United States

Department of
National
Agriculture Engineering
Soil Handbook
Conservation
Service

Section 15 Irrigation
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Chapter 1

Soil-Plant-Water
Relationships
 Chapter 1
Soil-Plant-Water Relationships
0 Page
Contents

@ Soil ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 1-3

Soil Physical Properties ......................................................................................................................................................... 1-3
Soil Texture ........................................................................................................................................................................... 1-3
Mineral Soil ....................................................................................................................................................................... 1-3
Organic Soil ....................................................................................................................................................................... 1-5
Soil Structure ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1-5
Tilth .................................................................................................................................................................................. 1-5
Soil Porosity .......................................................................................................................................................................... 1-6
Soil Compaction ................................................................................................................................................................. 1-7
Soil Salinity and Sodicity ...................................................................................................................................................... 1-7
Categories of Salt-Affected Soils .......................................................................................................................................... 1-7
Soil Water .............................................................................................................................................................................. 1-8
Soil Water Potential .......................................................................................................................................................... 1-8
Soil Water Characteristic Curves ...................................................................................................................................... 1-10
Water Movement in Soil .................................................................................................................................................. 1-10
Plant Available Water ..................................................................................................................................................... 1 - 1 2
Soil Water Measurement ................................................................................................................................................... 1-14
Methods Used for Characterizing Soil Water .................................................................................................................... 1-14
Gravimetric ................................................................................................................................................................... 1 - 1 5
Feel and Appearance Method ......................................................................................................................................... 1-15
Tensiometers ............................................................................. ............................................................................... 1-17
Electrical-Resistance Instruments .................................................................................................................................. 1-18
Neutron Scattering .......................................................................................................................................................... 1-19
Heat Dissipation ........................................................................................................................................................... 1 - 1 9
Sampling Error ................................................................................................................................................................... 1-19
Location of Soil Water Measurements .............................................................................................................................. 1-20
@ Water Intake .......................................................... ................................................................................................................... '1-21
Percolation ............................................................................................................................................................................. 1-21
Factors Affecting Infiltration ................................................................................................................................................. 1-21
..
Soil Water Content ..................................... ...................................................................................................................... 1-21
Soil Sealing ........................................................................................................................................................................ 1-21
Surging ............................................................................................................................................................................... 1-22
Compaction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1-22
Tillage ................................................................................................................................................................................ 1-22
Soil Cracking ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1-22
Organic Material ................................................................................................................................................................ 1-22
Salts in Soil ...................................................................................................................................................................... 1-22
Sediments in Irrigation Water ............................................................................................................................................ 1-23
Soil Erosion ........................................................................................................................................................................ 1-23
Land Leveling .................................................................................................................................................................... 1-23
Temperature .................................................................................................................................................................... 1-23
Surface Storage .................................................................................................................................................................. 1-23

[Link]. NEH 15.1. 2nd Edition. Dec 1991 .

 Infiltration Stages ...................................................................................................................................................................
Cumulative Infiltration and Infiltration Rate Relations .........................................................................................................
Basic or Steady Infiltration Rate ................. :.........................................................................................................................
Seasonal and Spatial Variation ..............................................................................................................................................
Field Infiltration Measurements ............................................................................................................................................
Models ...................................................................................................................................................................................
Plants .......................................................................................................................................................................................
Plant Root Systems ................................................................................................................................................................
Crop Species Rooting Characteristics................................................................................................................................
Factors Affecting Root Growth .........................................................................................................................................
Water Flow Into Roots .......................................................................................................................................................
Water Uptake-Root Profile Relations ................................................................................................................................
Plant Water Use from Shallow Water Tables ........................................................................................................................
Design Water-Extraction Depth ..........................................................................................................................................
Evapotranspiration (ET) ........................................................................................................................................................
Potential ET ...........................................................................................................................................................................
Predicting Crop ET ................................................................................................................................................................
Crop Coefficient ....................................................................................................................................................................
Crop Critical Stress Periods ............................................................ ......................................................................................
%) Yield-Evapotranspiration Relationships ...................................................................................................................................
@ Concepts of Production Functions ............................................................................................................................................
@ Yield-Evapotranspiration Production Functions .......................................................................................................................
@ Yield-Applied Water Relationships ..........................................................................................................................................
@ Transferability of Yield-Evapotranspiration Functions ............................................................................................................
Salinity Effects ......................................................................................................................................................................
Plant Factors ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Soil Factors ............................................................................................................................................................................
Climatic Factors .....................................................................................................................................................................
Specific Ion Effects ...............................................................................................................................................................
Acid Soils ..............................................................................................................................................................................
Chemistry of Acid Soils .....................................................................................................................................................
Effects of Soil Acidity on Plant Growth ............................................................................................................................
Crop Response to Liming in the United States ..................................................................................................................
Determining Lime Requirement ........................................................................................................................................
@ Scheduling Irrigations ...............................................................................................................................................................
Water Balance .......................................................................................................................................................................
Allowable Water Depletion ...............................................................................................................................................
Soil Water Extraction Depth ............................ ................................................................................................................
Net Water Calculations ......................................................................................................................................................
Water Balance Accounting Procedures .............................................................................................................................
Plant Based Concepts ............................................................................................................................................................
Pressure Chamber ..............................................................................................................................................................
Leaf or Canopy Temperature Methods ..............................................................................................................................
Visual Appearance .............................................................................................................................................................
Indicator Plants ..................................................................................................................................................................
Automation in Irrigation Scheduling .....................................................................................................................................

210.W. NEH 15.1. 2ndEdition Dec . 1991 .

 1-1.-Four climatic areas in the United States: arid, semiarid, subhumid, and humid (AAVIM Planning
for an Irrigation System, 2nd edition, 1980) .....:............................................................................................................ 1-2
1-2.-Proportions of sand, silt, and clay in basic soil textural classes ..................................................................................... 1-4
1-3.-Types of soil structure and their effect on downward movement of water (U.S. Dept. Agr. and
U.S. Dept. of Int. Agr. Inf. Handbook 199. Irrigation on Western Farms, 53 pp., illus. 1959) .................................... 1-6
1-4.-Effect of soil bulk density on alfalfa root growth in greenhouse pots at the end of 80 and 110
days (D.W. Grimes, W. R. Sheesley, and P. L. Wiley, 1978. Agron. J. 70:955-958) ................................................. 1-8
1-5.-Illustrations and example calculations for gravitational, matric, and pressure potential based
on weight as specifying the unit of water. Increasing depth below the soil surface is considered
to be negative in the illustrations (R. J. Hanks and G. L. Ashcroft, 1980. Applied Soil Physics.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin) ........................................ . ................ ......................... . . ..................... . . . . . . . . 1-10
1-6.-Soil water characteristic curves (M. D. Thorne and W. A. Raney. Soil Moisture Evaluation.
U.S. Dept. Agr. ARS 41-6, 14 pp., illus. 1956) ............................................................................................................... 1-11
1-7.-Water penetration and movement in sandy and clay loam soils; to achieve complete wetting,
furrows have to be closer together on sandy soils .................................................................................................. 1-13
1-8.-Relation between the water content and the water tension of a soil ........................................................................ . 1-14
1-9.--General relationship between soil water characteristics and texture (adapted from The Nature
..
and Properties of Soils, Nyle C. Brady, 1984) ................................................................... ............................... 1-14
1-10.-Water release curve for three soils (M. D. Thome and W. A. Raney, 1956. Soil Moisture
Evaluation. U.S. Dept. Agr. ARS 41-6, 14 pp.) ............................................................................................................. 1-15
1-11.-Soil water depletion by cotton on a Panoche clay loam (D. W. Grimes, 1986.
Texas Agr. Exp. Sta. MP-1616) ...................................................................................................................................... 1-16
1-12.-Tensiometers are used to measure soil water at a point in the soil profile ...................................................................... 1-17
1- 13.-Electrical resistance soil water meters ................... ............. . . . . . . . ..................... ..................... ................ . . . .. . . . 1-18
1-14.-Predicted infiltration rates for a deep Columbia silt loam with different initial water contents
(ASAE Monograph, Farm Irrigation Systems, 1980) .................................................................................................. 1-21
1-15.-Potential runoff for high and low steady water application rates similar to stationary sprinklers
(ASAE Monograph, Farm Irrigation Systems, 1980) .................................................................................................. 1-23
1- 16.-Potential runoff for nonstationary sprinkler ....................................................... . .......... ............ . . . ......... . .. .. 1-24
1-17.-Relation of cumulative infiltration to time for three soils ............................................................................................... 1-25
1-18.-Relation of infiltration rate to time for three soils ........................................................................................................... 1-26
1-19.-Fibrous root system of corn (left) and taproot system of sugar beet (right): both are
approximately two months old ([Link] Russell, 1977. Plant root system. McGraw-Hill,
U.K. p. 51 and John E. Weaver and Frederic E. Clements, 1938. Plant Ecology.
McGraw-Hill, New York and London, p. 313) ............................................................................................................... 1-28
1-20.-Average water extraction pattern of plants growing in a soil without restrictive layers and with an
adequate supply of available water throughout the root zone ......................................................................................... 1-31
1-21.-Water extraction patterns as determined by available water content in various parts of soil
profile. Width of each profile represents total available water; gross area (height and width)
of each profile represents total available water in profile; hatched area shows water extrac-
tion pattern for each profile [Dale R. Shockley, 1955. Capacity of soil to hold moisture.
Agri. Engin. 36(2): 109-1121 ........................................................................................................................................... 1-32

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

1-22.-Upward flux-water table depth relationships for eight North Carolina soils (W. Skaggs, 1980.
Drainmod. USDA-SCS Reference Report) .................................................................................................................1-33
1-23.--Change in relative rooting depth with relative time for annual crops (H. Borg and D. W. Grimes,
1986. Transactions of the ASAE 29: 194-197) ............................................................................................................... 1-34
1-24a through l-24f.-Monthly reference estimates from several different procedures versus lysimeter-
measured ET (ASCE Water Requirements Committee, 1987) .......................................................................................1-36
l-25.-Illustration of a crop coefficient curve (J. Doorenbos and W. [Link], 1977. Guidelines for
predicting crop water requirements. FA0 Irrig. and Drain. Paper No. 24, p. 144) ....................................................... 1-38
1-26.-Alfalfa hay yield-ET and yield applied water (AW) functions for the San Joaquin Valley, California v
(D. W. Grimes, personal communication)........................,
........................................................................................... 1-39
1-27.--Cotton lint yield-ET and lint yield-applied water (AW) functions foi the San Joaquin Valley,
California (D. W. Grimes and Kamal Elzik, 1982. Cotton water management. University of
California Bull. No. 1904) ...............................................................................................................................................1-39
1-28.-Relative yield of Thompson grapes versus relative evapotranspiration (L. E. Williams and
D. W. Grimes, 1987. Modeling vine growth-development of a data set for a water balance
subroutine. Sixth Australian Wine Industry Tech. Conf., Adelaide) ............................................................................ 1-40
1-29.- Nutrient Availability in Acid Soils: the wider the bar, the more
available is the nutrient (adapted from Emil Truog, USDA Yearbook of Agriculture, 1943-47) ................................. 1-46
l-30.--Components of a field water balance (E. Fereres, D. W. Henderson, W. [Link], W. F. Richardson,
and R. S. Ayers, 1981. Basic imgation scheduling. Div. of Agricultural Sciences University of
California Leaflet 21 199, 8 pp.) ....................................................................................................................................1-49
1-31.--Generalized relationship between soil-water retention and crop growth ........................................................................ 1-50
l-32.-Diurnal leaf water potential curves for cotton of contrasting water stress levels (D. W. Grimes and
H. Yamada, 1982. Relation of cotton growth and yield to minimum leaf water potential.
Crop Sci. 22: 134-139) ...................................................................................................................................................1-53
l-33.-Foliage-air temperature differential versus air vapor pressure deficit for well-watered alfalfa grown
at a variety of specific sites and dates (S. B. Idso, R. D. Jackson, R. J. Pinter, Jr., R. S. Reginato,
and J. L. Hatfield, 1981. Normalizing the stress-degree day parameter for environmental variability.
Agric. Meteorol. 24:24-55) ..............................................................................................................................................1-55

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

 1-1.-Range in particle size by texture .... ... ..... ... ....... .. .. .. ... .. ....... . ........... .... .. ....., .... ..... ...., . ......... ...... .. 1-3
1 - 2 . 4 e n e r a l terms for basic soil textural classes (U.S. Dept. of Agr. Soil Survey Manual,
430-V. June 9, 1981) ..................................... .... ......... ................ ..............................................................................
1-5
1-3.4lassification of salt-affected soils ..................................................................................................................................1-9
1-4.-Ranges in available water content by soil textural classes .............................................................................................
1-13
1-5.-Data source summary of several crop species on the depth development of roots with time and
expected maximum rooting depth (RD,) under favorable environmental conditions (H. Borg and
D. W. Grimes, 1986. Depth development of roots with time on empirical [Link]
a of the ASAE. Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 194-197) ...................................... ...........................................................................
1-28
1- 6 . 4 e n e r a l factors for conversion from one method of estimating crop ET to another
(Snyder & Dickey, 1982) ...............................................................................................................................................
1-35
1-7.-Critical periods for water stress, symptoms, and some other considerations for several
important crops ..........................
..,.,.....,.,. ., ......... ... ............... .... .. . . .... . . .. . ...... .. .
... . .. ... . ....... . . . .. .. . 1-37
1 - 8 . S a l t tolerance of herbaceous crops (E. V. Maas, 1986. Applied Agricultural Research 1: 12-26).................................1-42
1-9.-Tolerance classification of plants to boron (Robert S. Ayers, 1977. Quality of water for imgation.
J. Irrig. Drain. Div. ASCE, IR2, 103:135-154) .............................................................................................................. 1-44
1-10.-Permissible soil pH ranges for various crops growing on mineral soils in Michigan (C.M. Woodruff,
1967. In Soil, Acidity and Liming. Robert W. Pearson and Fred A. Adams, eds. Agronomy
Monograph No. 12. Amer. Soc. Agron. Madison, WI, p. 222) .....................................................................................
1-47
1-11.- Approximate amounts of finely ground limestone needed to raise the pH of a 7-inch layer
of soil .....................................................................................................................................................
1-48
[Link] percentage of available soil water content remaining in the crop root zone when
an imgation should be scheduled for several common crops .......................................................................................
1-50
1-13.-Water retention characteristics of a Hinckley loamy sand ...............................................................................
1-51
1-14.-Example of water balance accounting procedure ...........................................................................................................
1-52

