracy or adequacy of the
information in this report.
Small HVAC System Design Guide Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
The products and outcomes presented in this report are a result of funding
provided by the California Energy Commission’s Public Interest Energy
Research (PIER) program on behalf of the citizens of California. Architectural
Energy Corporation would like to acknowledge the support and contributions
of the individuals below:
Program and Contract Management: Cathy Higgins, New Buildings
Institute, Don Aumann, California Energy Commission.
Technical Advisory Group (TAG): Tudi Hassl, Portland Energy Conservation,
Inc. (PECI); Jan Johnson, Southern California Edison Company; John
Proctor, Proctor Engineering Group; Richard Lord, Carrier Corporation; Dr.
Mark Modera, Carrier Aeroseal.
Architectural Energy Corporation Project Team: Pete Jacobs led the project,
with AEC staff support from Dave Roberts, Tracy Phillips, Erik Jeanette,
John Wood, Matthew Potts, Kosol Kiatreungwattana, Pablo Calderon-
Rodriguez and Judie Porter. RLW Analytics as a subcontractor provided field
testing and engineering support and statistical analysis, including
contributions from Roger Wright, Matt Brost, Jeff Staller, Eric Swan, Amber
Watkins and Stacia Okura. Eskinder Berhanu, Principal of Eskinder
Berhanu Associates also provided field testing and engineering support.
Additional Support: Alan Cowan and Jeff Johnson, New Buildings Institute,
project technical review and Design Guide review; Darren Goody, PECI,
Design Guide review.
i
Small HVAC System Design Guide Preface
Preface
The Small HVAC System Design Guide (Design Guide) provides design
guidance on how to improve the installed performance of small packaged
rooftop HVAC systems in commercial buildings. The document is written for
architects, engineers, and design/build contractors involved in the design of
small packaged rooftop systems for commercial building applications. It
includes information and advice on overall building design practices to
minimize HVAC loads, unit selection and sizing, distribution and control
system design, commissioning, and operations and maintenance.
Small HVAC systems are installed in about 40 million square feet (ft²) of new
California construction annually. By applying the integrated design
principles in this document, the energy consumption and costs of buildings
with small HVAC systems can be reduced by 25% to 35%. Impacts on
building first costs are minimized through a combination of load avoidance
strategies designed to reduce the size and cost of the HVAC system, with
simple paybacks of about 0.2 to 2.4 years. Along with integrated design, other
design strategies suggested in this document focus on establishing and
maintaining efficient operation of systems as they are installed in the field.
Problems with equipment and controls (economizers, fan controls, thermostat
programming), in-situ air flow and fan power, refrigerant charge, and
operation/maintenance practices that can lead to poor system performance
are addressed.
Solutions to problems observed in the design of small HVAC systems rest in
the hands of market actors up and down the building design, construction
and maintenance chain. This Design Guide focuses on specific actions
building designers can take to improve the overall performance of small
HVAC systems.
The Buildings Program Area within the Public Interest Energy Research
(PIER) Program produced this document as part of a multi-project
programmatic contract (#400-99-413). The Buildings Program includes new
and existing buildings in both the residential and the nonresidential sectors.
The program seeks to decrease building energy use through research that
will develop or improve energy-efficient technologies, strategies, tools, and
building performance evaluation methods.
The Design Guide is Attachment A-12 (product 4.7.5) to the Final Report on
Integrated Energy Systems:Productivity and Building Science Program
(Commission Publication #P500-03-082). For other reports produced within
this contract or to obtain more information on the PIER Program, please visit
www.energy.ca.gov/pier/buildings or contact the Commission’s Publications
Unit at 916-654-5200. The Design Guide is also available at
www.newbuildings.org.
ii
Small HVAC System Design Guide Abstract
Abstract
The Small HVAC System Design Guide (Design Guide) provides design
guidance on how to improve the installed performance of small packaged
rooftop HVAC systems in commercial buildings. The document is targeted at
architects, engineers, and design/build contractors involved in the design of
small packaged rooftop systems for commercial building applications. It
includes information and advice on overall building design practices to
minimize HVAC loads, unit selection and sizing, distribution and control
system design, commissioning, and operations and maintenance.
Small HVAC systems are installed in about 40 million ft² of new California
construction annually. By applying the integrated design principles in this
document, the energy consumption and costs of buildings with small HVAC
systems can be reduced by 25% to 35%. Impacts on building first costs are
minimized through a combination of load avoidance strategies designed to
reduce the size and cost of the HVAC system, with simple paybacks of about
0.2 to 2.4 years. Along with integrated design, other design strategies
suggested in this document focus on establishing and maintaining efficient
operation of systems as they are installed in the field. Problems with
equipment and controls (economizers, fan controls, thermostat
programming), in-situ air flow and fan power, refrigerant charge, and
operation/maintenance practices that can lead to poor system performance
are addressed.
