Module - 04

Sources of Data
 Introduction

 The task of data collection begins after a research problem

has been defined and research design/plan chalked out.

 While deciding about the method of data collection to be

used for the study, the researcher should keep in mind two
sources of data :-
 Primary data
 Secondary data
 Types of Data

 Data pertaining to human beings

 Data relating to organization
 Data pertaining to territories
 Personal data or data related to
human beings consist of :-

 Demographic and socio-economic characteristics

of individuals :-
Like age, social class, religion, education,
occupation, income, life style.

 Behavioral variables :- Attitude, opinions,

awareness, knowledge etc
 CONTD:-
 Organizational data consists of :-
 organization's origin
 ownership
 objectives
 resources
 functions
 performance and growth.
 Contd:-
Territorial Data are related to geophysical
characteristics
 Population
 Occupational pattern
 Spatial division like villages, cities etc
 Importance of data
 It forms the basis for testing the
hypotheses.
 It provides facts and figures required for
constructing measurement scales and
tables.
 Sources of data
 Primary data :- are original sources from which
researcher directly collects data that has not been
previously collected.
E.g. Collection of data directly by the researcher on brand
awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other
aspects of consumer behavior from a sample of consumers
by interviewing them.
 Primary data is an first hand information collected
through various methods such as:
 Observation
 Interviewing
 Mailing etc
 Contd:-
 Secondary data:- These are sources containing
data which have been collected and compiled for
another purpose
 The secondary sources consists of readily
available data and already complied statistical
statements and reports whose data may be used
by researcher for their studies.
E.G Census reports , annual reports, financial
statement , statistical statements, Reports of
govt dept.
 Methods of collecting primary data
 Observation method
 Interview Method
 Through questionnaire method
 Through schedules
Other methods like:
 Warranty cards
 Distributors audits
 Consumer panels
 Using mechanical devices
 Through projective techniques
 Depth interview
 Content analysis
 Observation method:
 Under this method, the information is sought by the way of
investigator’s own direct observation without asking from
the respondent.
Main advantages :-
 Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done
accurately
 The information relates to current happenings, it is not
complicated by either the past behavior or future
intentions or attitudes
 Less demanding of active co-operation
 Types of observation method
 Participant observation : the observer is a
part of phenomenon or group which is observed &
he acts as both an observer and a participants.
E.g. A study of the tribal customs by an
anthropologist by taking part in tribal activities.
 Non-Participant observation :- The
observer stand apart and doesn’t participate. This
method calls for skill in recording observation in
an unnoticed manner.
 Contd:-
 Direct observation:- This means observation of an
event personally by the observer when it takes
place. This method is flexible & allow the observer
to see and record subtle aspects of events &
behavior as they occur.
 Indirect observation :- this does not involve the
physical appearance of the observer and the
recording is done by electronic devices
 Interview Method :-
 Interviewing is one of the prominent method of data
collection.
 It defined as a two-way systematic conversation between
an investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining
information relevant to a specific study. It involves not
only conversation, but also leaning from the respondent’s
gestures, facial expressions his environment.
 Interviewing requires face-face contact or contact over
telephone . It is done by using structured schedule or an
unstructured schedule.
 Types of interviews
Structured interview :-
This is an interview made with a detailed
standardized schedule.
The same questions are put to all the respondents
and in the same order.
Each questions is asked in the same way in each
interview, promoting measurement reliability.
This type of interview is used for large-scale
formalized surveys.
 Contd:-
Unstructured interview :-
 This is the least structured one. The interviewer
encourages the respondents to talk freely about a
given topic with a minimum of prompting or
guidance.
 This type of interview , a detailed pre-planned
schedule is not used.
 This interviewing is more useful in case study
rather than in survey.
 Contd:-
Focused interview:-
 Is meant to focus attention on the given experience
of the respondent & its effects.
 Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide
the manner & sequence in which the questions
would be asked.
 Such interview are used generally in the
development of hypotheses & constitute a major
type of unstructured interview.
 Contd :-
Telephonic interview
 It is a non-personal method of data
collection. It is used as a major method or
supplementary method
 When the study requires responses to 5 or
6 sample question
 Contd:-
Group interview :-
 A group consists of about six to eight
individuals with a common interest.
 In this method of collecting primary data
in which a number of individuals with a
common interest interact with each other.
 The interviewer acts as the discussion
leader.
 Contd-
Panel Method :-
 The panel method is a method of data
collection, by which data is collected from
the same respondents at intervals either
by mail or by personal interview.
 The period over which the panel members
are contacted for information may spread
over several months or years.
 Through questionnaire method