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Nomenclature

AW = Applied water in inches H = Hydraulic head in feet

AWC = Available water capacity of a soil. Water K = Hydraulic conductivity in feet per day
content difference between FC and
kc = Crop coefficient, unitless
PWP
= Coefficient to convert ETo to ETc
B.D. = Bulk density of soil in grams per cubic Kc

centimeter KP
= Coefficient to convert Epmto ETc

Ce, = Coefficient to convert ETPto ETc KPm

= Coefficient to convert Epmto Eto
C,S,b = Infiltration function parameters related to soil Ks = Saturated hydraulic conductivity in inches per
characteristics day
CWSI = Crop water stress index k,a = Infiltration function fitting parameters
D = Depth of water in soil in inches L = Distance in feet
d = Soil depth in inches Md = Difference between initial and final water
dw = Density of water as 1 gram per cubic content
centimeter PWP = Permanent wilting point (the water content of
= Evaporation from National Weather Service a soil at 15 atmospheres tension)
EPm
"class A" evaporation pan = Flux density in volume per unit area per time
9
ECe = Electrical conductivity of soil solution R = Universal gas constant
saturation extract in decisiemens per meter
ET = Evapotranspiration in inches RDm = Maximum rooting depth
ETa = Actual crop ET SAR = Sodium absorption ratio, unitless

ETc = Evapotranspiration of a specified crop Sf ,= Suction or matrix potential at the wetting

front in inches
ETm = Maximum crop ET
T = Absolute temperature in degrees kelvin
ETo = Reference ET (approximates 4-7 inch
tall grass) t = Time after irrigation starts in hours
= Potential ET (approximates uncut alfalfa) Ta = Air temperature in degrees celsius
ETp
F = Cumulative infiltration in inches f = Foliage temperature in degrees celsius
f = Infiltration rate in inches per hour ya = Actual crop yield associated with ETa
FC = Field capacity, the water content a soil will
Ym = Maximum crop yield associated with ETm
hold when freely drained (1110 to 1 / 3 atmos-
phere tension).

fc
= Final infiltration rate in inches per hour

f0
= Infiltration rate at time 0 in inches per hour

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

 Preface

Section 15 of the National Engineering Handbook (NEH),

Irrigation, supplies engineers and others with the basic data
necessary to plan, design, and maintain efficient conserva-
tion irrigation practices. Engineering principles and research
findings have been screened to give emphasis to the infor-
mation needed to provide technical assistance to individual
farmers and groups of farmers. Chapter 1, Soil-Plant-Water
Relationships, describes those properties of soils and plants
that affect the movement, retention, and use of water that are
essential to plant growth.
The first edition of this chapter was published in March
1964. This updated second edition was prepared by Dr. Wes
Wallender and Dr. Don Grimes of the University of Califor-
nia at Davis under contract to the Soil Conservation Service
(SCS). The principal reviewers of this publication for SCS
were Paul K. Koluvek, retired, Gylan L. Dickey, Carroll A.
Hackbart, and Elwin A. Ross, National Technical Center
irrigation engineers, and Swayne F. Scott, national imgation
engineer, retired. Valuable comment also was provided by
Bobby Birdwell, assistant director of the Soils Division,
retired; Milton W. Meyer, soil characterization specialist;
-
and David L. Schertz, national agronomist. Final review
was provided by Richard Van Klaveren, national irrigation
engineer.
w NEH Section 15, Chapter 1 is written for the employees of
the Soil Conservation Service who provide technical
assistance to the water user.

October 1990

[Link] 15- 1. 2nd Edition. Dec. 1991

Chapter 1

Soil-Plant-Water Relationships

Introduction

Imgation is the controlled application of water to arable Water is introduced to the soil by an imgation system, by
lands in order to supply crops with the water requirements a regulated water table, or by precipitation. It is stored in the
not satisfied by natural precipitation. In arid climates soil matrix and then extracted by plant roots to meet the
(fig. 1-I), adequate food and fibers cannot be produced plant evapotranspirational (ET) needs. This chapter on soil-
without irrigation. Because of the potential for low crop plant-water relationships treats the physical properties of
yields and risk of crop failure due to variations in rainfall, soils and plants that affect the movement, retention, and use
irrigation in semiarid regions is needed most of the time. of water and that must be considered in designing and
Furthermore, imgation in humid and subhumid regions is operating systems for conservation imgation.
desirable as insurance against crop losses. Even though In planning and designing an imgation system, the techni-
summer rainfall ordinarily is sufficient for crop growth, cian is concerned primarily with the water-holding capacity
sometime during the year a drought may occur. Production of a soil, particularly in the root zone of the plant; with the
of a profitable crop is generally the objective of agriculture. water-intake rate of the soil; with the root system of the crop
Irrigation provides the insurance for a profitable agriculture to be grown; and with the amount of water that the crop
in semiarid, subhumid, and humid areas; it is a necessity in uses. In addition, a working knowledge of all soil-plant-
arid regions. water relationships is necessary in order to plan and manage
efficiently the imgation for particular crops grown on
particular soils and in order to adjust the design to various
conditions.

210-VI,NEH 15-1,2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Figure 1-1.

Four Climatic Areas in the United States: Arid, Semiarid, Subhumid, and Humid

Climatic Area

Arid - Little

0Serni-arid -

Humid - Enough annual precipitation for most crops,

but unevenly distributed

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Soil

Soils function as a storehouse for plant nutrients, as Table 1- l .-Range in particle size by texture
habitat for soil organisms and plant roots, and as a reservoir
for water to meet the evapotranspirational demands of plant Soil separate Particle
communities. The amount of water that a soil can hold for diameter
plant use is determined by its physical and chemical proper- (millimeters)*
ties. This amount determines the length of time that a plant
can be sustained adequately between irrigations or rainfall Very coarse sand 2.0 - 1.0
events. This amount also determines the frequency of Coarse sand 1.0 - .5
irrigation, the amount to be applied, and the capacity of the Medium sand .5 - .25
irrigation system needed for continuous optimum crop Fine sand .25 - .1
growth. Very fine sand .I - .05
Silt .05 - .002
Clay Less than .002
Soil Physical Properties
*millimeters x 0.03937 = inches
Mineral soils are porous mixtures of inorganic particles,
decaying organic matter, air, and water. They also contain a Soil textural classes are based on different combinations
variety of living organisms. The parent material of mineral of sand, silt, and clay. For some purposes it is necessary to
soils consists of loose, unconsolidated fragments of weath- make fine distinctions in texture; the basic classes used in
ered rocks or unconsolidated sediments. Physical and terms of size distribution, as determined by mechanical
chemical weathering, with the translocation and the accumu- analysis in the laboratory, are shown in figure 1-2.
lation of various substances, give rise to a horizontal In places, it is more convenient to speak of texture in
layering of the soil mass that is frequently visible in trenches general terms; acceptable terms for groups of the basic
and road cuts. Collectively, these horizons or layers are classes are shown in table 1-2.
called the soil profile. The characteristics of the layers of the In the field, soil texture can be determined by feeling the
profile affect root growth and the retention and transmission soil with the fingers. If necessary, this determination can be
of water in the soil. checked later in the laboratory. The USDA Soil Survey
Two important physical properties of soils are texture and Manual includes the following general definitions of soil
structure. Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of textural classes in terms of field experience:
variously sized groups of mineral particles in a specific soil
or horizon. Soil structure refers to the manner in which soil S a n d . S a n d is loose and single-grained. The individual
particles are arranged in groups or aggregates. Together, soil grains can be seen or felt readily. Squeezed in the hand when
texture and soil structure help to determine the supply of dry, sand falls apart when pressure is released. Squeezed
water and air in a soil. The inherent characteristics of a soil when moist, it forms a cast but crumbles when touched.
may be adversely affected by soil compaction. Compaction
can extensively modify soil aeration, water retention, Sandy Loam.-A sandy loam is soil containing a high
transmission properties, root penetration, temperature percentage of sand but having enough silt and clay to make
relations, and the nutritional properties of a soil system. it somewhat coherent. The individual sand grains can be
readily seen and felt. Squeezed when dry, a sandy loam
forms a cast that falls apart readily. If squeezed when moist,
Soil Texture a cast can be formed that bears careful handling without
breaking.
Mineral Soil
The variously sized groups of mineral particles in a soil Loam.-A loam is soil having a relatively even mixture of
are called separates. The classification of soil separates used different grades of sand, silt, and clay. It is mellow with a
by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and their range in somewhat gritty feel but is fairly smooth and slightly plastic.
diameter size are shown in table 1- 1. Coarse fragments, Squeezed when dry, it forms a cast that bears careful
larger than 2 millimeters in diameter, are not included. handling, and the cast formed by squeezing the moist soil
can be handled freely without breaking.

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Figure 1-2.

Proportions of Sand, Silt, and Clay in Basic Soil Textural Classes

Percent sand
7

Silt Loam.-A silt loam is soil having a moderate amount of forms a cast that can be handled freely without breaking;
fine sand and only a small amount of clay; over half of the when moistened and squeezed between thumb and finger, it
particles are of the size called silt. When dry, a silt loam does not ribbon but has a broken appearance.
appears cloddy, but the lumps can be broken readily; when
pulverized, it feels soft and floury. When wet, the soil runs Clay Loam.-A clay loam is a moderately fine-textured soil
together readily and puddles. Either dry or moist, silt loam that usually breaks into clods or lumps that are hard when

1-4
210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2ndEdition, Dec. 1991
 dry. When the moist soil is pinched between the thumb and mineral textural terms are used. Muck is well-decomposed
finger, it forms a thin ribbon that breaks readily, barely organic soil material. Peat is raw undecomposed organic
sustaining its own weight. The moist soil is plastic and forms materials in which the original fibers constitute almost all of
a cast that bears much handling. When kneaded in the hand, the material. Mucky peat material is intermediate between
clay loam does not crumble readily but works into a heavy muck and peat.
Mucky is used to modify mineral soil texture. The term
. compact mass.
implies the presence of enough organic matter to give the
Clay.-A clay is fine-textured soil that usually forms very material some properties of organic soil combined with the
hard lumps or clods when dry and is very plastic and usually properties of the mineral material. The material does not,
-- sticky when wet. When the moist soil is pinched out between however, have enough organic matter to be "muck." Mucky
the thumb and finger, it forms a long flexible ribbon. Some material is usually dark, friable, and retentive of moisture; it
clays that are very high in colloids are friable and lack is mineral in basic composition. The organic matter content
plasticity at all conditions of moisture. is commonly more than 10 percent.

Organic Soil
Organic soils vary in organic matter content from 20 Soil Structure
percent to as high as 95 percent. They generally are classi-
fied on the basis of degree of decomposition of the organic Soil structure is the arrangement and organization of soil
deposits. The terms peat, muck, and mucky peat are used for particles into natural units of aggregation that soil scientists
organic materials in a manner similar to the way in which call peds. Peds are separated from one another by planes of
weakness that persist through cycles of wetting and drying in
Table 1-2.--General termsfor basic soil textural classes place. Most peds are large enough to be seen without
([Link]. of Agr. Soil Survey Manual, 430-V, June 9, magnification. Structure influences the rate at which water
1981). and air enter and move through the soil; it also affects root
penetration and the nutrient supply of the soil.
General terms Textural Classes Structure type (fig. 1-3) refers to the particular kind of
particle grouping that predominates in a soil horizon. Single-
Sandy soils: grained and massive soils are structureless. In single-grained
soils, such as loose sand, water percolates very rapidly.
Sands (coarse sand, Water moves very slowly through massive soils such as
sand, fine sand, very some clays. The more favorable water relations are usually
fine sand), loamy in soils that have prismatic, blocky, and granular structure;
sands (loamy coarse platy structure impedes the downward movement of water.
sand, loamy sand, Unlike texture, structure of the soil can be changed to the
loamy fine sand, depth of tillage. Excellent structure develops in the surface
loamy very fine sand) layer of soils high in organic matter and on which perennial
Loamy soils: grass is growing. Cycles of wetting and drying or of freezing
and thawing improve structure in the plow layer. On the
Moderately coarse-textured Coarse sandy loam, other hand, cultivation of medium- or fine-textured soils
sandy loam, fine when their moisture content is high tends to destroy struc-
sandy loam ture. Imgation water that contains large amounts of sodium
causes very undesirable structure by dispersing the soil
Medium-textured Very fine sandy loam,
aggregates.
silt loam, silt
Moderately fine-textured Clay loam, sandy clay Tilth
loam, silty clay loam
The physical condition of the soil in relation to plant
Clayey soils:
growth and ease of tillage is commonly referred to as tilth. It
Fine-textured Sandy clay, silty depends on both the degree and stability of soil aggregates.
clay, clay Good, fair, and poor are the common descriptive terms for
tilth. They refer to the ease with which a soil can be tilled

1-5
210-VI,NEH 15- 1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991
Figure 1-3

Types of Soil Structure and Their Effect on Downward Movement of Water

Single grain Blocky Platy

Rapid
B
Slow

Granular Prismatic Massive

b
Rapid Moderate Slow

and the rate it takes in water. Good soil tilth can be achieved and contracting during wetting-drying cycles and the greater
on most soils by using good soil management practices. ability to either aggregate or disperse.
Pore space in soils can be viewed as a vast interconnecting
network of voids extending in all directions. The voids hold
Soil Porosity liquids and gases and regulate their movement, contain most
of the living organisms, and serve as avenues of entry for
The volume of pore space in mineral soils generally roots to grow and expand. Total soil porosity can be deter-
ranges from 30 to 60 percent of the total volume with the mined for a soil sample from the equation:
average being close to one-half. Soil porosity is affected Total porosity = 1 - (bulk densitylaverage particle density)
mostly by soil aggregation, texture, root activity, entrapped
gases, and by burrowing insects, worms, and other animals. Bulk density is generally measured by means of a core
Coarse-textured soils tend to be less porous than fine- sampler, of known volume, designed to extract undisturbed
textured soils, but the mean size of individual pores is samples from various depths in the profile. Using the water
usually larger in sandy soils. Porosity tends to be more displacement technique, soil scientists sometimes determine
variable in clayey soils because of the potential for swelling bulk density from a clod sample. Pore-size distribution can

