Cargo Work Full Notes

Malaysian Maritime Academy Correspondence Course Cargowork
MODULE 1 -TYPES OF CARGO

Brief description on types of cargoes carried Coal
onboard merchant ships are as follows: - Coal is a mineralized fossil fuel widely utilised
as a source of domestic and industrial power.
General Cargo As a sea borne product, it is always carried in
The modern term for these types of cargoes bulk. It varies from soft bituminous type to hard
is breakbulk cargoes. It consists of individual anthracite through to manufactured coal
items, e.g. pieces of machinery, bags, bales, products.
and small quantities of liquids e.g. latex in
deep tanks etc. Heavy items may be lifted Despite the carriage of coal being an
onboard using ships gear or shore cranes. established trade, it remains as a difficult and
dangerous cargo to transport due to dangers of
Grain gas explosion, spontaneous combustion, and
Grain comprises of wheat, corn, rye, barley, cargo shifting during passage and corrosion to
oats, rice etc. Grains are liable to heat and/or ships hold.
sweat, especially if damp, when they may
germinate or rot, therefore requiring careful Fertiliser
pre-loading inspection, carriage and May be carried in bulk, bags or liquid forms.
ventilation. In major grain ports, handling Most fertilizers are harmless, especially in bags
equipment’s are sophisticated, grain elevators but a few can be explosive and/or corrosive.
being equipped to unload railway wagons, The IMO Dangerous goods Code should be
lorries, barges or coastal craft and to reload consulted when carrying these cargoes.
from storage silos at high speed into ocean
going ships. For discharging grains, the Cement
pneumatic sucker system, evacuators and It may be subdivided mainly into bagged or
grabs may be utilised. bulk cargo in either finished cement or clinkers.
It should be kept scrupulously dry so as to
Timber avoid solidifying.
Includes timber and its by product - e.g.
hardwood and softwood logs, sawn timber, It is often preferred to load bagged cement into
wooden products, wood chips wood pulp and the tweendecks of general cargo ships having
paper products. Where practicable, timber as the facility of reducing the height of stow which
it is, is carried on deck. The securing and in the case of excessive tier heights in single
proper stowage of deck timber has the effect deck ships may cause splitting of lower stowed
of increasing a ships freeboard and because bags. The handling of clinker is not so critical
of this timber carrier may be allotted lumber as it is normally carried in bulk; it can however
loadlines in addition to the usual load lines. be extremely dusty and is therefore subjected
to shore-based anti pollution regulations.
Timber loadlines allow ships to load more
cargo as compared to the ordinary load lines Livestock
as it has the following effects: Normally carried on the weatherdeck in tiers of
specially constructed pens. Includes sheep,
a. Reserve buoyancy of vessel is increased goats, cattle and buffaloes. On this type of
by compact mass of buoyant timber above trade it is not unusual for ships to carry up to
the freeboard deck. 100,000 animals and thus the provision of
b. Effective freeboard is increased with adequate of fodder and drinking water is a
beneficial effect on the range stability. major problem.
c. Weather deck hatches are protected.
ALAM/July 2002 Page 1

Metals Liquids
These covers the whole range from raw base Sea borne liquids range from drums of
materials to metal articles e.g. steel products products such as bitumen capable of carriage
to scrap metal. All steel products are liable to in conventional tween deck ships, to parcels of
shift at sea and need careful stowage, not edible oils transported in specially coated and
only to prevent any movement, but also to heated tanks and to huge homogenous cargo
avoid seriously damaging the ship. of crude mineral oil carried by VLCC’s.
Rust will seriously affect the value of steel Most of these products are inflammable with a
products and every effort should thus be low flash point and many are dangerous in
made to avoid its occurrence. other ways, either emitting toxic gases or
possessing corrosive qualities or both.
Unitised Cargo
Any two or more cargo joined together is said Gases
to be unitised - strapping together, pre- Consists mainly of liquefied petroleum gas -
slinging, palletisation, containerization, etc. LPG and liquefied natural gas - LNG. LPG
consists mainly of propane and butane and are
Although unitisation may increase costs to carried either under pressure at ambient
some extent (extra packaging cost), it temperature, fully refrigerated (-30° to 48°C) or
enhances cargo handling operations, reduce semi refrigerated under a combination of
pilferages simplify tallying, reduce the number pressure and reduced temperature. Any gas
of people per gang. In another words it that vaporises during handling and carriage will
contributes greatly to a faster turn around be reliquefied and circulated back to the tanks.
time for the ship. Example of unitised cargo is
of soft drinks packed on pallet. LNG is mainly ethane with propane and butane
making up the balance. It is carried at or near
Containers its boiling point temperature of - 164°C at
Containers are basically just a box in which atmospheric pressure. One of the particular
cargoes are placed and the box itself is features of LNG is that cargo boil off is used as
transported. Majority of general purpose fuel by the ship. However, given the high value
containers are boxes constructed with walls of natural gas, the use of boil off for such
of aluminium or thin steel sheeting, purpose is becoming uneconomic and efforts
corrugated to provide strength and rigidity, are being made to reduce the daily rate of boil
reinforced corner posts with double watertight off to below 0.25% of cargo quantity.
doors at one end. Used to carry various types
of cargo e.g. tobacco, electronic components, Dangerous Cargo
clothing etc. Under the auspices of IMO, a Dangerous
Goods Code has evolved encompassing
Reefer recommendations as to stowage, carriage,
These are mainly concerned with the carriage packaging, documentation and labeling of most
of fruits and vegetables and are seasonal, dangerous commodities. Bulk carriers are likely
relying on the harvesting of crops around the to be affected by the carriage by one
world. Other reefer cargoes include frozen homogenous dangerous cargo at a time e.g.
fruit juices, flowers and bulbs, dairy products, sulphur in bulk or a chemical tanker is likely to
meat, poultry and fish, pharmaceuticals, x-ray carry several lots of dangerous bulk liquids at
films etc. They are handled either as a break any one time.
bulk, in pallets or in containers. They require
scrupulously clean and odorless cargo However, it is the general cargo ships or
compartments to avoid contamination and the container ships, which can be expected to
carriage temperature is absolutely critical. carry several classes of dangerous goods at
any one time, the relative effect of which in

relation to stowage and reaction between advantage, with due regard to the necessary
cargoes can be somewhat complicated. care and attention to conditions of stowage.
Thus, the freight earning capability of the
IMDG code covers carriage of dangerous vessel is kept at a maximum. To do this it is
goods in packaged from or in solid form in necessary to know the amount of space, which
bulk. each tonne of a commodity will occupy.
The IMDG code comes in 4 volumes plus a STOWAGE FACTOR is defined as the volume
supplement. Another publication dealing with in cubic meters a tonne of that cargo will
carriage of dangerous goods in UK is known occupy.
as “Blue Book”.
The figure does not express the actual
NOTE - Detail description of specific cargoes measurement of a tonne of the cargo but takes
will be given in the subsequent modules into consideration the necessary for dunnage
where appropriate. and the form and design of the packages.
Bale Capacity Examples of stowage factors are: -

This is the cubic capacity of a cargo Coal 1.18/1.33 cu.m./tonne.
compartment when the breadth is taken from Maize 1.37 cu.m./tonne.
the inside of the cargo battens or from the Rubber in bales. 1.81/1.87 cu.m./tonne
inner edges of the frames, and the height
from the tank top to the lower edge of the An intelligent knowledge of the use of stowage
beams and the length from inside of the factors is necessary to all cargo officers in
bulkhead stiffeners or sparring where fitted. order that they may make economic use of
each available space unit.
Grain Capacity
This is the total internal volume of a cargo Broken Stowage
compartment measured from shell plating to This is defined as that space in a loaded cargo
shell plating and from tank top to under deck compartment that is not filled with cargo. It is
and an allowance is given for the volume the space occupied by dunnage, the space
occupied by frames and beams. This space is between packages and the space that is left
not only associated with the carriage of grain, over the last tier placed in stowage. Broken
as such, but with any form of bulk cargo, stowage is expressed as a percentage of the
which would stow similarly, that is to say total space of the compartment. The
completely filling the space. percentage that has to be allowed varies with
the type of cargo and with the space of the
It is obvious that a solid cargo can be stowed compartment. It is greatest when large cases
only up to the limits of the frames and beams have to be stowed in an end hold due to the
whereas bulk cargo will flow around such shape of the compartment. Broken stowage in
members. Therefore when measuring for an end hold due to the shape of the
general cargo, it is the bale capacity, which is compartment. Broken stowage on uniform
taken into consideration. packaged commodities will average about 10%
that on general cargo will average about 25%.
Although both grain and bale capacities are For example:
normally used to show the volume or capacity a) A consignment of apples packed in boxes
of a ship to carry cargo, other units of having stowage factor 1.31cu. m/ton to be
measurement are more appropriate for loaded in a cargo space having bale capacity
specific trades, e.g. TEUs for container ships, equals to 1000cu m. Calculate the total amount
lane-metres for Ro-Ro ships, etc. in weight that can be loaded.
Given cargo hold space = 1000 cu m

Stowage Factor cargo stowage factor = 1.31
For successful loading, a vessel must utilize
every cubic meter of space to the best

volume is carefully drawn up to show the identification,

∴ cargo loaded = stowage factor description and quantity of the goods (as
1000 verified from the ship’s tally sheets). Any
= damage to the cargo noticed before loading on
1.31
board is entered on the M/R and the receipt is
= 763.36 Tons #
then said to be ‘claused’. All particulars from
the M/R are transferred to the ‘Bill of Lading’.
b) Using the above question (1)
Calculate the total amount of cargo to be
b) Bill of Lading (B/L) - is properly prepared
loaded if 10% broken stowage is allowed.
by the ship-owner (or his agent) from details in
the Mate’s Receipt, and delivered to the
Nett volume occupied by cargo allowing for
shipper - freight being usually paid at this
10% broken stowage
stage. It is a legal document, which provides
1000 cu m
= evidence of a ‘contract of carriage’ between the
1.1 shipper and the ship owner (the carrier). It also
= 909.09 cu m acts as a document of title to the goods
909 .09 cu m described therein i.e. the holder of the B/L is
∴ cargo loaded =
1.31 cu m/ton regarded as the rightful owner of the cargo.
= 693.96 Tons
c) Cargo Manifest - is a document containing
Deadweight Cargo a detailed and complete list of cargo ‘as
Is cargo on which freight is usually charged loaded’, compiled by the ship owner (or his
on its weight. Cargoes which measures agent) from the Bill of Lading. Copies of the
1.22cu.m./tonne (s.f) or less is classed as manifest are delivered to the ship, the
deadweight cargo. stevedores at the discharging ports and to
Customs authorities at the discharging ports.
Measurement Cargo
Is cargo on which freight is usually charged As it is a comprehensive record of all cargo in
on the volume occupied by the cargo and this the vessel, it permits the checking of cargo
cargo is usually light, bulky cargo having a during discharge thereby avoiding
stowage factor of more than 1.22 overcarriage/short landing. Government
cu.m./tonne. Authorities may use it as material for
compilation of the national trade statistics viz.
It has been the custom to set two standards the nation’s imports/exports.
by which cargo is measured and freight is
charged. This is in order to avoid excessive d) Cargo Plan - is a plan drawn up by the
freight charges, which might be out of ship’s cargo officer showing the stowage of all
proportion to the space occupied by a cargo on board the vessel. Copies of the plan
particular consignment, and to protect the are sent in advance to the discharge ports so
ship from loss of freight commensurate with that preparations for her unloading can be
the amount of space used. made before arrival at the port. Along with the
summary of the cargo on board, a well drawn
up cargo plan greatly assists in facilitating
Ad Valorem Cargo discharge and avoidance of overcarraige/short
Freight for certain expensive cargoes, e.g. landing of cargo.
precious stones, fold bars, etc. is not levied
based on weight or measurement but on the
e) Dangerous Cargo List - a shipper is
value of the cargo.
obligated to declare to the Master full details of
any dangerous/hazardous cargo shipped by
Cargo Documentations him and covered under the “International
a) Mate’s Receipt (M/R) - is a document of Maritime Dangerous Goods Code’ (the
receipt given by the ship’s chief officer (the I.M.D.G. Code). The Master is required to
Mate) for goods actually received on board. It prepare a list of all dangerous/hazardous cargo

shipped on board. It should show the correct ‘backlash’ does not occur when the bilge pump
technical name of the commodity, its ‘class’ is stopped.
as per the I.M.D.G. Code, its quantity and
weight, position of stowage on board, port of 2.3 Checking the hold fire detection /
loading and the port of discharge. extinguishing systems - most ships are fitted
with the CO2 extinguishing system and the
Preparation Of Hold Prior CO2 lines to the hold are cleared by passing
compressed air. Using artificial smoke usually
To Loading General Cargo checks the detection system.
As temporary custodians of the cargo, it is the
duty of the ship’s officers to ensure that cargo 2.4 Checking oil/water tightness of the Double
is delivered in the same condition as it was Bottom tank top and its manhole covers - this is
received on board. Besides ensuring that done by pressing up the tank to a head of
damage to cargo does not occur during oil/water and checking for leaks.
handling (slinging, lifting by derricks/cranes,
working forklifts etc), it is also important to 3.0 Making the Hold vermin free
prevent damage as a result of the condition of Vermin such as rats, cockroaches, silver fish
the hold itself. etc, in the holds, can cause extensive damage
to cargo on board resulting in huge damage
1.0 Cleaning the Hold claims from shippers/consignees.
1.1 The method and amount of cleaning
required will depend upon the type of cargo It is a requirement by law that every ship must
previously carried in the hold. Generally be in possession of a valid Derating Certificate.
speaking, a hold which is ready to receive The Port Medical Officer issues this certificate
cargo should be swept clean, dry, well after fumigation by the burning of sulphur or the
ventilated and free from odour of the previous release of cyanide gas has been carried out.
cargo(es). The certificate is valid for six months, after
which a Derating Exemption certificate will be
1.2 The hold should be cleaned prior to issued if no diseased rats or a large number of
loading. The degree of cleanliness required rats are found on board. The rat population
will depend on the nature of the cargo to be may be kept to a minimum by the use of anti-
loaded. Cargoes such as grain, sugar etc. will coagulant bait, such as sodium fluoracetate.
need a scrupulously clean hold (and usually Cockroach bait, pesticides and insecticides
surveyed) before loading can commence, may be used to exterminate cockroaches and
whilst cargoes such as coal, steel etc. may other insects. Cleanliness is the most important
not require the same level of cleanliness. factor in keeping a ship vermin free. When
certain cargoes such as rice, are loaded, the
2.0 Inspecting the Hold for damages, holds are fumigated after loading to rid the
testing bilge and fire systems cargo of weevils.
After cleaning the hold the following
inspections/tests are normally carried out:
Assignment
Please submit the following assignment to
2.1 Inspection of the hold for internal
ALAM
damages - e.g. pipe guard, ladder rungs,
leaking pipes, bilge sounding striker plates,
1) A hold, bale capacity 2000 cu m contains,
leaking rivets/welding seams etc.
1200 tonnes of bagged flour, (stowage factor
2.2 Testing the Bilge pumping system - This
1.15 cu m/tonnes). Calculate the broken
is done if it has not been carried out earlier
stowage.
during washing of the hold etc. Particular
2) Describe a cargo hold preparation in your
attention is paid to ensure that the bilge
last ship and state the cargo loaded. State the
suction non-return valve is working and
preparation of hold prior to load general cargo.


MODULE 2 - FACTORS TO CONSIDER FOR

GENERAL CARGO STOWAGE
The following must be borne in mind when turn round’ is also dependent on port facilities
loading general cargo: - for clearing the cargo etc.
1) Cargoes should be well distributed in all General Cargo Stowage

hatches to increase the Port speed. The following points must be borne in mind
2) Foodstuffs and other cargoes liable to when planning loading of General Cargo by
tainting - need proper separation /segregation Chief Mate or officer in charge of loading.
to avoid tainting damage. a) Safety of the ship
 stability considerations
3) Heavier cargo should be placed on  proper trim/list/draught
deck/tank top whilst lighter cargo on top of  avoiding structural stresses
these cargoes to prevent crushing damage.  avoiding physical damage from cargo
4) It is a general rule that fragile and light b) Safety of the crew and port workers
packages are stowed in tween deck(s) to  preventing unstable cargo blocks
avoid the effects of roll and pitch of vessels.  avoiding blocking of escape routes /safety
appliances
5) Ensure packages stowed evenly (not  protection from toxic fumes/fire hazards
tilting), for example near turn of bilge, end
holds by the proper use of dunnage to c) Avoiding damage to cargo
achieve compactness of cargo stowage.  avoiding condensation/water damage
 protection from taint / contamination /
6) Light packages (cartons, etc.) stowed interaction
away from cargo hold obstructions such as -  preventing physical damage to cargo
frames, deck beams, stiffeners.  preventing pilferage
7) Valuable cargo should be stowed in d) Maximum use of available space on board

strong rooms or in Chief Officer’s office.  minimizing ‘broken stowage
 using ‘filler’ cargo
8) To avoid cargoes being crushed during
slinging use proper gears like pallet, e) Rapid and systematic discharging and
spreader. loading
 providing maximum number of working
9) Proper securing of cargoes and lashing hatches/even distribution
are essential. Extra pad eyes may have to be  preventing over stowed cargo
welded to have more securing points for  preventing over carried/short landed cargo
lashing cargoes. (proper segregation/marking).
 enhancing ‘port speed’
Port Speed
Each day that a ship remains unnecessarily in Cargo Plans
port results in a reduction of the ship’s A cargo plan is a plan showing the disposition
earning capacity. An unnecessary delay in and distribution of cargo throughout the vessel,
port increase the port dues allied costs and in as much detail as is possible.
encroaches on the time that she would have
been steaming on her next voyage. A cargo plan for a general cargo ship will
usually be drawn up at the last port of loading
Ships officers should aim for increasing ‘port from information derived from the deck officers
speed’ by efficient distribution of cargo, cargo workbooks, from mates receipt and from
readiness of cargo spaces etc. This ‘speed of

loading plans produced by shore personnel at reference. A summary of total tonnages loaded
the loading ports. Copies of the plan will in each hold and other information regarding
usually be sent ahead of the ship to the dead light, as fuel, stores and water; means of
discharge ports. separation used between particular parcels and
the total space remaining are also appended to
Whilst the plan is not a scale drawing, it the plan.
should show with some accuracy the location
of specific parcels of cargoes in the locker Note: The typical cargo plan of a general cargo
doors, hatchways so that the order of ship is shown on the opposite page.
discharge may be planned Whilst the format The cargo plan has a number of functions: -
of the plan will vary from company to  it helps to avert overcarriage and short
company, most plans will show the lower delivery.
holds in elevation (side view) and other  the discharge sequence can be planned in
compartments such as tween decks and deck advantage.
lockers, in plan view. Where possible, each  the necessary cargo handling gear
parcel of cargo should be identified can be rigged in advance.
separately, but this is not always possible  discharge time can be estimated.
when many small parcels are involved (in  transport arrangement for a particular
which case they are grouped together). parcel of cargo can be made.
 proper decisions can be made on
A typical entry on the plan could be as ventilation can be arranged with the aid of the
follows: - cargo plan.
 L’POOL/PNG  in the event of a fire breaking out in the
 400 CASES CORNED BEEF compartment, the cargo plan is invaluable in
 “SPAR” 23t. fighting the fire, particularly if dangerous
i.e. 400 cases of corned beef, loaded at cargoes are in the compartment.
Liverpool for discharge at Penang, all cases  should any cargo shift while the vessel is at
marked “SPAR” for identification and the total sea, prompt action can be taken with the aid of
weight of the parcel is 23 tones. the plan.
 the plan, enables the shipowner to
It is usual to colour the plan according to the assess the position regarding to diverting
port of discharge, so that the likelihood of the vessel enroute to load further parcels
overlooking a parcel of cargo and carrying it of cargo.
to the next port (i.e. overcarriage) is reduced.
In the case of cargo having optional ports of Cargo Plan On Tankers
discharge it is coloured in both port’s colours. Like the cargo ships, the tanker cargo plan is
Where there is unused space adjacent to particularly useful when a number of diverse
stowed cargo, it is measured up, and the cargoes are to be loaded. Unlike the cargo
calculated volume measured, and entered on ship, it is only necessary to show the
the plan. Various symbols and conventions disposition of the tanker cargoes in plan view,
may be used: - for example, parcels at one level. It is sometime the practice to
separated by a diagonal line on a side overprint the comparable importance. Most of
elevation, are side by side in the hold. the functions of the plan are similar to that of
the general cargo plan. It is particularly useful
In addition to the actual drawing, other useful to deck officers when loading or discharging to
information is shown in the plan. The name of the chief officer for planning tank cleaning and
the ship, master’s name, the voyage number, to the chief engineer for maintaining cargo
cargo loaded ON DECK, in masthouses, and temperature. The cargo plan enables a visual
in various other extraneous places such as record to be kept of previous cargoes, which is
the mate’s office and the draft at the last of significant importance to the chief officer
loading port are shown in the cargo plan. It is when planning the disposition of future
good practice to append a statement of cargoes.
dangerous cargo on board for quick



DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF

CARGO OFFICERS
Cargo Officers proper rotation of ports and also ensure that
The term ‘Cargo Officers’ implies the person no cargo is over stowed.
responsible for the safe and efficient handling
and stowage of cargo on board. This 7) To undertake measures to prevent the out-
responsibility also includes the proper break of fire on board and to ensure that fire
preparation of the hold prior to loading, correct fighting equipment is in readiness all the time.
supervision during the working of cargoes
proper to the preservation of cargo whilst in 8) To ensure the safe operation of all ship’s
transit and the co-operation/co-ordination with cargo handling gears.
relevant port authorities whilst in port/harbour.
9) To avoid damage to the cargo - to ensure
The Master to the senior most deck officer i.e. the proper handling, slinging, discharging,
the Chief Officer generally delegates the separation, ventilation, slinging, distribution of
responsibilities of the Cargo Officer. The 2nd cargo. In the case of refrigerated cargoes -
and 3rd Officers, who are called the ‘Junior The proper control of temperature.
Cargo Officers’, assist the Chief Officer in
carrying out these duties. 10) To take adequate measures to prevent the
pilferage of cargo.
Duties And Responsibilities 11) To maintain a daily check and record of
The main duties and responsibilities of the cargo loaded or discharged including the
Cargo Officer are listed below: vessel’s draught.
1) To ensure the proper preparation of all
cargo spaces for the types of cargo to be 12) To make proper and correct entries into
carried. the Mate’s Log Book, issue relevant Mate’s
Receipts for cargo loaded, drawing up of
2) To inspect the ship’s cargo gear to ensure cargo plans, hatch lists, cargo summaries,
that it is in good working condition and in dangerous cargo lists etc. To maintain the
accordance with the statutory requirements. Dangerous Cargo Register.
3) To ensure that all holds, accesses and 13) To attempt a good distribution of cargo at
parts of the ship comply with the requirements loading and discharge ports, so as to obtain
of the Dock Safety Regulations. the fastest turn round of the vessel and
minimise port stay.
4) To ensure proper status of guardrails,
manhole covers, side ports, stern doors, 14) To ensure that all cargo is properly
container fittings etc. secured, hatches well battened down and
cargo gears secured before the vessel
5) To plan and supervise the proper stowage proceeds to sea.
of cargo on board ensuring the safety of life
and property, and avoiding excessive ship
15) To ensures that proper ventilation of cargo
stresses whilst having adequate stability
spaces is carried out to prevent cargo damage
during loading and discharging and at all
due to condensation/sweat. To check and
stages of the voyage.
record temperatures and CO2 concentrations
6) To achieve proper stowage of cargo not in
in refrigerated cargo spaces.
such a manner as to prevent correct and
speedy discharge, taking into account the
16) In the event of bad or adverse weather
conditions, to ensure the water tightness of

compartments, proper trimming of ventilators Slinging Of General Cargoes

and the lashings of cargo etc. Loading and discharging of cargo is facilitated
by the use of proper cargo handling gears
17) To ensure that all work on board is carried namely, derricks/cranes (the lifting machines)
out in accordance with the “Code of Safe and slings. Slings facilitate the ‘grouping’ of
Working Practices”. unit packages of cargo conveniently for
connecting to derricks / cranes. Various types
18) To properly delegate duties to Junior of slings, for use with different types of general
Cargo Officers with adequate instructions for cargo, are available and are designed to
the proper loading/discharging and stowage of minimise damage to the cargo during the
cargo and the overall safety of the vessel. lifting process.
Packaging Of General Cargo Some of the principle types of slings, available

General cargo may be presented for shipment are clearly explained in various textbook.
with various forms of packaging, such as:
 Bags - made from natural fibres like Unitization/Palletization
jute/cotton or from synthetic fibres and paper. To further facilitate quicker dispatch of cargo
Used for cement, grain, sugar etc. They are into/out of the ship, and to allow it to be
liable to bursting at their seams. handled mechanically by machines such as
 Cartons - made from cardboard. Used for forklift trucks, small packages of cargo (unit
finished goods like condensed milk, shoes, or packages) of uniform size are sometimes
for carrying fruits etc. They are very fragile and consolidated into ‘unit loads’ on ‘pallets’
liable to be crushed. (double-layered wooden platforms of standard
 Chests - rectangular/square boxes made dimensions capable of being lifted
from plywood. Used for carrying tea. They are conveniently by fork lift trucks). Special ‘pallet
fragile and liable to be crushed. slings’ make the slinging of pallets, onto
 Cases - rectangular boxes made from derrick/cranes, faster and easier. The concept
wooden planks nailed and banded. Can be being to assist the process of cargo handling
strong or fragile depending on quality of wood by reducing the number of occasions when a
& construction of case. Used for heavier piece of cargo has to be manually handled
goods like spare parts etc. or to protect fragile thereby increasing cargo throughout.
goods.
 Crates - rectangular, made from wooden
planks with ‘grated’ design. Not as strong
as cases and sides are fragile. Used for
machinery parts etc.
 Bales - formed when commodities such as
natural fibre, cloth etc. are pressed tightly into
a rectangular bundle and then strapped firmly
with metal bands or cord. Lifting by hooking
onto bands should be avoided.
 Barrels - made from shaped wooden
planks called ‘staves’ and held by metal
hoops. The weakest part is the rounded
middle called the ‘bilge’ and the strongest is at
the quarter hoop’. The opening for filling the
contents is called the ‘bung’. Ideally placed on
wedges, called ‘quoins’ placed below the
quarter hoops keeping the ‘bilge off the
ground and the ‘bung’ upwards (i.e. ‘Bung
up and bilge free’). Used for carriage of wine
etc. and similar produce.