 This method consists of a number of questions

printed in a definite order on a form or set of
form.
 Types of questionnaire :
Structured or closed-end questionnaire
Unstructured or open-end questionnaire
 Contd:-
Structure questionnaire : are those
questionnaire in which there are definite, concrete
and pre-determined questions. The questions are
presented with exactly the same wording and in the
same order to all respondents.
A highly structured questionnaire is one in which all
questions and answers are specified, and the
respondents comment’s in his own words.
 Contd:-
E.g.
Which appeals you more while shopping FMCG
products?
 Price [ ]
 Packing [ ]
 Advertisement [ ]
 Past experience [ ]
 Any other (please specify)
 Contd :-
 Unstructured questionnaire :- the interviewer is
provided with a general guide on the type of
information to be obtained, but the exact question
formulation largely depends on researcher and the
opinions are taken down by the respondents own
words to the extent possible.
E.g. What changes can be made to improve the work
place environment which motivates the employees?
_____________________________________________
 Through schedules
 This method of data collection is very much like
the collection of data through the questionnaire,
with little difference which lies in the fact that
schedules ( proforma containing a set of question)
are being filled in by the enumerators who are
specially appointed for the purpose.
 These enumerators along with the schedule , go to
the respondents, put to them the questions from
the proforma and record the replies.
 Other methods
 Warranty cards :- are usually postal sized cards
which are used by dealers of consumer durables to collect
the information regarding their products. The information
sought is printed in the form of questions on the “warranty
cards” which is placed inside the package along with the
product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card
& post it back to the dealer.
 Contd:-
 Distributors audits :- are performed by distributors as
well as manufactures through their salesman at regular
intervals.
 Distributors get the retail stores audited through salesman
and uses such information to estimate market size, market
share, seasonal purchasing pattern and so on.
E.g. In case of grocery store audit, a sample of stores is
visited periodically and data are recorded on the
inventories on hand either by observation or copying from
store records. This helps them to derivation of sales
estimate and compilation of sales trends.
 Contd:-
 Consumer panels :-
where a set of consumers are arranged to come to
an understanding to maintain detailed daily
records of their consumption and the same is
made available to investigator on demand.
 In other words , a consumer panel is essential for a
sample of consumers who are interviewed
repeatedly over a period of time
 Contd:-
 Using mechanical devices :-
The use of mechanical devices has been widely
made to collect information by way of indirect
means.
Eye cameras, motion pictures, Audio meters are
the principal devices are used for collection of data
 Contd:-
 Through projective techniques:-
For collection of data have been developed by
psychologists to use projection of respondents for
inferring about underlying motives, urges or
intentions which are such that the respondent
either resists to revel them.
In projection techniques respondent in supplying
information tends unconsciously to project his
own attitude or feeling on the subject under study.
 Types of projective techniques
 Word association tests
 Sentence completion tests
 Story completion test
 Verbal projection test
 Pictorial techniques
 Thematic apperception test (TAT)
 Contd:-
 Word association tests :- These tests are
used to extract information regarding such words
which have maximum association. In this sort of
test the respondent is asked to mention the first
word that comes to mind, ostensibly without
thinking, as the interviewer reads out each word
from a list.
 E.g. A number of qualities of a product may be
listed and informants may be asked to write brand
names possessing one or more of these
 Contd:-
Sentence completion tests :-
 Under this method the informant is asked to
complete a sentence ( such as : persons who were
Khadi are…..) to find the association of khadi
clothes with certain personality characteristics.
 Several sentence of this type might be put to the
informant on the same subject.
 Contd:-
Story completion test :-
 These tests are a step further where in the
researcher mar contrive stories instead of
sentences and ask the informants to complete
them.
 The respondent is given just enough of story to
focus his attention on a given subject and he is
asked to supply a conclusion to the story.
 Contd:-
Verbal projection test :-

 These are the test where in the respondent is asked

to comment on or to explain what other people do.