iii
Small HVAC System Design Guide Abstract
iv
Small HVAC System Design Guide Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................I
PREFACE .......................................................................................................... II
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................III
OVERVIEW......................................................................................................... 1
Suggested Design Practices............................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 3
Audience .......................................................................................................... 3
Why Small HVAC?.......................................................................................... 3
Field Performance........................................................................................... 6
Energy Impacts ............................................................................................... 8
Design Guide Organization............................................................................ 8
INTEGRATED DESIGN................................................................................. 11
Summary ....................................................................................................... 11
Reduce Lighting Power................................................................................. 12
High Efficiency Fluorescent.................................................................................... 14
Compact Metal Halide ............................................................................................ 14
Pulse-Start Metal Halide......................................................................................... 14
Use High-Performance Fenestration Systems............................................ 15
Use Cool Roofing Materials.......................................................................... 16
Improve Roof Insulation Systems................................................................ 19
HVAC Unit Location..................................................................................... 19
Integrated Design Example ......................................................................... 20
UNIT SIZING ................................................................................................... 27
Summary ....................................................................................................... 27
Use Sizing Methods Responsive to Load Avoidance................................... 27
Use Reasonable Assumptions for Plug Loads ............................................. 29
Use Reasonable Assumptions for Ventilation Air Quantities ................... 30
Avoid Oversizing ........................................................................................... 31
UNIT SELECTION .......................................................................................... 33
Summary ....................................................................................................... 33
Efficiency ....................................................................................................... 33
Select Capacity Based on Design Conditions.............................................. 35
Select Airflow Rate to Meet Sensible Loads................................................ 36
Specify High Efficiency Fan Motors ............................................................ 37
Specify Thermostatic Expansion Valves ..................................................... 38
Specify Reliable Economizers....................................................................... 40
Specify Design Features that Improve Serviceability ................................ 45
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS........................................................................... 47
Summary ....................................................................................................... 47
Reduce Duct System Pressure Drop ............................................................ 47
Duct Design Methods .............................................................................................. 49
Design Values.......................................................................................................... 50
v
Small HVAC System Design Guide Table of Contents
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES......................................................................... 83
vi
Small HVAC System Design Guide List of Tables
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Lighting Power Recommendations by Space Type............................ 13
Table 2. Lamp Efficacies for New Technology Lighting Sources .................... 15
Table 3. High-Performance Glazing.................................................................. 17
Table 4. Reflectance and Emittance of Popular Roofing Products ................. 18
Table 5. Prototypical Building Model Description ........................................... 20
Table 6. Design Changes for Computer Simulations....................................... 22
Table 7. Cost Estimates..................................................................................... 23
Table 8. Net Costs and Energy Savings ........................................................... 25
Table 9. Sizing Software Defaults and Capabilities ........................................ 28
Table 10. Recommended Heat Gain from Computer Equipment ................... 30
Table 11. Title 20/24 and CEE Tier 2 Efficiency.............................................. 34
Table 12. Commercially Available Units Exceeding Title 24 and CEE Tier 2
Specifications .............................................................................................. 34
Table 13. Design Specifications for Standard and High Efficiency Rooftops. 35
Table 14. Cooling Capacity of Standard and High Efficiency Units Under
Rated and Hot, Dry Conditions.................................................................. 37
vii
Small HVAC System Design Guide List of Figures
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Floorspace Distribution of HVAC Systems in New Commercial
Buildings in California ................................................................................. 4
Figure 2. Distribution of Packaged DX System Size ......................................... 5
Figure 3. Example of Commercial Building with Small HVAC........................ 6
Figure 4. Frequency of Problems Observed in PIER Study ............................. 7
Figure 5. Average Time Spent by Designers of Small Commercial Buildings12
Figure 6. Lay-in Insulation ............................................................................... 20
Figure 7. Impacts of Integrated Design............................................................ 22
Figure 8. HVAC System Sizing Practices......................................................... 28
Figure 9. Impact of Cycling on Efficiency......................................................... 31
Figure 10. Efficiency Loss due to Oversizing ................................................... 32
Figure 11. Form Factor of Standard and High Efficiency Rooftops ............... 33
Figure 12. Correlation Between Measured Ambient and Condenser Inlet Air
Temperatures in Irwindale, CA ................................................................. 36
Figure 13. Refrigerant Charge Variation in New and Existing Units ........... 39
Figure 14. Efficiency Degradation as a Function of Refrigerant Charge....... 40
Figure 15. Cooling Energy Savings from Integrated and Non-Integrated
Economizers. ............................................................................................... 41
Figure 16. Common Components in Packaged Rooftop Unit Economizers.... 42
Figure 17. Direct Drive and Linkage Driven Economizer Dampers............... 43
Figure 18. Observed Changeover Setpoints for Single Point Enthalpy
Economizers ................................................................................................ 44
Figure 19. Tested Airflow Distribution in Small Commercial HVAC Systems
...................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 20. Tested External Static Pressure Distribution in Small Commercial
HVAC Systems............................................................................................ 49
Figure 21. Flex Duct Installation Guidelines................................................... 52
Figure 22. Pressure Loss from Poorly Extended Flex Duct ............................ 53
Figure 23. Metal Duct Design Details .............................................................. 53
Figure 24. Schematic of Duct Pressurization Test .......................................... 55
Figure 25. Aeroseal System for Duct Sealing and Testing.............................. 56
Figure 26. Effective Ventilation Rate for HVAC units with Continuous and
Cycling Fans................................................................................................ 60
Figure 27. CO2 Sensors...................................................................................... 61
Figure 28. Thermostat Location........................................................................ 64
Figure 29. Functional Performance Tests ........................................................ 67
Figure 30. Typical Economizer Changeover Plot............................................. 68
Figure 31. Economizer Diagnostic Plots........................................................... 70
Figure 32. Flow Grid Measures Unit Airflow .................................................. 70
Figure 33. Short-Term Monitoring with a Portable Data Logger................... 71
Figure 34. Maintenance Hall of Shame............................................................ 75
viii
Small HVAC System Design Guide Overview
Overview
This Design Guide focuses on packaged heating, ventilation and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems up to 10 tons per unit—the most common
HVAC systems for small commercial buildings in California. These systems
are notorious for consuming more energy than is necessary to properly heat,
cool, and dehumidify buildings. The electrical and natural gas energy wasted
as a result of poorly integrated and operating small commercial HVAC
systems in California is significant. The problems arise because designers do
not understand the implications of poor systems integration, do not have
proper guidelines for total integration of all building elements for minimum
energy consumption, and often do not have the necessary financial and
market incentives to implement total integration.
This Design Guide discusses a number of topics relating to the design,
installation, operation, commissioning, and maintenance of small HVAC
systems. A number of problems documented in the field have their roots
traced to one or more of these areas. Suggested design practices are
summarized below.
1
Small HVAC System Design Guide Overview
2
Small HVAC System Design Guide Introduction
Introduction
This Small HVAC System Design Guide (Design Guide) is the result of a
three-year project on performance of small package HVAC systems in
commercial buildings. The project looked at 215 rooftop units on 75 buildings
in California. Through field monitoring and testing of these units, the
researchers identified a number of common installation and operation
problems. The solutions and recommendations presented in this Design
Guide are based on the research results, as well as on contributions from
leading experts and on other current research on small package systems.