210-VI. NEH 15-1. 2nd Edition. Dec. 1991

 be measured in the laboratory by desorption methods in coastal regions. It is estimated that 5 million hectares of
which a presaturated sample is subjected to a stepwise series imgated land in the United States are salt affected, mostly in
of incremental suctions, and the capillary theory is used to the 17 Western States. As much as one-third of all irrigated
obtain the equivalent pore-size distribution. Where aggrega- lands in the world (about 70 million hectares) have salt
tion is quite distinct, it is possible to divide pore-size problems.
distribution into macropores and micropores. The macro- There are three main natural sources of soil salinity,
. pores are primarily the pore spaces between aggregates that namely: mineral weathering, atmospheric precipitation, and
serve as the principal avenues for water infiltration, drain- fossil salts. In addition, salts are added to soils by irrigation
age, and aeration. The micropores are the smaller pores and agricultural and industrial wastes. Salts commonly are
- inside aggregates that function mostly for the retention of transported from areas of overinigation to accumulate in
water and solutes. The demarcation is seldom distinct, and poorly drained areas. As drainage water or imgation return-
the separation between macropores and micropores is largely flows evaporate, high concentrations of salts remain.
arbitrary. Normal imgation involves applying water to the soil
surface and displacing unused water through the soil during
Soil Compaction subsequent irrigations. Some drainage water also may pass
eventually below the crop root zone. Water is lost through
Compaction of agricultural soils generally refers to the evaporation at the soil surface and through transpiration.
reduction of soil porosity through the partial collapse of the Both evaporation and transpiration increase the residual
pores and expulsion of the permeating air. In an agricultural concentration of dissolved salts. Salt concentration normally
sense, soils are considered to be compact when the air-filled increases with soil depth in well-drained soil. As the propor-
porosity is low enough to restrict aeration which impedes tion of imgation water passing through the root zone (the
root penetration and drainage. leaching fraction) is increased, salt accumulation in the
Soils may become compact naturally as a result of their lower profile decreases.
textural composition, moisture regime, or the manner in When soils are imgated with waters containing large
which they are formed. Frequently, agricultural soils become amounts of sodium, the exchangeable sodium levels may
compact as a result of mechanical force applied to the soil become quite high. Such soils frequently crust severely and
surface during cultural operations. Trampling by livestock swell or disperse, which greatly decreases the hydraulic
can cause soil compaction; however, the most common conductivity or permeability of the soils to water.
cause of soil compaction in contemporary agriculture is that
imposed on the soil by wheels, tracks, and soil-engaging
tools. Figure 1-4 illustrates the effect of increased compac- Categories of Salt-Affected Soils
tion (high-bulk density) on the growth and proliferation of
alfalfa roots at the end of 80 and 110 days in greenhouse The classification of salt-affected soils is based on the
pots. Longer growth periods did not change root length soluble salt concentrations in extracted soil solutions.
density much beyond that shown for the 110-day period. Electrical conductivity (EC ) of a saturated extract is the
Soils of the southeast United States characteristicallydo standard measure of salinity. Table 1-3 gives the salinity
not allow crops to develop a deep root system. Many of class associated with electrical conductivity of soil saturation
these soils have a textural class, such as the sandy loams, extracts that are in use by the Soil Conservation Service.
that is receptive to soil compaction by traffic and excess The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is the standard
tillage in seed-bed preparation. Such soils may become measure of the sodicity of a soil; it replaces the previously
increasingly restrictive to rooting. used exchangeable sodium percentage. The sodium adsorp-
tion ratio is calculated from the concentrations (in mil-
liequivalents per liter) of sodium, calcium, and magnesium
Soil Salinity and Sodicity ions in the saturation extract according to the following
relationship:
Saline and sodic soils are most common in arid and
SAR = Na/ [(Ca + Mg)/2]IR
semiarid regions, because rainfall is inadequate to meet the
potential evapotranspirationrequirement of plants. These
soils occur when salts are not leached and accumulate to
levels detrimental to plant growth. Salt problems can
develop in subhumid and humid regions, particularly near

210-VI. NEH 15-1. 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Figure 1-4.

Effect of Soil Bulk Density on Alfalfa Root Growth in Greenhouse Pots at the End of 80 and 110 Days

Soil bulk density (g ~ r n - ~ )

Soil Water will move from the sandy soil to the finer textured soil. Soil
water potential is the property used to describe such a
Soil water is frequently described in terms of content in phenomenon.
units of gravimetric percent, percent on a volume basis, or
equivalent water depth per unit of soil depth. Such descrip- Soil Water Potential
tions are usually adequate for irrigation considerations when Total water potential is the amount of work required per
the primary question is one relating to how much irrigation unit quantity of pure water to transport, reversibly and iso-
water is required to bring the soil back to a defined water thermally, a small quantity of water from a pool of pure
content. A descriptive property is needed, however, to water at a specified elevation at atmospheric pressure to the
explain why soils treated in similar ways have different soil water at the point under consideration. Differences in
water contents; why plants respond differently on contrast- potential energy of water from one point in a soil system to
ing soils even though they have the same water content; and another give rise to the tendency of water to flow within the
why if a sandy soil and clay soil have the same water content soil. In the soil, water moves continuously in the direction of
and are placed in intimate contact with one another, water decreasing potential energy.

1-8
210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991
Table 1-3.--Classification of salt-affected soils. nometer. Matric potential is a dynamic soil property and will
be at a theoretical zero level for a saturated soil. The matric
Electrical conductivity potential of a soil system results from capillary and adsorp-
(ECJ* tive forces due to the soil matrix. These forces attract and
bind water in the soil and lower its potential energy below
Class Siemens per Decisiemens per that of bulk water. Capillarity results from the surface
meter (S/M) meter (dS/m)** tension of water and its contact angle with the solid soil
particles. This potential was formerly called capillary
Very slightly saline 0 - 0.4 0- 4 potential or capillary water. In figure 1-5 the unglazed
Slightly saline 0.4 - 0.8 4- 8 ceramic cup that is embedded in soil is connected to a water
Moderately saline 0.8 - 1.6 8 - 16 mangmeter to form a tensiometer. The weight matric
Strongly saline >1.6 >16 potential of the soil water at the cup is the vertical distance
from the center of the cup to the water level in the manome-
*Corrected to a temperature of 25 degrees C. ter which is 6 inches.
**Decisiemens per meter = millimhos per centimeter.
Pressure Potential.-The pressure potential applies mostly
The concept of soil-water potential is of great fundamental to saturated soils. Where water quantity is expressed as a
importance. It replaces the arbitrary categorizations (gravita- weight, pressure potential is the vertical distance between
tional water, capillary water, hygroscopic water) that were the water surface and a specified point. In the field, this
used in the early development stages of soil physics. Water component is zero above and at the level of water in the
in the soil differs from place to place and from time to time, piezometer. Below the water level it is always positive. In
not in form, but in potential energy. For very practical figure 1-5 a piezometer tube (tube open at both ends) is
reasons, however, it is convenient to retain the concepts of installed in the soil to a depth below the water table. Pressure
"field capacity" and "permanent wilting point," while potential at point A is the distance between the point and the
recognizing the qualitative aspects of such nomenclature. water level which is 4 inches.
Total water potential consists of several conponents. It is
the sum of mamc, solute, gravitational, and pressure poten- Solute Potential-Solute or osmotic potential arises
tial: because of soluble materials (generally salts) in the soil
Total = Matric + Solute + Gravitational + Pressure solution and the presence of a semipermeable membrane.
Units of the potential depend on how a unit quantity of water Two recognized membranes in soil-water systems are the
is specified. Because weight is one of the most convenient cell wall of plant roots and air-water interfaces. The solute
ways of specifying the unit of water and conversions potential can be approximated from the relation:
between English and SI (International System) are easily
done, this will be used in some illustrations. Solute potential = RTC
where R is the universal gas constant (82 bars cm3/mol"k), T
Gravitational Potential.-Determination of gravitational is absolute temperature ("k), and C is solute concentration
potential is illustrated in figure 1-5. This component of total (mol/cm3).Because of the nature of the universal gas
potential is independent of soil properties and depends only constant (R), it is much easier to use SI units in solving for
on the vertical distance between the reference and the point solute potential. With the units illustrated, as values of
in question. For points above the reference, gravitational temperature and solute concentration are placed in the
potential is positive; points below the reference are negative. equation, all units cancel except bars. This unit (bar) is now
In figure 1-5 two points in a soil are located at a specific easily converted to another unit as shown in the following
distance from a reference point Z. Gravitational potential of discussion.
point A is 6 inches and of point B is 4 inches, thus the
difference in gravitational potential between the two points Units.-Historically, many units have been used to express
is 6 inches - (-4 inches) = 10 inches. suction, tension, stress, or potential. A partial list is: bars,
centimeters (cm) of water, centimeters of mercury, inches of
Mahic Potential.-When the unit quantity of water is water, atmospheres, centibars, millibars, joules per kilogram,
expressed as weight, then matric potential is the vertical
distance between the measured point of the soil (ceramic cup
of figure 1-5) and the water surface of a water-filled ma-

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Figure 1-5

Illustrations and Example Calculations for Gravitational, Matric, and Pressure Potential Based on Weight
as Specifying the Unit of Water. Increasing Depth Below the Soil Surface is Considered to be Negative in
the Illustrations.

Gravitational Matric Pressure

potential potential potential

Ceramic
CUP

'10 cm)

pounds per square inch, ergs per gram, and dynes per square of soil particles. The amount of water remaining in the soil at
centimeter. The bar unit is in extensive use; some conver- a series of equilibrium steps is related to the size and volume
sions for this unit are: of water-filled pores and is, therefore, a function of the
matric suction. Experimentally, pressure is substituted for
1 bar = 1020 cm of water suction with appropriate equipment and a curve of water
= 75.01 cm of mercury content versus soil moisture tension is prepared. Illustrative
= 401.5 inches of water curves for contrasting soil types are shown in figure 1-6. The
= 0.987 atmospheres relation between matric potential changes and changes in
= 100 centibars water content is a complex, nonlinear function. This charac-
= 1000 millibars teristic curve is usually determined for individual soils.
= 100 jouleslkg
= lo6 ergs/g Water Movement in Soil
= lo6dynes/cm2 Under saturated conditions, the rate of water movement in
a soil system is governed by the characteristics of the pore
Soil Water Characteristic Curves space; therefore, the actual geometry and flow pattern of a
When saturated soils are subjected to increasing amounts soil is extremely complex. An equation known as Darcy's
of suction, progressively smaller pores are drained until, at law is used to express the flux density (volume of water
very high suctions, only the very narrow pores retain water. flowing through a unit cross-sectional area per unit of time).
Also, an increase in soil-water suction is associated with a The equation is:
decreased thickness of the water film that covers the surface q = K (delta H)/L

210-VI. NEH 15-1. 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

where q is the flux density, (delta H)/L is the hydraulic This law indicates that the flow of water through the soil is
gradient (head drop or change in head per unit distance in the in the direction of, and at a rate proportional to, the driving
direction of flow), and K is the proportionality factor force acting on the system.
generally designated as the hydraulic conductivity. The K Many processes involving water movement or flow in the
factor reflects the complexities of individual soil systems. crop root zone occur under unsaturated conditions. In

Figure 1-6.

Soil Water Characteristic Curves

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Soil water potential (-bars)

210-VI,NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

comparison to saturated flow, water movement under By definition, FC is the amount of water a well-drained
unsaturated conditions is considerably more complex and soil holds after "free" water has drained off. For coarse-
difficult to describe quantitatively; however, many excellent textured soils drainoff occurs soon after irrigation because of
quantitative reviews on this subject are available for defini- their relatively large pores. In fine-textured soils drainage
tive information. An overview of practical unsaturated flow takes much longer because of their small pore size. Soil
characteristics will be considered here. properties that affect field capacity materially are texture and
Under unsaturated conditions water in soils is subject to strata within the profile that restrict water movement. Fine-
subatmospheric pressure that is equivalent to a negative textured soils hold more water than coarse-textured soils.
pressure potential. A gradient of this potential constitutes a Field capacity for sandy soils is defined as -1110 bar, for
driving force. Matric suction, as pointed out earlier, is due to silty soils, -115 bar; and for clayey soils, -113 bar. Restricted
the affinity of water to the soil-particle surfaces and capil- flow in stratified soils slows redistribution, but may increase
lary pores. Water is drawn from a region where hydration the amount of water used by the plant. The effect of contrast-
films are thicker to where they are thinner and from a zone ing soil texture on the soil-water potential is illustrated in
where capillary menisci are less curved to where they are figure 1-8 by the broken line near the left vertical axis. Field
more highly curved. In other words, water flows from a capacity can be determined in the field after a soil has been
region of higher to a region of lower matric potential (low to thoroughly wetted by irrigation or rain or estimated in the
high suctions). laboratory from water-characteristicrelations.
For saturated flow, the hydraulic conductivity (K) of a The permanent wilting point (PWP) is the soil-water
given soil will remain constant. Under unsaturated condi- content at which plants can no longer obtain enough water to
tions, K changes drastically with water content. Large, more meet minimal transpiration requirements; at which time, they
highly conductive pores are drained first; therefore, K wilt and if watered will not recover. Plants will wilt if they
decreases dramatically as a given soil dries. Because differ- are not able to take up soil water fast enough to meet the
ent soils have varying pore space characteristics, K values climatic ET demand.
also are markedly different; contrasting textural soil classes Plants continue to absorb water when wilted, but not at a
influence unsaturated hydraulic conductivity in a very sufficient rate to regain turgor.
pronounced way. Generally, a saturated sandy soil will The water potential commonly used for PWP is - 15 bars,
conduct water more rapidly than a saturated clay soil. As the which was first established with sunflowers over a wide
soils drain, the very opposite conditions prevail; the small range of soils. This parameter is shown as the right vertical
pores of the clay soil will retain and conduct water even at line of figure 1-8. Some plants can extract soil water to
appreciably low potentials. Under unsaturated field condi- potentials below -15 bars before they wilt and some will wilt
tions, flow is much more pronounced with fine-textured soils above - 15 bars.
than with sandy soils. Soil water considered to be available for plant growth lies
From this discussion it is evident that water moves in soils at a potential energy level between FC and PWP. It should
in any direction in relation to potential energy gradients. The be pointed out, however, that these determined values
rate and magnitude of movement is determined by the many represent only the matric potential of the soil water system.
and complex relations that exist in soil systems. Some The presence of salts may contribute a substantial osmotic
practical implications of textural class are illustrated in figure component to the total soil water potential. It is the total
1-7. potential that determines soil water availability to plants.
Nevertheless, it is helpful to examine some effects of soil
Plant Available Water texture on the water held between FC and PWP. For soils
In designing an irrigation system, information is needed on low in soluble salts, the finer the texture the greater the
how much of the water in soils is available to plants; the soil available water capacity (AWC).
functions as a reservoir that has a limited capacity. Tradition-
ally, plant available water has been considered to be the Figure 1-9 shows the variation in FC and PWP water content
amount of water held by the soil between field capacity (FC) by texture. Soil water content in percent by dry weight of
and permanent wilting point (PWP). These two points soil is shown on the left margin and soil water content in
provide only qualitative information on soil water retention inches of water per foot of soil is shown on the right margin
properties; nevertheless, their usage continues and useful for various soil bulk densities. The figure may be used as a
planning information can be obtained from these concepts. It general guide for estimating the AWC of soils based on
is important, however, to understand the limitations that are texture until local curves can be developed. It applies
imposed. generally to uniform soil profiles with low salt content.

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2ndEdition, Dec. 1991

Figure 1-7.

Water Penetration and Movement in Sandy and Clay Loam Soils; to Achieve Complete Wetting, Furrows
Have to be Closer Together on Sandy Soils.