Can Hooks
The hook slips under the lip of the drum or

barrel. There are frequently four or five sets of
hooks on a ring, which enables drums and
barrels to be handled very rapidly. They are
not to be recommended for handling heavy
barrels as there is a possibility that the staves
will be pulled out.
Snotter
‘Pre-slinging’ of cargo, where slings are left on
after loading so as to facilitate quicker
discharge at the other end (by avoiding the
building up of sling loads again) is a form of May be made of either rope or wire by forming
unitization and is used on some trades. an eye at each end of a 16mm - 20mm wire
(2” - 2.5 “) or 50mm - 60mm rope (6” - 7”) 4 to
‘Containerisation” is a special form of 6 metres (2-3 fathoms) in length. It is used for
unitization and will be discussed later. slinging cases, bales, wet hides and timber.
BASIC CARGO HANDLING Plate Clamps

EQUIPMENT AND CARE OF
CARGO
Chain Sling
Consists of a length of chain with a large ring

at one end and a hook on smaller ring at the
other end. It is used for lifting heavy logs,
bundles of iron and most steel work. Care
must always be taken that no kinks are
allowed to form in the chain when goods are
being lifted. There are various type o plate clamps, but the
principle is that the plate is gripped when the
weight is taken, so that there is no chance of
plate slipping as it could do if a chain sling was
used.

This is formed by sewing a piece of canvas

Rope Sling between the parts of a rope sling. It is used for
bagged grain, rice, coffee and similar cargoes
where the contents of the bag are small. Any
spillage is retained in the canvas and is not
wasted. The stress on the outside bags is
spread more evenly and thus the chance of
This is formed by joining the ends of a piece of splitting is reduced.
25mm - 30mm rope 3” - 3.5“) about 10 to 12
metres (5 to 7 fathoms) in length with a short DAMAGE DUE TO IMPROPER
splice. The sling is in very common use. Bags,
baled goods, barrels and cases may all be
USE OF CARGO HANDLING
along with this. EQUIPMENT
Much cargo damage results from careless or
Boxes improper handling during the loading and
discharging processes, the following being the
principal sources of such damage: -
Careless Winch Work

Lowering heavy slings or drafts of cargo too
fast on to cargo already in stowage not
infrequently is responsible for damage which,
often goes undetected until discharge.
Cargo Hooks
Similar to the tray by a wooden side is fixed The use of these implements is indispensable
around it. Used for handling explosives. in the handling of a large variety of
commodities, but with bag cargo, fine bale
goods, hides, fire rolls of paper and matting,
Trays etc., light packages, liquid containers, crates
and like packages whose contents are
exposed or unprotected, the use of cargo
hooks should be strictly prohibited.
Crow and Pinch Bars

These also are indispensable to the sound
stowage of many classes of heavy packages,
but their use should never be permitted when
stowing barrels, or other liquid containers, or
with any packages which are not substantial
enough to withstand damage from their use.
May be square, rectangular or round. They are
slung by pieces of rope called legs, attached Crushing against Ship’s
to the corners. Used for small cases and
drums.
Sides
Hatch coamings, beam sockets, etc., should
be safeguarded against by the use of overside
Canvas Sling skids, the correct plumbing and guying of
derricks, and careful winch driving, especially
when swinging booms are in use.

Dragging Cargo crushing the outside upper packages by

Dragging Cargo by winches along the deck to compression of the sling. Light or fragile
save trucking, from remote ends and wings of packages should not be slung along with
holds and ‘tween decks instead of making up heavy packages.
the “draft” or “sling” near the hatch, is a prolific
source of damage to, and loss of contents of Lack of Walking Boards
the lighter class of packages, as well as to the Lack of Walking Boards and landing platforms.
cargo in stowage over which such is dragged. Where these are not provided and used,
damage is caused to packages, in towage,
Dropping Packages over which other cargo has to be worked into
Dropping packages from trays, trucks, railway the position where it is to be stowed.
cars, top tiers of lighters, etc., by which their
contents are broken or exposed, the packages Packages, which are damaged after they are
splintered, deformed or loosened in their at “ship’s risk”, should be carefully re-
fastenings and rendered unfit for the coopered or repaired before stowing away.
subsequent handling they are subjected to. To
avoid this, suitable skids should be used for SWEAT AND VENTILATION
packages, which are too heavy to be handed
down. 1) SWEAT
a) “Sweat” is condensation, which forms on
Improper Appliances all surfaces in a cargo compartment due to the
The use of special appliances tends to be inability of the cooled air in the compartment,
expeditious and economical in handling of to hold water vapour in suspension (warm air
cargo, but damage is frequently caused by the can hold much more water vapour than cool
improper use of such appliances. air).
Net slings are most useful with many kinds of

small packages, but if used with bagstuff, light
cases, etc., a great deal of damage results.
Similarly chain slings are indispensable for
certain types of packages and useful for most
classes of iron goods, but the use of such with
light cases, sheet iron, coils of lead or copper
piping, sawn logs of valuable timber and other
goods liable to buckling, fraying or marking by
chain is productive of damage and claims.
Canvas or web slings should be used for

slinging bag flour, coffee and like cargo, while
the use of trays for certain classes of goods is
much to be preferred to slinging by net or
rope.
Improper Slinging
Too much weight in a draft endangers the
safety of packages situated at the outside
edge of bottom and top tiers into which the
sling is liable to be drawn by weight below and
compression above.
A draft composed of many packages should b) Sweat may be differentiated as follows:

taper off on top to prevent springing or

i) Ship’s Sweat - exists when water removing fumes and odours

droplets are deposited onto the ship’s emanating from cargoes stowed in the
structure in the compartment (e.g. deckheads, compartment to prevent ‘taint’ or other
beams, frames, shipside, stringers etc.) and damage.
then fall onto or come in contact with the  thus preventing fire.
cargo.
b) Ventilation may be described as
It occurs when the dew point of the air in the either:
cargo compartment is more than the )i Through Ventilation - with the flow of air
temperature of the outside air/structural parts occurring through the body of the cargo
of the compartment. assisted by proper ‘trimming’ of ventilators and
the judicious use of dunnage.
It is usually found on voyages from warm
places to colder places.
ii) Cargo Sweat - arises when

condensation forms directly on the body of
cargo itself.
It occurs when the temperature of the air in the

compartment (or the cargo itself) is lower than
the dew point of the incoming air.
It is likely to be found on voyages from cold to

warmer places.
c) Prevention of Damage by Sweat )ii Surface Ventilation - with the flow of

Although intelligent use of dunnage can air occurring only at the upper surface of the
minimise damage from sweat, it is more cargo and not being forced into the body of the
prudent to consider the prevention of damage cargo.
by the elimination/minimisation of sweat by
efficient ventilation. c) Ventilation may be provided by two major
means:
The controlling factor for the formation sweat i) Natural Ventilation - this is achieved
is the relationship between the temperature by ‘trimming’ the ship’s ventilators and
and humidity of the air in/outside the obtaining a natural flow of air caused by the
compartment. Air having 100% humidity is vessels movement or outside wind.
said to be “saturated the temperature at which
this occurs is called its dew point. Trimming the leeward ventilation into the wind
and trimming the winward vents away from the
i) When the dew point of the outside air is wind can effect ‘Through natural Ventilation’.
lower than or equal to the dew point of the air The air in the compartment will then move in a
in the compartment - VENTILATE. direction contrary to the flow of outside air.
)ii When the dew point of the outside air is
greater than the dew point of the air in the ii) Mechanical or Forced Draught
compartment - DO NOT VENTILATE. Ventilation - The simplest of such systems
consists of a fan of appropriate size and
2) VENTILATION design which delivers outside air into the
a) Ventilation has the main objectives of: compartment, and the used air from the
 preventing moisture damage to cargo compartment is discharged to the atmosphere
originating from condensation (sweat) within via the natural exhaust ventilator.
the cargo compartment.

Sometimes such an arrangement does not side frames with the distance between the
prove satisfactory and hence the exhausting is ‘battens’ of about 230mm (9”).
also done mechanically by means of a suitable
exhaust fan. The delivery and exhaust is Cargo battens are sometimes fitted vertically
properly balanced to provided good airflow. and in such cases the initial expense is
generally greater. However there tends to be
less subsequent damage to the battens and
better protection is afforded to the cargo.
The tank top is usually covered with a double

layer of non-permanent dunnage called
‘portable dunnage’. The bottom layer consists
of 50mm x 50mm (2” x 2”) timber spaced
about 0.7 to 1.0 metre (2-3 feet) apart and laid
athwartships - if the ship has conventional side
bilges (otherwise laid fore-and-aft in case of
‘bilge wells’) to allow free drainage. The upper
layer consists of 150mm x 25mm (6” x 1”)
boards laid across the lower layer, about
230mm (9”) apart.
3) DUNNAGE In some ships the tank top, in way of the
Dunnage’ may be referred to as the wood that hatch, is protected from impact damage by
is used to protect cargo. It may be in the form cargo by a permanent wooden sheating called
of wooden planks, or slats, bamboo, bamboo the ‘tank top ceiling’. This does not replace
or rush mats. dunnage and the portable dunnage should be
laid over this and it should also extend over
limber boards.
Similar dunnage arrangements will be found in

the tween decks, however the lower layer of
portable dunnage may also consist of 150mm
x 25mm boards (sometimes only a single layer
is used). Particular attention should be paid at
the shipside stringer, where a thicker layer of
portable dunnage may be prudent, as water
tends to accumulate here.
Many general cargo ships have permanent
dunnage, called ‘spar ceiling’ or ‘cargo Timber used for dunnage should be clean, dry,
battens’, fitted over the side frames in the hold stain free, odour free and free from nails and
(and sometimes over the bulkhead stiffeners). large splinters. New timber should be free
It consists of 150mm x 50mm (6” x 2”) timber from resin and the strong smell of new wood.
usually fitted horizontally into cleats over the

With some cargoes such as bagged rice etc, These definitions include pump rooms on
the hold pillars should be lagged with bamboo tankers. There may be special instructions for
mats. When battens are not fitted on bulkhead routine entry into pump rooms on your ship.
stiffeners, a lattice of bamboos may have to be Make sure you know what they are.
erected as a temporary measure.
It must be noted that dunnage need not be laid AN ENCLOSED SPACE SHOULD
if the cargo does not require ventilation. For NEVER BE ENTERED UNLESS
example, when coal is loaded in bulk, the AUTHORITY HAS BEEN GIVEN BY
cargo battens are removed and no portable THE MASTER OR A RESPONSIBLE
dunnage is laid. OFFICER
The use of dunnage may be summarised as:

 Preventing cargo coming into contact with
The atmosphere in any enclosed space may
free moisture/water on the tween deck or tank be incapable of supporting human life. It may
top. contain flammable or toxic gases or not
 Preventing cargo from coming into contact
enough oxygen.
with the steel boundary of the hold thus
minimising damage due to ‘ship’s sweat’. This is why it is essential that the Master or
 Assisting in providing ventilation, thus
officer in charge, who will ensure that all the
preventing / reducing ‘sweat’. necessary safety precautions have been taken
 Preventing spontaneous heating by before anyone is allowed to enter an enclosed
affording good ventilation. space, must give instructions or permission.
 Aiding distribution of weight over a layer of
cargo thus minimising crushing damage to Precautions Before Entering
cargo. Tanks Or Confined Spaces
 Preventing chafage between cargoes. 1) Prior to entry into enclosed space it is
 Certain types can prevent pilferage of essential to obtain permission first.
cargo. 2) Test on tank atmosphere - should be
 Aiding in distribution of cargo weight over checked by using explosimeter and oxygen
tank top etc. analyser where appropriate for safe entry.
 Can be used to separate cargoes (this is 3) Ventilate space prior to entry and
not considered as a normal practice). continuously during the operation so as to
ensure the environment is safe.
Entry Into Enclosed Spaces 4) Entry should be restricted to the minimum
There are many enclosed spaces on a ship - if number of personnel required for the job and a
in doubt about any space you may have to record is made on the number of personnel.
enter CHECK FIRST with Chief Officer. 5) Adequate lighting to be provided for the
entry.
An Enclosed Space Is 6) Properly attired and safety gear should be
 any space or compartment that has been
observed by all personnel involved in the entry
closed or unventilated for some time. into enclosed spaces.
 any space or compartment that may,
7) Use only intrinsically safe equipment when
because of the cargo carried, contain noxious, the enclosed space was used to store or carry
flammable or harmful gases. flammable cargoes prior to the entry.
 any space or compartment which may be
8) Post signs at entrance and one competent
contaminated by cargo or gases leaking man on standby to monitor the operation.
through a bulkhead or pipeline. 9) Proper and effective communication
 any storeroom or space containing noxious
established between all parties involved in the
or harmful materials entry.
 any space or compartment which may be
10) Emergency procedures and evacuation
deficient in oxygen. should be briefed and well understood to all
personnel involved.

2) Describe ship sweat and cargo sweat and

the factor affecting sweat.
Assignment
Please complete the assignment and return to
ALAM
1) State the functions of a cargo plan in a

bulk carrier.

MODULE 3 - CONVENTIONAL DERRICK

RIGS
The Single Swinging Derrick
The ‘cargo runner’ downhaul is led from the

‘cargo head block’ to the cargo winch via the
The single derrick rig is basically a boom ‘derrick heel block’ and usually passes through
supported at its base (heel) by a special a ‘runner guide’ on the boom, which prevents
pivotal arrangement called the ‘goose neck’, the runner from sagging.
which allows it to be raised or lowered by
means of a ‘topping lift span’ and to be swung The slewing guys (fitted on each side of the
from side to side by means of ‘slewing guys’. boom) which have their wire pendants
shackled to the spider band at the derrick
Near the head of the derrick boom is the head have their lower parts consisting of a
‘spider band’ onto which are attached the cordage tackle for hauling on.
‘derrick head span block’, the ‘slewing guy
pendants’ and the ‘cargo head block’. The single derrick rig can be used to lift loads
to the full extent of it’s SWL (safe working
The topping lift span, downhaul (the hauling load), which is marked near the heel of the
part) is led via the ‘mast head span block’ on boom, provided the cargo runner (or cargo
to a ‘dolly winch’ usually fitted with its own purchase) is also rated to that SWL.
motor for the sole purpose of raising/lowering
the derrick boom (in order ships the daily NOTE: When a single derrick is used in the
winch may have no motive power of it’s own Union Purchase rig, a ‘preventer guy’ is
and is turned by using a ‘bull wire’ onto the passed over its head on the outboard side.
side drum of the cargo winch. A safety device
in the form of a ‘pawl’ is fitted to the dolly A single swinging derrick which converts a
winch to prevent the accidental lowering of the single whip to a double whip and creates a
derrick boom. mechanical advantage. Used to lift load
double of the SWL of the cargo runner (The
derrick must be rated higher).

YO-YO Gear a union hook and worked in conjunction with

Employed using two or four single derricks. each other. Refer to fig. A. Each cargo boom
Used for loads heavier than those, which can is joined to the vertical mast or post by a
be handled by the union purchase or single swivel fitting known as a goose neck (so
swinging derrick. named because of the shape of the fitting).
Then up and down, or luffing, movement as
the boom is carried out by a topping lift/span
Two Derricks tackle, and the horizontal or athwartships
The two inshore derricks are rigged with a gun movement is controlled by a slewing guy
tackle and their moving blocks are joined by a attached to the outboard side of the boom
heavy strop supporting a floating block (YO- head. The two booms are linked by a
YO) with the cargo hook attached. Operation schooner guy which runs from the inboard
is carried out by swinging both derricks side of one boom head to the other and
towards the hatch/quayside, keeping both thence to the deck via a lead block on the
derricks heads as close together as possible. mast. Inboard slewing guys sometimes
replace the schooner guy but the latter tend to
Four Derricks interfere with the cargo-working operation. The
Two pairs of derricks are rigged similar to the schooner guy is always well clear of the cargo
union purchase. The two cargo runners of the working area.
inboard derricks are passed through a floating
block and shackled together; similarly the The guys and tackles position the derricks.
outboard derrick runners are passed through One boom is positioned over the hatch and
another floating block and shackled together. the other boom is positioned over the ship’s
The floating blocks are then shackled together side. When the booms are set up in position
to form the union with the cargo hook secured the preventer guys are set up tight. These are
below them. single lengths of wire which lead from the
outboard side of the boom to the deck and
DERRICK RIGS which have the function of taking the guy load
Union Purchase System during the cargo-handling operation. The
preventer guy is sometimes called the
standing guy as it has no moving parts
whereas the slewing guy consists of a tackle
(usually the only tackle on board ship rigged to
advantage).
A cargo wire, or runner, from each boom is

joined by a three-way swivel which is known
as a union hook. In the unloading process the
boom centred over the hold lifts the load by its
runner. Once the loadline has been lifted to a
sufficient height to clear deck obstructions, the
cargo runner from the other derrick is used to
move the load over the ship’s side and on the
quay or into a lighter.
Fig. A - Union purchase rig

(slewing guys not shown)
This is probably the most common derrick
system in use on general cargo vessels. Two
derricks are “coupled”, “married”, or joined by

load, by the topping lift span led to a separate

winch, and it can be swung from side to side
(slewed) by ‘siean guys’ or either side led to
separate winches.
In view of the greater SWL, the topping lift

span; the cargo fall and the steam guys are all
multiple-fold purchases. Further the cargo
purchase and the topping lift purchase are
rigged advantage (by use or additional ‘lead’
sheaves).
In view of the heavy loads involved and the

size of the rig, great care is required for setting
it up (which may take up to 2 - 3 hours).
PATENT DERRICKS
Basic Characteristics
i) The twin topping lift/slewing guy principle
Precautions is used which gives good control of a single
The following criteria must be complied with at derrick.
all times: ii) The capability of handling heavier loads
)a The minimum operating angle of either than the union purchase system.
derrick should be not less than 15° to the iii) Combined slewing and topping (luffing)
horizontal, and it is recommended that the tackles.
angle be not less than 30°; iv) Very good spot loading facilities. i.e. the
)b The maximum included angle between the load can be set down in most positions within
cargo runners must not exceed 120°; the hatch area.
)c The outreach beyond the midship breadth v) A high degree of centralized control with
of the ship should not less than 4m. the operation being conducted by one man.
vi) The derrick is rigged at all times and can
The main advantage of this system is that it is quickly be brought into operation.
probably the fastest method used for vii) The use of new technology reduces the
discharging break-bulk, non-unitized general stresses encountered with the union purchase
cargo. system.
Disadvantages There are many patent derrick systems used

on board ship but the best known are probably
a) It can only be used for light loads, an
“Hallen” and “Velle” for the handling of general
average of approximately 1.5 - 2 tonnes per
cargoes and “Stuelcken” for heavy lifts.
load.
b) The winchmen must be highly skilled and
experienced.
c) The derricks cannot be used for “spot
loading”.
d) Re-positioning the derricks is time-
consuming.
The Jumbo Derrick

This is basically a single swinging derrick with
a much greater SWL (about 30 - 50 tonnes).
The boom can be raised or lowered, with the

Hallen Derrick when swung out over the ship’s side to an

angle of 80° from the fore and aft line. The D
frame also helped to keep the derrick stable in
all positions, even when the vessel had a list.
However, under some operational conditions
there were disadvantages when using the D
frame:
1) When the derrick was swung outboard, the
sharp angle created by the contact of the
topping lift guy pennant with the frame caused
excessive strain in the topping lift.
2) There was a tendency fro the single-wire
pennant on the topping lift to slip above or
below the frame when working at “difficult”
angles, once again putting excessive strain on
the topping lift.
3) The contact with the frame caused chafing
on the pennant. This was reduced by fitting
rollers to the frame or by protecting the wire.
The Hallen swinging derrick employs the twin
topping principle which allows good control of The D frame has been largely replaced by
a single derrick. This derrick was originally outrigger rods. (fig. 3) which are pivoted, and
designed for loads of 5 - 8 tonnes but loads of are stayed on the outboard side only so that
over 100 tonnes are now unexceptional. The the rod nearest the discharging side can swing
derrick can be mounted on all types of mast or towards the ship’s side, thus ensuring a wide
derrick post and can make a traverse from separation angle of the topping lifts.
port to starboard of 160 - 180°.
As with other patent derricks, such as Velle
and Stuelcken, the V-shape arrangement of
the topping lifts gives a broad base which is
necessary for lateral holding and guiding of
the derrick. In figure 3 the broad base between
the topping lifts is provided by a cross-tree at
the mast head. It could also be provided by
derrick posts, gate masts, or V masts.
In the Hallen system each topping lifts runs to

its own winch. Hauling on both winches tops
the derrick, and if one winch hauls in while the
others pay out, the derrick slews to the side of
the ship on which the hauling winch is located.
a third winch is used for hoisting and lowering
the cargo. The derrick is controlled by two
levers. One lever operates the cargo,
purchase and the other lever has a multi-
position control for the topping and slewing
operation.
In the original design a fixed frame “outrigger”
was fitted to the mast (as in fig. B) which was Velle Derrick
commonly known as a “D” frame. This had the The Velle swinging derrick also uses three
effect of keeping the topping lifts at a winches. The cargo purchase is operated by a
sufficiently wide angle to one another to standard type winch but the topping lifts are
ensure the derrick remaining steady even arranged so that one of the other two winches

controls the luffing while the third winch is 3) Contact with frame cause chafing. Reduce
used solely for slewing. Each of the topping lift by fitting rollers.
winches has a split or divided barrel on to
which the ends of falls are secured. On the Two Levers
luffing winch the falls are laid on to the split 1) One operates the cargo.
barrels in the same direction. Thus both falls 2) Other (multi-position) for topping & slewing
will hoist or lower the derrick simultaneously. position.
On the slewing winch the falls are laid on to
the split barrels in opposite directions. Thus
when the barrels rotate, one fall pays out while
SHIPS CARGO DECK CRANES
the other heaves in and the derricks slews to Some modern ships are fitted with cranes
port or starboard. The topping lift luffing and instead of derricks. Basically they are provided
slewing winches are operated by a multi- with individual electrical driven motors to
position control lever which is positioned permit lifting of the ‘JIB’, slewing of the jib and
adjacent to the cargo purchase control lever. the working of the cargo hoist.
The operator stands between the levers and
operates the cargo purchase with his left hand The ‘JIB’ is a projecting hinged arm and is
and controls the derrick movements with his usually of the luffing type which allows it to
right hand. ensures hat the hook carrying the weight
remains at the same level.
Figure C shows a plan view of an early version
of the Velle derrick in which a bridle bar was The lifting wire rope is rigged usually as a
used to spread the topping lift spans at the single whip. It leads over a sheave at the head
derrick head. The bridle bar evolved into the of the jib and is called the purchase. Between
“T”- shaped derrick head shown in Figure 5. the purchase and the hook is a weight called
Both arrangements make very wide slewing the ‘ponder ball’. Its function is to help the
angles possible due to the good lateral purchase to over-haul when there is no load.
stability achieved by the spread of the spans
at the derrick head. The derrick can be swung The crane may be set to move on rails the
outboard until it is almost perpendicular to the ship or along the ship or may be fixed centrally
ship’s side, even with an adverse list. with a large reach and angle of slew.
Pendulous swinging of the load has been a Cranes offer the following advantages: -
 greater ‘spotting area’ particularly when
major problem with derricks in which the load
hangs a “single points”. Good load installed on the vessel centre line, providing
stabilization is achieved with the T-shaped greater flexibility.
 faster loading/discharging rate.
derrick head as the spread of the cargo runner
 less time in preparing for operations.
reduces pendulous swinging and load rotation.
 decks clear of guys, stays and other
The Velle derrick is noted for its comparatively standing/running riggings.
 self contained and easier to operate.
simple design, reliability, and versatility. The
standard designs operate up to a capacity of
approximately 35 tonnes but heavy-duty The main disadvantages of the crane are its
designs are capable of lifting approximately higher initial cost and the possible pendulous
100 tonnes. swinging of the load when slewing is done in a
fast manner.
Disadvantages of ‘D’ frame
1) When swung outboard, sharp angles
Derrick Testing
created by topping guy with frame cause Ship’s derricks are initially tested (initial test)
excess strain in topping guy. with the boom at an angle of not more than
2) At difficult angles single topping pennant to 15° to the horizontal or, if this is impracticable,
slip above or below “D” frame - excessive 30°.
strain.