This project was part of a larger research effort called Integrated Energy
Systems: Productivity and Building Science Program. As the name suggests,
it is not individual building components, equipment, or materials that
optimize energy efficiency. Instead, energy efficiency is improved through the
integrated design, construction, and operation of building systems.
Following the practices in this Design Guide leads to major improvements in
energy efficiency and occupant comfort.
AUDIENCE
The Design Guide is written primarily for designers of small HVAC systems
in new commercial buildings. These designers include architects, mechanical
engineers, and design/build contractors. The technical content, design
recommendations and guideline organization is intended to provide this
audience with fast and relevant information that applies to almost all
projects using small package systems.
There are also sections of interest to installers and service contractors. In
addition, planners for energy efficiency and green building programs, real
estate developers, and building owners and occupants can benefit from
information on the performance and opportunities for improvement of this
widely used HVAC system.
The HVAC systems addressed in this Design Guide are primarily single
package rooftop air conditioners and heat pumps with a cooling capacity of 10
tons or less. These systems may be small, but the buildings that utilize them
are often large, with multiple small systems applied. Although this research
focused on units in the state of California, the Design Guide solutions apply
to small package HVAC design throughout the country.
3
Small HVAC System Design Guide Introduction
Other
0.3%
Built-up System No Cooling
17.4% 19.4%
Evaporative System
5.7%
Single Pkg DX AC
43.9%
4
Small HVAC System Design Guide Introduction
30%
25%
Estimated NRNC Unitary System Market Share
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 12 15 20 25 30 40 50 75 100
Unit size (ton)
5
Small HVAC System Design Guide Introduction
These small rooftop units are the “workhorses” of the commercial building
industry, yet many systems fail to reach their full potential due to problems
with design, installation, and operation.
FIELD PERFORMANCE
The New Buildings Institute (Institute) PIER project identified a number of
problems with HVAC systems as they are installed and operated in the field.
Problems identified include broken economizers, improper refrigerant charge,
fans running during unoccupied periods, fan that cycle on and off with a call
for heating and cooling rather than providing continuous ventilation air, low
airflow, inadequate ventilation air, and simultaneous heating and cooling. A
summary of findings from the study is shown in Figure 4.
6
Small HVAC System Design Guide Introduction
Economizers
Refrigerant charge
Low airflow
Simultaneous heating
and cooling
7
Small HVAC System Design Guide Introduction
• Cycling fans. System fans were found to be cycling on and off with a call
for heating or cooling in 38% of the units tested. Title 24 Energy
Standards require that all buildings not naturally ventilated with
operable windows or other openings be mechanically ventilated. The
supply of continuous fresh air during occupied hours relies on continuous
operation of the HVAC unit supply fan.
• Unoccupied fan operation. Fans were also observed to run
continuously during unoccupied periods in 30% of the systems observed.
While this practice improves the ventilation of the space, it represents an
opportunity to save energy through thermostat setback and fan cycling
during unoccupied periods.
• Simultaneous heating and cooling. Adjacent units controlled by
independent thermostats were observed to provide simultaneous heating
and cooling to a space in 8% of the units monitored in the study. This was
to largely to occupant errors in the set up and use of the thermostats, and
poor thermostat placement during construction.
• No outdoor air. A physical inspection revealed that about 8% of the
units were not capable of supplying any outdoor air to the spaces served.
In some cases, outdoor air intakes were not provided or were sealed off at
the unit. In other instances, outdoor air dampers were stuck shut,
preventing outdoor air intake.
Solutions to these problems rest in the hands of market actors up and down
the building design, construction and maintenance chain. This Design Guide
focuses on specific actions designers can take to minimize problems and
create high-performance commercial buildings through the integrated design
and specification of reliable and energy-efficient buildings and mechanical
systems.
ENERGY IMPACTS
The annual commercial new construction floorspace served by small HVAC
units is on the order of 39.6 million ft² per year. The potential statewide
annual energy savings expected from avoiding problems noted in the study is
on the order of 69.4 GWh per year of electricity and 971,000 therms per year
of natural gas. Potential demand reductions on the order of 245 MW were
also forecast (AEC, 2003). Average savings for commercial buildings are 25-
35% of the energy consumption and costs depending on sector type and use
patterns.
8
Small HVAC System Design Guide Introduction
9
Small HVAC System Design Guide Introduction
10
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
Integrated Design
SUMMARY
Use load avoidance strategies such as energy-efficient lighting, high-
performance glass, cool roofs, and enhanced roof insulation design to reduce
the cooling loads imposed on the HVAC system. Reductions in HVAC system
size and first cost mitigate the first costs of these energy efficiency strategies.
HVAC systems, like all systems in the building, do not function in isolation,
but are part of an interactive system of components. Before addressing the
design of the HVAC system, this chapter addresses several aspects of
building design that influence the loads imposed on the HVAC system. Many
of these advanced design recommendations are being incorporated into
efficiency programs and applied by leading designers and developers of high-
performance buildings. By including these “load avoidance” strategies in your
design, the size and energy consumption of the HVAC system can be reduced.
The first costs of the load avoidance strategies are generally offset by
reductions in the HVAC and distribution system size and cost (Energy Design
Resources, 1998a).
Integrated design in the context of small
By including these “load buildings must be viewed in the context of the
design time allocated to small projects. A
avoidance” strategies in your
recent survey of design professionals working
design, the size and energy on small buildings was conducted to get a sense
consumption of the HVAC system of the time allotted for various steps in the
can be reduced. The first costs of design process (Jacobs and Henderson, 2002).
the load avoidance strategies Figure 5 summarizes the survey results. The
are generally offset by average design time for the HVAC system in a
reductions in the HVAC and small building (defined as 20,000 ft² or less) is
distribution system size and cost. less than one person-week. Other aspects of the
design process, such as building form, lighting
and envelope design get even less attention
than the HVAC system.