Sandy loam Clay loam

18 12 6 0 6 12 30 24 18 12 6 0 6 12 18 24 30
Distance from furrow center (inches)

Generally, well-drained sandy soils have a low available Table 1-4.-Ranges in available water content by soil
water capacity. Silty soils have a good available water textural classes.
holding capacity, as do clay loarns and clays. Table 1-4
provides a general guide of available water ranges for given Inches of water per inch
soil textural classes. of soil depth or cm of
While FC is considered to be the upper limit of available Textural class water per cm of soil depth
water, it should be pointed out that this is not strictly true.
Water moving downward in the soil following an irrigation Very coarse sand 0.03 - 0.06
or rainfall can be effectively used by growing plants. Coarse sand-loamy sand 0.06 - 0.10
Because this is a transitory stage, this water is generally not Sandy loarn-fine sandy loam 0.10 - 0.14
considered in calculations to determine the available water Very fine sandy loam-silt loam 0.12 - 0.19
retaining capability of a soil but may affect imgation Sandy clay loam--clay loam 0.14 - 0.21
scheduling. Sandy clay--clay 0.13 - 0.21
Water held between FC and PWP is frequently considered Peat and muck 0.17 - 0.25
to represent 100 percent of the available water supply. The
water release characteristic curve of figure 1-6 is replotted in
figure 1-10 to illustrate this concept. From figure 1-10 it is
clear that a given level of allowable depletion, for example,

210-VI. NEH 15-1, 2ndEdition. Dec. 1991

Figure 1-8. all growing plants require water daily. In irrigated regions,
Relation Between the Water Content andthe the depth of water to apply in each irrigation and the interval
Water Tension of a Soil between irrigations are both influenced by storage capacity
of the soil; therefore, the capacity of soils to store available
water for use by growing crops is of special importance and

I[/
interest. Irrigated soils that have large water-storage capacity
may produce profitable crops in places where there is a
Field capaci" shortage of irrigation water.
Knowledge of the capacity of soils to retain available
I imgation water is essential for efficient irrigation. If the
Permanent I
wilting point irrigator applies more water than the root-zone soil reservoir
1: can retain at a single irrigation, the excess is wasted. If less
I is applied than the soil will retain, the plants may wilt from
I
lack of water before the next irrigation unless water is
applied more frequently. Irrigations are scheduled in humid
areas in order to make efficient use of rain. Water losses
which result from deep percolation below the root zone of
crops cannot be seen. Losses can be determined or approxi-
mated by subtracting the storage capacity of the various soils
from the amount of water applied in single irrigations, less
the runoff.

Methods Used for Characterizing Soil Water

The best and most effective way of determining when to
irrigate is to measure or to estimate the water level in the
soil. By knowing the amount of water that is available, the
Soil water potential (-bars) irrigator who has knowledge of and experience with a
particular crop on a particular soil can accurately determine

the 50 percent level, will represent very different soil water Fiaure 1-9
potentials when water has been used by plants to that extent.
General Relationship Between Soil Water
This point is discussed further in the irrigation scheduling
section. Calculations relating to plant available water are
Characteristics and Texture
presented under water balance.
The dynamic nature of how plant roots extract soil water
is shown in figure 1-11. Cotton was planted on April 16 in
the San Joaquin Valley, California, and the soil water
content of the profile at that time can be taken to represent
FC. No rainfall occurred during the growing season, and the
crop was not irrigated. By harvest, some soil water was
extracted at total water potential lower than PWP at depths
shallower than 160 centimeters. Limited root growth in the
lower parts of the profile, however, resulted in some water
that was held at greater than -15 bars being unused by
, ,.,::s::::~.::s:~:yy
.>>:.;.:.:.:.:.:. ".-
z
,.....*,.,.................
coefficient
I
harvest time.

Soil Water Measurement

The measurement of water stored in soils and the capacity I
of soils to store water are important. That some soils in the
humid climates produce crops despite the lapse of many
days, and sometimes weeks, between periods of rainfall is
evidence of their capacity to store available water, because
Sand Sandy Loam
loam
Silt
loam
Heaviness of texture - Clay
loam
Clay

210-VI, NEH 15-1. 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Figure 1-10

Water Release Curve for Three Soils

. I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I 1 I

Field capacity
-
-
-
-
-
.-c -
g
0
.-C
-
.-
C
rn
3
C
C

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Soil water potential (-bars)

when irrigation is needed. Of the numerous methods that can Although this method gives good results, it is not used
be used to measure and estimate soil water, many are not generally by growers. Its accuracy depends on the number of
suited to field use. But several methods are now being used samples taken and on the skill used in obtaining and han-
by irrigators and others are being developed that show dling the samples. It requires using facilities not ordinarily
promise as methods of determining when to irrigate. Some owned by growers and requires much time and labor. The
of these methods are discussed in the following pages. method is used principally in experimental work and is a
standard against which other methods of soil water determi-
Gravimetric-The gravimetric method is the accepted nation can be compared.
standard for soil water measurement. Soil samples are taken
from a desired depth at several locations in a field for each Feel and Appearance Method-How soil samples taken in
soil type. Samples are weighed, dried in an oven for 24 the field from appropriate locations and depths feel and look
hours at 105 to 110 degrees centigrade, and then weighed gives some indication of water content. A shovel can be used
again. The difference in weight is the amount of water, dry to get samples, but for some soils a soil auger or a sampling
weight basis, in the soil, which can be converted to inches or tube is better. The reaction of the soil to three field tests are
centimeters of water remaining in the soil. recorded and compared to locally developed feel and water

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Figure 1-1 1 .

Soil Water Depletion by Cotton on a Panoche Clay Loam

Volumetric water content (%)

Panoche clay loam

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition. Dec. 1991

 content. These three tests are as follows: the ball test where The cup of the tensiometer is placed in the soil at the
the soil is squeezed several times into a firm ball, and then desired depth, after which the instrument must be filled with
dropped from several heights and the effects are recorded; water. Water moves through the porous cup until water in
the rod test where the soil is rolled to form a 0.10-inch (3 the cup and the water in the soil reach equilibrium. Any
mm) diameter rod and then it is held out vertically and the increase in tension that occurs as the soil dries causes the
effect on the length is measured and recorded; and the ribbon above ground vacuum-gauge reading to increase. Con-
test where the soil material is smeared out between the versely, an increase in soil-water content reduces tension and
thumb and first finger and the length of the resulting ribbon lowers the gauge reading. The tensiometer continues to
is recorded. Although gauging water conditions by feel and record fluctuations in soil-water content unless the tension
appearance is not the most accurate method, with experience exceeds 0.85 atmosphere; at which point, air enters the
the irrigator should be able to estimate the soil water content system and the instrument ceases to function. If this occurs,
w
level within 10 to 15 percent. This method is inexpensive, the instrument must again be filled with water before it can
but acquiring the soil samples is a lot of work. operate after an irrigation or rain.
Some experience is required to use a tensiometer. If air
. Tensiometers-Tensiometers (fig. 1- 12) work on the
principle that a partial vacuum is created in a closed chamber
enters the unit through any leaks at the rubber connections,
measurements are not reliable. Air leaks can also result from
when water moves out through a porous ceramic cup to the faulty cups as well as at the contact points of the setscrews
surrounding soil. Tension is measured by a water manome- used to secure the porous cup to the metal support. Some
ter, a mercury manometer, or a vacuum gauge. The scales manufacturers provide a test pump that can be used to test
are generally calibrated in either hundredths of an atmos- the gauge and to remove air from the instrument.
phere or in centimeters of water. Tensiometers that utilize a Tensiometer readings reflect soil water tension only; that
mercury manometer are usually preferred as research tools is, they indicate the relative wetness of the soil surrounding
because they afford great precision. Because of their the porous tip. They do not provide direct information on the
simplicity, tensiometers equipped with Bourdon vacuum amount of water held in the soil. Tension measurements are
gauges are better suited to practical use and to irrigation useful in deciding when to irrigate, but they do not indicate
control on particular soils. how much water should be applied. A special water-charac-
teristic curve for the particular soil site is needed to convert
F~gure1-12

Tensiometers Are Used to Measure Soil Water

1-17
210-VI, NEH 15-1. 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991
water-tension measurements into available water percent- electrical resistance; thereby, measurement of any change in
ages. resistance is an indirect measure of soil water if the block is
Tensiometers do not satisfactorily measure the entire calibrated for a particular soil.
range of available water in all soil types. But they probably Nylon and fiber-glass blocks are more sensitive in the
are the best field instruments to use to determine water con- higher ranges of soil water than plaster of Paris blocks, but
ditions in medium to coarse textured soil in the wet range. often their contact with soil that is alternately wet and dry is
They are best suited to use in sandy soils hecause in these not very good. Nylon blocks are most sensitive at a tension of
soils a large part of the water available to plants is held at a less than 2 atmospheres. Plaster of Paris blocks function most
tension of less than 1 atmosphere. Tensiometers are less well effectively at a tension between 1 and 15 atmospheres; fiber-
suited to use in fine-textured soils in which only a small part glass blocks operate satisfactorily over the entire range of
of the available water is held at a tension of less than 1 at- available water. A combination of fiber glass and plaster of
mosphere. Tensiometers are usually installed in the lower Paris provides sensitivity in both the wet and dry ranges and
half of the root zone in finer textured soils in order that the provides good contact between the soil and the unit.
readings are within the gauge range even though appreciable There may be a lag between the soil water change and that
water has been extracted. in the block, especially in sandy textured soils. This is par-
ticularly true with gypsum blocks. Lag times of 1 to 3 days
Electrical-Resistance Instruments-These instruments use have been measured.
the principle that a change in water content produces a Electrical-resistanceinstruments are sensitive to salts in the
change in some electrical property of the soil or of an soil; fiber-glass blocks are more sensitive than plaster of
instrument in the soil (fig. 1-13). They consist of two elec- Paris. Electrical resistance readings, therefore, are also
trodes permanently mounted in conductivity units, usually affected by concentrations of fertilizer. Where fertilizer is
blocks of plaster of Paris, nylon, fiber glass, gypsum, or spread in bands, electrical-resistanceinstruments should be
combinations of these materials. Electrodes in the blocks are placed well to one side of the bands. Temperature affects
attached by wires to a resistance or conductance meter that readings in all units.
measures changes in electrical resistance in the blocks. In some units calibration drift has caused changes of as
When the units are buried in the soil, they become almost a much as 1 atmosphere of tension in a single season. The
part of the soil and respond to changes in the water content magnitude of a change depends on the number of drying
of the soil. The amount of water in the blocks determines intervals and the number of days between each. Readings

Figure 1-13.

Electrical Resistance Soil Water Meters

1-18
210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991
also vary with soil type. The same reading may indicate When not in use, the radiation source is housed in a shield
different amounts of available water for different soil that contains a high hydrogen material, such as polyethylene
textures; therefore, the instrument must be calibrated for the or paraffin wax. This material serves as a standard by which
soil in which it is to be used. proper operation of the instrument can be verified. Inasmuch
If readings are to be representative of an area, the blocks as instrument variations and source decay take place, it is
must be properly installed. Individual blocks must be placed more satisfactory to use the count ratio method rather than
in a hole, which disturbs the soil. If the soil is not replaced in just a count. The ratio of sample count to standard count is
the hole at the same density and in the same way as in the rest plotted versus water content. This eliminates any systematic
of the profile, the root development and moisture pattern may errors that the instruments may introduce from day to day.
not be representative. A good method is to force the blocks The volume of soil measured depends upon the energy of the
into undisturbed soil along the sides of the hole dug. For initial fast neutrons and upon the wetness of the soil. With
placement of the blocks, see figure 1-13. In one type, the the radium-beryllium source the volume of soil measured is
blocks are cast in a tapered stake. A tapered hole, the same a sphere of about 6 inches (15 centimeters) in diameter in a
size as the stake, is bored into the ground with a special wet soil and up to 20 inches (50 centimeters) or more in a
auger. The stake is saturated with water and then pushed into dry soil. Measurements near the surface may not be accurate
the hole so that close contact is made between the stake and because neutrons may be lost through the surface. It is
the soil. difficult to accurately detect any sharp change in soil water
Most of the commercial instruments give good indications with depth caused by a wetting because the sphere of
of soil water content if they are used according to the influence integrates individual layers.
manufacturers' instructions. For good results, however, the The manufacturer usually supplies a calibration curve, but
blocks must to be calibrated in the field for each job. Experi- one should verify whether it can be used for a given soil.
ence and careful interpretation of instrument readings are Standard procedures have been developed by SCS for cali-
needed to get a good estimate of soil-water conditions. brating neutron gauges for a specific soil site.

Neutron Scattering-The neutron scattering procedure to Heat Dissipation-Heat conductivity can be used as an
estimate soil-water content has gained wide acceptance. It has index to water content using the principle that heat is
some advantages over the gravimetric method because conducted much faster in water than in dry soil. A constant
repeated measurements may be made at the same location current may be passed through a heating element imbedded
and depth, thus minimizing the effect of soil variability on in a porous block for a given time. The resulting heat is
successive measurements. It also determines water content on conducted away from the element, and the temperature of
a volume basis, the volume of soil involved being influenced the element can be related to the water content of the porous
by soil type and wetness by the particular instrument used. block. Temperatures can be measured with a linear diode
Disadvantages are the initial high investment in equipment, temperature sensor which eliminates the need to correct for
Federal operating regulations, and the time required per site ambient temperature changes. This system is being used to
to install access tubes. control irrigation in order to maintain soil matric potential
A source of high energy, or fast neutrons, is lowered to within a narrow range. The combination of the heating
the desired depth into a previously installed access tube. The element and temperature sensor is referred to as a soil water
fast neutrons are emitted into the soil from an americium- potential sensor. These sensors have essentially been a
beryllium or radium-beryllium source and gradually lose research tool, although on a limited basis they are being used
energy by collision with various atomic nuclei. Hydrogen, for field applications. They are available commercially and
present almost entirely in soil water, is the most effective are being incorporated into irrigation controllers.
element in the soil to slow down the neutrons. Thus, the
degree of the slowing down of neutrons is a measure of the Sampling Error
soil-water content. The slowed, or thermalized, neutrons Error of sampling has long plagued irrigators as they seek
form a cloud around the source and some of these randomly to determine the amount of water in the soil. Obtaining
return to the detector, which causes an electrical pulse on a representative samples is a major problem. Uneven growing
charged wire. The number of such pulses is measured over a of plants and nonuniform root penetration must be consid-
given interval of time with a scalar, or the rate of pulsation ered, because they cause variations of soil water content.
can be measured with a ratemeter. The count rate is approxi- Texture and structure variations of soils alter the intake,
mately linearly related to the water content. transmission, and retention of moisture. Variations in land-
surface configuration affect the opportunity for intake of