During its working life, it is recommended that is parallel to the boom, the safe working load
the derrick be retested after any repair to the marked on the upper block in the purchase
derrick or permanent fittings, or after any should be greater than that marked on the
alteration of the rig is not covered by the ship’s lower block. This takes into account the
plan. increased resultant load due to the tension in
the hauling part of the purchase.
When carrying out a test, the Decks
Regulations, form 99 should be consulted, to Before applying a proof load to the derrick, all
ascertain whether the accessory gear permanent attachments on the mast and
complies with the statutory requirements. If all derrick should be carefully examined. It is
is in order, the test may be carried out; also good practice to rig an adequate
otherwise, all loose gear, blocks, shackles, preventer span wire rope as a precautionary
etc., should be sent to works for the necessary measure against any part of the span gear
treatment in accordance with the statutory ‘carrying away’. This additional span wire
requirements laid down in form 99. rope should not take the mass of the mass of
the derrick during test.
The safe working load of the derrick ‘as rigged’
should be checked by reference to the When proceeding with the test, the proof load
individual safe working loads of the blocks and should be applied steadily, and all fittings
shackles in the rig, either by direct calculation, should be carefully watched for any indication
or by the preparation of load diagrams. The of failure. Apart from watching, it is also
strength of the wire ropes in the cargo and desirable to ‘listen’ for any signs of failure.
span purchases should also the checked for
the required factor of safety. When testing heavy-lift derricks, care should
be taken to ensure that the anchorage for the
If any items of gear are found to be of test clock is of adequate strength, avoiding
insufficient strength, either they should be any risk of structural damage to the ship. For
replaced by gear of the appropriate size and derricks of 30 t safe working load and over, it
strength, or the safe working load of the is advisable to lift moving loads or use a
derrick reduced. specially designed anchorage on the vessel,
and to ensure that there is sufficient stability to
Tests are generally carried out by the use of avoid excessive list under test. It is also
loads (known as a ‘dead load test’); or by the important that shrouds and preventers are
use of a dynamometer (test clock). It is properly set up to give adequate support to the
preferable that the ‘initial test’ be carried out mast. Furthermore, slewing guys should be so
by ‘dead load’. placed that the angle they make with the
derrick boom is not unduly narrow, so that
If no particular derrick a single whip is when the vessel heels over under load, they
normally used but the derrick boom and span will control the derrick without developing
gear are capable of supporting a cargo load excessive tension.
greater than that which may be lifted by a
single whip, a proof load may be applied with On completion of the test, a final visual
the cargo runner double up at the derrick examination of all parts of the derrick rig, and
head, provided that the ship’s blocks and of all permanent attachments on the mast and
shackles are used for the test. Where it is derrick, should be made before issuing the
found necessary to use the doubling-up certificate of test and examination.
method (i.e. a gun-tackle rig), this should be
stated on the certificate of test, also the safe In all cases the winches should be carefully
working load that may be lifted on a single examined to ensure that they are in good
whip. working order, and that the controls act
effectively. Information to this effect should be
When a derrick is rigged with a cargo noted on the certificate of test and
purchase, and the hauling part of the purchase examination.

Every derrick boom should be clearly marked All beams used for hatch covering to have
with its safe working load. A certificate of test suitable gear for lifting on/off without persons
for this safe working load is required for the having to go upon them to adjust. All hatch
derrick ‘as rigged’, and further certificates of covers to be marked to indicate deck, hatch
test are required for the individual blocks and and position unless covers are
shackles in the rig, including such items as interchangeable.
guy blocks, chain stoppers, etc. The  Adequate handgrips on hatchcovers.
appropriate statutory forms should be used. In Working space around hatch at least 2 ft.
the case of wire ropes, a breaking load test
(form 87) is required. Part 3. Tests Etc. Of Lifting
A copy of the Docks Regulations, form 99,
Machinery
 All lifting machinery to be tested before
containing all the prescribed particulars,
together with copies of all the appropriate being brought into use and examined by a
certificates should be kept on board. competent person.
 All derricks and attachments to masts and
deck must be inspected every 12 month and
DOCK REGULATIONS - thoroughly examined every 4 years. Other
Summary lifting machinery thoroughly examined at least
Apply to the process of loading, unloading, every 12 months. (Through examination =
moving and handling goods on any wharf, visual examination and hammer test or similar
quay or ship. dismantling if necessary).
 Chains, rings, hooks, shackles, swivels
Part 1. Safety Measures At and pulley blocks used in lifting and lowering
must be tested and examined before being
Dock, Wharf And Quays brought into use.
1) Fencing. Height of fence not less than 2’  Annealing or similar treatment - ½ “ or
06” (0.76m). smaller at least every 6 months, other at least
2) LSA in readiness at wharf or quay. every 12 months.(Thorough examination =
3) Efficient lighting. visual examination and hammer test or similar
4) First aid boxes, ambulance facilities - dismantling if necessary).
whereabouts indicated by notices.  Gears to be inspected before use, unless
previously inspected within last 3 months.
Part 2. Access To And From  Ropes to be of suitable quality and free
Ship And Part Of The Ships from obvious defect.
 Alongside quay:  Wire rope to be tested before being
 Accommodation ladder properly secured - brought into use, inspected every 3 months
22” wide, fence each side to height of 2’ 09”. and if any wire in the rope is broken, every
 Alongside other ship month. If number of broken wires in a length of
 Safe means of access, provided by vessel 8 diameters exceeds 10% of total wire in the
with the higher freeboard. rope, it must not be used, nor if it shows signs
 Access to holds etc of excessive wear or corrosion.
 Applies where hold depth exceeds 5 ft.  SWL to be marked on blocks and on ring
 Ladders in line attached to chain sling.
 Ladders provide foothold to depth of not  Chain/Wire slings not to be shortened by
less than 4½” for width of 10” and a firm tying knots in them.
handhold - Cargo to be stowed so as to leave  Machinery to be securely fenced.
this clearance. Efficient lighting in holds, on  Safe access and fencing to crane cabs
decks, in accessways and all parts where and driver’s platform.
persons employed may go during the course  SWL is to be marked on derricks and
of their work. cranes.
 Hatchcovers  Exhaust steam not to obscure any part of
deck or access.

 Method of preventing foot of derrick being

lifted out of socket. Part 5
 No person to interfere with gear, etc.
Part 4. Miscellaneous Rules unless authorised.
 Means of escape from hold or tween deck  Only authorised access to be used.
where coal or bulk cargo is being worked.  No person to go upon beams to adjust
 No winch drivers or signalmen under 16 them.
allowed.
 Walking space around cargo stacked on Part 6
quay.  If shipowner fails to comply with safe
 If hold depth exceeds 5 ft. it must be access regulations the duty to do so falls on
fenced to height of 3ft unless coaming is 2’ employer of the persons employed.
06”.  Register to be kept available for
 If working cargo in T/D at least one section inspection.
of hatches to be in place.
 Signaller to be employed.

DOCK REGULATIONS - TESTS AND

EXAMINATIONS
Every winch and all Estimates of the stresses involved may be
made by resolution of ‘parallelograms of
accessories thereto forces’ and in some cases by use of empirical
Test - Proof load in excess of SWL as formulae.
follows:-
 SWL less then 20 Tons - 25% in excess
1) In the Single Swinging Derrick
 SWL 20 - 50 Tons - SWL + 5 Tons
The main areas of stresses, when lifting a load
 SWL over 50 Tons - 10% in excess
by a single derrick would be: -
a) the stress on the hauling part of the cargo
Method - Either weights or spring/hydraulic runner/tackle.
balance. (DYNAMOMETER). b) the resultant load on the cargo head block.
c) the tension in the topping lift span.
Every crane/derrick and all d) the resultant thrust on the derrick.
accessories thereto e) the resultant load on the heel block.
Test - As above f) the resultant load on the mast head span
block.
Method - Weights swung as far as possible
each way and for crane with variable jib at Various factors are considered when making
maximum and minimum radii as well. Derricks estimates of derrick stresses, and for a basic
to be positioned at lowest working angle. understanding, an example is explained with
the rig parameters given below:
Loose Gear Whether
“A single swinging derrick boom, 16m long
Accessory Or Not and weighing 1 tonne, makes an angle of 60°
Test - Proof load as follows: to the horizontal when suspended by a single
Chain, ring, hook, shackle or shivel - 2 x SWL span topping lift with the mast head span
Single sheave blocks - 4 x SWL block secured 13m above the heel.
Multiple sheave blocks:
SWL less than 20 Tons - 2 x SWL A load of 5 tonnes is to be lifted using a gun-
SWL 20 - 40 Tons - SWL + 20 Tons tackle rigged to disadvantage, secured at the
SWL over 40 tons - 1½ x SWL derrick head, with its hauling part led parallel
to the derrick to the winch via a heel block.
Examination - After test of all gear, including The heel of the derrick is 3m above the deck,
dismantling of blocks to see that no damage or and the winch point is 3m from the mast and
deformation has occurred. 2m above the deck. The lifting gun tackle itself
weighs 0.2 tonnes”.
Wire Ropes
Test - Sample tested to destruction. SWL not a) Estimating the Stress on the Hauling
to exceed 1/5th of breaking load. part of the Lifting Tackle
This is obtained using the formula:
STRESSES IN DERRICK RIGS W+
nW
To avoid the possibility of accidental failure S= 10
(breakdown) of derrick rigs, due to P
overloading, it is essential to know the
stresses likely to be experienced by the Where
various parts of the rig when lifting a load. S = stress on the hauling part
W = load to be lifted

n = number of sheaves in the system including  the weight of the lifting tackle suspended
lead sheaves from the derrick head
P = theoretical Power Gained (M.A.)  part of the weight of the derrick boom (it is
usual to take this as ½ the weight of the
(a ‘frictional allowance’ of 1/10 of the load, for boom).
nW
every sheave, is normally used hence As given in the figure, this is resolved by
10
extending the vector DC (representing the
Therefore in the example: load to be lifted) by a scaled amount CE equal
( 2 × 5) to the sum of the weight of the lifting tackle
5+ and ½ the boom weight (0.2 + 0.5 = 0.7
S= 10 tonnes in this example) and drawing EF
2 parallel to the topping lift span (parallelogram
M.A. of Guntackle = 2 (disadvantage) DEFG).
60 1 The tension in the topping lift span is then
= ×
10 2 represented by the scale value FE (3.4 tonnes
No. of Sheaves = 2 in this case).
= 3 tonnes
d) Estimating the Thrust on the Derrick
NOTE: If a single cargo runner (single The forces which produce the thrust on the
whip) was used for lifting, instead of the derrick boom are:
gun-tackle, the stress on the hauling part  the tension in the topping lift span
would have been 1/10 of the load more  the resultant load on the cargo head block
than the load itself - allowing for friction in
the cargo head block. This is represented by the scaled value of AF,
which is equal to AD + DF (10 tonnes in the
b) Estimating the Resultant Load on the case).
Cargo Head Block
The final load on the cargo head block is a e) Estimating the Resultant Load on the
result of: Heel Block
 the forces exerted by the suspended load, The final load on the heel block results from
and the stresses in:
 the stress on the hauling part of the cargo  the cargo runner, acting in the direction of
runner/tackle. the cargo head block, and
 the cargo runner, acting in the direction of
In the figure, the ‘parallelogram of forces’ the winch
ABCD is resolved using the scaled values of
the load AB (5 tonnes in this case) and the In the example, the stress in the direction of
calculated stress on the hauling part AD (3 the cargo head block is 3 tonnes (as
tonnes as determined by the formula). determined in para 1(a)) whilst the stress in
the direction of the winch would be 3.3 tonnes
The resultant force at ‘A’ represented by the (allowing for 1/10 of the load for friction in the
scaled value of AC, is the resultant load on the heel block - using the empirical formula for
cargo head block (equals 7.8 tonnes in this stress on the hauling part with three sheaves).
example).
The forces are then resolved using the
c) Estimating the Tension in the Topping ‘parallelogram of forces’ WXYZ, where XY =
Lift Span scaled value of stress towards the derrick
The tension in the topping lift span results head and XW = scaled value of stress towards
from the combined effects of: the winch.
 weight of the load being lifted

The resultant load on the heel block is

represented by the scaled value of XZ. Assignment
f) Estimating the Resultant Load on the Please complete the assignment and return to
Mast Head Span Block ALAM
The final load on the mast head span block
results from: 1) Explain the advantages and disadvantages
 the tension in the topping lift span and of a union purchase in cargo operation.
 the stress on the hauling part of the
topping lift towards the dolly winch 2) A derrick 24 m long is supported by a span
12 m long. Attached to a point on the mast 20
In the example, the tension in the topping lift m vertically above the heel of the derrick a
span is 3.4 tonnes (as determined in para guntackle is rove to disadvantage is used to lift
1(c)) whilst the stress on the hauling part of a weight of 10 tonnes. Span tackle also a
the topping lift towards the dolly winch would guntackle is rove to disadvantage. The mass
be 3.74 tonnes (allowing for 1/10 of the of the boom is 2 tonnes and the mass of cargo
topping lift tension for friction in the mast head gear is 0.5 tonnes. Find the stress on:
span block).
i) Derrick head purchase block shackle.
The forces are resolved using the ii) Derrick heel block shackle
‘parallelogram of forces’ MNOP, where MN = iii) The load on the mast head span block
the scaled valve of tension in the topping shackle
liftspan and MP = the scaled value of stress in iv) The thrust on the derrick
the hauling part of the topping lift, towards the
dolly winch. (After leaving the heel block runner makes an
angle of 600 with mast)
The resultant load on the mast head span
block is represented by the scale value of MO.

MODULE 4 - ROLL ON/ROLL OFF SYSTEMS

Ro/Ro vessels promote wide and Vehicles are usually close parked in lanes of
comprehensive forms of unit carriage, from about 3 metres wide. This should allow access
palletization on basic form to heavy vehicular for lashing gangs to secure each vehicle
traffic, including containers. Mechanization is properly. Containers may be stowed fore and
highly developed with mobile forms of aft or athwartships, but care must be taken to
handling continually increasing in adaptability, ensure that suitable strengthened areas of the
and ship design forms provide for entry and deck are in the way of the corner castings.
exit of cargoes in a variety of fashions. One of
the most important economical aspects of Trailers may be backed up the ramp and
these types of vessels is the quick turn positioned so that at the port of discharge
around. Ro/Ro vessels now operate with towing vehicles may have direct access to the
either or a combination of bow, stern, quarter coupling point of each trailer, and be able to
or slewing ramps, which increase their tow straight off the vessel without the need to
versatility. Related to these forms of ship turn around. It is important that different types
construction are interesting facts concerning of cargo e.g. containers and pallets, are
the ship to shore interface. Heights, slope, properly separated to prevent the one causing
inclination and overall dimensions also take damage to the other.
into account the types of cargoes likely to be
handled. There are some ramps (link spans) This separation, which in many cases also
which can service double decks. provides restraint, may be by means of timber
dunnages, dunnage bags, sheets of plywood
Stowage or hard board, and other cargo e.g. tyres etc.
Many Ro-Ro vessels have a predominance of Where containers with air cooled integral
the weight (e.g. ramp systems) aft. This may refrigeration units are stowed below decks, it
require that tanks are used to maintain an must be ensured that adequate ventilation can
acceptable trim during loading operations, and reach these containers to allow proper air
may also require that cargo is first in and last cooling to take place, as well as sufficient
out - to the forward lower decks. Cargo may space, in way of the equipment end of the
be taken on board the Ro-Ro vessel in one or container, so that maintenance may be carried
more of the following ways: - out and temperatures monitored. Appropriate
a) road vehicles with integral haulage power Dangerous Goods regulations apply to all
which will also remain with the vessel. dangerous goods cargo. These should be
b) road trailers which will remain with the ship segregated from other vulnerable cargoes and
throughout the sea transport leg. closely available to fire fighting provisions.
c) roll trailers which are not suitable for road
haulage but which will remain with the ship Securing
during sea transport. Securing of vehicles on board Ro-Ro vessels
d) cargo towed on board using roll trailers, must be in accordance with an approved
and then cargo removed and stowed without system, making full use of trestles, pedestals,
its wheels. deck securing points, as are recommended by
e) cargo secured on flats and carried on the builders. Securing points and appropriate
board wither using roll trailers or by other trestles etc., should be used to by-pass the
mechanical handling equipment; both the flat springing system of vehicles in order to secure
and its cargo being stowed as a unit. them. Containers should be lashed and
f) pallets either singly or in groups carried on secured in accordance with an approved
board using roll trailers or fork lifts trucks. system, preferably to locating cones and
g) individual items of cargo brought on board securing pins, wire, chains, hooks and levers
by fork lift trucks. must be set up so as not to take undue strain
and there by rack or distort the container.

d) All lashings should have efficient tightening

devices.
There are several variable factors which affect

the number and strength of lashings needed.
Some of them are as under: -
1) The weather conditions and duration of
voyage.
2) The size and weight of the vehicle of cargo
unit and the position of its centre of gravity.
3) The positions of the wheels, or trestles, in
There should be a sufficient number of men relation to the cargo load, as this affects the
who have been trained in the use of the fulcrum position and hence the tipping
securing equipment and in the most effective moment.
methods of securing various types of vehicles 4) The position and angle at which the
(cargo units, so that proper lashing operations lashings are inclined.
are completed before the vessel proceeds to 5) The coefficient of friction between the
sea. The following precautions should be various bearing surfaces.
taken. 6) The safe working load of the lashing
equipment.
a) All vehicles should, as far as is possible,
be stowed in a fore and aft direction with the Probably the most effective method of dealing
hand brakes on and the engines in gear. Any with this complex problem is to rely on
vehicle stowed athwartships must be securely experience and past practice – i.e. to employ
lashed. lashing arrangements which have proved
b) The suspension units of heavy vehicles or successful at times when very severe weather
trailers should, wherever practicable be conditions have been encountered. Where
relieved by the use of jacks, after which the such proven lashing arrangements are
vehicles and trailers should be securely lashed available, they should be displayed, either
in their stowed position. diagrammatically or in a tabular fashion on
c) Every stowed vehicle having a road laden specially prepared notice boards posted in the
weight in excess of 2 tonnes which is not fully vehicle spaces.
balanced, should be supported at one end by
jacks, rests, trestles or table laid on friction
pads and then secured by lashings at both
ends and at the sides as necessary.