Design projects conducted under these time constraints do not allow for much
interaction between architects and their engineering counterparts to optimize
the design. However, the load avoidance strategies discussed in this section
can be applied prescriptively to most small buildings. Architects and
engineers should consider adopting these strategies as part of their office
design standards, providing the benefits of the load avoidance strategies
without requiring much analysis.
11
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
Hours per project
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
Form Lighting Envelope HVAC IAQ Refrigeration Green Design Energy Analysis
Architect Engineer
12
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
Proposed California
E-Benchmark T24-2005 Lighting Additional
Tenant Area or Portion of Lighting Power Power Density allowance for
Building Density (W/ft²) (W/ft²) Chandelier
Dormitory 1 1.5
Exercise Center 1 1
Gymnasium 1.1 1
Motel 1 1.4
Multi-Family NA 1
Museum 1.1 2
Penitentiary 1 1
Transportation 1 1.2
13
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
Proposed California
E-Benchmark T24-2005 Lighting Additional
Tenant Area or Portion of Lighting Power Power Density allowance for
Building Density (W/ft²) (W/ft²) Chandelier
14
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
15
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
16
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
Calif. Glazing Frame Spacer SHGC Total Glazing Frame Spacer SHGC Total SHGC Total
Climate Assem- Assem- % differ- Assem-
bly U- bly U- ence bly U-
value value value
% diff.
Mount- Tinted Standard Standard 0.39 0.57 High perf. Metal Insulated 0.31 0.42 21% 26%
ains double metal tint with
low-e double thermal
low-e break
North Tinted Standard Standard 0.39 0.57 High perf. Metal Insulated 0.31 0.42 21% 26%
Coast double metal tint with
low-e double thermal
low-e break
South Tinted Standard Standard 0.39 0.57 High perf. Metal Insulated 0.31 0.42 21% 26%
Coast double metal tint with
low-e double thermal
low-e break
Valley High perf Metal Standard 0.36 0.49 Reflective Metal Insulated 0.19 0.42 47% 14%
tint with high perf. with
double thermal tint thermal
low-e break double break
low-e
Desert High perf Metal Standard 0.36 0.49 Reflective Metal Insulated 0.19 0.42 47% 14%
tint with high perf. with
double thermal tint thermal
low-e break double break
low-e
17
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
Total Solar
Cool Roof Type Material Reflectance Emittance
Reductions in heat gains though the roof affects the temperature of the
plenum space located between the drop ceiling and the roof, which contains
the majority of the ductwork in small commercial buildings. Duct heat gains
and air leakage losses (especially on the return side) can increase HVAC
loads on the order of 30%, so a cool plenum can reduce energy consumption
and improve occupant comfort, especially in commercial buildings where
systems run continuously during occupied hours. Cool roofs can also reduce
the outdoor air temperature at the roof level. The impact of a cool roof
18
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
19
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
Number of floors 1
Floor-to-ceiling height 9 ft
Plenum height 3 ft
20
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
Window type Coastal Climate (Oakland): Tinted Coastal Climate (Oakland): High
double low-e with standard metal frame performance tint double low-e with
and spacer thermally broken metal frame and
insulated spacer
Central Valley (Sacramento) and
Desert (Palm Springs): High Central Valley (Sacramento) and
performance tint double low-e with Desert (Palm Springs): Reflective
thermally broken metal frame and high performance tint double low-e
standard spacer with thermally broken frame and
insulated spacer
Roof construction Built-up roof over plywood deck Built-up roof over plywood deck, R-
19 insulation
Ceiling construction Acoustic tile with lay-in insulation (R- Acoustic tile
19) with 80% coverage
Lighting power density Code compliant using standard sources E-Benchmark compliant using new
(1.3 W/ft²) sources (0.9 W/ft²).
Number of people 11
Size Varies
Duct leakage 36% total leakage; evenly split between 8% total leakage
supply and return (18% supply, 18%
return)
21
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
Reducing HVAC system size to correspond to reduced cooling loads Right sizing
100%
95%
90%
85%
80%
Oakland
75% Sacramento
Palm Springs
70%
65%
60%
55%
50%
Base roof insul EE Ltg HP glass HP glass HP glass HP glass Cool roof Leak seal right EE Unit
W S E N sizing
Efficiency Measure
22
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
E n e rg y C o s t R e d u c tio n
100%
95%
90%
85%
80%
O a k la n d
75% S a c r a m e n to
P a lm S p rin g s
70%
65%
60%
55%
50%
Base ro o f in s u l E E L tg H P g la s s H P g la s s H P g la s s H P g la s s C o o l ro o f L e a k se a l rig h t E E U n it
W S E N s izin g
E ffic ie n c y M e a s u r e
Total incre-
Measure Description Incremental unit cost mental cost* Source
Climate zone 3
Insulation location (Oakland) $0.50 per ft² floor area $1,003 McHugh et al., 2003
Climate zone 12
(Sacramento) $0.52 per ft² floor area $1,044
Energy-efficient lighting Office occupancy $0.18 per ft² floor area $360 Institute, 2002a
DEER database
Climate zone 3 (Xenergy, 2001),
High performance glass (Oakland), non-North $3.50 per ft² glass area $1,446 CALMAC low volume
Climate zone 3
(Oakland), North $7.75 per ft² glass area $1,232
Climate zone 12
(Sacramento), 15 (Palm
Springs), non-North $6.44 per ft² glass area $2,660
Climate zone 12
(Sacramento), 15 (Palm
Springs), North $7.92 per ft² glass area $1,259
Cool roof New construction $0.30 per ft² roof area $600 PG&E, 2002
23
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
The load avoidance measures in this example reduce the size of the HVAC
system and provide annual energy savings, as shown in Figure 7. Note,
improving the roof insulation system had the largest effect on HVAC system
size, due to reduced roof loads and duct leakage interactions.