210-VI. NEH 15-1. 2nd Edition. Dec. 1991

rainfall and irrigation water, and the shapes and sizes of stations in areas that are typical of most of the field. An
furrows alter the rate of intake of irrigation water. All of adequate system of soil water measurement provides the
these factors cause the water content to vary from point to irrigator with enough data to manage the system so that the
point in a field. To obtain a representative soil water sample soil water level is controlled over the entire field. This kind
requires that several samples be taken, unless the method of information serves as a guide in varying both the amount
determining soil water inherently integrates a large volume and the frequency of irrigation for different locations in the
of soil. The number of samples required to obtain a represen- field or for different periods in the growing season.
tative sample increases as the soil water variation increases. In sprinkler irrigation, the measuring stations should be
Another factor which adds to the complexity of measuring between the sprinkler heads and 10 to 15 feet away from the
soil water is that essentially all methods of soil water deter- lateral line. For row crops, measurements should be made in
mination are based upon small samples. Individual samples the row or near the plant but not in the bottom of the furrow.
can be expected to vary at least 20 percent, plus or minus, For trees, measurements generally are made 4 to 6 feet from
from the mean of a large number of samples. the trunk and inside the drip line.
Measurements should be made in that part of the soil from
Location of Soil Water Measurements which plant roots extract their water and according to the
The location of any soil water measurements is highly water-extraction pattern of the particular crop. In uniformly
important. Selection of places that will give a good estimate textured soils, one measurement should be made in the upper
of the soil water level over a field generally is a matter of quarter of the root zone, and one to three more measure-
knowing the soil, previous experience, and good judgement. ments should be made at lower levels. If the maximum
Locating the places for examination is not so difficult in water-extraction depth for a given crop is 24 inches, for
fields of the same soil type as in fields of different soils. example, measurements probably should be made at about 6,
It is generally recommended that one location be near the 12, and 18 inches. For stratified soils, measurements should
side of the field where irrigation is to be started as a refer- be taken from the various textural strata. To predict when to
ence point for starting the irrigation cycle. At least one irrigate during the early stages of root development, the 6-
location should be at the opposite end of the field to deter- inch measurement is all that is needed for most crops. As the
mine if the field is being covered fast enough to maintain an root system reaches maturity, measurements from all three
adequate soil water level there. Measurements should be locations are needed for a clear picture of the water content
made at other locations as indicated by any critical condition throughout the water-extraction zone. Sum the water for
in the soil, such as an area that dries out first or stays wet each measurement to obtain the total soil water content for
longest. It is good practice to have at least two measurement the profile.
stations in each critical area and possibly two or three

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Water Intake

By definition, movement of water from the surface into amounts of sodium chloride to the soil water, insufficient to
the soil is infiltration. Water enters the soil through pores, make any noticeable difference in viscosity, may affect soil
cracks, worm and decayed root holes, and through cavities structure so much that hydraulic conductivity is greatly
introduced by tillage. Infiltrated water may evaporate from reduced.
the soil surface or may be transpired by the plants or may
percolate downward beyond the plant roots and contribute to
the ground water. Factors Affecting Infiltration
Water applied to the soil by precipitation (natural or man-
made, such as sprinkling systems) infiltrates; and some of Soil Water Content
the water may be stored temporarily on the soil surface if the Residual soil water content influences the rate water
soil is unable to absorb it. Thus, if the rate of application enters the soil under ponded conditions (fig. 1-14). In dry
exceeds the infiltration rate, water collects on the surface, soils, large differences in matric potential drive water into
and either ponding takes place or the water runs off. The the soil profile and soil is able to store more water than if the
infiltration rate governs the amount of water entering the soil soil were initially wet. The surface soil, however, gradually
and the amount that can be stored in the soil profile to be becomes saturated as irrigation continues and the intake rate
available for crops. In addition, the infiltration rate governs decreases to the steady infiltration rate, whether the soil was
the amount of potential runoff and its associated soil erosion initially wet or dry.
threat. As an example, surface sealing or crusting can reduce
infiltration, increase erosion, and limit the available water Soil Sealing
for plants. Infiltration may be limited by any restriction to flow that
is caused by a change in hydraulic conductivity or a restric-
tion at the soil water interface. Formation of a thin compact
Percolation layer on the soil surface rapidly reduces the rate of water
entry through the surface. This layer results from a break-
The infiltration rate is limited by the ability of the soil to down in soil structure that is caused by the beating action of
transmit water away from the soil surface through the soil raindrops or the drops from sprinkling systems and by the
profile when the surface is ponded. This movement of water Figure 1-14.
through the soil profile is known as percolation. Percolation
rate is governed by the permeability of the soil or its Predkted Infiltration Rates for a Deep Columbia
hydraulic conductivity. Both terms describe the ease with Silt Loam With Different Initial Water Contents
which soil transmits water.
Because water percolates chiefly through large pores in a
soil, percolation depends on the relative number and

\
continuity of these pores. Soil with high porosity and coarse
open texture has high hydraulic conductivity. For two soils
of the same total porosity, the soil with small pores has Columbia silt loam
lower conductivity than the soil with large pores because
resistance to flow is greater in small pores. Soil with pores of
many sizes conducts water faster if large pores form continu-
ous paths through the profile. In fine-textured soils, conduc-
tivity depends almost entirely on the pore space between
structural units. In some soils, particles are cemented
together to form nearly impermeable layers commonly
called hardpans. In other soils very finely divided or
colloidal material expands on absorbing water to form an wet /
impervious gelatinous mass that restricts water movement.
Quality of water transmitted, particularly its salinity and
alkalinity, may have a marked effect on hydraulic conductiv- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
ity. Change in the viscosity of water has an effect. Chemical Time (minutes)
change in water may affect hydraulic conductivity greatly
without changing viscosity. The addition of even small

210-VI,NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

action of water flowing over the soil surface. Fine particles, swells; which provides a high initial intake rate. The cracks
fitted around larger particles, form a relatively impervious swell and eventually close as the soil wets. Intake on these
seal. Light cultivation before irrigation can help break the fine-textured soils, thereafter, is often negligible or ex-
seal and increase infiltration. Sealing can be partly pre- tremely slow. Thus, the amount of water that is applied
vented by protecting the soil surface with a mulch or some should be based on crack size and number. Under sprinkler
other permeable material. Grasses or other close-growing irrigation, if the water application rate is less than the
vegetation intercept droplets, dissipate their energy, and infiltration rate, the application amount is related to the
reduce surface sealing. duration of irrigation, not to the crack size and number.

Surging Organic Material

During surge irrigation, the intermittent wetting of the soil Porosity remains high for comparatively long periods
surface by cycling of flow reduces infiltration. Several when organic material is made available by the production
mechanisms to explain the reduction in infiltration have been of high residue crops. Infiltration rate can be maintained and
suggested. Wetting and drying allows water to soak and even increased by using a cropping system that provides for
dissolve clods and thereby settle and compact the soil on high rates of crop residues in the upper few inches of soil.
dewatering. In conjunction with dissolving, a seal may also Grasses and legumes are examples of crops which increase
form as water flows along the surface. Thus, both compac- the organic matter content of soil. The proportion of stable
tion and sealing reduce infiltration. Air entrapped during soil aggregates is increased to create larger pores and, conse-
dewatering has also been suggested as a reason for reduced quently, greater infiltration rates. Perennial crops, such as
infiltration. Water traps air bubbles that block small pores of alfalfa, also improve infiltration by protecting the soil
the soil surface and reduces infiltration. Soil swelling, surface from sealing, by maintaining organic matter in the
because of the hydration of clays and the reduction in soil, and by increasing the water-conducting pores formed
hydraulic gradient as wetting of the soil progresses, have by decayed roots.
been suggested as mechanisms for reducing infiltration.
Salts in Soil
Compaction Salts contained in irrigation water accumulate in irrigated
Tillage operations may cause compaction and formation soils and may change soil properties. This accumulation is
of plowpans below cultivation depth if soils are tilled when serious in arid regions where the majority of water is
too wet. A plowpan impedes water movement and thus supplied by imgation. It is often necessary to overirrigate
reduces the infiltration rate. For some soils, infiltration rate (leach) periodically to manage, reduce, or remove soluble
is reduced in furrows where tractor wheels travel. Deep salts from the soil in the root zone area. Rainwater, percolat-
tilling, or subsoiling, helps improve water movement for a ing through the soil in humid areas, leaches out most soluble
time by breaking up the impermeable sublayer. The enlarged salts.
openings improve water movement. If there are no changes Some soluble salts in irrigation water, such as potassium
in cultural practices, such as reduced tillage, addition of crop nitrate, may benefit crops directly. Under some conditions,
residues, reduced tillage operations, or proper timing of calcium and magnesium have a positive effect on the
tillage operations, compaction will be reestablished. physical properties of soil. High concentration of sodium
chloride or sodium sulfate, however, have a detrimental
Tillage effect. Soil structure breaks down and eventually soil
The infiltration rate may be temporarily increased by colloids are dispersed, which reduces tilth and the infiltration
plowing, cultivation, or any other stirring that increases pore rate. This type of sealing may be noticeable even on some
size in the soil. The beneficial effect of cultivation on soil sandy soils.
porosity and intake lasts only until subsequent precipitation The physical properties, such as infiltration, of some sodic
or flooding or compaction settles the soil to its former condi- soils can be improved by adding chemicals or soil amend-
tion. The infiltration rate of loose, porous sand is not likely ments through which exchangeable sodium is replaced by
to increase by tillage operations. Cultivation may reduce calcium. Calcium sulfate, gypsum, is a comparatively
intake by compaction and interrupting soil pore space. economical and often used amendment to improve infiltra-
tion and aeration in order to enhance root development and
Soil Cracking plant growth. Other chemicals, such as sulfur and aluminum
Cracks form as water is removed from some clay soils. sulfate, are also used if adequate calcium is available in the
During flood irrigation, cracks fill rapidly before the soil soil.

210-VI,NEH 15-1, 2ndEdition, Dec. 1991

 Sediments in Irrigation Water Infiltration Stages
Fine silt and clay particles carried in suspension affect the
quality of imgation water. Whether this is detrimental or Water does not collect on the soil surface if the precipita-
beneficial depends on the amount of silt transported, the tion or water application rate from a sprinkler is less than the
length of time the silty flow continues, and the texture of the ability of the soil to absorb water. Figure 1-15 shows the rate
soil to which water is applied. Occasionally, deliveries of at which water enters the soil with time for high and low
silty water may be beneficial on coarse-textured soils steady application rates. Early in the process, application rate
t
inasmuch as the sediments improve the physical condition of controls, and is equal to, the infiltration rate; both curves are
the root zone and reduce the rate of water movement. Silty on the same horizontal line. In time, the ability of the soil to
water applied to fine-textured soil generally adds to the absorb water declines and may be exceeded by the water
1 surface sealing problems, because it slows intake and makes application rate; in which case, ponding commences and
the soil difficult to cultivate. Sediments add some plant water accumulates on the soil surface. The shaded area
nutrients, such as potassium, calcium, and phosphate, to the between the horizontal steady water application line and the
soil. falling infiltration rate curve represents surface storage
which may be lost to runoff. Ponding takes place sooner and
Soil Erosion potential runoff is greater with the high application rate.
As erosion progresses, the infiltration rate of many soils is The decline in infiltration rate with time under continu-
reduced because of the loss of surface soil and organic ously ponded or flooded conditions is the broken line in
material. This is because less permeable material, such as figure 1-15. At the start of irrigation, the infiltration rate is
dense clay subsoil, is uncovered or finer textured subsoil is high but declines rapidly. The infiltration rate is called
mixed into the plow layer. In some soils erosion may expose transient because it changes with time. At the point that the
coarse-textured layers, such as sand and gravel, which rate changes very little, it becomes the steady infiltration
increases infiltration. rate. Water will not pond as long as the precipitation rate is
less than the steady infiltration rate.
Land Leveling Ponding does not take place when the horizontal, steady
Moving and mixing of soil during land leveling may precipitation rate line meets the broken continuously ponded
change infiltration characteristics. The effects are similar to line (fig. 1-15). It is later for both high and low application
those of erosion when more or less permeable soil is rates; therefore, ponding time and potential runoff are not
uncovered. Earth-moving equipment that is used in land accurately predicted by superimposing a line that represents
leveling may compact the soil, which reduces infiltration.
Subsoiling and additions of organic material are often Figure 1-15.
* necessary to remedy the problem. In cases where a less
permeable layer overlays a permeable layer, the upper layer Potential Runoff for High and Low Steady Water
may be removed to expose the permeable layer in order to Application Rates Similar to Stationary Sprinklers
improve infiltration.
Continuously ponded infiltration
Temperature
Water intake is greater when it rains in the summer than
when it rains in the winter. Apparently, the coefficient of Sprinkler ponded infiltration
L
viscosity of water decreases rapidly as temperature increases O 8
and this causes more rapid infiltration. Most authorities, 9 ,m
c
however, consider its effect on infiltration negligible. c 0
.-0 'Z
32
Surface Storage =
.= Q
Q
Soil surface roughness and slope influence the amount of sa
water which can be collected on the surface and thus be ow sprinkling rate
reserved for infiltration. Runoff begins when the application
rate exceeds the infiltration rate and surface storage becomes
I
filled. Storage generally is greater on flat, rough, vegetated
slopes than on smooth, steep, bare slopes. Thus, surface Time
storage affects the amount of water which infiltrates.

[Link] 15-1, 2n
application rate on a flooded infiltration test curve. In doing water in about 1.75 hours. Only about one-third of an hour
so, runoff would be overestimated because ponding takes is required to infiltrate 1 inch (2.5 cm), whereas, about 4.5
place later than predicted by the above graphical method. hours are needed to absorb 6 inches (15.1 cm). Thus,
Furthermore, the shape of the three solid curves is slightly infiltration amount can be controlled by varying application
different. Thus, ponding time is not accurately predicted by time.
superimposing a line that represents precipitation rate on a Corresponding plots of instantaneous infiltration rate with
flooded infiltration test curve. Runoff may be overestimated time, similar to the one given by the dashed line in figure
because ponding takes place later than predicted by the 1-16, are shown in figure 1-18 for the high, moderate, and
above graphical method (fig. 1-15). low infiltration rate soils. Infiltration rate is high at the start
Similarly, ponding time and potential runoff cannot be of irrigation, but the rate declines rapidly until it approaches
predicted by superimposing flooded infiltration test curves a steady rate.
over water application rate curves for nonstationary sprin- A comparison of figures 17 and 18 shows that the high
klers. As shown in figure 1-16 for moving sprinklers, water intake soil absorbs 3 inches (7.6 cm) of water in about one-
application rate at a point increases and then falls rather than third of an hour; at which time intake rate declines to about
being steady as in the case of stationary sprinklers. The 4.6 inches (1 1.7 cm) per hour. In contrast, infiltration rate is
infiltration curve follows the water application curve until 0.3 inches (0.8 cm) per hour for the low intake soil over a
the application rate exceeds the infiltration rate at which total time of 6.5 hours. The relative position on the intake-
time ponding takes place. Potential runoff is the shaded area rate curve, at the time that 3 inches have been infiltrated,
between the application rate curve and the solid line repre- differs markedly for the three soils. The infiltration rate
senting ponded infiltration under sprinkling. Again, if the declines rapidly for the high intake soil but has approached a
dashed line representing continuously ponded infiltration is nearly stable rate for the low intake soil.
used, ponding time is too early and potential runoff is
overestimated.
Basic or Steady Infiltration Rate
Cumulative Infiltration and Infiltration Rate
Relations Generally, steady or basic infiltration rate is defined as the
nearly constant rate that develops after some time has
The time required for a soil to absorb a specified amount elapsed from the start of irrigation. The low intake soil
of water under ponded conditions can be found by plotting shown in figure 1-18 probably would be assigned a basic
cumulative infiltration with time. This relation is given in rate of 0.3 inch (0.8 crn) per hour. Assigning the basic rate to
figure 1-17 for a high, moderate, and low intake rate soil. the high-intake soil is more difficult because usually
The moderate intake rate soil absorbed 3 inches (7.6 cm) of irrigation ceases before the basic infiltration rate is reached.
The basic infiltration rate is considered by the Soil Conser-
Figure 1-16.
vation Service to be the point on the curve at which the
Potential Runoff for Nonstationary Sprinkler change in rate is 10 percent. Infiltration rate changes
thereafter are considered unimportant.