CONTAINERISATION
It is a practice of grouping loads of cargo Its rigid in construction and its components are
together and stowing them in ONE container permanently assembled.
to protect and preserve them and to ensure 2) Collapsible Freight Container
their efficient distribution. Containers are It can easily be dismantled and parts of which
“PHYSICAL CAPSULES”, made of steel, easily folded and then fitted together again.
aluminium, plastic or wood to hold a large
member of individual units for shipment. In 3) Side Loader
short, they are boxes usually of metal with It is also of standard size, having one or more
doors and lifting points. openings on its sides.
The use of containers is international along 4) Open Top

with their construction. Hence, variations in Also of standard size, having no roof.
design and applications can be expected. To
standardized the equipment for international 5) Half Height Container
use, a body known as ‘INTERNATIONAL It is a container having standard size except
STANDARDS ORGANISATION (ISO)’ has for height which is only 4 feet. It is used for
been formed. This organisation is mainly cargoes of low stowage factor, and heavy
responsible for setting standards in respect of weights like steel plates and machinery plates.
construction, durability, fixtures and The sides can be completely opened by
attachments and for methods of handling, unhinging them. The roof is generally soft, that
lifting and slinging of containers. The Codes is covered only by a canvas or plywood. It has
and Practices of the ISO are issued in a a capacity of about 400 cubic feet.
publication on ISO container standards and
recommendations, which should be read and 6) Insulated Container
understood by all officers serving on container It is of standard size but with internal insulation
vessels. of polyurethane type fitted between a plywood
lining and the outer skin.
Freight Container
According to ISO, a freight container is an 7) Refrigerated
article of transport equipment: - These are standard size containers carrying
1) of a permanent character and accordingly refrigerated cargoes and having their own
strong enough to be suitable for repeated use; machinery for cooling.
2) specially designed to facilitate the carriage
of goods, by one or more modes of transport, 8) Specialized Containers
without intermediate reloading; There are so many special types of
3) fitted with devices permitting its ready containers, used for dry bulk cargoes and
handling, particularly its transfer from one chemicals in powder form. Liquids can also
mode of transport to another; be carried in these pressurized tanks or liquid
4) so designed as to be easy to fill and containers.
empty;
5) having an internal volume of 1 cubic Standard Size Of A
metres (35.3 cubic feet) or more. Container
Containers used in international trade
There are many types of containers in use constructed according to the specifications of
throughout the world today, some of them are International Organisations\ (ISO). Following
as shown below: - are the standard sizes of containers: -
1) Non-Collapsible Freight Container 1) Twenty Feet Unit (20 Feet X 8 Feet X 8
Feet)

This is the size most commonly used in the 350 TEU will carry 350 number of standard
world container traffic, to facilitate carriage by twenty feet containers.
sea, road or air having standard points for
lashing, scurrying and lifting. Containers are Advantages Using
made of steel having a capacity of about 1000
cubic feet. Each container weighs about 2
Containers
tons and can handle cargo of about 20 tons. 1) Speed and economy in handling,
particularly at the ports. One gang of twelve or
thirteen men can discharge and load a fully
loaded container ship in three to four days
instead of a hundred men taking three to four
weeks.
2) Safety, both as regards breakages and
pilferage, especially when transporting
sophisticated electrical goods like radios, TVs,
VCRs etc.
3) Packing can be reduced.
4) A real door-to-door service can be offered.
Disadvantages
1) Financial: Massive capital outlay for the
2) Two TEUs (40 Feet X 8 Feet X 8 Feet) ship which is more expensive than a
 Weight of container = 3.5 tons conventional general cargo ship.
 CARGO CARRYING CAPACITY = 30 to 2) Each ship needs three sets of containers,
35 tons that is one at loading terminal, one on the ship
and one at the discharging terminal. An
ordinary container is a very expensive item of
equipment.
3) Repairs and maintenance of containers
being very expensive. Reefer containers are
even more expensive to get, repair and
maintain.
4) Special terminals will have to be
constructed with expensive high speed cranes
capable of lifting forty tons and more weights.
5) Expensive machines must also procured to
move the containers around the terminal.
6) Unprofitable movement of empty
containers produces a problem of an
imbalance of trace.
7) In certain countries there are customs,
3) Small Size (10 Feet X 8 Feet X 8 Feet) documentation and legal difficulties.
4) Medium Size (30 Feet X 3 Feet X 8 Feet) Design Of A Container

Container is designed and constructed as per
Carrying Capacity Of A Ship the recommendations and specifications of the
The container carrying capacity of a ship is ISO. In order to make sure that a container
indicated by how many twenty feet containers has been produced up to the standards, it has
a vessel is constructed and classified to carry. to be proved that its structural calculations are
It is denoted by the term TWENTY FEET correct and that it can withstand strength
EQUIVALENT UNIT (TEU). Hence, one 40 testing. For that reason, such organisations as
feet container is 2 TEUs. A container vessel of Lloyd’s Register, Bureau Veritas and the
American Bureau of Shipping, engaged in the

certification of containers granted on the basis 4) DOORS: Doors may be at the ends or
of conformity to an approved type, have sides, which can be opened fully to give
established regulations and procedures of a complete access to the cargo. Rubber strips
rigorous nature, mostly based on ISO around each door and strong bolting system
recommendations. ensures that the container is watertight. The
frame of the door is also made of steel for
strength and rigidity. For security reasons, the
bolts of the doors are sealed.
Material Used
Steel seems to be the best basic material. It is
superior in yield, tensile and sheer strength
and at the same time its elasticity is of a high
rank. Steel is also cheaper. Some containers
are of mixed construction with frames and
castings of steel and sides and walls of
aluminium. Some countries are using wooden,
plywood and plastic containers. Fibreglass
reinforced plastic overlaid plywood containers
are successfully produced. Stainless steel
containers are used for transporting
specialised cargoes, like foodstuff, chemicals,
liquor, wines etc.
The main parts of a container are: - Testing And Numbering

1) WALLS: The container walls are not load Containers must be examined and tested
bearing, they merely provide weather every 2½ years by Classification Society
protection and security to the cargo within the Surveyors and a certificate issued. A small
container. Glass reinforced plastic, aluminium plate is also fixed onto the container indicating
and even plywood can be used, but for a the date of such survey.
longer life of a container and to give strength
and rigidity STEEL is the material used. For identification purposes, containers carry
the letters of their owners, like OCL (Ocean
2) CORNER POSTS: Main strength of a Container Lines), NOL (Neptune Orient Lines),
container lies in its corner posts. Containers MISC (Malaysian International Shipping Corp.)
are stacked six high, thus, corner posts should etc. A series of figures also follow these
be strong enough to withstand these stresses. letters, which indicate the type of a container.
3) CORNER CASTINGS: These are built into FCL

the top and bottom of each corner post and When a container is completely filled with the
provide means of lifting and lashing a goods from a shipper to a consignee, the
container. The top of the casting has an container is being used as a FULL
elongated hole for twistlocks of lifting CONTAINER LOAD.
machinery and the sides have smaller holes
for lifting hooks of conventional cranes and for LCL
lashing. When a container is being used by a shipper
to transport goods belonging to various

consignees, only part of a container is being Deck

utilized for each and every consignee in a Containers are also carried on deck resulting
same PORT, the container is than said to be in high deck loading. Thus, the deck and hatch
used as LESS THAN A CONTAINER LOAD. covers must be strengthened to withstand this
extra loading.
CONTAINER VESSEL DESIGN
The main object in the design of container Guides
ships is to carry the maximum number of The container guides and adjacent structures
containers within the designed length and are designed to withstand dynamic forces due
breadth having regard to the form and to rolling, pitching and heaving. The guides
structural arrangement. Adequate structural consist of angle bars approximately 150 mm x
strength must therefore, be provided. 150 mm x 14 mm connected to the vertical
webs and adjoining structure and are spaced
Framing 2.60 metres apart. The bottom of the guides
LONGITUDINAL framing throughout the main are bolted to brackets and welded to the tank
body of the vessel. TRANSVERSE framing in top and beams. These brackets are welded to
the forepart and afterpart of the vessel. doubling plates about 15 mm thick which are
welded to the tank top.
Girders
Container vessels are built having CELLULAR
construction at the sides, strong longitudinal
box girders are formed, port and starboard
side, by the upper deck, second deck, top of
shell plating and top of the longitudinal
bulkheads. High tensile steels are used in the
upper deck and strake to form a strong box
girder. These box girders in addition to
providing longitudinal strength provide
stiffness against racking stresses as well as
being useful tank spaces.
Hatchway
Hatchway is divided into three sections and
two long hatch girders are fitted. These girders
are continuous, so that the longitudinal
bending strength is shared throughout the
Container Cells
length of the girders and also provide The individual container cell is formed by four
additional section modulus. vertical guides located at each corner of the
container stack running from the hatch coming
down to the tank top. The guides have three
Hatches related functions which are as follows: -
Hatches or container spaces are suited for the a) To guide the containers down to their
standard size of container (20 feet or 40 feet stowed position even though the vessel may
units). A form of bulkhead is fitted at interclass be listing or the crane not perfectly centered
of 14.70 metres (48.2 feet), center to center over the cell.
with watertight bulkheads as per the b) To land any container on top of the
Classification Society Rules and container below it within prescribed tolerances
Specifications. These bulkheads resist racking so that the superimposed loads on these lower
stresses, giving support to the double bottom containers do not exceed the peculiarities for
structure. which they are designed.
c) To hold the containers in their stacked
position and absorb the horizontal forces

imposed on them by the containers due to the

motion of the vessel in the sea. Containers
are just LIFTED-ON and/or LIFTED-OFF.
TYPES OF CONTAINER SHIPS

Container ships can be divided into following
categories: -
1) Full Container Ships

These are ships with special features and
arrangements to carry only containers in all
available spaces. Hence, they are generally Other well known Shipping Companies which
SINGLE-PURPOSE ships. These single- operate all container vessels are: -
purpose ships only move containers, stacked a) MALAYSIAN INTERNATIONAL
on top of each other in vertical stacks on deck. SHIPPING CORPORATION (MISC)
Loading is achieved by lowering the container b) NEPTUNE ORIENT LINES (NOL)
into a cell or stack, vertically to its stowed c) AMERICAN PRESIDENT LINES (APL)
position without further shifting in the d) AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL LINES (ANL)
horizontal plane. During discharge, the e) OCEAN CONTAINER LINES (OCL)
reverse procedure is followed. The containers f) KAWASAKI KISEN KAISHA (K-LINES)
can be stacked on deck up to four high. This g) SCAN DUTCH LINES & AMERICAN
extends the carrying ability of a ship beyond EXPORT ISBRANDISEN LINES
the confines of the hull and lessen the cubic h) Sea Land, Sea Train, Snow Shipping and
losses sustained by the squaring off of the United States Lines.
ship’s hold. The limiting forces here are the
ship’s stability and satisfactory means of 2) Partial Container Ships
securing the containers in place. In these ships ONLY part of the vessel’s
capacity is especially designed for containers.
The biggest and fastest and also the most The vessels of Atlantic Container Line and
expensive container ships are those of the Care Line belong to this category as they carry
SEA-LAND 7S CLASS. They have a capacity not only containers, but also every type of
of 1096 containers of 35 and 40 feet, a general cargo on its own wheels or tracks or
maximum speed of 33 knots and cross the on trailers. The containers are lifted-on/lifted-
ATLANTIC from New York to Rotterdam in off, while the trailers and other rollable cargo
four and a half days. including cars are rolled-on/rolled-off over the
stern ramp and through the stern door. These
multi-purpose ships employ a combination of
different cargo handling systems. The ships of
this category vary in size from 16,500 to less
than 500 gross tonnes. The Japanese NYK

Line projected a big ship, 14,000 dwt for the unitised as well as bulk, liquid, commodities or
Japan to Australia rotate. even heavy lift items.
a) Convertible Container Ships These floating units can be towed or pushed in

In these ships part or whole the vessel’s ports and on inland waterways and hoisted
capacity may be used for either containers or aboard the mothership for transport by sea.
other cargoes and embodying special features Besides flexibility, their advantage is that they
which permit their convertibility on a voyage to can bypass traditional berth facilities in
voyage bases. These ships are used to congested ports, releasing the door-to-door
transport containers and cars from say water transport, further reducing cargo
Yokohama (Japan) to Hawaii, while returning handling, warehousing, inventory costs, risks
with containers, sugar and molasses in bulk. of loss and damages.
b) Limited Container Ships Particulars of a typical LASH ship are: -

These are ships of limited container-carrying CARRYING CAPACITY = 61 to 73 lighters
capacity in which some container handling and LIGHTER SIZE (each) = 61 ft. 6 in. x 31 ft. 2 in
securing devices are installed, but otherwise x 13 ft.
they are of normal construction carrying WEIGHT of each lighter = 400 tonnes approx.
general, bulk and liquid cargoes. GROSS TONNAGE = 26400 to 39000 tonnes
LENGTH = 814 feet
c) Conventional Ships BEAM = 100 feet
These are ships without special containers - SPEED = 19 to 22.5 knots
stowing or handling devices. On these ships,
container is merely treated as a larger than Lighters or barges are constructed of
usual piece of cargo. It is secured and stowed fiberglass to boost the payload and facilitate
by conventional means. Such ships could handling, as well as reducing maintenance.
conventional general cargo ships and roll on, The ship can also be loaded with containers,
roll-off vessels with four steel decks below the as many as 1200 units of 20 feet. A lash ship
water deck, all linked by sloping ramps. can be filled within 24 hours with 49 barges
Containers are handled with shipborne and 356 containers by means of a travelling
equipment like forklifts with a side lift frame for shipboard crane of 500 tonnes capacity,
20 feet containers and forks for boxes, pallets supplemented by a gantry capable of lifting
and cases. These ships normally have a upto 35 tonnes.
capacity of 21,700 dwt and 1,910,000 cubic
feet bale capacity. Remarkable ramps are Feeder vessels are now in use. The NACAT
mounted aft on starboard side, 105 feet long, (BARGES ABOARD CATMARAN) are merely
weighting 150 tonnes and can bear loads up floats or rafts formed of a number of logs tied
to 105 metres or less space on the quay. This side by side some distance apart. They ferry
hinged angled stern ramp can be continuously lighters to the mother ship, which operates
adjusted to tide and draught. only a limited number of major ports-of-call
and reduces port turnaround times.
SPECIAL TYPES OF SHIPS
b) SEABEE
1) Barge Carriers Lykes Lines is a major shipping company,
There are two such specially designed ships owning a fleet of SEABEE ships. Seabees are
which carry barges or lighters: - an impressive improvement on the theme of
carrying standard barges on a large sea going
a) LASH vessel. Seabee is a ship operating solely as a
It stands for ‘LIGHTER ABOARD SHIP’. deep sea transport of pre-loaded barges
Lighter or barges are independently floating, having real extensions to provide service
universal units without the propulsive power, directly to the ports and other waterside
and loaded with cargo of very different kinds, loading locations. Seabee permits all types of
cargoes whether unitised, bulk, break-bulk,

palletised, containerised, and heavy lifts. She equipment is that ships can call at ports which
can also be converted into a roll-on/roll-off have no costly custom-built installations like
vessel and can exclusively move containers. gantry cranes etc.
The barges which carry cargoes, are the
extensions of mothership allowing the Seabee Cranes
herself to avoid the risk run by any big ship In the major ports of the world there are
going into port and to develop the technique of special CONTAINER BERTHS, where two
discharging offshore. kinds of cranes are used: -
a) Portainer Crane
Particulars of a typical Seabee are: - This is a gantry with usually ONE boom, which
CARRYING CAPACITY = 1,500 tonnes to merely moves the containers from the ship’s
1,800 containers of standard 20 feet. Plus hold onto flat beds of lorries and forklift trucks
15,000 tonnes of liquid in deep tanks. on the quay. This crane is employed in major
AS ROLL-ON/ROLL-OFF = 5 kilometres of container ports, where large container ships
ALLEYS with a width of 2.8 metres. arrive regularly and where storage space and
LENGTH = 276 metres marshalling yards are consequently big or
BEAM = 32.5 metres situated near the quay.
DEADWEIGHT = 27000 tonnes approx. b) Transtainer Crane
SPEED = 20 knots It is a crane of the overhead travelling type,
BARGES SIZE = 29.1 metres x 10.7 metres which spans a storage place or marshalling
NO. OF BARGES = 38 each weighing 800 yard. It is multipurpose crane, capable of
tonnes unloading ships, moving containers to their
BALE CAPACITY = 39,000 cubic feet storage place, loading trucks and trains and,
between the arrivals of vessel it can be
They also have a heavy lift subversive employed for marshalling. Its speed is low in
elevator at their stern with a capacity of 2000 comparison with portainer crane. This crane is
tonnes to load and discharge two barges at perfectly suitable for ports with moderate
the same time. Theoretically, the complete output.
loading or discharging operation takes about
13 hours. From the elevators, power operated
transporters bring the lighters to and from their
storage location.
The main difference between the Lash and

Seabee is the number and capacity of the
barges each can transport. Lash carries upto
73 barges with a capacity of 400 tonnes each
and bale space of 15,900 cubic feet, whereas
the Seabee carries 36 with 800 tonnes each
and bale space 39,000 cubic feet.
Furthermore, LASH uses a shipboard Spreaders
travelling crane, whereas Seabee employs
Every container crane has a rectangular
and elevator for the mechanical handling of
spreader frame with coupler latches in the
these lighters.
corners. These twist locks enter into the top
holes of a container corner castings as the
CONTAINER HANDLING spreader is lowered onto the container.
EQUIPMENT Latches are locked and unlocked electrically,
Different types of container cranes are used to hydraulically or pneumatically. Retractable
load and unload container ships. Many alignment arms keeps the spreader in
shipping companies started their container position. ISO Recommendations gives the
operations using shipboard gantry cranes. specifications of corner fittings for freight
The advantage of shipboard handling containers.

Fork Lifts
Front loading or side loading fork lifts are in
common use as container handling
equipment.
SECURING CONTAINERS
When loading containers on deck of the full
container and roll-on/roll-off vessels, separate
lashing arrangements would have to be made.
The problem of lashing different sizes of
containers is further aggravated by different
container heights and maximum permissible
gross weights of various types of boxes. Each
ship carries a large stock of fittings, wires,
bottle screws, turnbuckles and ratchets.
Hooks and chain tensioning devices secure
the vehicles to an elephants’ foot located in a
deck flush fitting with four slots in the form of a
cross, radiating from a central hole. First tier of
container is lowered over removable stud on
the hatch covers and decks and a safety metal
pin inserted through corner castings and
studs. The second tier is fixed into the first tier
by inserting single or double bridging pieces
into the corner castings, or both the tiers.
Inside the holds the containers are held in

place by the cell guides.
On deck further lashings of wire, chains and

rods are provided, tightened by bottle screws
and turnbuckles. On some vessels lashing
bridges are constructed.


DECK CARGOES
The carriage of deck cargo - governed by 4) Where the cargo is stowed on the hatches
Statutory Instrument 1968 No. 1089. - properly battened down, sufficient strength to
take the intended cargo.
1) The vessel must have adequate stability at
all stages of the voyage. Cargoes such as 5) Deck - sufficient strength for the intended
coke and timber can absorb upto about a third cargo. If necessary strengthened by tomming
of their own weight of water. Losses of weight or shoring underneath.
such as those due to consumption of fuel,
water and stores must also be considered. 6) Deck cargo - well secured, protected from
Upsetting moments - wind taken into account. weather. Not so high as to interfere with the
navigation of the ship.
2) Adequate provision for safety of crew
when passing from one part of the vessel to
another - a walkway has to be provided over
the cargo. Walkway not less than 1 metre in
width, not less 3 courses of guard rails or
wires supported by stanchions intervals not
more than 1.5m. The vertical opening between
lowest rails or wires not to exceed 230mm and
no opening above that shall exceed 380mm.
3) Steering arrangements - effectively

protected from damage. Breakdown in the
main steering arrangements - emergency
gear.

REFRIGERATED CARGOES
Definition
Any cargo that has to be loaded, maintained A) Refrigeration Machinery
and/or carried at a certain temperature in 1) Refrigeration machinery should be
order for it to reach its destination without checked and tested. Brine pipes should be
deterioration is classed as refrigerated cargo. tested to a pressure 1½ times their normal
This includes meat, fish, poultry products, working pressure to check for any possible
dairy products, drugs and experimental leaks. A close inspection must also be made
samples. of all insulation and defects rectified. Insulated
ventilator plugs must be closely fitted in place
and sealed with saw dust.
Types Of Refrigerated 2) Scuppers and other water drainage system
Cargoes around and near refrigeration machinery must
1) Goods carried in frozen state i.e. meats, be checked to ensure that moisture will have
fish and butter; an easy and free access to the bilges.
2) Goods carried in chilled state i.e. beef, 3) Test CO2 extraction, generation and
vegetables, cheese and eggs; injection equipment.
3) Goods carried in air cooled condition i.e.
fruit. B) Preparation Of Compartment
1) Sweep and clean thoroughly with particular
Note: Drugs and experimental samples may attention to brine pipes, insulation, bins,
be frozen or chilled. gratings, air ducts in order to remove all
traces, stains and odour of previous cargo.
Properties Of Refrigerated After cleaning these should be wiped down
Cargoes with a disinfectant fluid to prevent formation of
1) Rapid deterioration if proper temperatures mould there on.
are not maintained during loading, voyage and 2) Bilges should be made dry, cleaned and
discharging. ventilated in order to remove foreign matter
2) Susceptible to tainting and moisture and odour. Brine traps should be checked and
contact damage. topped up to prevent cold air from entering the
3) Effected by presence of CO2. bilges and freezing them or odour from
reaching the refrigerated compartment.
3) Strum boxes should be cleared and bilge
Requirements For Safe suction tested.
Transport 4) Clean dunnage, likely to be used, meat
a) Efficient refrigeration machinery and good hooks, bars chains or any other equipment or
insulation of the compartment. appliances to be used for loading or stowage
b) Careful preparation of the compartment of cargo should be placed in the compartment
including cleaning, dunnaging and precooling. after they have been cleaned and sterilised.
c) Effective system for monitoring and 5) Thermometers should be tested and kept
maintaining specified temperature during ready and thermometer pipes, if removed,
loading, transportation and discharging. should be fitted, or extended to enable
d) Segregation of cargo. recording of temperatures at the top, middle
e) Monitoring and control of CO2 and lower levels of the compartments.
concentration in the compartment, and good 6) Portable trunks in holds of battery
ventilation. compartments must be assembled in place.
7) The compartment should be pre-cooled to
Precautions Relating To a temperature lower than the normal carrying
temperature, to allow for fluctuations during
Transportation Of loading, 24/48 hours before commencement of
Refrigeration Cargoes loading.