The first cost of the HVAC unit is estimated at $1,350 per installed ton. The
costs of the duct work and air distribution system components are estimated
at an additional $1,350 per installed ton (Means, 2003). The incremental first
cost, the value of the capacity credit, the first-year energy savings, and
simple payback are summarized in Table 8.
24
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
Simple
Climate Incremental Annual energy payback
zone City cost Capacity credit Net first cost cost savings (yr)
It is clear from this example that the reduction in HVAC system size nearly
covers the incremental first cost of the energy efficiency improvements. The
small remaining first costs are covered by the energy savings in a short
period of time.
25
Small HVAC System Design Guide Integrated Design
26
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Sizing
Unit Sizing
SUMMARY
To take full benefit of an integrated design approach, use sizing methods that
are responsive to the load avoidance strategies used in the design. Use
realistic assumptions on plug loads and ventilation air quantities when
calculating unit size. Avoid oversizing equipment to improve energy
efficiency.
Many small HVAC systems are significantly oversized, resulting in inefficient
operation, reduced reliability due to frequent cycling of compressors, and poor
humidity control. Oversized systems also result in wasted capital investment
in both the HVAC unit and distribution system. System oversizing also
affects the ability of the system to provide simultaneous economizer and
compressor operation, and exacerbates problems with distribution system fan
power, since larger units are supplied with larger fans.
27
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Sizing
Manual J worksheet
4.2%
Building energy
simulation
6.8%
Third party sizing
software
8.5%
Previous experience
16.9%
28
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Sizing
Cool roof Considers roof Considers roof Considers roof Considers roof
capability absorptance and absorptance absorptance only absorptance only
emittance and emittance
29
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Sizing
Computer
Average value 55 20
Conservative 65 25
value
Highly 75 30
conservative
value
Monitor
Small Monitor 55 0
(13 to 15 in.)
Medium 70 0
Monitor (16 to
18 in.)
Large Monitor 80 0
(19 to 20 in.)
1 W/ft² allowance for plug Circuit capacity for plug loads approach 5 W/ft² in
loads is a reasonable upper office spaces, driven in some cases by commercial
bound when equipment space lease requirements that dictate a certain
diversity and reasonable level of power availability. An ASHRAE study on
estimates of the true running plug loads measured equipment load densities in
44 commercial office buildings (Komor, 1997). The
load are included
measured equipment power ranged between 0.4
and 1.2 W/ft². Values above 1.0 W/ft² occurred in
only 5% of the square footage studied. This study indicates that 1 W/ft² is a
reasonable upper bound when equipment diversity and reasonable estimates
of the true running load are included. The Title 24 default value of 1.5 W/ft²
is probably excessive.
30
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Sizing
Title 24 specifies the minimum outdoor ventilation rate to which the system
must be designed. If desired, the designer may elect to take a more
conservative approach. For example, the design outdoor ventilation rate may
be determined using the procedures described in ASHRAE Standard 62–
1999, provided the resulting outdoor air quantities are no less than required
by Title 24. Although designers California must comply with Title 24 when
setting ventilation rates, designers in other states referencing ASHRAE
Standard 62 may be able to take advantage of the anticipated occupant
density provision.
AVOID OVERSIZING
Title 24 limits cooling capacity to 121% of the calculated peak cooling load.
Since most sizing methods are based on conservative assumptions, use the
calculated load and round up only to the next available unit size to avoid
excessive oversizing. Excessive oversizing leads to reduced equipment
efficiency and reliability due to frequent cycling (Figure 9). Humidity control
is also reduced, though this may not be a problem in most California
climates.
Since most sizing methods DX air conditioners, once started, take about
are based on conservative three minutes to achieve full cooling output. The
assumptions, use the power draw during this cool-down time is
calculated load and round approximately constant, so the efficiency of the
up only to the next available unit during the first three minutes of operation is
unit size to avoid excessive reduced due to startup losses associated with
establishing refrigerant pressures and cooling
oversizing.
down the evaporator coil.
31
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Sizing
When the unit is oversized, the unit runs for a shorter cycle, and the startup
time becomes a greater fraction of the total runtime. The startup losses also
become a greater fraction of the total cooling output, reducing overall
efficiency. Systems that are properly sized will run longer during each cycle,
and the startup losses become small relative to the total cooling output.
Figure 10 shows the effect of oversizing on unit efficiency.
In a study of 250 rooftop units conducted for PG&E, the typical runtime
under hot conditions was 6 minutes, with an off-time of 16 minutes (Felts,
1998). This represents a 27% runtime fraction, and reduction in unit
efficiency of 18%.
0.9
Part Load Factor (PLF)
0.8
0.7
0.6
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Cooling Load Fraction (CLF)
32
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Selection
Unit Selection
SUMMARY
Select rooftop units that meet CEE Tier 2 efficiency standards and employ
features that improve the efficiency and reliability of the units, including
premium efficiency fan motors, thermostatic expansion valves and factory
run-tested economizers. Base unit selection on realistic conditions expected
for the building and location.
EFFICIENCY
Energy codes are generally set to correspond to the basic, “standard
efficiency” HVAC unit. High efficiency units are available in most size ranges
that are up to 30% more efficient than code. These units generally
incorporate larger heat exchangers, efficient compressors, improved cabinet
insulation, and higher efficiency fans and motors. Consider specifying units
that meet the Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE) Tier 2 efficiency
standards (CEE, 2002).
CEE has established efficiency targets for commercial rooftop units through
their High Efficiency Commercial Air Conditioning (HECAC) initiative. CEE
is a nonprofit, public benefit corporation that actively promotes the use of
energy-efficient products and services through its members, including electric
and gas utilities, public benefit administrators (such as state energy offices,
nonprofit organizations, and regional energy groups), and research and
development laboratories. CEE members voluntarily adopt common
performance specifications and program strategies with the goal of
33
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Selection
Designers should consider both the rated full-load energy efficiency ratio
(EER), and the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER) when selecting a unit.
Units with high SEER may not perform much better than a standard unit at
peak cooling conditions.