Continuously ponded infiltration Seasonal and Spatial Variation

/ The changes in factors which affect infiltration, discussed
above, cause changes in infiltration during the season and
from season to season. Infiltration generally decreases
during the season from one irrigation event to the next.
Reduction in infiltration during the season is usually more
significant for an annual crop than for a perennial crop.
Season-to-season variation is generally associated with
perennial crops because the soil is often cultivated less than
annual crops. To meet this changing condition, irrigation
Time management should be flexible so the irrigator can apply

210-VI. NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition. Dec. 1991

Figure 1-17.

Relation of Cumulative Infiltration to Time for Three Soils

~ " ' ,
" High-intake-rate
" ' " " soil ' " " ' " " " ~ " "

I 30
0 : 1 5 ' 10 15 20 25
t t i Time (hours)

water efficiently. In any case, if the soil is manipulated Field Infiltration Measurements
through tillage or other practices that create larger soil pores,
the trend can be slowed or reversed. Infiltrometers can be classified as flooding and sprinkling
Seldom, if ever, do all parts of a field or a soil type have types. Flooding infiltrometers are appropriate for surface
the same ponded infiltration rate because minor variations in irrigation; sprinkling infiltrometers measure infiltration for
soil and plant properties affect infiltration. The variations sprinkler systems. Flooding devices, however, are far more
may be the result of wheel-traffic compaction or natural frequently used because they require less equipment and are
changes in soil texture and structure. easier to install and operate than the sprinkling type.
Spatial variation in infiltration properties is more critical The most common type of flooding infiltrometer consists
for irrigation systems in which the surface is flooded than for of a metal cylinder 8 to 18 inches (20 to 45 centimeters) in
sprinkling systems in which application rate controls diameter and 12 to 14 inches (30 to 36 centimeters) in
infiltration rate. Because infiltration rate varies from place to length, which is pressed or driven into the soil. Infiltration is
place in surface irrigation, total infiltration will vary even if measured by ponding water inside the cylinder and measur-
the time water is ponded is the same across the field. ing the rate that the free surface falls or by measuring the
Variations between fields are easier to manage than vari- rate that water must be added to maintain a constant depth of
ations within a field because irrigation systems can be ponding. Once the wetted front exceeds the buried cylinder
designed for a specific field. depth, lateral flow may cause the measured infiltration rate
to be higher than would otherwise take place during irriga-
tion. Lateral flow is especially troublesome if restrictive

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dee. 1991

Figure 1-18.
-
Relation of Infiltration Rate to Time for Three Soils

I -
I
I Moderate-intake-rate soil
I
I
/ -
I 1Low-intake-rate soil
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (hours)

layers, such as plow pans, exist or if the hydraulic conductiv- ing flumes or orifices are used to make flow measurements
ity decreases with depth. When restrictive layers are at a at two points in an irrigation furrow that are located 30 to 90
shallow depth, the infiltration cylinder should be driven into feet apart. Intake rates are computed from the difference of
or through the layer if possible. Another means of preventing inflow and outflow for various times after water application
erroneous measurements because of lateral flow is to use a begins. Although this method provides a good means of
guarded ring or buffer area around the outside of the evaluating existing furrow irrigation systems, it is often not
infiltration cylinder. Water is ponded between the two convenient to use this method to determine intake rates for
cylinders at all times to prevent edge effects and to maintain the design of new systems. To avoid this problem, a furrow
vertical flow below the central infiltration cylinder. infiltrometer to measure intake rates in a short section of an
Infiltration under furrow irrigation involves soil water irrigation furrow was developed. The furrow is blocked off
movement in both vertical and horizontal directions. by metal plates, and water is applied at a rate sufficient to
Because the rate of infiltration depends on the size and shape maintain a constant depth. Intake rate is then determined in a
of the furrow, the rate water moves into the soil is often manner similar to that described for cylindrical infiltrome-
called the intake rate rather than the infiltration rate. Regard- ters.
less of the term used, the determination of intake rate is Ring and blocked furrow infiltrometers may not simulate
important to the design of an efficient furrow irrigation actual conditions accurately because water is stagnant, not
system. Infiltration rates that are determined by sprinkler or flowing. To circumvent this problem, a recirculating or
cylinder infiltrometers represent primarily vertical flow, so it flowing furrow infiltrometer may be more appropriate.
is difficult to apply these results directly. One method Water is introduced at one end of a blocked furrow test
frequently used to determine intake rates is to make inflow section and is collected at the other end by a small sump
and outflow measurements in an imgation furrow. Measur- pump and recirculated. Additional water from a supply

1-26
210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2ndEdition. Dec. 1991
 reservoir is supplied to the furrow to replace the water that where fc is the final, constant infiltration rate. Horton
has infiltrated. Infiltration is measured by a change in the presented another three-constants infiltration equation:
water-supply reservoir volume versus time.
Sprinkling or spray infiltrometers usually consist of a plot
surrounded by partially buried sheet metal barriers with
facilities for measuring the rate of surface runoff. Water is where fuis the infiltration rate at time = 0, and b is the soil
sprinkled onto the surface of the plot at a constant rate or constant which controls the rate of decreasc of the infiltation
I intermittently, as with a rotating sprinkler. If a constant rate. Again, the equation parameters are usually evaluated
application rate is applied, infiltration rate with time is from experimental infiltration data.
determined from the recorded runoff measurements by Philip proposed that the first two terms of a series solution
. subtracting runoff rate from application intensity. Storage
rate should also be considered to avoid significant errors. In
for infiltration from a ponded surface into a deep homoge-
nous soil be used as a concise infiltration equation as:
the case of a rotating sprinkler, design infiltration rate (not
the intake rate with time relation) is taken as the rate where
the applied water just disappears from the surface as the
sprinkler jet returns to apply more water to the same where S and C are constants which can be related to soil
location. An advantage of the last method is that the infiltra- characteristics. S can be adjusted for initial water content;
tion measurements are made for conditions very similar to and, similar to the extended Kostiakov equation, a
those that will exist during an actual irrigation. regression fit to experimental data will tend to give:

A similar, more physically based equation evolved from

Green and Ampt:
Attempts to characterize infiltration for field applications
- have usually involved simplified concepts which permit the
infiltration rate or cumulative infiltration volume to be where Ksis saturated hydraulic conductivity, M, is the
expressed algebraically in terms of time and certain soil difference between initial and final volumetric water content,
properties. The most obvious characteristic of the infiltration S,is the suction at the wetting front, and F is the cumulative
process is that the rate decreases rapidly with time during the infiltration.
early stages of the event. One of the most common and This model assumes that water enters the soil as slug flow,
. simple algebraic expressions is the Kostiakov equation:
f = kt-"
resulting in a sharply defined wetting front which separates a
zone that has been wetted from a totally uninfiltrated zone.
Although more physically based models can estimate
where f is infiltration rate, t is time after irrigation starts, and infiltration from measured soil properties, generally in
k and a are constants which depend on soil and initial practice it is easier to measure and fit infiltration data than to
conditions. measure soil properties. Actual infiltration measurements
Although simple, it cannot be adjusted for different field also tend to lump effects such as heterogeneities, worm
conditions, such as initial water content; moreover, it holes, and crusting in the equation parameters. This results
predicts an infiltration rate approaching zero at long times, in more reliable infiltration predictions than if the parameters
which is known to be incorrect. A constant term can be are determined from basic soil property measurements.
added to correct the latter problem to give the extended
Kostiakov equation:

f = kt-"+ fc

210-VI,NEH 15-1.2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Plants

Plant Root Systems Figure 1-1 9.

Flbrous Root System of Corn (Left) and Taproot I

Plant root systems provide the linkage between the soil System of Sugar Beet (Right): Both Are
water and nutrients and the aboveground parts of plants. Approximately Two Months Old
Two general types of root systems are recognized: fibrous
roots and taproots. Cereal grains and other grasses (mono-
cotyledons) have fibrous root systems. Other crops, such as
sugar beets and alfalfa (dicotyledons),have taproot systems.
The two types are illustrated in figure 1-19.
Fibrous roots are comprised of many slender roots that are
similar in length and diameter. The first root appearing from
a germinating seed is a seminal or primary root. The seminal
root gradually elongates and increases in diameter. Secon-
dary roots develop from the primary root as lateral branches
and subbranches. With continued growth, nodal roots arise Mature corn
from the underground stem nodes. Roots may also develop Sugar beet
from aboveground nodes such as the brace roots of maize.
In contrast to the fibrous root system, other crop plants
have an entire root system subtended by a single taproot Table 1-5.-Data source summary of several crop species
(taproot system). Crops, such as alfalfa and sugar beets, have
on the depth development of roots with time and expected
this type of root system. Although a taproot may extend to a maximum rooting depth (RD,) under favorable environ-
considerable soil depth, the major part of the total root mental conditions (H. Borg and D. W. Grimes, 1986. Depth
system is made up of first order laterals.
development of roots with time on empirical description.
Regardless of the basic rooting characteristics of mono- Transactions ofthe ASAE. Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 194-197).
cotyledons and dicotyledons, the length and complex
branching of an intact root system is considerable after a few No. of
weeks of growth. Laterals are initiated in the parent root Crop Observations RDm(cm)
member with primary laterals giving rise to secondary
laterals, and so on, until an extensive network is formed alfalfa 7 1st yr. 180-240
under favorable conditions. Typical growth rates for various (Medicago sativa) several (sev.)yrs. 300-600
root class members are: asparagus 1 1st yr. 100-200
root axes, 0.8 inch per day; (Asparagus oficinalis) sev. yrs. 300+
primary laterals, 0.2 inch per day; and barley 7 150-290
secondary laterals, 0.04 inch per day. (Hordeum vulgare)
Root elongation as high as 2.4 inches per day has been sugar beet 1
reported for maize. In contrast, unfavorable conditions due (Beta vulgaris)
to climate, soil composition, soil aeration, or soil chemistry broad bean 1
may severely restrict root growth and proliferation. (Vicia faba)
Crop Species Rooting Characteristics bromegrass 2 1st yr. 100-140
Proper imgation management requires good information (Bromus inermis) sev. yrs. 200+
on crop rooting characteristics with both depth development
cabbage 1
and rooting density being important considerations. An
extensive literature search resulted in the compilation of a (Brassica oleracea)
list of the maximum rooting depth achieved by some 55 carrot 1
plant species reported from 135 field observations (Daucus carota
(table 1-5). The range in depth achieved within a crop var. sativus)
species probably arises from genetic varietal characteristics cauliflower 1
and less than desirable growth conditions. An effort was (Brassica oleracea,
made to exclude data that was based on less than desirable Botrytis Group)
growth conditions.

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

field corn 180-300 pepper 1
(Zea mays L.) (Capscium annum var. annurn)
cotton 150-300 potato
(Gossypium hirsutum L.) (Solanum tuberosum)
cowpea 100-150 pumpkin
(Vigna sinensis) (Cucurbita pep0 var. pepo)
cucumber 120-180 radish
(Cucumis sativus) (Raphanus sativus)

eggplant 150-240 rape

(Solanum melongena) (Brussica napus)
flax 100-150 red clover 1st yr. 140-180
(Linum usitatissimum L.) (Trifolium pratense) sev. yrs. 200-300
garlic 60- 100
(Allium sativum) rhubarb sev. yrs. 200-300
(Rheum rhaponticum)
horseradish sev. yrs. 300-450
(Amoracia rusticana) rutabaga
(Brassica napus,
kidneybean 100-300 Napobrassica Group)
(Phaseolus vulgaris)
'Ye
Kohlrabi 150-270 (Secale cereale)
(Brassica oleracea,
Gongylodes Group) sorghum
(Sorghum vulgare)
leek
(Allium ampeloprasum, soybean
Porrum Group) (Glycine max)
lentils spinach
(Lens culinaris Medic) (Spinacia oleracea)
lettuce squash
(Lactuca sativa) (Cucurbita pepo
lima bean var. melopepo)
(Phaseolus limensis) strawberry
muskmelon (Fragaria chiloensis)
(Cucumis melo, sugar beet
Reticulatus Group) (Beta vulgaris L.)
oats sugar cane
(Avena sativa) (Saccharum oficinarum)
okra sunflower
(Abelmoschus esculentus) (Helianthus annuus)
onion sweetclover 1st yr. 150-240
(Allium cepa) (Melilotus alba) sev. yrs. 300+
parsley sweet corn 150-180
(Petroselinum hortense) (Zea mays var. rugosa)
parsnip sweet potato
(Pastinaca sativa)
(Ipomoea batatas)
Pea
(Pisum sativum)

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition. Dec. 1991

Swiss chard 1 rigid as a growing root enters the matrix and expands. A clay
(Beta vulgaris, Cicla Group) layer underlying a medium-textured or sandy soil zone may
cause a perched water condition and poor aeration on a
tomato 1
transient basis that is restrictive to root expansion through
(Lycopersicon esculentum)
such a layer.
turnip 1
(Brassica rapa,
Rapitera Group) Water Flow Into Roots
Water moves in the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum in
watermelon 1
response to differences in the potential energy of water in the
(Citrullus lanatus)
system. Transpiration causes a lower water potential in the
wheat 13 plant shoot and root system than in the bulk soil; conse-
(Triticum sativum) quently, soil water moves into the root system along this
potential gradient. Water first enters the root system through
epidermal cells in contact with the moist soil, then in turn
Factors Affecting Root Growth through cortical cells, the endodermis, pericycle cells, and
Although root growth generally proceeds rapidly under finally to the xylem that transports the water to the aerial
ideal conditions, both the rate of development and the plant parts. The intensity of root development and physical
maximum depth to which roots grow can be severely contact between the root and soil are important physical
restricted by several factors. Even though crop root systems considerations. When the upper part of the root zone
may be severely restricted, these systems have the capacity becomes comparatively dry and water is available in the
to support considerable shoot growth if the effective root lower zone, the uptake of water per unit volume of soil has
system is well aerated and supplied with adequate water and been observed to be proportional to the rooting density.
nutrients. The stresses experienced by roots generally fall Thus, the distribution of roots that varies with crop species
into categories that include: chemical stress caused by and soil physical properties becomes an important manage-
nutrient deficiencies, an unbalanced nutrient supply, or by ment concern.
toxic subtances; physical stress from mechanical impedance, The presence of salts in the soil water solution must be
from anaerobic conditions, from lack of water, and from considered when evaluating available water. The plant root
unfavorable temperatures; and biological stresses caused by contains a semipermeable membrane that allows water to
plant pests and diseases. pass but not most of the salt. Therefore, the main effect of
Mechanical impedance considerations are responsible for soluble salts on plants is osmotic with high salt levels
a majority of root limiting situations. These may be genetic making it difficult for the plant to obtain enough water from
in origin for shallow soils that overlie consolidated parent the soil solution to meet transpirational demand. Cell
material or pans caused by soil compaction that is associated enlargement is affected initially, and plants exhibit the
with certain management systems. Root limitations may be typical color changes associated with water stress.
very abrupt with consolidated soil materials or pans or
gradual in the case of soil compaction. Soil compaction Water Uptake-Root Profile Relations
usually results in reduced root growth rates with total root The root length density (length of roots per unit volume of
exclusion only observed in very extreme cases. Compaction soil) is generally greatest near the soil surface and declines
of soil reduces the volume occupied by pores, especially with increasing depth to the maximum depth to which roots
those of a large size. This causes mechanical impedance to are observed for a given crop species. This general trend is
root extension, lowers the rate of gas exchange between the illustrated graphically in figure 1-20.
soil and atmosphere, and changes the water retention and Extraction of water is most rapid in the zone of greatest
transmission properties of the soil. All of these factors root concentration and under the most favorable conditions
modify root growth and they are affected simultaneously by of temperature and aeration. Because water also evaporates
soil compaction. from the upper few inches of soil, water is withdrawn
Layered soils may offer severe impedance to an expand- rapidly from the top part of the soil profile. Soils normally
ing root system. The reduced root proliferation of a sand or show a more rapid loss of water at shallower depths until the
gravelly layer can be substantial because such layers are potential becomes low enough to be rate limiting. Basic
usually characterized by high bulk density and strength. water-extraction curves, based on quarters of the root zone
These layers are normally well drained, but they are highly depth, indicate that almost all plants growing in soil that is