8) If lead, copper or tin ingots are also loaded efficiency but on melting will result in water
in refrigerated compartments, additional pre- accumulation in the compartment and possible
cooling is necessary. Chilled compartments damage to cargo there in. Any snow formation
should be maintained at their transit on pipes should be carefully swept off.
temperature and frozen compartments at 14oF 4) Compartments not being worked should be
for 6 hours for each floor tier of ingots. kept closed. If necessary to keep them open to
9) Approximate pre-cooling temperatures: - permit loading in adjoining hold or space,
Frozen compartments 10oF escape of cold air should be prevented by
Chilled compartments 22oF rigging tarpaulin screens or some similar
Apples, pears, peaches and grapes 28oF device. Air screens may be fitted on some
Oranges, lemon, grape fruit 36oF ships.
Cheese 40oF 5) Monitor temperature in the compartment
during loading and should it rise above the
10) The pre-cooled compartment should be specified level, close the compartment and re-
inspected by the appointed surveyor and cool it.
certified ‘fit to load’ before loading can 6) No walling should be permitted on cases of
commence. fruit, eggs or cheese as they are fragile Over
other frozen cargo, shoes should be covered
C) Loading, Discharging, Handling with clean gunny sacking or similar material.
1) Dunnaging should be so arranged so as 7) Cargo should not be dragged, pushed or
to: - thrown. Slings should be made in the hatch
a) provide adequate support to the cargo, square.
b) ensure sufficient clearance from deck and 8) Proper cargo gear should be used e.g.
sides to prevent contact between cargo and canvas nets for meat and trays for
the cooling pipes, air ducts, baffle plates and crates/cases of cheese, butter, eggs and fruit.
any water likely to condense in the 9) Heavy meat should not be stowed over
compartment, light meat.
c) in the event of different temperatures being 10) Taintable cargo should not be stowed with
maintained in adjoining compartments liberal fruit nor loaded in a compartment which has
use should be made of saw dust on deck carried fruit unless it has been de-odourised.
dunnage on the sides and drip trays under 11) Thick paper should be pasted over joints to
deck head to prevent water contamination in prevent air leak.
the warmer compartment,
d) to prevent damage to bottom tiers by over D) During Voyage
stowed cargo, 1) Monitor and record temperature in all
e) to permit unobstructed circulation of cooled compartments and ensure that it is maintained
air below, around and through the cargo at the desired level.
including dunnaging at intermediate tiers for 2) Monitor CO2 concentration in
cargo of tight block stow type so that uniform compartments carrying fruit and arrange
temperature can be maintained throughout the extraction to ensure that it does not exceed
compartment. 5%.
2) Cargo tendered for shipment should be 3) In compartments containing meat CO2 may
inspected thoroughly: - be injected upto 6 kg per 1000 cubic feet to
a) frozen cargo should be hard frozen and help pressure it for a longer time.
free of spots or mould. There should be no 4) For chilled meat ventilation should be
blood stains on the wrappings, arranged to achieve complete air change 20-
b) fruit should not be in advanced stated of 25 times every hour.
ripeness, skin should not be discoloured and
should not be brown on the inside. Random CO2 Control
samples should be taken and cut open. 1) Ripening of fruit generates heat and CO2
3) Cooling in compartment opened for which must be removed to preserve the cargo.
loading should be stopped to prevent frosting Maximum permitted concentration is 5%.
of grid pipes which will not only reduce cooling

2) Presence of CO2 helps preserve meat for a thus becomes very cold. It then passes
longer time and CO2 should be injected into through the evaporator, containing brine,
the compartment loaded with meat, if before being drawn back into the compressor.
necessary, upto 10% concentration.
3) CO2 concentration should be checked and Cooled brine is circulated through grids or
recorded at least once daily, but preferably batteries and thus cools the refrigerated
once every watch at sea. compartment directly or indirectly.
4) In the past litmus paper cartridge was used
to determine CO2 concentration by lowering it
into the hold. Its degree of discolouration
indicated CO2 concentration.
5) Modern method is thermoscope in which a
sample of air is drawn from the hold and
allowed to mix with caustic soda. This
generates heat which, when measured,
indicates CO2 concentration.
Containers
A considerable amount of refrigerated cargo is
carried in containers. These are of two types: -
Grid System Or Direct
Cooling
Reefers Grids of 2” pipes are fitted around the
compartment through which cooled brine is
 containers with an independent electrical
circulated. Grids are so arranged that damage
or diesel driven refrigeration system.
to one section can be compensated by extra
 portholes which depend on external source
cooling of other sections.
for cooling.
Advantages of using Battery System Or Indirect

containers are Cooling
Air is blown over a battery of pipes through
 no contamination or tainting
which cooled brine is being circulated. This
 no stacking damage
cooled air is then blown into the compartment
 no condensation damage
through an arrangement of air ducts. Warm air
 no insulation required in ships’ cargo
is extracted and again blown over the battery
space.
of brine pipes.
Refrigeration Systems
A basic refrigeration system consists of
compressor, condenser, expansion valve and
evaporator.
The coolant, freon gas, is compressed in the

compressor, cooled and condensed into a
liquid in the condenser and passed through
the expansion valve where it expands and

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS ON FERRIES,

RO/RO CARRIERS AND CAR CARRIERS
GENERAL decks are sparsely loaded to minimize the
1) Seaman working on vehicle decks and in damage which would be caused by the vehicle
close proximity to moving vehicles should breaking free into unrestricted space.
wear safety helmets and clothing of high 5) Vehicles containing dangerous cargoes
visibility, such as fluorescent ‘slip-overs’. should be handled in accordance with the
2) Suitable footwear should be worn to avoid code for portable tanks and road tank vehicles
risk of injury from securing gear. for the carriage of liquid dangerous goods in
3) Where no other means of access is ships or otherwise as directed in the ‘Blue
provided, care should be taken by personnel Book’ and the International Maritime
using loading ramps for access while vehicles Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code). If
are moving on or off the ship. tanks are found to be leaking or having
4) Jacks, trestles and lashing equipment evidence of possible leakage or otherwise
should not obstruct walkways, doorways or significantly damaged so as to possibly affect
emergency escapes. the integrity of the tank, the vehicle should not
5) Ship’s stores should not be stowed on any be accepted for shipment. When the vehicle
part of the parking area for vehicles. carries a transport emergency card (tremcard)
6) A lifebuoy with self-activating light and line for its load, the card should be lodged with the
of suitable length should be available close to Master for reference in case leaks should
the vehicle deck access doors. develop during the voyage.
7) All decks should be kept free of water, oil 6) Any vehicle carrying dangerous goods
and any other substance which might be should be segregated from other cargo,
conducive to a vehicle or cargo unit sliding. accommodation, machinery openings and
8) Any spillage of petrol, oil or cargo should animals, in accordance with the ‘Blue Book’. It
be cleaned immediately; sand boxes, drip should be readily accessible to an emergency
trays and equipment should be provided for party and, whenever practicable, located in a
such use on each vehicle deck. position convenient to fire fighting services
9) There should be no smoking or use of and drainage scuppers.
naked lights on vehicle decks. 7) Personnel should not stand behind or
10) Notices setting out the precautions to be between vehicles when these are
observed in handling and stowing vehicles manoeuvering.
should be prominently displayed in all vehicle 8) Personnel should not attempt to secure a
spaces. vehicle until the brakes have been applied and
11) Any damage to electric lights and fittings the engine switched on.
should be repaired as soon as practicable. 9) Lashing and securing of vehicles and
12) A very high standard of crew fire drill is cargo units should be carried out by men
essential. A patrol should be maintained on trained and experienced in the task.
vehicle decks during the passage. 10) There should be an adequate supply of
efficient securing and lashing equipment which
should be properly maintained and regularly
Stowage Of Vehicles inspected.
1) All vehicles should be stowed in a fore and 11) All lashings should have suitable tightening
aft direction as far as practicable. arrangements.
2) Any vehicle stowed athwartships should be 12) Lashings should be tightened to ensure
securely lashed. that they are secure but not over tightened so
3) Vehicles should not be stowed across a that unnecessary strain is thrown upon the
water spray fire curtain. lashing. Care should be taken to equalize as
4) Special care should be taken in positioning far as practicable the tensions of the several
and securing a vehicle or cargo unit when lashings of a vehicle etc.

13) Personnel should not remain on internal jamming occur, care should be taken in case
deck ramps which are being raised or lowered. of sudden release of the jam.
3) Portable stanchions and hand rails should
Ventilation always be in position when portable decks are
1) Ventilation systems serving the vehicle in use.
decks should be in operation during loading 4) Care should be taken to ensure that
and unloading and as many be necessary on portable decks are properly stowed and
passage to avoid the accumulation of secured when not in use.
flammable and toxic vapors. 5) When portable decks are in the stowed
2) Connecting doors between car-decks and position, access doors should be secured.
machinery, service and accommodation
spaces should be kept closed while the ship is
at sea.
3) Conspicuous notices should be posted
warning against the starting of vehicle engines
before doors leading to ramps are opened and
before the vehicle is required to move.
4) Any refrigerated vehicle needing to run its
refrigeration plant during the voyage should
utilize the ship’s electrical supply where
practicable, in preference to running its
engine.
Portable Car Decks

1) Frequent inspections should be made of
the equipment and associated gear used for
raising, lowering and suspending portable
decks.
2) Seamen should stand clear while portable
decks are being raised or lowered. Should

TIMBER CARGOES
In many trades timber is carried in large
quantities and may be loose or packaged.
Loose timber can be individual planks, cubic
units, pit props or logs but the carriage of
loose timber is mostly taken over by packaged
timber mainly because packaged timber is
much less cumbersome, more easily
transportable, easily handled by mechanical
means and therefore more economical.
Loose Timber
But the carriage of logs is still a common trade Timber Deck Cargo
although is usually done by vessels which are Timber is not only carried in holds but also on
specially constructed for the purpose, and deck. When timber is carried on deck there
have their own suitable gear. In many African are great chances of its shifting, and with it not
countries from which timber is exported, logs only the less of the cargo but damage to the
are kept in floating ponds and are towed to the vessel itself. It should therefore always be
vessel by tugs. In some ports of discharge the compactly, stowed and secured with adequate
timber is similarly discharged into the water lashings. Some of the important procedures
and then transported by tug towage inland that must be observed when loading such
through canals and waterways. cargoes are as follows: -
a) The packages should be securely bound
Loose timber carriage involves high costs and and in solid form.
a waste of labour. Much time and many has to b) One tier of dunnage should be laid with the
be spent on handling and sorting out and the planks close up on each other and placed
operation of loading or unloading loose timber athwartships. This helps to spread the weight
cannot be carried out with speed. This is more of the cargo over the deck.
the case with conventional ships which are not c) After every tier of cargo all loose space
specially constructed for the carriage of should be properly filled in or checked, to
timber. minimize the chances of shifting.
Packaged Timber d) The packages should be stowed such that
Being packaged this form of timber carriage is the lashing arrangements are not blocked or
much more speedy and economical, and can obscured.
be easily and quickly handled by fork lifts and e) Packages of different weight and size are
mechanical means. Packaged timber is to be stowed separately or with suitable
presently increasingly carried in unit loads of separation if stowed together, so as to prevent
uniform size, and specialized vessels having chances of damage.
suitable gear for unit loads are increasing in f) As far as possible the packages should be
number. Several ports have separate stowed in a fore-and-aft direction so as to
terminals marked off for the working of such prevent shifting, also so as to enable proper
unit loads and the saving in terms of port stay lashings to be taken.
and turnaround are great. Overall, the g) Necessary arrangements should be made
advantages of packaged timber are increased to tighten the lashings during the voyage, as
efficiency of handling, use of less manpower this might be necessary due to vibrations or
at both the loading ends, faster turnaround of movement of the vessel.
the vessel, and lesser damage and breakage. h) As far as possible only uniform sized
packages should be loaded on deck and
irregular packages stowed (in holds), so that

lashing and securing of the cargo on deck end event of an emergency. The lashings should
be easier. be of 19mm chain or wire rope of equal
Whenever timber is stowed on deck it must strength and should be examined at least
comply with the regulations of the IMO code of once in 12 months. If wire lashings are used
safe practice for ships carrying timber deck they must be provided with a short length of
cargoes. This code applied to all vessels of 24 chain so that their lengths can be regulated.
metres (79 feet) or more in length and deals The lashing spacing as shown in Figure 1.
with following:
3) Compactness
The stow should be as compact and tight as
possible, with each tier properly chocked
before loading the next tier. All spaces in the
wells of vessels should be stowed as solidly
as possible, this is more so in the case of
vessels assigned timber loadlines, where the
deckline is virtually raised to the level of the
superstructure deck.
4) Logs, Pit Props And Wood Pulp

1) Stowage
Logs should be stowed as compact as
The cargo should be compactly stowed and
possible in a fore and aft direction and should
should not interfere with the navigation of the
be interlocked. They should be stowed to
vessel, and with any arrangements that may
facilitate the rigging of lashings and uprights
be necessary for temporary steering of the
as in the cease of packaged timber. Pit props
vessel. The stow should also permit free
and wood pulp, although must meet the same
access to accommodation and machinery
stowage requirements, are usually loaded as
spaces and should not endanger the safety of
per local practice.
the crew in their normal duties. If the stow
requires uprights these should be placed not
5) Height Of Deck Stow
more than 3 metres apart, and must extend to
The height of cargo on deck would depend
above the outboard top edge of the cargo.
mainly upon the load bearing capacity of the
The uprights must be properly secured at their
deck. But in any case the height of the timber
base and arranged such that each pair end be
deck stow should not interfere with the
secured with athwartship lashings. Where
navigation of the vessel. If the vessel is
practicable permanent ports of the ships
loading in a seasonal winter zone during
structure can also be used as uprights.
winter or is expected to unload or pass
through such a zone during the course of the
2) Lashings
voyage, the height of cargo on deck should
The entire deck stow should be provided with
not exceed the extreme breadth of the vessel.
lashings which can be taken athwartships and
secured to permanent eye pads or similar
6) Safety Of Crew
structures. Every lashing should be
Safe access to crew accommodation should
independent and should be provided by
be provided by way of walk-ways with guard
arrangements for shortening or lengthening
rails of 1 m height. Also an additional lifeline,
adjustments turnbuckles as required during
along the centreline of the vessel, should be
the course of the voyage. They should also be
provided.
provided with sliphooks for releasing in the

Stability
Careful attention is to be paid to the stability of
the vessel when loading timber cargoes. It
should be remembered that during the voyage
timber deck cargo would absorb considerable
moisture by way of rain, ice or snow. Due
allowance must be given to this and the vessel
should have adequate initial GM to allow for
this factor. It would therefore be seen that the
amount of timber carried on deck would have
an important bearing on the ultimate safety of
the ship. It is felt that as a general rule, on
vessels fully loaded with timber, not more than
 of the weight of timber carried should be
stowed on the open deck.
Among the stability information carried on

ships the Master and Officers are also to have
suitable information to enable them to foresee
the stability characteristics of the vessel in
relation to the deck loads, under all conditions
of the intended voyage. In planning the
loading and voyage with timber deck cargo the
guidance information contained in the vessels
stability booklet must be observed.

MODULE 5 - BULK CARGOES

Hazards DEFINITIONS
In general, the hazards may be considered to
fall into three categories: -
Bulk Cargo
1) Improper weight distribution resulting in A cargo consisting of solids in particle or
structural damage granular form, with or without entrained
a) Excessive concentration of weight on deck moisture, generally homogeneous as to
or inner bottom. composition and loaded directly into a vessels
b) Improper distribution of weights between cargo spaces without bagging or packaging.
holds.
Concentrate
2) Improper stability or reduction in stability That material obtained when a natural ore has
a) Too stiff a vessel resulting in violent rolling undergone some form of purification by a
and possible cargo shifts and structural physical separation of undesired ingredients.
damage. In contrast to natural ores which contain a
b) reduction in stability as a result of:- considerable percentage of large particles and
i) A transverse shift of the cargo surface lumps, concentrates ordinarily consist of a
as in the case of “DRY” cargoes and cargoes mixture of small particles.
which do not become fluid when wet.
ii) A transverse shift of “WET” cargoes Angle of Repose
which become fluid and give rise to free Angle of repose is between a horizontal plane
surface effects. and the cone slope obtained when bulk cargo
is emptied on to this plane. A low angle of
3) Chemical Reaction: A few cargoes like fine repose characterizes a bulk cargo which is
copper ore, Metal turnings and borings are particularly liable to dry surface movement
subject to spontaneous heating. aboard ship.
“DRY” bulk cargoes include “ores and similar GENERAL PRECAUTIONS

bulk cargoes”
WITH BULK CARGOES
“WET” bulk cargoes come under the heading 1) A stability booklet should be provided. All
of “Ore Concentrates” relevant information in connection with
loading, precautions and any necessary data
Provisions of the code apply when bulk should be supplied to the Master. Prior to
cargoes from a considerable part of the total sailing, the Master should calculate the
cargo for the voyage. When bulk cargoes stability for the anticipated worst conditions
except ore concentrates, make up less than during the voyage as well as that on departure
ONE-THIRD of the cargo deadweight of the and ensure they are satisfactory.
vessel, the Master at his discretion may depart
from the portions of the Code that are not 2) An excessively stiff ship may roll very
considered to apply. In the case of small part violently, resulting in damage to the ship.
cargoes of concentrates carried in general However, a vessel with a relatively large GM is
cargo vessel it may not be necessary to better able to resist the tendency to list, if a
comply fully with these provisions. shift of cargo should occur. For this reasons,
no concern should be felt about operating a
bulk laden vessel with a large GM where
experience has shown that the resulting
motion is not too severe.

3) When loading a high density bulk cargo Bulk Cargoes Having An

with a S.F. of about 20 cu. ft. per ton (0.56
m5/ton) or lower, the loaded conditions are
Angle Of Repose Greater
different from normal and particular attention Than 35°
should be paid to the distribution of weights to 1) High density cargoes should be loaded
avoid excessive stresses. A general cargo entirely in the lower holds unless this results in
vessel is normally constructed to carry the ship being “too stiff” or if cargo weight on
cargoes of about 50 - 60 cu. ft./ton (1.39 to bottom structure is excessive.
1.67 m3/ton) when loaded to full bale and
deadweight capacity. In such cases, the 2) Cargo should be trimmed sufficiently to
shipmaster should be provided with cover the tank top. This trimming can be
comprehensive loading information so that the accomplished by leaving within the hatch
ship may not be overstressed. square so that the slope is uniform towards
the ships sides and substantially so, to the end
4) Where such information is not available, bulkheads. The importance of trimming to
the following precautions should be observed: prevent a shift of cargo is stressed. This
a) The general fore and aft distribution of advice applies especially to smaller vessels
cargo by weight should not differ appreciably i.e. 100 metres or less in length.
from that found satisfactory for general
cargoes. 3) When cargo is carried in tween decks to
b) The maximum member of tons of cargo reduce stiffness, it should be the least amount
loaded in any hold should not exceed 0.9 LBD necessary to do so.
metric tons where L - Length of hold, B =
average breadth of hold and D = summer load 4) If cargo is loaded in tween decks, hatches
draught (all in metres). should be closed and cargo trimmed
c) Where cargo is untrimmed or only partially reasonably level. If cargo does not extend side
trimmed the height of the cargo pile peak to side and bulkhead to bulkhead then it
above the hold floor should not exceed. should be stowed in bins.
1.1 x D x Stowage factor (S.F. in m3/ton)
d) If the cargo is trimmed entirely level, the Bulk Cargoes Having An
maximum load in the lower hold may be
increased by 20% subject to compliance with
Angle Of Repose Less Than
(a) above. 35°
e) In holds with a shaft tunnel, lower holds These cargoes are more liable to shift in a
may be loaded to 10% in excess of the seaway. Thus they require more trimming.
trimmed or untrimmed values subject to Spaces in which they are loaded should be
compliance with (a) above. A shaft tunnel has preferably filled without overstressing the
an extra stiffening effect. vessel. In tween decks they should be loaded
in bales or be fitted with shifting boards similar
5) Precautions should be taken to prevent to grain cargoes. Sizes of shifting boards
dust from coming into contact with deck should be adequate for the density of the
machinery. Ventilation systems to cargo.
accommodation spaces should be screened or
shut down.
6) Holds should be thoroughly inspected prior

to loading. Bilge wells and strainer plates
should be prepared to facilitate drainage.
Bilges should be frequently sounded during
and after loading.

CARRIAGE OF COAL
The main consideration to keep in mind with Bulkheads between coal carrying
coal is that it emits methane, an odorless, compartments and accommodation or
flammable gas which is less dense than air. machinery spaces must be gas tight.
This gas is emitted particularly if the coal has
been freshly mined or if it is dropped into the Deck houses and other compartments on deck
hold when loading, causing it to break up. may collect methane and must be well
Thus a risk of fire and explosion is always ventilated at all times.
present on a ship carrying coal.
No naked lights or smoking must be allowed in
Methane levels of between 5% and 15% in air or near a coal-carrying compartment. Care
constitute an atmosphere which can be readily must be taken not to create sparks as a result
ignited and explode. of impacts of steel on steel.
Many classes of coal, including anthracite, are The absorption of oxygen from the air by the
liable to spontaneous combustion if allowed to coal loads to oxidation and the evaluation of
heat excessively. more methane and heat generation. The cargo
must therefore not receive through ventilation,
Spaces in which coal is to be stowed should but generous surface ventilation must be
be carefully cleaned, ensuring that all traces of provided to quickly remove any evolved gas
oil or grease and of previous coal cargoes are and keep the cargo cool. Hatch covers may be
removed. Bilges and scuppers must be tested opened during suitable weather to assist this.
and in working order and electrical wiring in
the compartment disconnected or sheeted in If the temperature of the coal is found to rise
heavy gauge screwed steel conduit. too much, it may be necessary to cool the
adjacent bulkhead by directing hoses at it and
Fire fighting, life saving and smoke detection removing the water via the bilge pumps.
equipment must be carefully examined and
tested. The fire fighting equipment should be A methanometer being carried on board to test
available for immediate use at all times when for the presence of methane around the
loading and on passage. The smoke detection vessel.
equipment must be continuously operated and
monitored regularly. Only intrinsically safe torches and other
equipment may be used in or near coal
Arrangements should be made before loading compartments.
to enable temperatures to be taken at the
ends of compartments and in the bottom of the Coal must be segregated from any other cargo
stow via suitable pipes from the deck, to liable to spontaneous heating and must be
ensure rapid detection of a temperature rise. kept clear of warm bulkheads.
When loading in the hatch square using It must also be stowed away from cargoes
chutes, extra boards should be provided in the liable to damage from coal dust. If necessary,
hold to prevent damage to the tank top plating. other cargo in the same compartment may be
completely covered with tarpaulins or other
The arrangements for carrying a coal may, if dust-proof materials.
the master so requires, be examined by a When loading small coal, shifting boards may
Marine Department Surveyor to ensure that be necessary to prevent the movement of
the vessel is in all respects satisfactory. cargo on passage. During loading, the coal
should be carefully trimmed into the winds and
ends of compartment to achieve a level stow,
preventing any shifting and also the

accumulation of pockets of methane above the

stow.
If a coal fire breaks out when on passage,

steam injection must not be used to extinguish
the fire, and it should be controlled using CO2,
inert gas or high expansion foam, which
should be injected into the compartment. The
vessel should head for the nearest port and
keep the hatches sealed until specialist advice
is obtained.
Entry into a coal compartment must only be

attempted by personnel wearing breathing
apparatus and having adequate back-up
personnel to render assistance standing by on
deck. Through ventilation of the space must
be provided before entry is attempted and
during the time that crew members are in the
space.

GRAIN
What Is Grain b) When Carried In Bulk
All cereals e.g. wheat, rice, barely, oats Both air intake and extractors are to be
pulses, seeds, corn and rye, in processed and directed at the surface.
unprocessed forms, are classified as grain in
so far as their transportation by sea is 3) Shifting Boards
concerned. It can be carried in bags or in bulk. Grain in bulk, when tilted beyond its angle of
repose will shift and will not return readily to its
original position. This will cause a
Properties Of Grain corresponding shift in the position of centre of
a) It is easily taintable gravity ‘G’ of the ship and thus influence
b) It is subject to heating and condensation righting moments and endanger the ship’s
particularly if it is shipped at the beginning of stability. Therefore, measures have to be
the season. It readily absorbs moisture. taken to ensure that shift of grain due to
c) It is likely to move if tilted beyond its angle hauling movements of the ship is restricted to
of repose. the minimum. These comprise of:
a) Erecting of shifting boards;
Precautions Relating To b) Over stowing bulk grain with bagged cargo
Carriage Of Grain or other suitably packed cargo or strapping it
down.
1) Cleanliness c) Construction of feeders to fill void spaces
a) Compartment where grain is to be loaded resulting from settling of cargo during the
should be perfectly clean and free of any voyage.
odour.
b) The bilges should be free and clean
particular attention being given to the strum
box. A coating of lime and cement wash is
advisable.
c) The limber boards should be in good
condition and repair, seams caulked. Burlap
should be laid over the limber boards and
nailed down to prevent grain from entering the
bilges and bilge well.
d) The tank-top ceiling, if fitted, should be
clean, dry and free from any stains and with
seams properly caulked. If ceiling is damp
and stained, sprinkle lime all over, leave for a
while and then sweep it away.
e) The entire compartment including bilges,
limber boards, spar ceiling, side battens, pipe
guards, fittings and all spaces including those
over the top of deck hold beams and frames
should be free of infestation of any kind.
2) Ventilation
a) When Carried In Bags
The air intakes are to be at the bottom layers Detailed specifications of shifting boards,
of cargo while the air extractors are to be feeders and other methods for securing grain
aimed at the top layers. cargoes are given in IMO GRAIN RULES

which also specify stability requirements of reduce the effect of grain shifting depends
ships used for carriage of grain in bulk.. upon the stability of the vessel.
IMO Grain Rules Longitudinal divisions or shifting boards, which

These rules must be complied with in all must be grain tight, may be fitted in both filled
respects when carrying bulk grain. Grain is and partly filled compartments. In filled
defined as Wheat, Rice, Corn, Rye, Oats, compartments they must extend downwards
barley, pulses, seeds and their processed from the underside off deck to a dist below the
forms. The rules are in three parts. Part A deckline of at least 1/8th the breadth of the
deals with definitions, shifting boards, stability compartment, or at least 0.6m below the
requirements and information, maximum surface of the grain after it has been assumed
permissible heeling moments, loading to shift through an angle of 15°. In a partly
instructions and a worked stability and loading filled compartment the division should extend
example. Part B deals with the affect on the both above and below the level of the grain, to
stability of the vessel caused by a shift of a distance of 1/8th the breadth of the
grain. Part C deals with the specifications of compartment.
shifting boards, saucering and building of grin
and securing the cargo in a partly filled 1) All timber used for grain fittings shall be of
compartment. sound quality and proven satisfactory for the
purpose for which it is intended. Suitably
Stability grained and bonded plywood can be
acceptable provided its strength is equivalent
The main criteria in connection with bulk grain
to solid timber.
loading is the stability of the vessel and this
2) Uprights must be of sound construction
must be kept foremost in all loading
and adequately secured against displacement
procedures. The IMO grain rule outline the
from their end sockets. Where there is no
minimum stability requirements of a vessel
securing at the top, then the upper most shore
loading bulk grain and these are as follow: -
or stay must be fitted as near there to as
1) The angle of heel due a shift of grain possible.
should not exceed 12° 3) Shifting boards should have a thickness of
2) The initial GM, after correction for any free not less than 50mm, be grain tight and where
surface effect, should not be less than 0.30m. necessary, supported by uprights.
3) The remaining area between the original
curve of righting levers and heeling arms upto
Bagging
40° heel must not be less than 0.075 metre-
In partly filled compartments the grain tight
radians.
can be topped off by loading bagged grain or
other suitable cargo. In this case the surface
(If openings in the vessel which cannot be
should be properly levelled off, over which
made watertight immerse at a smaller angle
should be spread separation cloth (gunny
then such an angle).
sacks). A platform made by spreading wooden
boards on wooden bearers can be used
Grain Fittings instead of separation cloth. The bulk cargo
In any compartment filled with grain there will should now be over stowed with sound, well
remain a void space between the top of the filled bags to a height of 1/16th the maximum
cargo and the deck head of the compartment breadth of the free grain surface, or to a height
and it is to be ensured that the free surface of 1.2 metres, whichever is greater.
effect and the heeling moments of a vessel so
loaded do not adversely affect the grain
behaviour in the void spaces and that the
vessel is at all times left with adequate
stability. The need to provide shifting boards
or other temporary grain fittings in order to

Strapping or Lashing
The surface of the grain in partly filled
compartment may also be secured by
strapping or lashing. In this case the surface of
the grain is levelled, but slightly crowned. The
surface is then covered with separation cloth
or tarpaulin, whose joints overlap at least
1.8m. Over this two solid floors of 25mm
timber should be laid. The first tier
athwartships and the top tier for-and-aft.
These floors are lashed down with double
steel strapping, wires or chain with a breaking
strength of at least 5000 kg. and their ends
attached to shackle or beam attachments at a
point approx 450mm below the final grain
surface. The lashings should not be placed
more than 2.4 metres apart. The lashings
must have tensioning arrangements and these
must be checked and adjusted regularly
during the voyage.