 E.g. Why do people smoke? Answer may revel the

respondent’s own motive.
 Contd:-
Pictorial techniques :-
 Thematic apperception test (TAT) : The TAT consists of a
set of picture (some of the pictures deal with the ordinary
day-to- day events while other may be ambiguous pictures
of unusual situation) that are shown to respondents who
are to describe what they think the pictures represent.
 The replies of respondent constitute the basis for the
investigator to draw inference about their personality
structure, attitudes etc
 CONTD:-
Depth interview :-
 This is an intensive and searching interview aiming at
studying the respondent’s opinion, emotions on the basis of
an interview guide.
 This deliberately aims to elicit unconscious as well as
extremely personal feelings and emotions.
 This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to
encourage free expression of affectively charged
information.
 The interviewer should totally avoid advising or showing
disagreement . He should use encouraging expression to
motivate the respondent to continue the narration.
 CONTD:-
Content analysis:-
 This is a method of data collection and
analysis. This is used for gathering data
from archival records , documents,
newspaper, letters, minutes of meetings etc.
 The content of written materials serves as a
basis of inference.
 Construction of a Questionnaire
& Design
 Decide what information is wanted
 Decide the type of questions
 Decide the content of individual questions
 Decide the wording of questions
 Decide the sequence of questions
 Decide the lay out
 Make a preliminary draft and pretest it
 Revise and prepare the final draft
Developing the Instrument Design
Strategy
Management-Research Question Hierarchy:
 The management problem/question – the
dilemma, stated in question form, that the
manager needs resolved
 Research question's – the fact-based translation
of the question the researcher must answer to
contribute to the solution of the mgmt question.
 Contd:-
 Investigative questions – specific questions the
researcher must answer to provide sufficient
details & coverage of the research question. At
this level the researcher can move from the
general to specific question.
 Measurement questions – respondents must
answer if the researcher is needed to gather the
information & resolve the management
question by using the measurement technique.
 Strategic Concerns of Instrument
Design
 What type of data is needed to answer the
management question?
 What communication approach will be used?
 Should the questions be structured, unstructured,
or some combination?
Ways to Interact with the Participant
 Personal interview
 Telephone
 Mail

Appropriate Question Content:-

 Should this question be asked?
 Is the question of proper scope and coverage?
 Can the participant adequately answer this question, as
asked?
 Will the participant willingly answer this question, as
asked?
 Question Wording Criteria
 Is the question stated in terms of a shared
vocabulary?
 Does the question contain vocabulary with a single
meaning?
 Does the question contain unsupported
assumptions?
 Is the question correctly personalized?
 Are adequate alternatives presented within the
question?
 What Dictates
Your Response Strategy?
 Characteristics of participants
 Nature of the topic (s) being studied
 Type of data needed
 Your analysis plan
 Types of Response Questions
 Free-response
 Dichotomous
 Multiple-choice
 Checklist
 Rating
 Ranking
 Secondary Data

 It is the data already been collected by others which

may be published or unpublished. This data is
primary data for the agency that collects it and
becomes secondary data for someone else who uses
this data for his own purpose.
Methods of Secondary Data Collection

 Various publications of the central and state govt.

 Various publication of foreign governments /
institutions
 Technical & trade journals
 Book, magazines and news-paper
 Reports and publications of universities/institutions
 Census reports
 Reports prepared by research scholars
Researcher must ensure the reliability, suitability and
adequacy of secondary data