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition. Dec. 1991

Figure 1-20

Average Water Extraction Pattern of Plants Growing in a Soil Without Restrictive Layers and With an
Adequate Supply of Available Water Throughout the Root Zone

uniform and adequately supplied with water have similar Plant Water Use from Shallow Water Tables
moisture-extractionpatterns. Figure 1-20 shows that about
40 percent of the extracted water comes from the upper Many agricultural production regions are characterized by
quarter of the root zone, 30 percent from the second quarter, having a water table close to the soil surface. Upon soil
20 percent from the third quarter, and 10 percent from the profile drying by evaporation from the soil surface or
bottom quarter. Values for comparative crops are normally transpiration from plants, a water potential gradient develops
within 10 percent of this range. In nonuniform soils, the that allows water to move upward in the soil profile and be
amount of soil water for crop growth may be determined by taken up by plant roots. The magnitude of upward movement
the soil layer that has the lowest soil water retention capabil- will depend on the strength of the water potential gradient
ity. For example, a top soil layer with a low water retention that develops, the unsaturated water flow properties of the
capacity may be rapidly depleted following an irrigation or soil, and depth of the water table. Upward movement for
rain. Even though soil water may be adequate at the lower eight North Carolina soils illustrates this phenomenon from
depths, water stress could be experienced in the early stages values reported in the literature (fig. 1-22).
of plant development if the root system is not yet fully The practice of subimgation utilizes this concept; water is
established. Some examples of limiting soil layers are introduced to the lower soil profile zones and moves upward
illustrated in figure 1-21. The normal extraction pattern for a into the active root zone by capillarity. Perched shallow
given crop will change when restrictive barriers are encoun- water tables in the Central Valley of California contribute up
tered. Also, if the water level in the upper soil layers is to 50 percent of the total season ET requirement for cotton
allowed to remain excessively dry, larger than normal and seed alfalfa production.
amounts of water will be supplied by the lower soil layers.

210-VI. NEH 15-1. 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Design Water-Extraction Depth plying maximum rooting depth at maturity that is either
known or estimated for a specific location by the relative
By definition, the design water-extraction depth is the soil rooting depth determined in figure 1-23.
depth used to determine irrigation water requirements for
system design purposes. It is the depth to which a reasonably Evapotranspiration
high soil water content should be maintained for optimum
production of agricultural crops. It should not be the maxi- Evapotranspiration is the process by which water is
mum depth of rooting, especially for long taproot systems, moved from the surface of the earth to the atmosphere. It
but it is important that it corresponds to the depth at which consists of the evaporation of liquid or solid water from soil
most of the active plant roots are able to meet transpirational and plant surfaces, plus water that transpires through plant
demand. The design depth should be based on local water- tissues.
extraction data for adopted crops. If two or more plant
species with different rooting characteristics are to be grown Potential ET
together, the design depth should be that of the plant having
the shallower root system. The relationship between crop, climate, water, and soil is
The rooting depth of well-established perennials is rea- complex and involves many processes. The processes can be
sonably stable from one growing season to the next and can explained somewhat simplistically through a series of
generally be considered as constant; however, for annuals, concepts and relationships established through research.
root development depends on time. The researchers who Crop water requirement is defined as the depth of water
developed table 1-5 formed a functional relationship per unit soil area needed to meet the water loss from
between relative time and relative rooting depth for annual evapotranspiration (ETcrop or ETJ of a disease-free crop
crops (fig. 1-23). Relative time represents the fractional time growing in a large field under nonrestricting soil conditions,
lapse to crop maturity from the planting date. Actual rooting including soil water and fertility, and achieving full produc-
depth at a given site and time can be determined by multi- tion potential under the given growing environment
Figure 1-21.

Water Extraction Patterns as Determined by Available Water Content in Various Parts of Soil Profile.
Width of Each Profile Represents Total Available Water. Gross Area (Height and Width) of Each Profile
Represents Total Available Water in Profile; Hatched Area Shows Water Extraction Pattern for Each
profile.

Uniform Mod. coarse Medium over Medium over Mod. coarse Medium over
profile over medium mod. coarse mod. coarse coarse
Limiting , top top 1h 2nd lh top lh
over medium
top '/i 3rd l/i
layer

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

 Figure 1-22.

Upward Flux-Water Table Depth Relationships for Eight North Carolina Soils

(W.L.S.)

\
Wagram LS.
-- --- Lumbee S.L. (L.S.L.)
--- Goldsboro S.L. (G.S.L.)
Portsmouth S.L. (P.S.L.)
-. ..- Ogeechee L. (O.L.)
---- Cape Fear S.L. (C.F.S.L.)
- -. - Rains S.L. (R.S.L)
(B.L.)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Water table depth below root zone (in)

a
210-VI,NEH 15-1,2nd Edition, Dec. 1991
Figure 1-23. related to the canopy leaf area. As the canopy area increases,
the crop coefficients must be increased.
Change in Relative Rooting Depth With Relative
When soil water is deficient, the plant is not able to take
Time for Annual Crops up enough water to meet the evapotranspiration demand set
by the climatic conditions and is said to be under stress.
Relative time When plants are stressed from soil water deficiency, the
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 actual crop evapotranspirationrate (ET,) will be less than the
potential evapotranspiration rate (ETA and the actual crop
yield (Y,) will be less than the maximum yield (Y,)
(Doorenbos & Kassam, 1979). The ET-yield relationship is
discussed in detail in a later section.

Predicting Crop ET
Actual crop ET (ET,), in addition to climate, depends on
soil factors and plant factors such as the degree of ground
cover, plant leaf characteristics, and surface roughness of the
crop canopy. Plant factors are characterized by the crop co-
efficient that varies during the growing season and according
to the model used to estimate ET.
Estimating the actual ET of a growing crop from climatic
observations requires the reference crop ET and the specific
crop coefficient. The ET of a specific crop is calculated by:

ETc = (reference crop ET) (specific crop

coefficient)
(Doorenbos & Pruitt, 1977). When these conditions are met
the crop will produce at the potential or maximum yield (Y,)
and transpire at the maximum rate (ET,). Standard terminology has been established for refemng to
the various ET models and crop coefficients.
Potential ET refers to the maximum ET rate determined
by climatic conditions for a specific crop at a specific
location at a specific time. Climatic conditions largely
determine the potential ET. Various methods, based on
meteorological factors, have been developed by researchers
to predict the potential ET rates. Solar radiation is the main
Where:
factor that determines the ET rate; but air temperature,
humidity, and wind speed also have an effect.
ETo = Reference ET (approximates 4- to 7-inch tall
Direct measurement of ET rates is laborious, time
grass)
consuming, and requires considerable instrumentation.
ETp = Potential ET (approximates uncut alfalfa)
Therefore, the measurement of climatic factors is most often
used to estimate ET based on an equation or model that Epa, = Evaporation from National Weather
Service "class A" evaporation pan
relates the climatic factors to the ET rate. ET models usually
ETc = Evapotranspiration of a specified crop
estimate the potential ET of a reference crop such as grass or
alfalfa. Conversion factors called "crop coefficients" are Kpan = Coefficient to convert Epmto ET,
used to relate the reference crop ET to the actual crop ET. Kp = Coefficient to convert Ep to ET,
Some ET models, such as the pan evaporation and Kc = Coefficient to convert EToto ETc
Modified Blaney-Criddle models, relate climatic factors Get = Coefficient to convert ETpto ET,
directly to the crop rather than to a reference crop. Crop
Several equations or models are available for estimating
coefficients are still required to adjust for the plant develop-
reference crop ET. The two reference crops used for
ment stages because the crop transpiration rate is directly
estimating crop ET are grass and alfalfa. Grass is the

1-34
210-VI. NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991
 reference crop most often used and is becoming the standard Table 1-6.-General factors for conversion from one method
reference. Care must be used to avoid mixing methodologies of estimating crop ET to another (Snyder & Dickey, 1982)
and coefficients. The selection of the method to be used may
be determined by the available information; however, Evapotranspiration Coefficients
conversion from one reference base to another can be made
by a general factor. If local conversion factors have been
, determined, they should be used. General conversion factors
listed in table 1-6 may be used until specific local factors
can be determined.
. Generally, the selection of a method to estimate ET will
be based on the kind of climatic data available and the
degree of accuracy required in determining crop water-use
rates. Prediction accuracy will usually be best for those
procedures requiring the greatest input detail of climatic
parameters. The following are sample methods used for
calculating ET: Penman-Monteith (variable canopy height),
FA0 Blaney-Criddle, FA0 Radiation, Jensen-Haise, Pan
Evaporation, and SCS Blaney-Criddle. The monthly
reference estimates of these procedures, plotted against
lysimeter measured ET (ASCE Water Requirements
Committee, 1987), are shown in figures 1-24 through 1-24f. Crop Coefficient
All of these methods can be used to determine monthly ET,"
but the SCS Blaney-Criddle method cannot be used to A crop coefficient is the ratio of the actual crop ET to
determine daily ETo for scheduling purposes. reference crop ET at a specific time. A plot of the crop
Methods of estimating crop water requirements are dis- coefficient as a function of time is known as a crop curve.
cussed in detail in SCS National Engineering Handbook, An illustration of a crop curve is given in figure 1-25.
section 15 : Irrigation, chapter 2 : Irrigation Water Require-
ments. Figure 1-25 delineates the time during the growing season as
initial, crop development, midseason, and late. Selection of
these categories is arbitrary; using calendar days does not
account for the possible year-to-year differences in climatic
conditions that affect growth rate. The use of accumulated
growing degree days, when available for the crop, avoids
this disadvantage.

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Monthly Reference Estimates From Several Different Procedures Versus Lysimeter-Measured ET
Figure 1-24(a). Figure 1-24(b).

Penman-Monteith, Var. Canopy Height F A 0 Blaney-Criddle

Monthly reference evapotranspiration Grass reference evapotranspiration
12
$ 11
?
E 10
9
8
g
.a 7
V)
a 6
g 5
4
P
2 3
a 2
5 1
r" 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Lysirneter-measured Et, mrn/day Lysirneter-measured Et mm/day
Figure 1-24(c). Figure 1-24(d).
- - -- --

FA0 Radiation Jensen-Haise

Grass reference evapotranspiration Monthly alfalfa reference Et
$ 12
? 11
E 10
E
* 9
5 8
.-E 7
2a 6
2 5
g
"- 4
2 3
g 2

=5 1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Lysimeter-measured Et mm/day Lysimeter-measured Et, mrn/day

Figure 1-24(e). Figure 1-24(9.

Pan Evaporation SCS Blaney-Criddle (TR-21)

Monthly reference eva~otrans~iration

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Lysimeter-measured Et, mm/day Lysirneter-measured Et, mm/day
1-36
210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2ndEdition, Dec. 1991
Crop Critical Stress Periods
pp

For many crops there are critical periods during the

growing season when a water deficit or stress is detrimental Crop Water Stress Critical Other
Period Considerations
to crop yield. For most crops that have a critical period, the --
period generally is associated with some stage of reproduc-
Small Dull green color, Boot and bloom Last
tive growth; exceptions, however, do take place. The critical imgation
Grain then firing of
period for a number of commonly grown crops under an is at milk
lower leaves
imgated culture is given in table 1-7.
stage.
Table 1- 7 . 4 r i t i c a l periods for water stress, symptoms, and Potatoes Wilting during Tuber forma- Water
some other considerations for several important crops. heat of the day tion to harvest stress
during
Crop Water Stress Critical Other critical
Period Considerations period may
cause
Alfalfa Darkening color, Early spring Normally 3-4 deformation of
then wilting & immediately inches of tubers.
after cuttings water needed
between Onions Wilting Bulb formation Keep soil moist
cuttings. during bulb
Fall imgation formation,
is desirable. let soil
dry near
Corn Curling of leaves Tasseling, Needs adequate harvest.
by mid-morning silk stage water from
Tomatoes Wilting After fruit Wilt and leaf
until grain germination to
set rolling
is fully dent stage for
can be caused
formed maximum
by disease.
production.
Cool Dull green color, Early spring, For seed
Sorghum Curling of leaves Boot, bloom Yields production
Season then wilting early fall
by mid-morning & dough are reduced if
Grass critical
stages water is short
period is
during seed
boot to head
development.
formation.
Sugar Leaves wilting Post thinning Excessive
Fruit Dulling of leaf Any point dur- Stone fruits
Beets during heat of fall
Trees color, and ing growing are sensitive
the day imgation
drooping season to water stress
lowers
during last
sugar
imgation.
content.
Beans Wilting Bloom and Yields-&
fruit set reduced'lf
water is short
at bloom or
fruit set.

210-VI,NEH 15-1,2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Yield-Evapotranspiration Relationships Concepts of Production Functions

The amount of water evapotranspired to produce the The production function provides a useful means of ana-
highest crop yield at a given location will depend on the lyzing water-productivity relations if the function is based on
climate, soil, and characteristics of the specific crop. A data that utilize proper imgation scheduling to give the least
supply of irrigation water is essential for sustained high yield reduction possible from a defined water deficit. Water
levels of crop productivity. In arid and semiarid regions response functions for a variety of crops have been devel-
salinity is a potential problem that must be considered at the oped. Although many variables are used to quantify the
same time. If a water deficit develops in the soil beyond a amount of water used in the production process, three of the
threshold level for the specific stage of growth, the resulting greatest importance are ET, applied water, and soil water.
water stress will reduce ET, and crop yield will be reduced Evapotranspiration has the greatest rigor and potential for
proportionately. In recent years, recognition of this charac- transferability between contrasting soils and geographic
teristic has led researchers to establish mathematical regions. The amount of applied water, however, is the
functions that characterize this direct relationship. Generally, controlled variable and, in an economic sense, represents the
studies to develop yield-ET functions have been conducted cost consideration. Soil water status provides a link between
under nonlimiting salinity conditions. This is somewhat ET and applied water and is an indication of management
unfortunate because it is now usually accepted that the and the application uniformity of the imgation system.
detrimental effects of excess salinity result from a reduction
in ET that forms a direct linkage to reduced crop yields. It
has been effectively demonstrated that yield-ET and yield-
salinity effects can be reduced to a single yield-ET function
in the absence of specific toxic ions that manifest yield loss
on their own.
Figure 1-25.