CARRIAGE OF DANGEROUS GOODS IN

PACKAGED FORM OR IN SOLID FORM IN
BULK
goods which shall include the precautions
necessary in relation to other cargo.
Regulation 1 - Application
1) Unless expressly provided otherwise, this
part applies to dangerous goods classified Regulation 2 - Classification
under regulation 2 which are carried in Dangerous goods shall be divided into the
packaged form or in solid form in bulk following classes:
(hereinafter referred to as ‘dangerous goods’), Class 1
in all ships to which the present regulations Explosive.
apply and in cargo ships of less than 500 tons Class 2
gross tonnage. Gases: compressed, liquefied or dissolved
2) The provisions of this part do not apply to under pressure.
ships’ stores and equipment. Class 3
3) The carriage of dangerous goods is Flammable liquids.
prohibited except in accordance with the Class 4.1
provisions of this part. Flammable solids.
4) To supplement the provisions of this part, Class 4.2
each Contracting Government shall issue, or Substances liable to spontaneous combustion.
cause to be issued, detailed instructions on Class 4.3
safe packaging and stowage of dangerous Substances which, in contact with water, emit
flammable gases.

Class 5.1 5) Empty uncleaned receptacles which have

Oxidizing substances. been used previously for he carriage of
Class 5.2 dangerous goods shall be subject to the
Organic peroxides. provisions of this part for filled receptacles,
Class 6.1 unless adequate measures has been taken to
Poisonous (toxic) substances. nullify any hazard.
Class 6.2
Infectious substances. Regulation 4 - Marking,
Class 7
Radioactive materials.
Labelling And Placarding
Class 8 1) Packages containing dangerous goods
Corrosives. shall be durably marked with the correct
Class 9 technical name; trade names alone shall not
be used.
Miscellaneous dangerous substances, that is
any other substance which experience has 2) Packages containing dangerous goods
shown, or may show, to be of such a shall be provided with distinctive labels or
dangerous character that the provisions of this stencils of the labels, or placards, as
part shall apply to it. appropriate, so as to make clear the
dangerous properties of the goods contained
therein.
Regulations 3 - Packaging
1) The packaging of dangerous goods shall 3) The method of marking the correct
be: technical name and affixing labels or apply
1.1) well made and in good condition; stencils of labels, or of affixing placards on
1.2) of such character that any interior packages containing dangerous goods, shall
surface with which the contents may come in be such that this information will still be
contact is not dangerously affected by the identifiable on packages surviving at least
substance being conveyed; and three months’ immersion in the sea. In
1.3) capable of withstanding the ordinary considering suitable marking, labelling and
risks of handling and carriage by sea. placarding methods, account shall be taken of
the durability of the materials used and of the
2) Where the use of absorbent or cushioning surface of the package.
material is customary in the packaging of
liquids in receptacles, that material shall be: 4) Packages containing dangerous goods
2.1) capable of minimizing the dangers to shall be so marked and labelled except that:
which the liquid may give rise; 4.1) packages containing dangerous goods
2.2) so disposed as to prevent movement of a low degree of hazard or packed in limited
and ensure that the receptacle remains quantities; or
surrounded; and 4.2) when special circumstances permit,
2.3) where reasonably possible, of sufficient packages that are stowed and handled in units
quantity to absorb the liquid in the event of that are identified by labels or placards;
breakage of the receptacle.
may be exempted from labelling requirements.
3) Receptacles containing dangerous liquids
shall have an ullage at the filling temperatures
sufficient to allow for the highest temperatures
Regulation 5 - Documents
during the course of normal carriage. 1) In all documents relating to the carriage of
dangerous goods by sea where the goods are
4) Cylinders or receptacles for gases under named, the correct technical name of the
pressure shall be adequately constructed, goods shall be used (trade names alone shall
tested, maintained and correctly filled. not be used) and the correct description give
in accordance with the classification set out in
regulation 2.

2) The shipping documents prepared by the Regulation 7 - Explosives In

shipper shall include, or be accompanied by, a
signed certificate or declaration that the
Passenger Ships
shipment offered for carriage is properly 1) In passenger ships the following
packaged and marked, labelled or placarded, explosives only may be carried:
as appropriate, and in proper condition for 1.1) safety cartridges and safety fuses;
carriage. 1.2) small quantities of explosives not
exceeding 10kg total net mass;
3) Each ship carrying dangerous goods shall 1.3) distress signals for use in ships or
have a special list or manifest setting forth, in aircraft, if the total mass of such signals does
accordance with the classification set out in not exceed 1,000kg;
regulation 2, the dangerous goods on board 1.4) except in ships carrying unberthed
and the location thereof. A detailed stowage passengers, fireworks which are unlikely to
plan which identifies by class and sets out the explode violently.
location of all dangerous goods on board may
be used in place of such special list or 2) Notwithstanding the provisions of
manifest. paragraph 1, additional quantities or types of
explosives may be carried in passenger ships
in which special safety measures approved by
Regulation 6 - Stowage the Administration are taken.
Requirements
1) Dangerous goods shall be stowed safely Carriage Of Dangerous
and appropriately in accordance with the
nature of the goods. Incompatible goods shall
Goods
be segregated from one another. The term dangerous goods is commonly
applied to a wide range of non-bulk cargoes
2) Explosives (except ammunition) which which for one reason or another are
present a serious risk shall be stowed in a considered to be potentially dangerous.
magazine which shall be kept securely closed
while at sea. Such explosives shall be Because of this, the carriage of dangerous
segregated from detonators. Electrical goods is governed by a set of regulations,
apparatus and cables in any compartment in compiled in accordance with SOLAS 1974
which explosives are carried shall be so Chapter VII (Carriage of Dangerous Goods).
designed and used as to minimize the risk of
fire or explosion. Part A of this chapter applies to dangerous
goods carried in packaged form or in solid
3) Dangerous goods in packaged form which form in bulk, in all ships and in cargo ships of
give off dangerous vapours shall be stowed in less than 500 tons gross tonnage.
a mechanically ventilated space or on deck.
Dangerous good in solid form in bulk which Part B and C of this chapter - Construction
give off dangerous vapours shall be stowed in and Equipment of ships carrying dangerous
a well ventilated space. liquids chemicals in bulk and liquefied gas in
bulk respectively.
4) In ships carrying flammable liquids or
gases, special precautions shall be taken The packaging and labelling of dangerous
where necessary against fire or explosion. goods shall be in accordance to the class of
the dangerous goods and requirements of
5) Substances which are liable to IMDG Code.
spontaneous heating or combustion shall not
be carried unless adequate precautions have The regulations state that the shipper must
been taken to minimize the likelihood of the supply the following information on the
outbreak of fire. package to be shipped: -

 the correct shipping name (technical  Class 3 - Flammable liquids

name) for each dangerous goods (trade
names are not acceptable). Volume III
 the UN number of the dangerous goods.  List of abbreviated units
 appropriate class and subsidiary risk  Class 4 - Flammable solids
labels, or of affixing placards.  Substances liable to spontaneous
 other additional markings as required. combustion
 Substances which, in contact with water,
In addition the shipping documents prepared emit flammable gases
by the shipper shall include or accompanied  Class 4.1 - Flammable solids
by, a signed certificate or declaration that the  Class 4.2 - Substances liable to
dangerous goods is properly packaged and spontaneous combustion
marked and safe for carriage. The dangerous  Class 4.3 - Substances which, in contact
goods shall be stowed safely and be with water, emit flammable gases
segregated in compliance with the IMDG  Class 5 - Oxidizing substances and
Code. organic peroxides
 Class 5.1 - Oxidizing substances
Marine Pollutant  Class 5.2 - Organic peroxides
These classes each have a distinctive label,
diamond in shape with the hazard type printed Volume IV
on it as well as the class Number, in addition  List of abbreviated units
the colour coding gives some indication as to  Class 6 - Poisonous (toxic) and infectious
the danger. substances
 Class 6.1 - Poisonous (toxic) substances
I.M.D.G (International  Class 6.2 - Infectious substances
Maritime Dangerous Goods)  Class 7 - Radioactive materials
 Class 8 - Corrosives
Code  Class 9 - Miscellaneous dangerous
IMDG Code consists of four Volumes and substances and articles
Supplements, namely Volume I, Volume II,
Volume III, Volume IV and Supplement Code.
Supplement
The General Table of Contents of these  List of abbreviated units
volumes and supplement are as follows: -  Emergency Procedures (EmS)
 Medical First Aid Guide (MFAG)
 Solid Chemical in Bulk (SB Coce)
General Table Of Contents  Reporting Procedures Packing cargo
Volume I transport (pcs)
 List of abbreviated units  Use of pesticides in ships
 General Introduction to the Code
 Annex I - Packing recommendations Assignment
 General index (alphabetical) of dangerous Please complete the assignment and return to
goods ALAM
 Numerical index (table of UN numbers with
corresponding IMDG Code page numbers, 1) State the major hazards in the carriage of
EMS numbers and MFAG table numbers) dry bulk cargoes on ships.
 List of definitions
2) State the classes as mentioned in the
Volume II IMDG code, also state the information
 List of abbreviated units required to be supplied by the shipper to the
 Class 1 - Explosives Master of the Vessel.
 Class 2 - Gases: compressed, liquefied
or dissolved under pressure


MODULE 6 - TANKERS
Tankers vary in size, type and design
depending upon the trade that they may be
engaged in. The construction of tankers,
although changed greatly and advanced with
the various types of cargoes, is basically the
same for all types. The operation of tankers
must comply with many local and International
rules, some of them being IMO rules regarding
oil pollution, personal safety, maritime safety
and loading constraints. Also at national level
tankers have to comply with the MOT
regulations, DTI of U.K., Coast Guard
regulations of the USA, Maritime Safety
Agency regulations of Japan, etc.
Oil cargoes are generally divided into two
classes:
 Light oil which include various spirits such
as gasoline white spirit, alcohol, kerosene,
light gas oil, etc. and
 Heavy oils which include crude oils,
asphalt, fuel oils, heavy gas oils, diesel oil,
lubrication oils, etc.
The discharge of oil is carried out by suction

pipes from the tanks via the pumprooms to the
manifold on either side of the deck or even at
the stern. Master valves permit and regulates 2) Direct line system - this allows the
the discharge. Ventilator piping is provided on flexibility of isolating tanks in the event of
deck so as to release excess gasses into the different grades of oil being carried. In this
atmosphere through P/V valves or mast risers. system there can be three or more
Most tankers are loaded and discharged in the independent lines, which can be used when
same manner except that more stringent different grades are carried.
measures are necessary with cargoes having
low flash points. Each line serves approximately one third or
one-fourth the number of tanks. But if only one
Pipeline Layout grade is carried these lines can be linked
Each ship owner may have his preference of together by means of cross overs.
pipeline layout depending upon the trade that
the vessel may be engaged in. The most 3) Ring main system - lines run from the
common types are as follows: - pumproom in a ring fashion serving all the
1) Free flow system - is generally used on tanks. The rings end can be made common
large crude carriers employed on fixed routes. by opening the cross over v/v's.
This system is very simple; pipelines are
generally of high capacity and therefore Terms Used In Oil Carriage
capable of trimming the vessel as the loading
progresses. There is a sluice v/v at each
Ullage
The space height left in a tank between the
bulkhead to allow oil flow from every tank
surface of the oil and the tank top for any
simultaneously as required.
expansion of the cargo, it is usually about 2%
of the tank capacity in loaded condition.

Flashpoint Earthing Or Grounding

The temperature at which the oil gives off The electrical connection of equipment to main
sufficient vapour at such concentrations, which body of the earth. On board shop the
will catch fire or explode if mixed with air and connection is made to the main metallic
exposed to naked light/incendive spark. structure of the ship, which is at earth potential
because of the conductivity of the sea.
Dangerous Oils
Oils having flash points less than 73° F or 23° Gas Free
(C). When sufficient fresh air is introduced into a
tank or compartment lower the levels of any
Ordinary Oils flammables, toxic or inert gases to those
required for specific purpose, e.g. main entry,
Oils having flashpoints between 73°F and
hot work, etc.
150°F or over 23°(c) and 65.5° (c).
Ignition Point Inert Gas

A gas such as nitrogen, CO2, or mixtures of
The temperature at which the oil gives off
gasses such as flue gas containing insufficient
vapour at a rate, which allows continuous
oxygen to support the combustion of
burning when a flame is applied.
hydrocarbons. (IMO REQMT - BELOW 8%)
Viscosity
The quality of liquids whereby they resist
internal flow.
Backpressure
The pressure that a pump might have to
counter due to oil already contained in a
length of pipeline, frictional resistance, or
bends in the line. The pump has to overcome
this pressure, which is registered on the
pressure gauge as soon as the pump is
started.
Sampling
Small quantities of oil are taken from the ship’s
tanks into bottles after the completion of
loading. These are tested in the laboratory for
Inert Condition
quality and grade and on satisfactory testing When a tank or compartment has its oxygen
one sample is kept with the loading terminal content reduced to below 8% by volume by
while another is sealed and sent back to the the addition of inert gas.
ship for delivery at the discharge port where
the sealed sample is compared again with
fresh samples taken from the tanks prior to Static Electricity
discharge. The electricity produced on dissimilar
materials through physical contact and
Bonding separation.
The connecting together of metal parts to
ensure electrical continuity Stripping
The final operation in pumping out of liquids
(the last quantity) from a tank or pipeline.

Volatility The main advantages of this system are:

The tendency of a liquid to produce gas  The cleaning equipment is inside the tanks
vapour by evaporation. there is no need to keep the tank ports open,
which result in the escape of hydrocarbon
vapours.
Tank Cleaning  The sediment is discharged along with
The amount of cleaning that a tank requires cargo as it dissolves in crude oil.
would depend upon the nature or grade of  The sludge remaining in the tanks is
oil to be carried. Clean oils e.g. naphtha, minimal hence more of next cargo can be
aviation spirit, lubrication oils, etc. require loaded.
a high standard of cleaning, black oils  Because of much less sludge retention in
such as fuel oil do not require such high tanks the cargo out turn is better.
standards of cleanliness although with the  It is much faster than conventional water
technique known as crude oil washing, washing and saves manpower required for
crude oil tanks do reach high standards. manual desludging.
Conventional tank cleaning uses high speed
steam injection into tanks for about 6 - 8 hours Load On Top Procedures
followed by hose washing using Butterworth This technique was introduced on tankers in
machines and adequate ventilation. Hot water the early 1960s, and is a common practice on
is used for hose washing so that the residue is crude oil carries and even on some product
more easily removed. If necessary a further carriers, it is as follows: -
steaming for 2 - 4 hours is carried out followed
by the final washing down. A tanker begins her passage with dirty ballast.
During the passage tanks to be filled with
clean ballast are cleaned, then filled with
Crude Oil Washing seawater ballast. The bottom portion of the
Crude oil washing is the procedure where by dirty ballast is then carefully pumped over
the washing of the tanks is done by crude oil board. Provided that it has settled for a few
itself when the discharge is in progress. The days. This bottom water should be clean, free
system has the fixed cleaning machines fitted oil having floated to the surface. It should still
inside the tank itself, and before the cleaning be discharged outside prohibited zones since
is started the atmosphere inside the tank is it is bound to contain a small amount of oil.
made safe by injecting inert gas so as to lower
the oxygen level of the tank to below 8%. At this point in the procedure each dirty ballast
tank contains several feet of residues, which
should be stripped into a single slop tank. The
resultant oil and water mixture is allowed to
settle in the slop tanks for a few days, after
which the clean bottom portion is pumped over
board the remaining slops are retained and
mixed with the next cargo.
In this manner a tanker enters he prohibited
zone at the end of her ballast voyage with
clean ballast in her tanks and small quantity of
slops.
Measurement Of The Cargo

The following considerations are taken into
account when arriving at the quantity of cargo
in a tank: -

 the accurate measurement of ullage, which 11) Cargo PLAN - check this for the following
measures the height remaining in the tank information: -
above the top of the oil. a) Products to be loaded in each tank
 the quantity of water if any is determined b) Final ullage for each tank
by the use of a dip rod at the end of which is c) SG and approx. temperature of each
applied water finding litmus paste, which product
changes colour when in contact with water. d) Total weight or quantity in barrels of each
 temperature of the cargo at three levels product
should be taken to arrive at a mean e) Final draft and trim
temperature. Changes in temperature affect
the volume of a liquid, causing expansion or 12) Start loading slowly and ensure that cargo
contraction. A rise in temperature causes a is flowing into the desired tanks.
decrease in SG and an increase in volume
and vice versa with a fall in temperature.
The amount by which the SG changes per

degree of temperature is known as the SG
correction coefficient. These coefficients vary
with the grade of oil; oil is shipped at some
agreed temperature, so any difference of
temperature necessitates a correction to be
applied. SG correction coefficient tables are
also available for quick working.
Before Loading Or Discharge

The following are some of the precautions that
are to be taken before commencing loading: -
1) Scupper plugs - ensure that all deck
scuppers have been plugged and cemented.
2) Sea suctions - all sea v/v's to be lashed
on closed position.
3) Hose connections - check for tightness,
keep empty drip tray under each. Tanker Safety Checklist
4) ‘B’ flag and red light - to be displayed 1) Is the ship securely moored?
prominently. 2) Are emergency towing wires correctly
5) Cargo pipeline lineup - checked by two positioned?
officers preferably. 3) Is there a safe access between ship and
6) Cargo tanks and tank v/v's - tanks to be shore?
MT, v/v's ready for opening. 4) Is the ship ready to move under its own
7) Pump suction and discharge valves to be power?
open. 5) Is there an adequate deck watch onboard
8) Terminal information: - and adequate supervision on the terminal?
a) Sequence 6) Is the agreed ship/shore communication
b) Loading rate system operative?
c) No. Of shore pumps to be used 7) Have the procedures for cargo, ballasting
d) Notice prior to topping up or closing and bunkering been agreed?
e) Signals for shutting down 8) Has the emergency shut down procedures
9) Mark hose, with chalk. been agreed?
10) Declaration on inspection - all tanker 9) Are cargo and bunker hoses or arms in
officers and terminal representative are good condition and properly connected?
required to carry out checks and inspection of 10) Are fire hoses and FFA onboard and
various procedures and safety precautions ashore ready for immediate use?
and sign the declaration or check list.

11) Are scuppers effectively plugged, and drip carrying capacity. All oil and sediment be
trays in position both onboard and ashore? removed from cargo tanks, which are to be
12) Are unused cargo and bunker connections, used for clean ballast.
including stern discharge line if fitted are
blanked? Why Crude Oil And
13) Have sea and overboard discharge v/v's,
when not in use, closed and lashed?
Why Not Water?
14) Are all cargo and bunker tank lids closed? Traditionally, tanks have been cleaned by
15) Is the agreed venting system being used? washing with jets of water, but such method of
16) Are hand torches of an approved type? washing produces a large amount of oily
17) Are portable VHF/UHF transceivers of an water, which must be separated. The
approved type? separation process is complicated by the oil
18) Are the ships main radio transmitter aerials and water emulsions which are produced
earthed? during washing. This has led to the retention
19) Are electrical cables to portable electrical on board of large quantities of water along
equipment disconnected from power? with the slop oil, recovered by the load-on-top
20) Are all external doors and ports in the procedure. Under the load-on-top procedure,
midships accommodation closed? cargo is subsequently mixed with the oil
21) Are all doors and ports in the after and/or water and is discharged as part of the
accommodation leading to or over looking the cargo at the receiving port.
tank deck closed?
22) Are air conditioning intakes, which may Crude oil washing is a process whereby part
permit the entry of petroleum gas, closed? of the cargo is circulated through the fixed
23) Are window type air conditioning units tank cleaning equipment to remove the waxy
disconnected? asphaltic deposits. This is normally carried out
24) Are smoking requirements being during discharge. Crude oil washing has
observed? proved to be more effective than water
25) Are the requirements for the use of galley washing for this purpose because the crude oil
and other cooking appliances being observed? acts to disperse and suspend the sediments
26) Are naked lights requirements being and tends to restore the cargo to its as -
observed? (To be signed on behalf of the ship loaded condition. If the tank is required for
and also on behalf of the terminal) clean ballast or for entering into it for survey,
repairs etc, after crude oil washing, water
washing will become necessary.
Tank Washing With Crude
Oil Historical Background
Crude oil washing has been practiced by In the past it has been recognized that crude
major tanker operators for several years. oil itself might be the most effective medium
Experience gained suggests that it is in the for removing crude oil sediments from tanks.
interests of the industry and community as a Then came the invention of tank cleaning
whole to adopt crude oil washing on all apparatus fitted within the tanks and served by
suitably equipped vessels. permanent piping, which made it possible for
cargo to be circulated through the tank
After Discharge Of Crude Oil cleaning system without risk of escape from
After discharge of cargo, ship’s tanks, which hose connections or deck openings. Inert gas
have held crude oil, usually contain deposits of was then introduced, which provided a means
sediment on the tank bottoms and other of controlling the tank atmosphere and
horizontal surfaces of the tanks structures. keeping it outside the flammable range.
This sediment, which has settled from the
cargo on passage, consists mainly of waxy Advantages Of
and asphaltic substances. If allowed to remain
it will build up after several voyages and
Crude Oil Washing
impede draining and also reduce cargo- 1. Cargo Outturn

The most important advantage, and the one In the LOAD-ON-TOP procedures, the ship’s
from which the other advantages come to the capacity to load new cargo is reduced by the
limelight, is that substantially the whole of the weight of retained slops and sediments on
sediment can be discharged with the bulk of board. Crude oil washing increases the
the cargo. This is refinable material, which is effective cargo capacity of a vessel. Typical
part of and entirely suitable for discharge with, oil/water quantity for a 215,000-dwt tanker in
the remainder of the cargo. After crude oil the tanks as retained sediment is: -
washing only small quantities of cargo will After water 1200/1300 tonnes approx.
remain in the tanks, pumps and pipelines. The washing
comparative figures for oil remaining in the After crude 360 tonnes approx
cargo system of a 215,000-dwt ship after oil washing
discharge are:-
After crude oil wash 300 tonnes approx 5. WORK LOAD
After conventional 1000/2000 tonnes Crude oil washing generates its own load and
discharge approx this usually occurs when personnel are
occupied with cargo discharge. The overall
2. Pollution Avoidance time and effort applied to tank cleaning is
The load-on-top procedure is established as much reduced, benefiting the ship’s personnel,
an acceptable method of controlling oil thereby reducing to risks of pollution due to
pollution of the sea. Its principle feature is the human error.
separation and retention aboard of the oil 6. CORROSION
content of the oil/water mixtures generated by Crude oil washing reduces corrosion.
the ballasting and water washing of oil tanks.
Without crude oil washing, large quantities of SAFETY PROCEDURES
water are needed to clean crude oil tanks and During the process of crude oil washing,
the resulting mixtures and emulsions, together following safety measures should be strictly
with dirty ballast mixtures, must be retained on adhered to: -
board until they have been settled and 1) To prevent the escape of oil or vapour.
separated. This process is much simplified 2) To maintain the tank atmosphere within
when tanks have first been crude oil washed. NON-FLAMMABLE LIMITS.
The oil content of dirty ballast is greatly 3) To prevent the development of a source of
reduced. Cargo tanks, which are to be used ignition.
for clean ballast, need only a short rinse with 4) Oil to be introduced into the tank for crude
water after oil washing, but pumps and lines oil washing at a point outside the engine room.
will need to be thoroughly flushed with water. 5) Personnel to be well trained and familiar
Tanks, which are not required for ballast, need with the crude oil washing, and possess
not be water, washed, because the sediment thorough understanding of the entire
is kept under control by crude oil washing. operation.
Hence, not only is the quantity of residue in 6) Usually crude oil washing should be
the ship greatly reduced, but also tank carried out in a port while the cargo is being
washing is much smaller. These factors pumped ashore.
reduce the pollution. 7) Stage by stage cleaning of tanks must be
programmed.
3. CARGO CONTAMINATION 8) Before clean ballast is loaded, tanks
The salt-water content of crude oil cargoes should be water-washed and the pumps and
poses a continuing problem for oil refineries. lines flushed with water.
Crude oil washing reduces salt-water 9) Control of atmospheric emissions is
contamination of the cargoes, due to the necessary by preventing ventilation of tanks.
elimination of water from tanks and reduction Hydrocarbons from tanks are not allowed to
in the quantity of slops. escape out into the atmosphere, nor is air
allowed to enter from outside into the tanks.
4. Increased Carrying Capacity 10) All crude oil washing operations must be
entered in the OIL RECORD BOOK.