Table 13 provides design specifications for 5- and 10-ton standard and high
efficiency rooftops from several manufacturers. There are a variety of
strategies used to improve unit efficiency, including high efficiency scroll
compressors and thermostatic expansion valves (TXV). Consistently, high-
performance units have larger condensers and/or evaporators.
34
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Selection
Trane
Meter- Evap Cond
No. Comp ing Evap face Cond face
Model Efficiency Size SEER EER comp type device rows area row area
Lennox
Meter- Evap Cond
No. Comp ing Evap face Cond face
Model Efficiency Size SEER EER comp type device rows area row area
York
Meter- Evap Cond
No. Comp ing Evap face Cond face
Model Efficiency Size SEER EER comp type device rows area row area
35
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Selection
110
Roof Surface 14
C ondenser
100 Inlet Air 12
10
80
4
70 2
Temperature Diffrence Between 0
60
C ondesner Inlet & Ambient
-2
50 -4
-6
40
-8
30 -10
7/4/01 7/4/01 7/4/01 7/4/01 7/4/01 7/4/01 7/4/01 7/4/01 7/4/01 7/4/01 7/5/01
0:00 2:24 4:48 7:12 9:36 12:00 14:24 16:48 19:12 21:36 0:00
Date/Time
According to this study, the condenser air inlet temperature is about midway
between the outdoor drybulb temperature and the air temperature measured
at the roof surface.
36
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Selection
37
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Selection
Rating condition Outdoor dry Entering dry bulb Entering wet bulb Airflow cfm/ton
bulb temperature temperature
temperature
ARI 95 80 67 400
38
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Selection
70.0%
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
Frequency
NBI study
Older units
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
0.0%
"dog" -25% -20% -15% -10% -5% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%
Percent under or overcharge
39
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Selection
1.2
0.8
Normalized Efficiency
TXV
0.6
Short orifice
0.4
0.2
0
50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 110% 120% 130% 140%
% Factory Charge
40
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Selection
0.9
0.8
0.7
Annual Energy Savings
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Climate Zone
41
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Selection
Controller
mounted on
actuator
Economizer Controller
Enthalpy Sensor
42
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Selection
43
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Selection
Changeover
setpoint = A (78F
@ 30% RH)
Changeover 28%
setpoint = D (68F
@ 30% RH)
40%
Changeover
setpoint = B (76F
@ 30% RH)
12%
Changeover
setpoint = C (73F
@ 30% RH)
20%
44
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Selection
• Specify low leakage dampers. Low leakage dampers with blade and
jamb seals will improve economizer effectiveness by limiting return air
leakage during economizer operation and outdoor air infiltration when
the unit is switched off. Specify low leakage dampers for outside air and
(if available) return air dampers.
45
Small HVAC System Design Guide Unit Selection
46
Small HVAC System Design Guide Distribution Systems
Distribution Systems
SUMMARY
Reduce duct system pressure drop to allow systems to operate at their design
flowrate. Base duct system design on 0.05 in W.C. pressure drop per 100 ft of
straight duct, and use fittings with low pressure drop characteristics. Limit
the use of flex duct, and seal and leak-test distribution systems to improve
efficiency and thermal comfort in the space. Size for reduced pressure drop
and velocity to also reduce duct system noise.
After the HVAC unit, the distribution system (ductwork and diffusers) is the
next most important and costly part of the HVAC system. Installed costs for
duct systems can approach the cost of the HVAC unit itself, so there is often
intense pressure to reduce duct system costs. However, the quality of the duct
system can have a profound effect on the efficiency and comfort delivered by
the HVAC system. Fan energy in small commercial buildings in mild climates
can approach the cooling energy consumption. Duct losses through leakage
and conduction can affect the efficiency of the system and the amount of
cooling delivered to the space. A poorly balanced and leaky distribution
system is one of the leading causes of poor indoor comfort in small systems.
47
Small HVAC System Design Guide Distribution Systems
18.0%
16.0%
14.0%
12.0%
10.0%
Frequency
8.0%
6.0%
4.0%
2.0%
0.0%
200 or 225 250 275 300 325 350 375 400 425 450 475 500 More
less
Unit air flow (cfm /ton)
The average measured fan power was 0.18 kW/ton, which is about 20%
higher than the nominal fan power assumed in Title 24 energy standards
(365 W/cfm or about 0.15 kW/ton). If the fan flow is increased to 400 cfm/ton,
the fan power will increase to 0.34 kW/ton. This increase effectively drops the
efficiency of a 10.3 EER unit to 9.1.
The combination of high fan power and low flowrate is due largely to
excessive pressure drop in the duct systems. The frequency distribution of
unit external static pressure at the measured flowrate is shown in Figure 20.
The average duct system pressure drop was 0.48 in. W.C. ARI efficiency
ratings assume a duct system pressure drop of 0.1 to 0.25 in. W.C., depending
on the system size. The average duct system pressure drop corrected to 400
cfm/ton would equal 0.625 in. W.C., which is about 2.5 to 6 times greater than
the ARI Standard.
48
Small HVAC System Design Guide Distribution Systems
14.0%
12.0%
10.0%
8.0%
Frequency
6.0%
4.0%
2.0%
0.0%
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 More
Unit external static pressure @ installed air flow
49
Small HVAC System Design Guide Distribution Systems
loss. This method provides a design that is better balanced, but balance
dampers must still be installed since it is not possible to provide a truly self-
balanced system using this method. Also, duct velocities in shorter runs must
be checked for noise problems.
Duct size is generally selected using a slide rule or ductilator. The duct
section air quantities and design friction rate are matched on the slide rule,
and a round duct diameter or several combinations of rectangular duct length
and width are displayed. Duct section air velocity is also displayed to check
for potential noise problems. Duct dimensions are based on the interior
dimensions; if duct liner is used, the thickness of the duct liner must be
subtracted. Pressure loss data are based on smooth duct. Adjustment factors
must be applied to lined duct, duct board, and flex duct.