11) After crude oil washing, tanks must be

washed with water and fully ventilated before
being considered gas free and suitable for
entry.
12) Cautionary notes regarding non-opening of
valves, no smoking and other safety
measures, to be posted on board.
CHECKLIST
BEFORE ARRIVAL AT THE DISCHARGING PORT
1 Has terminal been notified? YES
2 Is Oxygen analyzing equipment tested and working satisfactory? YES
3 Are tanks pressurized with good quality Inert Gas? (Maximum 8% OXYGEN)? YES
4 Is tank washing pipelines system isolated from water heater and engine room? YES
5 Are all hydrant valves on tank washing line securely shut? YES
6 Are all valves to fixed tank washing machines shut? YES
7 Have tank-cleaning lines been pressurized and leakages made good? YES
IN PORT
1 Is quality of inert gas in tanks satisfactory (maximum 8% oxygen)? YES
2 Is Inert Gas pressure satisfactory? YES
BEFORE WASHING
1 Are valves open to machines on selected tanks? YES
2 Are responsible persons positioned around the deck to watch for leaks? YES
3 Are tanks ullage gauge floats lifted on tanks to be washed? YES
4 Is Inert Gas system operating? YES
5 Are all tanks closed to outside atmosphere? YES
6 Have tanks positive Inert Gas pressure? YES
DURING WASHING
1 Are all lines oil tight? YES
2 Are tanks washing machines functioning correctly? YES
3 Is quality of Inert Gas in tanks satisfactory (maximum 8% OXYGEN)? YES
4 Is positive pressure available on Inert gas system? YES
AFTER WASHING
1 Are all valves between discharge line and tank washing line shut down? YES
2 Has the tank washing main pressure been equalized and line drained? YES
3 Are all tank washing machine valves shut? YES
AFTER SAILING
1 Have any tanks to be inspected been purged to below the Critical Dilution YES
Level prior to introducing fresh air?
2 Has oil been drained from tank washing lines before opening hydrants to YES
deck?

INERT GAS SYSTEMS

Inert gas is used to blanket some cargoes. produced when carbon dioxide is dissolved in
Cargoes, which react with air or water vapour water. Thus, the modern tankers avoid using
in the atmosphere, must be loaded into a tank, carbon dioxide and nitrogen for inerting the
which has been purged with INERT GAS, and tanks, keeping in view the dangers and cost
the tank must remain inerted until the tank element.
cleaning has been completed. Some other
cargoes have the ullage space inerted either 3) FLUE - GAS
as a fire precaution or to prevent reactions. The products of combustion of fossil fuels,
provided that these are processed into an
Hydrocarbon gas normally containing acceptable condition, are mainly used as inert
encountered is petroleum tankers cannot burn gas. Sources of such combustion gases are: -
in an atmosphere containing less than 11% of a) Internal combustion Engines like gas
OXYGEN by volume. Thus, one way to turbines and diesel engines. The products of
provide protection against fire or explosion in combustion from such engines are not suitable
the vapour space of cargo tanks is to keep the due to excessive oxygen content. This
OXYGEN content below 8% by volume, which problem can be overcome by employing an
gives an adequate safety margin. A means of “AFTER BURNER”
achieving this is by using a fixed inert gas b) Boilers
system connected by piping to each tank, c) Inert gas generators: These employ heavy
which reduces the air content of the tank and fuel oil or diesel oil.
makes the atmosphere in the tank non-
flammable. Such an atmosphere is deemed to Production Of Inert Gas
be “INERT”. Hence, introduction of inert gas
Modern tankers employ the following two main
into the cargo and surrounding void spaces, at
processes for the production of inert gas: -
all times, minimizes the risk of explosion or
1) Ships with main or auxiliary boilers
fire.
normally use the FLUE GAS, which contains
only 2% to 4% by volume of OXYGEN. This is
The choice of inert gas employed is largely
scrubbed with seawater to cool it and to
determined by: -
remove sulphur dioxide and unwanted
a) COSTS
particles. The gas is then blown into the tanks
b) Considerations of the possibility of tainting
through a distribution system.
and/or discolorisation of the cargo.
2) On diesel and gas turbine engine ships,
c) The possible introduction of other hazards
the exhaust gas of the engines contains too
d) The type of cargo
high an oxygen level for use as an inert gas.
An inert gas generating plant is specially fitted
Sources Of Inert Gas to produce gas by burning diesel oil or light
1) TRUE INERT GASES fuel oil. The gas is scrubbed with seawater to
These are helium, argon, krypton, neon, cool it and to remove unwanted particles and
XENON and radon. Radon is a radioactive gas sulphur dioxide. The gas is than blown into the
and hence it is not used. Other true inert tanks through a distribution system.
gases are TOO expensive and therefore, are
not in common use. Design
The design of any inert gas system must
2) SEMI - INERT GASES
embody the following safety precautions: -
These are Carbon dioxide and NITROGEN.
a) Prevent the passage of hot, unwashed and
Again costs are high although NITROGEN is
wet gases to the deck main.
employed with certain cargo types. The main
b) Prevent the return of hydrocarbon vapours
disadvantage of Carbon dioxide is that an
and gases to the “safe” zone.
intense electro-static field is generated in the
cargo spaces. Also very weak acid is

c) The system must be capable of (other than the inert gas main), which passes
maintaining a positive pressure in the cargo through the safety barrier and through which
tanks at all times, regardless of the cargo or hydrocarbons could pass, are also fitted with
ballast discharge rate. “U” seals.
d) The cargo tanks must NOT be capable of
being OVER PRESSURIZED by the inert gas ‘Pollution By Ships’
or by cargo vapours. Operational And Accidental
In the lat one hundred years, in the so-called
The Basic Inert Gas Systems ‘age of oil’, escapes of oil into the environment
The basic inert gas system will consist of the has increased in quantity and has become
following: - objectionable, and so, ‘oil pollution’ has
1) An inert gas source, that is, boiler flue gas arrived. In 1979 the oil production was 3000
or an inert gas generator. million tons. At every stage of its
2) A boiler flue gas valve at the uptake. transportation, oil can escape into the sea
3) A scrubbing tower, which normally acts as from ships.
a cooler.
4) A demister unit. The two main causes of sea pollution by
5) Two electric motor or steam turbine driven tankers are: -
inert gas blowers complete with isolating  Accidental pollution
valves.  Operational pollution
6) An inert gas pressure-regulating valve.
7) A means of stabilizing the plant on start- Accidental Pollution
up, which also serves the purpose of
During a voyage of an oil tanker while
maintaining a minimum inert gas flow through
conveying the oil to the refineries, accident
the scrubber and blowers. This may be either
can occur, such as collision between two
a gas
tankers or grounding of a tanker due to a
8) recirculating line or a bleed-off line at
Navigational error. Both these can result in
atmosphere, which incorporates, some form of
seepage of oil into the sea. The two important
control valve.
incidents that resulted in extensive sea
9) A liquid non-return device, (deck seal), in
pollution are the grounding of the ‘Torrey
the inert gas main, The deck seal and seal
Canyon’ and the ‘Amoco Cadiz’. The effect on
water supply line are to be fitted with means to
the environment due to these accidents has
prevent freezing of the water.
been catastrophic and the cost for cleaning up
10) A mechanical non-return device in the inert
was huge. 93% of oil over 5000 bbl is a result
gas main.
of grounding or collision.
11) A deck main with branch lines for delivery
of inert gas to the various cargo tanks. Each
cargo tank will be capable of being isolated Operation Pollution
from the deck main. The deck main is to be But by far the highest percentages of spills are
fitted with isolating valves if the mechanical caused due to operational reasons, associated
non-return valve is not of the positive closing with: -
type. The deck main is also fitted with drain a) Tank cleaning with water
valves sited at suitable points. A vent line and b) Loading and discharging
valve is fitted in the main at some point c) Ballasting and deballasting
between the gas regulating valve is open
when the inert gas plant is not in use. Thus, in complete round trip of a tanker oil can
12) A means to prevent excessive pressure or enter the sea due to a number of operational
vacuum building up in the deck main and reasons. In the following pages some of
individual cargo tanks, that is, P/V breather causes of the operational pollution are
valves and P/V breaker. highlighted and explained.
13) “U” seals and siphon breakers are fitted to
the scrubber tower effluent line deck seal drain
line, deck seal water supply line. And line

Misjudging The Filling Rate widely different loading rates without incident
Many tank overflows occur simply because and without any sense of urgency.
ships’ personnel midjudge the filling rate (i.e.,
the rate at which the tank ullages change) but Fuel Oil Loading
not infrequently this misjudgment is associated Heavy fuel oil presents a special case with
with an unexpected change in the filling rate. regard to varying loading rates, for if the
contents of the shore lines are inadequately
These changes can arise from operational heated, or in particular, if failure of a section of
changes on shore - for example, changing steam trace leads to the formation of a ‘cold
from low to high level tanks or from a for the a plug’ the initial loading rate will be extremely
near tank, both of which can result in an low until the relatively cold oil is displaced from
increased loading rate. the line, where upon the rate will increase
dramatically.
They can also arise from aboard activities
such as closing down tanks as they top off or This sudden increase can catch ships’ staff off
transferring from loading a large tank to guard and is particularly serious when loading
loading a small tank. bunkers to capacity, which operation involves
filling double bottom and deep tanks.
Some authorities seek to overcome this
problem by recommending loading all tanks The best way to guard against mishaps under
initially to ullage short of the final ullage and these circumstances is to ascertain the
thereafter topping off each tank individually at capacity of the shore line in advance and
reduced loading rate. However, this is ‘having direct the contents of the line into one of the
two bites at the cherry’ and does not main tanks before embarking upon topping off
guarantee against overflows during the initial the smaller and more difficult tanks.
loading phase. An alternative, practiced by
many experienced tanker men, is to open up Leaks From Manifold
as many tanks as possible consistent with
stability and stress as by so doing the filling
Flanges
rates of individual tanks, and thereby the effect Leakage of oil from manifold joints is not only
of changes in loading rate, are minimized. common but can be extremely messy should
the joint fall completely under pressure, for the
The filling rates to individual tanks are so oil is then sprayed into the air and spreads
arranged that tanks reach completion ullage in over a wide area of the deck and
sequence and the time interval between superstructure. There are two kinds of failure -
completion of one tank and completion of the failure of a blank securing a manifold not in
next is sufficient to allow a check that follow use, and failure of the joint between hose or
into the tank just completed has ceased. flow boom and manifold flange.
Normally trim plus the varying lengths of line
serving the tanks effects the stepping of levels Overfilling Slop Tanks
automatically but if the difference in levels is The possibility of overflowing slop tanks
considered in adequate it is increased by through valves left open to the main line has
partly closing selected tank valves. been mentioned already, but these tanks can
also overflow from the oil introduced during
As the first group of tanks fill and are shut off stripping and operations. The introduction of
other tanks in the next group are opened in eductors for stripping and crude washing has
order to maintain an acceptable filling rate. added a new dimension to this problem.
The rate into the final group is adjusted by
bleeding off to one or emptier tanks, which are In the older type of system, based on positive
reserved for that purpose and used finally as displacement pumps, only the oil from the tank
balance, or completion tanks. Using these being stripped entered the slop tank and it was
techniques product vessels have repeatedly usually sufficient precaution to lower the level
loaded three and four grades concurrently at to half tank before commencing stripping

operations. With eductors the drive liquid as regulation is only partly effective for there have
well as the stripping liquid enters the slop tank been several instances of oil escaping
and the drive liquid continues even when the overboard before the scuppers would be
cargo tank being stripped is empty. Crude resealed and others in which rain has
washing adds a further complication because subsequently waterlogged the decks and
the oil used for washing plus the oil used to carried the oil overboard.
drive the eductor is discharged to the slop
tank. Terminal Staff
In this matter terminal staff can play a useful
The situation can be alleviated by lining up the role by recognizing that strangers to the
cargo pump supplying drive and washing terminal pose a potential pollution risk, which
liquid to take suction only from the slop tank, requires special attention on their part. They
in which case the next input to the slop tank must be prepared to allow such vessels extra
will be the normal stripping from the tank being time to double check line-up before embarking
washed. This technique, however, is not upon cargo operations and, in so far as they
always feasible. are able, back up the ship’s staff by carrying
out their own check. Above all they must
An alternative is to discharge the slop tank to recognize that such vessels cannot be
a low level prior to start of stripping and then, expected to perform safely as efficiently as
when the eductor discharge has stabilized, regular traders and take care that they do not
crack open the slop tank suction until the tank inadvertently pressurize the vessels into
level remains constant or falls slowly. embarking upon operations beyond their
However, even with this technique there can capabilities.
be no guarantee that the tank will not gain
liquid as the discharge progresses and the However, regardless of caliber and
only way to prevent an overflow is to keep the experience, no vessel can claim immunity
tank under constant observation. from the possibility of a mishap during cargo
operations and if the consequences of such
Containment Of Oil On Deck mishaps are to be minimized careful attention
Oil escaping on to the decks, from whatever must be paid to emergency procedures and
source, does not become polluted until such contingency plans must be introduced to deal
time as it flows overboard on to the water with any spillages which may arise.
alongside.
Emergency Procedures
Most regulations recognized this fact and seek To be effective, emergency procedures must
to confine the oil onboard, pending its involve the whole crew regardless of rank or
removal, by calling for deck scuppers to be rating and, in the absence of a responsible
securely plugged throughout the vessel’s time officer, individual crew member, must be
alongside. However, for this regulation to be vested with the authority to order an
effective there must be a sufficiently high up emergency stop should they have reason to
stand at the ship’s side to contain the oil and suspect that all is not well. They should, if
this is by no means always the case. It will be necessary, to be permitted to actuate the
appreciated that many modern vessels, onboard main pump emergency stops and
including VLCC's, have similar small up stripping pump controls themselves.
stands. Nor is the regulation effective if the
decks become waterlogged from heavy rain, However, in order that crewmembers not
which carries the oil over the top of the up normally involved in cargo operations are in a
stand. position to judge between the normal and the
abnormal, and thereby act responsibly, they
This fact is also recognized by the regulation should be instructed in basic cargo handling
which call for a crew member to be stationed techniques.
at the aftermost scuppers in order to
periodically drain off the water, but again the

They should also be shown the locations of

the pump emergency stops and steam pump Some Of The Procedures
controls and told how to coach instructions to
the shore in such a way that there can be no
Adopted To Prevent
misunderstanding between their request for an Operational Pollution
emergency stop and a normal request for 1) Load on top system
stopping cargo.
2) Dedicated clean ballast tank system
It is essential that these on-board procedures (DCBT)
are communicated in writing to the shore staff
prior to the start of cargo operations and they 3) Segregated clean Ballast tank system
should be advised that in the matter of (SBT)
emergency stops they have the master’s
authority to act on the instructions of anyone 4) Crude oil washing system
on board ship.
5) Shore reception facilities for receiving oily/
At the same time it should be made clear that water moistures
the procedure relates only to emergency stops
and that only the officer of the watch or other 6) Oil content monitors/control system, oily
designated crew member has the authority to water separators
start cargo operations. To avoid possible
confusion the OOW or designated Some Of The Requirements
crewmember should identify himself To Prevent Accidental
personally to the shore staff where taking over
the cargo watch. Pollution, Aboard Tankers
1) Automatic radar plotting aids (ARPA)
Contingency Plans 2) Additional radar on certain size of tankers
Contingency plans should be based primarily
upon the need to clean up a spillage on deck
3) Special steering gear arrangements
with the utmost dispatch in order to prevent
the oil escaping overboard and creating
pollution. They should, also provide
contingencies for emergencies such as cargo
valves failing to close correctly when topping
off tanks, etc.
They should also incorporate on-board training

programmed whereby the ship’s personal
receive practical instruction and the
effectiveness, of the laid-down procedures is
tested. These procedures should not be
considered sacrosanct and if they are found to
have outlived their usefulness in their present
from they must be changed or discarded.

ANTI-POLLUTION OPERATIONS
SEQUENCE - IN PORT
ITEMS PREPARATION DURING CARGO COMPLETION/
TRANSFER SECURING
Ship Board Planning Communication Watch Keeping Clearing Decks
Personnel Transfer Emergency Operational Checks Departure
Procedure
Terminal Check Containment shore Spill containment Stow Hoses
Prepare persons in-charge Monitoring jetty
equipment
Ships Adequate Adequate for tide
moorings weather
Scuppers Plugged Excess water draining Unplugged
Drip trays In position Means available for Drained
draining excess water
Sea valves Secured Ballast
Hose arms Good condition Sufficient length Drained
Firmly secured Disconnected
Blanked
Cargo Checked Properly lined up for Shut down
system transfer Manifolds
blanked
Cargo tanks Ullages monitored
Arrival /Port Commence Transfer Sailing
Check lists

STATIC ELECTRICITY AND STRAY

CURRENTS
Introduction  Settling of droplets of one liquid through
In special conditions, which favor the another, e.g. water droplets separating out in a
generation of electrostatic charges and their tank containing petroleum liquid,
collection on some objects, the discharge of  Breaking up of liquid in free fall, e.g. during
the accumulated charge as a spark can ignite overhead filling of tanks;
flammable vapour. These conditions can arise  Spraying and splashing by the break-up of
in tanker operations and steps have therefore jets or bubbles, e.g. during splash filling of
to be taken to minimize the generation of static tanks and high speed ejection of liquids from
and to avoid accumulation of static charges on nozzles;
any object within a flammable atmosphere. A  impingement of solids on solids, E.g.
brief explanation of the mechanism of charge during sand blasting.
generation, and of static discharge, and the
ignition of flammable atmospheres by static is Compared with the electric currents carried in
therefore given so that the reasons for the conventional electrical equipment, the
operational safety procedures in the various quantities of electric charge transferred in
stages of petroleum liquids handling may be electrostatic generation are very small indeed,
better understood. but they can give rise to very high voltages
when they accumulate on electrically insulated
bodies.
Static Generation
Whenever unlike materials are in contact, Because of this high voltage and the small
some transfer of electric charges takes place quantity of charge involved, static electricity
across the interface or there is some quickly leaks away unless prevented by very
accumulation of electric charges at the high electrical resistances (of at least 108
interface; this occurs for solid/solid, ohms). The strength of the electrostatic
liquid/liquid, solid/ liquid and liquid/gas voltage therefore depends on the electrical
interfaces, and is of no practical significance conductivity of the materials involved and is
until the surfaces are separated from each the net result of the rates at which charges are
other. Electric charges are then carried away generated and are able to leak away. If the
by the separating materials and become material has a high conductivity, e.g. crude
evident as static electricity, positive charge oils and residue fuels, the charges leak away
being carried away by one of the materials as quickly as they are formed, whereas refined
and an equal amount of negative charge by distillate products, which in general have
the other. The word ‘static’ is used to relatively low conductivities, can accumulate
differentiate between this kind of electric considerable amounts of static charge.
charge and the more familiar form, in which a
continuous supply of electricity flows steadily
in a conductor. Charges Can Accumulate
 On insulated conductors;
Examples of separation processes causing  In low conductivity petroleum passing
electrostatic generation are: through pipes and filters;
 Passage of liquid through pipes and filters,  In mists and sprays of conducting or non-
e.g. during fueling of vehicles and loading of conducting liquids where the charged droplets
tanks. are insulated by air.
 Settling of solid particles; in liquids, as
when rust and sludge particles settle in a tank; Static Discharge
If a conducting body, e.g. a metal storage tank
or metal pipe is in contact with the ground or

connected electrically to earth, static charges  Discharged harmlessly to earth;

are conducted harmless to earth and therefore  Neutralized by recombination through a
cannot accumulated on the body. bonding connection;
 Discharged as a spark through the
Because most refined petroleum liquids are medium surrounding the charged body, when
poor electrical conductors any accumulated the electric field strength exceeds the
electrostatic charge on such liquids cannot be breakdown value of the medium.
quickly discharged by having the tank
containing them connected to earth. The Ignition Of Flammable
charge on the liquid will either gradually leak
away to earth or recombine with the charge of
Atmospheres
opposite sign from which it was separated in Before a spark can ignite a flammable
the static generating process. petroleum vapour/air mixture it must release
sufficient energy (at least 0.2 mill joules) but if
In a static generating process, e.g. filling an ignition does occur within a restricted space
unearthed metal tank with a refined petroleum containing petroleum a serious explosion can
liquid through an unearthed metal pipe which result.
is not in contact with the tank, any possibility
of accumulation of opposing electric charges, The infrequency of such explosions in the
i.e. charges of opposite sign, on the surfaces course of handling petroleum liquids suggests
of the fill-pipe and the tank can be avoided by that:
 Static sparking is relatively rare;
making an electrical connecting between
 Many static sparks are of low energy;
them, i.e. bonding them together, so that the
 At the time and place of discharge of a
separated charges are re-united through the
bond as fast as they appear. Bonding, static spark capable of igniting the surrounding
however, does not reduce the charging of the atmosphere there was no flammable
liquid itself and if there is a heavy charge petroleum/air mixture being either too weak or
accumulation within the liquid a static too high.
discharge might possibly occur between the
liquid surface and any conducting object near TANKER OPERATIONS
it.
Loading and Discharging
The charges, which accumulate on insulated The flow of electrostatic charge during loading
conductors or insulating materials, such as of a tanker is shown diagrammatically in
poorly conducting liquids, may set up high Figure 1. As the oil flows along the shoreline
electrostatic voltages. If these voltages exceed electrical charge of one sign (say negative)
the appropriate critical value for the separated from it and accumulates on the
surrounding medium, the electrical resistance pipe, which would therefore become
of the insulating medium breaks down, and negatively charged if it were not connected to
there is a rapid discharge of electricity in the earth. As it is earthed, this negative charge,
form of a spark. indicated by a bracketed (-) sign, in fact flows
to earth and, for practical purposes is lost. The
Usually the discharge takes place in air or, liquid, which was originally electrically neutral,
when petroleum liquids are being handled, in now carries a positive charge into the ship.
the vapour space above the liquid, but static The hull of the ship collects positive charge
discharges also occur within liquids, mists and from the liquid but, the ship is floating in water,
stream clouds. which whether it is fresh or salt, readily
conducts static charges, the positive charge,
In air, the critical breakdown value is about denoted by (+) in the diagram, travels through
3,000 kilovolts per meter; up to this value, air the water to earth where it too is lost.
is an effective insulator. Both ship and shore are therefore at earth
Electric charges, which accumulate on a body, potential (apart from any cathodic protection
may therefore be:

voltage). And no electrostatic can exist edge of the opening, i.e. earthed, a spark
between the ship and the jetty. could occur between the bob and the surface
of the liquid. I the tape is held clear of the
The length of time the charge is retained by opening (i.e. not earthed) until the bob is
the liquid depends on its electrical conductivity immersed in the product, the charge collected
but even with light petroleum distillates, which from holding the tape or, if he is insulated from
in general have relatively low conductivities, the deck, discharge as a spark between the
the time required is usually of the order of a tape and the tank opening.
minute or less. Exceptions are, highly purified Similarly a metal sampling “can” could collect
hydrocarbons and also where high charge when immersed in the product and
concentrations of water are dispersed within create by discharging to the tank structure
cargoes of light petroleum distillates. Then, a inside the tank or to the rim of the tank
significant voltage may be observed for up to opening as it is withdrawn.
30 minutes sue to settling of water through the
oil. As any isolated metal object can act as a
charge collector, particular care should be
The normal precaution taken to keep taken after a dry-dock period to ensure that
electrostatic generation down to an acceptable objects, such as tins, which might float about
level is to keep the linear rate of flow of liquid in the cargo, are removed.
below a specified value, which is frequently
taken as 7 meters/second. This level is, Hose Bonding
however, considered to be too high when The accumulation of electrostatic charges on
there is a large amount of free water mixed metal hose couplings is normally prevented by
with the oil, as the presence of water droplets connecting the couplings to earth through the
increases charge separation in flow through internal bonding wire in the hose. Without this
pipelines and pumps as well as settling of the bonding wire, intermediate coupling in a hose
water through the oil in the tank. In the initial string could be isolated from earth, even
stages of loading when water that may have although the end couplings are earthed, and
collected in pipelines or at the bottom of a tank could therefore collect electrical charge from
may be disturbed the linear rate of flow is the liquid flowing in the hose. Such isolated
generally restricted to 1 meter/second until the couplings might acquire a high static voltage
bottom girders of the tank are covered. This and provide a spark by discharging to any
also helps to reduce splashing and spray nearby earthed conductor.
formation, which is another charge separation
process.
Tank Cleaning
The precaution of not introducing an isolated
Ullaging and Sampling conductor into a tank applied to tank washing
When loading clean products it should be machines; the machine itself and all metal
assumed that static electricity could be couplings on the hose are bonded together
generated. Safety regulations therefore and earthed through the integral bonding wire
require that no conducting object be in the hose. During water washing the
introduced into a tank, which loading is in machine is in fact earthed via the seawater
progress and a 30-minute delay period is slowing through the hose. The amount of
necessary on completion to allow for the static produced by water washing is very
dissipation of any static electricity. To obviate small.
this, clean product vessels are supplied with
linen tapes to be used in conjunction with a Steaming tanks is potentially dangerous as an
circular wooden float, to enable bilges to be electrostatic charged mist may be produced
taken when the level of liquid is below and where steaming out is necessary the
convenient gauging by a wooden ullage stick. steam should be introduced at low velocity to
If a conducting metal dip tape is lowered lessen the charge separation.
through a deck opening into a tank containing
a charged product so that it is contact with the

No tank washing machine or other earthed according to its material of construction. In

conductor should be permitted in a tank when either case, the voltage in the system is quite
steam is present, as a spark discharge may small, of the order of a volt, but the current
occur between the steam cloud and the transferred can amount to many amperes.
machine.
As any in earthed conductor might accumulate When a ship alongside the jetty and hoses are
a dangerous static charge, unearthed rigged for the transfer of cargo, the cathodic
conductors should be banned if steam is protection current automatically extends to the
present. shipside it is electrically connected to the jetty
by the built-in bonding wire in the flexible
Loading Overall hoses. This is illustrated in figure 2b, which
Loading overall of volatile petroleum is not shows that the internal bonding wire must
permitted because of the possibility of carry on its return journey to the source of
electrostatic charging occurring in the voltage, the current that has traveled from the
presence of flammable gas. Likewise, non- anode to the ship.
volatile products may be loaded overall only if
the tanks are gas-free and provided there can The current in the internal bonding wire may
be no contamination with volatile petroleum, amount to as much as 50 amps or even more
which would give a flammable atmosphere in and when such a circuit is made or broken
the tanks. The hazard is similar to that of a heavy sparking will result. If therefore
steam cloud in that charges mist may be introduces and ignition hazard through arcing
produced, not only with the clean products when the hose connection is made or broken
normally regarded as static procedures, but at the ship’s manifold in the presence of
with other kinds of petroleum as well. hydrocarbon gas.
Water should not be loaded into a tank which Similarly, electrical currents may result from
has contained volatile clean oil until after the ship’s external cathodic protection system,
tank has been stripped because large static which protects the ship’s hull from corrosion.
voltages could be generated by water droplet Another source may be current leakage from
settling through the oil layer, if this is of any electrical installations ashore.
depth, and the tank could be in a flammable
state. The solution to the problem of stray currents is
to block their passage completely by means of
an insulating flange in the loading line, as
STRAY CURRENTS illustrated in Figure 3. Since no current can
Cathodic Protection now flow in the internal bonding wire, hose
Currents connections can be made and broken at the
In order to prevent corrosion, jetties of metallic ships manifold without any risk or arcing.
construction are provided with a cathodic
protection system, which maintains the jetties The same result could be achieved by using
at an electrical potential slightly negative to the hoses without an internal bonding wire but
water in which they are immersed. This is where more than one length is used; the risk
done by making the jetty one electrode (the from static charges on isolated intermediate
cathode) in large electrolytic cell, as illustrated hose couplings again arises. This however
in Figure 2a. The other electrode (the anode) becomes a problem only when the hoses are
may be a mass of a suitable dissimilar metal, used for pumping clean oils. It should be noted
such as magnesium, which maintains a that when an insulating flange in the loading
voltage difference between itself and the jetty line all parts of the hoses system remain
by electrochemical means, and is itself securely earthed, either from the flange
consumed in the process. Alternatively, the shoreward or from the flange in the opposite
required driving voltage may be provided from direction to the ship.
a suitable external power source through an
electrode, which may or may not be consumed

Full protection against strays current without

detriment to precautions against static So far as static electricity is concerned, the
electricity, is therefore provided by a single separate bonding wire plays no part as no
insulating flange in the loading line. electrostatic potential exists between the
ship’s hull and the jetty because both are in
Separate Bonding Wire contact with the water.
The use of a separate bonding wire between
ship and jetty, formerly required at most The separate bonding wire therefore serves
installation, is now being discontinued as no useful purpose either in dissipating static
investigation of its effectiveness has shown electricity on the jetty or the ship or in
that it serves no useful purpose. preventing stray current from flowing through
the internal bonding wire in the loading line.
The intended purpose of the wire was to short-
circuit any stray current flowing between ship
and shore so that the loading line could be
connected and disconnected safely without
risk of arcing. To be effective the total
resistance of the wire and the contact
resistance of the flameproof switch and
connecting clamp need to be of the order of
0.001 ohm. This would require a wire of a very
large diameter, even if contact resistance
could be reduced sufficiently, and indicates
that the separate wire as normally used
cannot be relied upon to perform this function.
Where installations still insist on the use of the

separate bonding wire the proper procedure
must be followed in connecting and
disconnecting so that arcing does not occur at
the ship’s side but within the flameproof
switch. It should be the first electrical
connection made between the jetty and the
ship, and the last one broken, the circuit being
completed at the flameproof switch so that the
resultant spark cannot ignite any flammable
vapour that may be present and so propagate
an explosion.

CHEMICAL CARRIERS
Extract of IMO Code for the 2) Health hazard
3) Water pollution hazard
Construction and Equipment 4) Air pollution hazard
of Ships carrying Dangerous 5) Reactivity hazard
Chemicals in Bulk 1980
Chemical cargoes carried onboard tankers A chemical tanker may be damaged as the
today include solvents, heavy chemicals, result of a collision, stranding or from some
acids, alkalis, alcohols, additives, vegetable other circumstances, which may lead to an
and animal oils and molasses. uncontrollable release of cargo. Consequently
to afford the cargo containment system some
These cargoes may possess one or more of protection from external damage,
the following properties, which influence the consideration must be paid to the sitting of the
design of the ship: - cargo tanks in relation to the ship’s sides and
1) High Specific Gravity up to 2.2 bottom. In order to determine the criteria for
2) High viscosity cargo tank sittings and ship stability, it is
3) Highly corrosive necessary to define the assumed damages
4) Poisonous and to state the conditions of survival and of
5) Flammability cargo containment.
6) Self-reactive
7) Heat sensitive DAMAGE ASSUMPTIONS
8) High heat required to prevent solidification
9) Highly sensitive to impurities because of 1) Collision Damage
possible reaction or cargo impairment. Longitudinal extent 1/3 L or 14.5 m
whichever is less
The IMO code applies to bulk cargoes having Transverse extent B/5 or 11.5 m
fire hazards in excess of petroleum, or having whichever is less
significant hazards other then flammability. Vertical extent From baseline
upwards without
The purpose of the Code is to recommend limit.
suitable design criteria, constructional
standards and other safety measures, for 2) Stranding Damage
ships used in transporting dangerous Longitudinal L/10 for 0.3L from the forward
chemicals in bulk so as to minimize the risk to extent perpendicular; and L/10 or 5
the ship, its crew and to the neighborhood. m (whichever is less) over
The Code provides for three types of ships, any other part of the ship
Type I, II and III, corresponding to three
Transverse B/6 or 10 m (whichever is
classes of hazardous chemicals.
extent less) for 0.3 L from the
forward perpendicular; and 5
Type I is the most hazardous m over any other part of the
Type II is the moderate hazard ship.
Type III is the least hazardous Vertical From baseline upward 3/15
extent or 6 m whichever is less.
The ship type classification is based on the
ship’s ability to survive specific extents of
3) Minor Damage
damage, and to prevent or limit the cargo
This is damage, which may occur during
release and also is influenced by the hazards
harbor maneuvers due to tugs, piers, etc.
associated with the release of a particular
The transverse extent, inboard from the sip’s
cargo: -
side, at right angles to the center line, at the
1) Fire hazard

level of the deepest load line is taken as TANK TYPES

760m.
Integral Tank
Ship Type I A cargo containment envelope, which forms
Is designed to transport products, which part of the ship’s hull, and may be stressed in
require maximum preventive measures to the same manner and by the same loads,
preclude the escape of the cargo. The ship which stress the contiguous hull structure. An
should be capable of sustaining or stranding integral tank is essential to the structural
damage anywhere along her length. Tanks completeness of the ship’s hull.
designed for cargoes in this type of ship must
lie outside the extent of damage specified; in
collision damage - transverse extent, and
Independent Tank
stranding damage - vertical extent, and must A cargo containment envelope, which is not a
not be closer to the ship’s shell than 760 mm. contiguous part of the hull structure. An
independent tank is built and installed so as to
eliminate whenever possible (or in an event, to
Ship Type II minimize), its stressing as a result of stressing
It is designed to transport products, which or motion of the adjacent hull structure. An
require significant preventative measures to independent tank is not essential to the
preclude the escape of the cargo carried. completeness of its ship’s hull. (‘contiguous’
means ‘touching’ or adjoining)
A ship of 150 m or less in length, should be
capable of sustaining damage anywhere in her
length, except involving either of the
Gravity Tank
bulkheads bounding a machinery space Tank having a design pressure of not greater
located aft, and surviving as specified. than 0.7 Kp/cm2 at the top of the tank. May be
integral or independent.
A ship or more than 150 m in length should be
capable of sustaining collision or stranding SHIP ARRANGEMENTS
damage anywhere along her length and Cargo Segregation
surviving as specified. A cargo subject to the Code shall be
The tanks containing cargo should be located segregated from machinery and boiler spaces,
outside the extent of damage specified; in accommodation and service spaces, drinking
stranding damage - vertical extent, and minor water and stores for human consumption; by
side damage. means of cofferdam, void space, cargo pump
room, empty tank fuel tank or other similar
Ship Type III spaces, except where otherwise excluded by
Is designed to carry products having sufficient the Code.
hazards to require a moderate degree of
containment, to increase survival in a Cargoes, which react in a hazardous manner
damaged condition. with other cargoes should: -
a) Be segregated from such other cargoes by
A ship of 125 m and over in length, should be means of a cofferdam, void space, cargo
capable of sustaining stranding damage pumproom, empty tank or mutually compatible
anywhere along her length, except inclosing cargo;
as specific. A ship of less than 125 m in b) Have separate pumping and piping
length, should be capable of sustaining systems, which should not pass through any
collision or grounding damage anywhere along other cargo tanks containing such cargoes,
her length and except for damage in way of unless encased in a tunnel; and
machinery space, survive as specified. c) Have separate tank vent systems.
There are no special requirements for cargo Cargo piping should not pass through any
tank location in Type III ships. accommodation or machinery space other
than cargo pumprooms.

A cargo subject to the provisions of the Code above such gangway, if vent is fitted within 4
should not be stowed in the fore and after m of such gangway.
peaks.
The height of vent exit may be reduced to 3 m
Access To Void Spaces above deck fore and aft gangway, provided
high velocity vent valve are fitted, directing the
Cargo Tanks And Other vapour/air upward in an unimpeded jet with an
Spaces In The Cargo Tank exit velocity of at least 30 m/s.
Area
Arrangements for void spaces, cargo tanks The vent exist should be at least 10 m from
and other spaces in the cargo tank area, nearest air intake or opening in
should be such as to ensure adequate access accommodation, service, spaces and ignition
for complete inspection. sources. Flammable vapour outlets should be
provided with readily renewable and effective
Access to the cargo tanks should be direct flame screw or safety heads of approved type.
from the open deck. For access through
horizontal openings dimensions to be such as Materials Of Construction
to permit passage of person wearing breathing Structural materials used for tank construction,
apparatus, and allow the hoisting of an injured together with associated piping, pumps, vents,
person from the bottom of the space. Minimum valves and their joining materials, should be
clear opening to be 600 mm x 600 mm. suitable at the carriage temperature and
pressure for the cargo to be carried. Steel is
For access through vertical openings, assumed to be the normal material of
providing passage through length and breadth construction.
of the space, the minimum clear opening shall
be 600 mm x 800 mm, at a height not more Where applicable, the following should be
than 600 mm from the bottom shall be plating, taken into account in selecting the material of
unless gratings or other footholds are construction: -
provided. a) Notch ductility at the operating
temperature;
Tank Vent Systems b) Corrosive effect of the cargo;
All cargo tanks should be provided with a c) Possibility of hazardous reactions between
venting system appropriate to the cargo being the cargo and the material of construction; and
carried. Systems to be so designed as to d) Suitability of linings and coatings.
minimize the possibility of cargo vapour
accumulating about the decks, entering Maximum Allowable
accommodation and machinery spaces, and in Quantity Of Cargo Per Tank
the case of flammable vapours, other spaces The quantity of cargo, required to be carried in
containing sources of ignition. They should a Type I ship, should not exceed 1,250 cubic
also be designed to minimize possible meters in any one tank.
spraying on deck.
The quantity of cargo, required to be carried in
Tank vent outlets should be arranged to a Type II ship, should not exceed 3,000 cubic
prevent entrance of water into the cargo tanks, meters.
and at the same time, should direct the vapour
discharge upwards in the form of unimpeded
jets. Certificate Of Fitness For
The Carriage Of Dangerous
Vent Exits Chemicals In Bulk
The height of vent exits should not be less After satisfactory inspection of a ship, a
than 4 m above the weather deck or, if a fore certificate should be issued, containing the
and aft gangway is fitted, not less than 4 m following information: -

a) Name of ship to about 40 different tanks, each with its own

b) Port of registration system.
c) Ship type
d) Cargoes which ship is permitted to carry After each product has been off loaded the
e) The conditions of carriage tank is frequently ventilated and then washed,
f) Any authorized exemptions permitted by sometimes only with a bottom flush. However,
the Code. because even the tank drainage can be
sufficient to put a chemical off specification, it
Chemical Tanker Hazards is necessary to enter the tank to mop out the
Chemical tankers differ substantially from oil draining prior to tank inspection by second
tankers in the type of operation as they are person.
requires to handle a large number of small
parcels of differing chemicals on a continuing Incidents of asphyxiation in tanks of chemical
basis, rather than alternating between oil and and other tankers are unfortunately too
ballast voyages. The chemical tanker frequent.
operation involves frequent cleaning and
inspection of the tanks to maintain the high- Polymerization
grade quality of the product and to prevent any If a tank containing a monomer starts to
interaction of the chemicals. polymerize heat is liberated which can
accelerate the reaction. Monomer can then be
Principal Hazards For Crew vaporized which can lead to tank overpressure
The principal hazards to which crewmembers and rupture. Polymerization of a monomer can
are exposed in handling chemicals in this be caused by impurities either in the tank at
condition are: - the start or introduced subsequently by, for
 Tank explosion example, inert gas. Exclusion of oxygen,
 Tank over pressuring making the polymer inhibitor ineffective, will
 Asphyxiation aggravate any problems of impurities.
 Polymerization
 Chronic and acute poisoning LIQUIFIED GAS CARRIERS
Tank Explosion 1) Fully Pressurised Ships

Explosion occurs when an air/fuel mixture These ships carry cargo in steel pressure
within certain specific concentration is ignited. vessels designed to withstand about 17
kg/cm. The tanks are normally cylinders,
Tank Over Pressuring mounted horizontally or vertically. The ships
tend to be small, with a cargo capacity of up to
Tank over pressuring leading to rupture can
about 1000m3 and they normally carry LPG or
be caused from hydraulic or gas pressure
ammonia in the short sea trade.
effects and when the tank relief system is
inoperable.
2) Semi Refrigerated Ships
These ships have pressure vessels designed
Pressuring of a ships tank by, for example,
to carry cargoes at temperatures below
inert gas will tend to increase any leakage
ambient. The grade of steel used governs the
from a tank and subject crewmembers to a
temperature limitation. The trend to be larger
hazard unless the pressure tightness of the
ships with cargo capacities of up to 12000m3.
tank is ensured.
The cargo tanks are insulated and there is
usually a reliquefaction plant on board.
Asphyxiation
One particular aspect of chemical tanker 3) Fully Refrigerated Ships
operation, which differentiates it from product These are larger ships of cargo carrying
and oil tankers, is the frequency of ventilating capacity varying from 5000m3 to 100,000m3.
and cleaning tanks. Chemical tankers have up They carry LPG at temperatures between -

55°C and - 0.5°C. The tanks are made of

carbon - manganese steel and are insulated.
There is a reliquefaction plant on board.
Prismatic freestanding tanks are the most

common and the hold is generally insulated.
4) Ethylene Sips
The cargo is usually fully refrigerated at -
104°C, and the tanks are made from
aluminum, nickel steel or stainless steel. They CARGO TANKS
are insulated and a reliquefaction plant is The cargo tanks on LPG and LNG ships are
fitted. These ships tend to be specialized with divided into three groups.
cargo capacities varying from 1000m3 - a) Independent tanks
12000m3. b) Membrane or Semi Membrane tanks
c) Integral Tanks
a) Independent tanks
1) Type A Tank
These are independent rectangular and
prismatic tanks which support their own weight
and the weight of the cargo, which is carried in
a refrigerated, or semi refrigerated condition.
2) Type B Tank
This is a low pressure tank based on pressure
vessel design, is normally spherical in shape
and made from aluminum alloy or 9½ nickel
steel.
3) Type C Tank
This type of tank is basically a pressure
vessel, and is either cylindrical or spherical in
shape. It is used either with fully pressurized
or with semi refrigerated cargoes.
b) Membrane Tank
This type of tank has a primary barrier made
of a thin material, which is supported by the
inner hull via insulation. ‘Technigas’ and ‘Gas-
transport’. Membranes are some of the latest
designs. These tanks are very large and do
not have centerline bulkheads.
5) LPG, LNG Ships
The cargo is carried fully refrigerated at - c) Integral Tanks
163°C. The cargo tanks are either self- These tanks form part of the ships hull.
supporting or membrane type and are made Normally the design pressure is 0.25 kg/cm
from aluminum, nickel steel or stainless steel, and under normal circumstances the
and are insulated. Generally a reliquefaction temperature should not fall below - 10°C.
plant is not fitted. The ‘boil off’ gas is either
vented or burnt in the main machinery. These
ships are large with cargo capacities varying
from 40,000m3 to 135,000m3.

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Malaysian Maritime Academy Correspondence Course Cargowork

MODULE 1 -TYPES OF CARGO

ALAM/July 2002 Page 1

ALAM/July 2002 Page 2

Bale Capacity Examples of stowage factors are: -

Given cargo hold space = 1000 cu m

ALAM/July 2002 Page 3

volume is carefully drawn up to show the identification,

ALAM/July 2002 Page 4

ALAM/July 2002 Page 5

ALAM/July 2002 Page 6

MODULE 2 - FACTORS TO CONSIDER FOR

1) Cargoes should be well distributed in all General Cargo Stowage

7) Valuable cargo should be stowed in d) Maximum use of available space on board

ALAM/July 2002 Page 7

ALAM/July 2002 Page 8

ALAM/July 2002 Page 9

ALAM/July 2002 Page 10

DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF

ALAM/July 2002 Page 11

compartments, proper trimming of ventilators Slinging Of General Cargoes

Packaging Of General Cargo Some of the principle types of slings, available

ALAM/July 2002 Page 12

The hook slips under the lip of the drum or

BASIC CARGO HANDLING Plate Clamps

Consists of a length of chain with a large ring

ALAM/July 2002 Page 13

This is formed by sewing a piece of canvas

Careless Winch Work

Crow and Pinch Bars

ALAM/July 2002 Page 14

Dragging Cargo crushing the outside upper packages by

Net slings are most useful with many kinds of

Canvas or web slings should be used for

A draft composed of many packages should b) Sweat may be differentiated as follows:

ALAM/July 2002 Page 15

i) Ship’s Sweat - exists when water removing fumes and odours

ii) Cargo Sweat - arises when

It occurs when the temperature of the air in the

It is likely to be found on voyages from cold to

c) Prevention of Damage by Sweat )ii Surface Ventilation - with the flow of

ALAM/July 2002 Page 16

The tank top is usually covered with a double

Similar dunnage arrangements will be found in

ALAM/July 2002 Page 17

The use of dunnage may be summarised as:

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2) Describe ship sweat and cargo sweat and

1) State the functions of a cargo plan in a

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MODULE 3 - CONVENTIONAL DERRICK

The ‘cargo runner’ downhaul is led from the

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YO-YO Gear a union hook and worked in conjunction with

A cargo wire, or runner, from each boom is

Fig. A - Union purchase rig

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load, by the topping lift span led to a separate

In view of the greater SWL, the topping lift

In view of the heavy loads involved and the