Design Values
Principle design variables are the design velocity (chosen for noise control) or
the design friction loss (in W.C. per 100 ft). Typical design friction rates are
0.1 in. W.C. per 100 ft in commercial buildings. Reducing the design friction
rate to 0.05 in. W.C. per 100 ft increases the duct size and costs by 15%, but
cuts the portion of the total pressure drop attributable to the ductwork by
50%, and the overall distribution system pressure drop on the order of 40%
when diffuser losses are included. Upsizing the duct can provide fan energy
savings on the order of 15% to 20%.
50
Small HVAC System Design Guide Distribution Systems
• Avoid duct connection details at the unit that degrade fan performance
(called the “fan system effect”) by providing at least two feet of straight
duct before the first turn. These details are critical to minimize noise and
loss of fan capacity. Since rectangular duct is generally used at the unit
connection, install turning vanes in supply ducts at the first turn after
entering the building.
51
Small HVAC System Design Guide Distribution Systems
To avoid kinking, maintain a bend radius at least equal to Support flex duct at minimum 5 ft intervals, with hanging
the duct diameter. straps at least 2 in. wide.
52
Small HVAC System Design Guide Distribution Systems
53
Small HVAC System Design Guide Distribution Systems
54
Small HVAC System Design Guide Distribution Systems
Aeroseal is a new technique that combines duct leakage testing and sealing
into one operation. A calibrated duct pressurization fan is attached to the
duct system, and the leakage flow is measured at a preset duct system
pressure. An elastomeric aerosol sealing compound is injected into the duct
system until the leakage level is reduced to an acceptable level. A schematic
diagrammed of the air sealed system is shown in Figure 25. When required,
the duct leakage testing and sealing can be done from the roof to minimize
disruption.
55
Small HVAC System Design Guide Distribution Systems
The Aeroseal equipment set up in a commercial building is shown in the photo below:
56
Small HVAC System Design Guide Distribution Systems
57
Small HVAC System Design Guide Distribution Systems
58
Small HVAC System Design Guide Ventilation
Ventilation
SUMMARY
Operate HVAC unit fans continuously during occupied hours to provide
adequate ventilation. Use demand-controlled ventilation in spaces with high
design occupant density and intermittent occupancy such as auditoria,
meeting spaces, and so on.
Providing adequate ventilation is key component of indoor air quality.
Strategies to provide adequate ventilation are often at odds with energy
efficiency; however, it should the priority of designers and operators of
buildings to meet ventilation code requirements first, then meet these
requirements in the most energy-efficient manner possible.
59
Small HVAC System Design Guide Ventilation
Figure 26. Effective Ventilation Rate for HVAC units with Continuous
and Cycling Fans
In both cases, the minimum outdoor air damper is set to provide 15 cfm/person of
outside air. The code compliant case used continuous ventilation and an air side
economizer. Economizer operation increased the effective ventilation rate above the
nominal 15 cfm/person rate. A unit not equipped with an economizer and operated
with cycling fans provided an effective ventilation rate of less than 5 cfm/person in
most climate zones. Source: PG&E, 2000.
30.0
25.0
20.0
cfm/person
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Climate Zone
60
Small HVAC System Design Guide Ventilation
Wall mounted CO2 sensor used in demand- Duct mounted CO2 sensor used in demand-
controlled ventilation systems controlled ventilation systems
61
Small HVAC System Design Guide Ventilation
62
Small HVAC System Design Guide Thermostats and Controls
63
Small HVAC System Design Guide Thermostats and Controls
64
Small HVAC System Design Guide Commissioning
Commissioning
SUMMARY
Commission the system to ensure that the intent of the designer is met in the
building as constructed. Verify proper unit installation using pre-functional
checklists and verify unit operation using functional performance tests of
control sequences, fan power, air flowrate, economizer operation, and
refrigerant charge.
Commissioning is a quality assurance process that increases the likelihood
that a new building will meet the intent of the design team and, ultimately,
the client’s expectations (Energy Design Resources, 1998b). In large projects,
the commissioning process can encompass the entire design and construction
process:
• During the design phase, commissioning begins with the selection of a
commissioning agent who helps ensure that the project documentation
reflects the designer’s and owner’s intentions.
• Next, the designer incorporates commissioning requirements into the
design specifications.
• During construction, the commissioning agent is responsible for
inspecting the building to catch construction defects that are difficult to
correct after the building is finished.
• When the project is near completion, the commissioning agent and
contractors conduct performance tests of the systems to be commissioned.
• At the end of the commissioning process, the designer and vendors train
the building operators how to properly operate and maintain the
building.
Commissioning of small HVAC systems generally focuses on documentation
of the design intent, including commissioning testing in the building plans
and specifications, testing the system, correcting deficiencies, and providing
operation and maintenance training to the building occupants. Incorporating
the commissioning requirements into the specs is very important, since the
contractor will base the bid on the plans and specs, and setting the
expectation that commissioning will be done will save a lot of trouble during
the construction process. The commissioning plan should also include a
sample maintenance contract to assist the building owner or operator in
obtaining ongoing maintenance services.
65
Small HVAC System Design Guide Commissioning
66
Small HVAC System Design Guide Commissioning
67
Small HVAC System Design Guide Commissioning
68
Small HVAC System Design Guide Commissioning
69
Small HVAC System Design Guide Commissioning
70
Small HVAC System Design Guide Commissioning
71
Small HVAC System Design Guide Commissioning
72
Small HVAC System Design Guide Commissioning
ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
Regular maintenance is an important component of energy efficiency,
comfort, and the prevention of premature equipment failure. Simple routine
checks can avoid costly maintenance contractor calls to diagnose or fix simple
maintenance problems. A few routine maintenance items include:
• Check fan belts for wear and correct tension.
• Check filters.
• Check economizer damper linkage for tightness and free movement. Be
sure the economizer fully closes the return air passage when admitting
100% outside air.
• Test economizer operation as described in the Commissioning chapter.
73
Small HVAC System Design Guide Commissioning
• Start unit and allow it to run for 15 minutes. Check supply air
temperature after units operation has stabilized. Check refrigerant
charge using procedures described in the Commissioning chapter. Be sure
to replace Schrader valve cores if refrigerant charge is tested. Lubricate
moving parts (including dampers and linkage).
• Check access panels for tight fit.
• Inspect electrical wiring/connections.
• Check coils for debris and clean as necessary.
Annual maintenance contracts are common. If you are considering one, make
sure the staff has good experience. Maintenance staff in buildings with
rooftop units are often under-skilled, with limited training and experience.
Routine maintenance tasks should be placed on easy-to-use “cheat sheets.”
Post lists in location(s) that encourage pro-active maintenance. Maintenance
logs and manufacturer service instructions for all units should be kept in a
readily accessible binder. Maintenance contracts should require a log that
remains on site.
Maintenance contracts for rooftop units are often selected on the basis of the
lowest bid, without adequate consideration for the actual work performed
(PECI, 2002b). Advanced maintenance services provide these additional
maintenance items, but cost more than the basic low-bid package. Be sure to
understand and specify the work to be performed before obtaining bids on
service contracts.
74
Small HVAC System Design Guide Commissioning
75
Small HVAC System Design Guide Commissioning
A closer inspection revealed several instances of missing filters and filthy cooling coils.
This fan motor fell off its mounting and into the evaporator coil. Although refrigerant
wasn’t lost, there was no airflow. Comfort complaints that went on for weeks were
blamed on a thermostat problem. A simple check of the system would have discovered
this problem much earlier.
76
Small HVAC System Design Guide Summary
Summary
KEY RECOMMENDATIONS
In this Design Guide we have discussed a number of topics relating to the
design, installation, operation, commissioning and maintenance of small
HVAC systems. A number of problems documented in the field have their
roots traced to one or more of these areas. How can the industry avoid these
problems in the future? We see a number of steps that can be taken to
improve the overall state-of-the-art in small packaged HVAC systems:
• Practice load avoidance strategies such as reduced lighting power, high-
performance glass and skylights, cool roofs, and improved roof insulation
techniques in the overall building design.
• Size units appropriately using ASHRAE-approved methods that account
for the load avoidance strategies implemented in the design, and use
reasonable assumptions on plug load power and ventilation air quantities
when sizing equipment.
• Select unit size and airflow based on calculated sensible loads without
oversizing. Consider increasing unit flowrate to improve sensible capacity
in dry climates.
• Specify units that meet CEE Tier 2 efficiency standards, incorporate
premium efficiency fan motors, thermostatic expansion valves, and
factory-installed and run-tested economizers with differential rather than
single point changeover control.
• Design distribution systems with lower velocities to reduce pressure drop
and noise. Seal and insulate duct systems located outside the building
thermal envelope.
• Operate ventilation systems continuously to provide adequate ventilation
air. Incorporate demand-controlled ventilation to reduce heating and
cooling loads.
• Specify commercial grade two-stage cooling thermostats with the
capability to schedule fan operation and heating and cooling setpoints
independently.
• Commission the systems prior to occupancy through a combination of
checklists and functional testing of equipment control, economizer
operation, airflow rate and fan power.
• Develop clear expectations on the services provided by HVAC
maintenance personnel.
77
Small HVAC System Design Guide Summary
78
Small HVAC System Design Guide References
References
ACCA, 1990. Manual Q Commercial Building Duct Design Manual,
Arlington, VA. Air Conditioning Contractors Association.
ADC, 1996. Flexible Duct Performance and Installation Standards,
Schaumberg, IL. Air Diffusion Council.
AEC, 2002. Integrated Energy Systems: Productivity & Building Science
Program, Element 4—Integrated Design of Small Commercial HVAC
Systems, Background Research Summary. Product 4.3.1 within the
Small HVAC Field and Survey Information Attachment. Submitted to
the California Energy Commission. Boulder, CO. Architectural
Energy Corporation. (PIER publication #P500-03-082 A-23)
AEC, 2003. Integrated Energy Systems: Productivity & Building Science
Program Element Four—Integrated Design of Small Commercial
HVAC Systems, Statewide Impact Analysis. . Product 4.5.3 within the
Small HVAC Problems & Potential Savings Reports Attachment.
Submitted to the California Energy Commission. Boulder, CO.
Architectural Energy Corporation. (PIER publication #P500-03-082
A-25)
ASHRAE, 1999. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62–1999 Ventilation for
Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, Atlanta, GA. American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers.
ASHRAE, 2001. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, Atlanta, GA.
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Engineers.
CEC, 2001. Nonresidential Manual for Compliance with the 2001 Energy
Efficiency Standards, Sacramento, CA. California Energy
Commission. P400-01-023.
CEE, 2001. Guidelines for Energy-Efficient Commercial Unitary HVAC
Systems, Boston, MA. Consortium for Energy Efficiency.
CEE, 2002. High Efficiency Commercial Air Conditioning Efficiency
Specifications, Boston, MA. Consortium for Energy Efficiency.
Davis, R., P. Francisco, M. Kennedy, D. Baylon, B. Manclark. 2002. Enhanced
Operations & Maintenance Procedures for Small Packaged Rooftop
HVAC Systems: Protocol Development, Field Review, and Measure
Assessment. Submitted to Eugene Water and Electric Board. Seattle,
WA. Ecotope, Inc.
Eley, 2002. Measure Analysis and Life-Cycle Cost. 2005 California Building
Energy Efficiency Standards, Part 1. Prepared for the California
Energy Commission. San Francisco, CA. Eley Associates, Inc. P400-
02-011
Energy Design Resources, 1998a. Integrated Energy Design. Design brief
prepared by E Source, www.energydesignresources.com.
79
Small HVAC System Design Guide References
80
Small HVAC System Design Guide References
81
Small HVAC System Design Guide References
82
Small HVAC System Design Guide Additional Resources
Additional Resources
New Buildings Institute
83
Small HVAC System Design Guide Additional Resources
The Air Diffusion Council publishes an installation guideline for flexible duct
systems. For more information, consult:
www.flexibleduct.org
84