1-38
210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991
Yield-Evapotranspiration Production Yield-Applied Water Relationships
Functions

For many crops and growing conditions, the relationship Figures 1-26 and 1-27 show that an applied water (AW)
between ET and yield is linear up to ET values that result in function progressively departs from the ET function as ET
maximum productivity; this is especially true for crops and applied water increase. This results primarily from
where the aboveground biomass represents yield. This type increased drainage below the root zone and larger amounts
of response is illustrated in figure 1-26 for total growing of AW remaining in the soil profile at the end of the growing
season alfalfa hay yield and ET in the San Joaquin Valley. season which is directly related to the level of management.
Approximately 33.5 inches (85 centimeters) were required to The limits of a "rational water use zone" are depicted in
achieve a maximum yield of 10.7 tons per acre (24 metric figure 1-27. Applied water to achieve maximum yield is the
tons per hectare). Figure 1-27 shows a relationship between upper limit, and AW required to reach a maximum average
cotton lint yield and ET that is nonlinear. The relatively product (yieldlapplied water) is the basis for the lower limit.
complex nature of vegetative-reproductive growth partition- Applied water to maximize profit always will fall within the
ing of cotton accounts for the slight curvature for this limits of the rational input zone. Adding additional water
function; however, other crops, such as corn and sorghum, beyond that associated with achieving maximum yield may
have been shown to have linear functions between seed or frequently be associated with yield reduction. Mechanisms
reproductive growth and ET. that may be responsible for the yield loss include leaching of
nutrients, reduced aeration, and excessive vegetative growth
Figure 1-26. at the expense of reproducing seed yield.

Alfalfa Hay Yield-ET and Yield Applied Water (AW)

Functions for the San Joaquin Valley, California
Figure 1-27

Cotton Lint Yield-ET and Lint Yield-Applied Water

(AW) Functions for the San Joaquin Valley,
California

0 10 20 30 40 50

Water (inches ET or applied)

Water (inches ET or applied)

210-VI. NEH 15-1. 2nd Edition. Dec. 1991

Transferability of Yield-
Evapotranspiration Functions

Empirically derived water production functions are by scaling the observed maximum yield and water use
usually correct only for the site specific conditions under required to achieve this yield of a site to the relative values.
which they are developed; however, functions which use Research shows that a fair amount of transferability, among
relative ET (actual ETfpotential ET) and relative yield geographic regions of contrasting soil and climatic condi-
(actual yieldlmaximum yield) offer some advantage toward a tions, is possible under this procedure. Figure 1-28 illustrates
more generalized function. A crop yield-water function for a a dimensionless yield-ET function for Thompson grape-
specific region can be obtained from the dimensionless form vines.

Figure 1-28.

Relative Yield of Thompson Erapes Versus Relative Evapotranspiration

0.4 0.6 0.8

Relative yield (y,, yob;')

[Link] 15-1. 2nd Edition. Dec. 1991

 Salinity Effects
Dissolved salts in irrigation water contribute to soil
salinity that causes a yield loss to the crop for salinity levels
beyond the threshold of tolerance for a given crop. Yield
loss is generally associated with reduced plant size and
lower ET. For a given amount and salt load of irrigation
water, over a lengthy time period, an equilibrium will be
established between ET, leaching, soil salinity, and crop
s yield. Under these conditions, the detrimental effects of
salinity are related to crop yield reduction that is associated
with the reduced ET.
Generally, crops will tolerate salinity without yield
reduction up to a definable threshold level. As salinity
increases beyond the threshold level, yields are linearly
diminished until crop production is no longer feasible. Table
1-8 uses this concept for four categories of crop sensitivity to
soil salinity (ECe, conductivity of the soil saturation extract);
namely, sensitive (S), moderately sensitive (MS), moder-
ately tolerant (MT), and tolerant (T). The table gives the
threshold values and slope of the linear yield loss function
with increased salinity. Although generalized categories of

a crop salt tolerance can be made, it must be recognized that

salt tolerance depends on many plant, soil, and climatic
variables. The time-averaged salinity of a root zone is
determined by the amount of drying that occurs between
rains or irrigations. Both matric and osmotic potentials
decline on drying, and it is generally thought that the sum of
the two is the total soil water potential that the plant re-
sponds to. As soil water is depleted from a soil profile
having a nonuniform distribution of salts, the total potential
of water being absorbed tends to approach a uniform
potential at all depths. Following irrigation or rain, plants
.)
absorb water first from root zone regions of low osmotic
stress, usually the upper, less saline part of the profile. As
matric stress increases in the upper profile, total water stress
is equalized on the entire soil profile since more salts are
present toward the lower part of the root zone. Frequent
irrigation to maintain a high level of soil moisture in the
upper profile will maintain a low level of water stress even
though considerable salinity may be present in the lower root
zone.

210-VI,NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

 Table l - % - S a l t tolerance of herbaceous crops (E. V. Maas, 1986. Applied Agricultural Research 1 :12-26).

Electrical conductivity Electrical conductivity

of saturated soil extract of saturated soil extradt
Crop Crop
-
-

Common name Botanical name Thres- Percent1 RatingZ Common name Botanical name Thres- Percent' Rating*
yield hold yield
dS/m reduction dS/m reduction
Fiber, grain, and special crops Buffelgrass Cenchrus ciliaris - MS
Bumet Poterium
Barley Hordeum vulgar 8.0 5.0 T Sanguisorba MS
Bean Phaseolus vulgaris 1.0 19.0 S Canarygrass,
Broadbean Vicia Faba 1.6 9.6 MS reed Phalaris
Corn Zea Mays 1.7 12.0 MS arundinacea MT
Cotton Gossypium hirsutum 7.7 5.2 T Clover, alsike Trifolium hybridum 1.5 12.0 MS

Cowpea Vigna unguiculata 4.9 12.0 MT Clover, Berseem T. alexandrinum 1.5 5.7 MS
Flax Linum usitatissimum 1.7 12.0 MS Clover, Hubam Melilotus alba MT
Guar Cyamopsis MT Clover, ladino Trifolium repens 1.5 12.0 MS
tetragonoloba Clover, red T. pratense 1.5 12.0 MS
Millet, foxtail Setaria italica MS Clover,
Oats Avena sativa MT strawberry [Link] 1.5 12.0 MS

Peanut Arachis hypogaea 3.2 29.0 MS Clover, sweet Melilotus MT

Rice, paddy Oryza sativa 3.0 12.0 S Clover,
Rye Secale cereale MT white Dutch Trifolium repens - MS
Safflower Carthamus tinctorius - MT Corn (forage) Zea Mays 1.8 7.4 MS
Sesame Sesamum indicum - S Cowpea (forage) Vigna unguiculata 2.5 1 1.0 MS
Dallisgrass Paspalum dilatatum - MS
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor 6.8 16.0 MT
Soybean Glycine Max 5.0 20.0 MT Fescue, tall Festuca elatior
Sugarbeet Beta vulgaris 7.0 5.9 T Fescue, meadow F. pratensis
Sugarcane Saccharum 1.7 5.9 MS Foxtail, meadow Alopecurus
officinarum pratensis
Sunflower Helianthus annuus - MS Grama, blue Bouteloua gracilis
Hardinggrass Phalaris tuberosa
Triticale X. Triticosecale T
Kallargrass Diplachne fusca
Wheat Triticum aestivum 6.0 7.1 MT
Lovegrass Eragrostis
Wheat
Milkvetch, Cicer Astragalus cicer
(semidwarf) T , aestivum 8.6 3.0 T
Oatgrass, tall Arrhenatherum,
Wheat, Durum T. turgidum 5.9 3.8 T
Danthonia
Grasses and forage crops Oats (forage) Avena sativa

Alfalfa Medicago sativa 2.0 7.3 MS Orchardgrass Dactylis glomerata

Alkaligrass, Panicgrass, blue Panicum antidotale
Nuttall Puccinellia airoides - T Rape Brassica napus
Alkali sacaton Sporobolus airoides - T Rescuegrass Bromus unioloides
Barley (forage) Hordeum vulgare 6.0 7.1 MT Rhodesgrass Chloris Guyana
Bentgrass Agrostis Rye (forage) Secale cereale MS
stolonifera palustris - MS Ryegrass,
Bermudagrass Cynodon Dactylon 6.9 6.4 T Italian Lolium italicum MT
Bluestem, multiflorum
Angleton
, Dichanthium Ryegrass,
aristatum MS perennial L. perenne 5.6 7.6 MT
Brome, mountain Bromus marginatus - MT Saltgrass,
Brome, smooth B. inermis MS desert Distichlis stricta T

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

 Electrical conductivity Electrical conductivity
of saturated soil extract of saturated soil extract
Crop Crop
--
-

Common name Botanical name Thres- Percent' Rating2 Common name Botanical name Thres- Percent' Rating2
hold yield hold yield
dS1m reduction dS/m reduction

Sesbania Sesbania exaltata 2.3 7.0 MS Broccoli Brassica oleracea 2.8 9.2 MS
botrytis
Siratro Macroptilium MS
atropurpureum Brussels sprouts B. oleracea
Sphaerophysa Sphaerophysa gemmifera
salsula 2.2 7.0 MS Cabbage B. oleracea
Sudangrass Sorghum sudanense 2.8 4.3 MT capitata
Timothy Phleum pratense - MS Carrot Daucus carota
Trefoil, big Lotus uliginosus 2.3 19.0 MS Cauliflower Brassica oleracea
botrytis
Trefoil, Celery Apium graveolens
narrowleaf L. corniculatus 5.0 10.0 MT
birdsfoot tenuifolium Corn, sweet Zea Mays
Trefoil, Cucumber Cucumis sativus
broadleaf L. corniculatus MT Eggplant Solanum Melongena
birdsfoot arvenis esculentum
Vetch, common Vicia angustifolia 3.0 11.0 MS Kale Brassica oleracea
Wheat (forage) Triticum aestivum 4.5 2.6 MT acephala
Wheat, Durum Kohlrabi B. oleracea
(forage) T. turgidum 2.1 2.5 MT gongylode
Wheatgrass, Lettuce Lactuca sativa 1.3 13.0 MS
standard Agropyron Muskmelon Cucumis Melo MS
crested sibiricum 3.5 4.0 MT Okra Abelmoschus
Wheatgrass, esculentus S
fairway Onion Allium Cepa 1.2 16.0 S
crested A. cristatum 7.5 6.9 T Parsnip Pastinaca sativa S
Wheatgrass,
intermediate A. intermedium MT Pea Pisum sativum
Wheatgrass, Pepper Capsicum annuum
slender A. trachycaulum - MT Potato Solanum tuberosum
Wheatgrass, tall A. elongatum 7.5 4.2 T Pumpkin Cucurbita
Pep0 Pep0
Wheatgrass, Radish Raphanus sativus
western A. Smithii MT
Wildrye, Altai Elymus angustus - T Spinach Spinacia oleracea
Squash, scallop Cucurbita Pepo
Wildrye,
beardless E. triticoides 2.7 6.0 MT Melopepo
Wildrye, Squash, zucchini C. Pepo Melopepo
Canadian E. canadensis MT Strawberry Fragaria
Wildrye, Russian E. junceus T Sweet potato Ipomoea Batatas

Vegetable and fruit crops Tomato Lycopersicon

Lycopersicum
Artichoke Helianthus Turnip Brassica Rapa
tuberosus MT Watermelon Citrullus lanatus
Asparagus Asparagus
oficinalis 4.1 2.0 T 'Percent reduction in yield per increase in solinity unit (dslm).
Bean Phaseolus vulgaris 1.0 19.0 S =S, T, MS, and MT indicate a classification of sensitive, tolerant,
, Beet, red Beta vulgaris 4.0 9.0 MT moderately sensitive, and moderately tolerant, respectively.

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dm.1991

Plant Factors and woody ornamentals are sensitive to low concentrations
of sodium and chloride; annual crops do not show this
While plant species are classed as to their general degree of sensitivity. Boron affects a broad range of crop
sensitivity to salinity, considerable flexibility may be species. Studies of crop sensitivity to specific ions generally
achieved by varietal selection, especially within the grass report absorption to be through the crop root system; an
family (Gramineae). Rootstock differences in the tolerance equally important mode of entry, in the case of sodium and
of salinity and toxic ions are an important consideration for chloride ions, is through leaves wet by a sprinkler.
vine and fruit-tree crops. Several woody species show Boron may be present in either soils or imgation waters.
tolerance levels that are related to the accumulation proper- In the soil, boron can be leached, but it is difficult to do so.
ties of the rootstocks. Boron that is present in irrigation water requires corrective
For some crops, salinity sensitivity varies with growth action by switching water supplies, if this is possible, or by
stage; cereal crops appear particularly variable. Rice, barley, selecting a crop less sensitive to boron. Table 1-9 provides a
wheat, and corn appear to be more sensitive during emer- list of crops that have varying degrees of boron sensitivity.
gence and early seedling growth than at germination and
later growth stages and grain development. Sugar beets and Table 1-9.-Tolerance classificationof plants to boron
safflower are more sensitive during germination than at (Robert S. Ayers, 1977. Quality of water for irrigation.
other stages. J . Irrig. Drain. Div. ASCE, IR2,103:135-154).

Sensitive* Semitolerant* Tolerant*

Soil Factors
Lemon Lima beans Carrot
Immediately after an irrigation event the salt concentra- Grapefruit Sweet potato Lettuce
tion of the soil solution will be at the lowest possible level. Avocado Bell pepper Turnip
With ET, the solution becomes more concentrated as the Orange Tomato Cabbage
time for the next irrigation approaches. As indicated Thornless blackberry Pumpkin Onion
previously, with very saline soil water, frequent irrigations Apricot Zinnia Broad bean
are needed to minimize salinity stress; however, maintaining Peach Oat Gladiolus
frequent irrigations may lead to aeration problems, espe- Cheny Milo Alfalfa
cially for fine-textured soils. Persimmon Corn Garden beet
Crops grown on infertile soils may exhibit quite high Kadota fig Wheat Mange1
levels of apparent salt tolerance because salinity is not the Grape (sultonina and Barley Sugar beet
factor limiting growth. Proper fertilization results in higher malaga
yield, but it seems to increase salt sensitivity. Apple Olive Palm
(phoenix
conariensis)
Climatic Factors Pear Ragged robin rose Date palm
(phoenix
Temperature, humidity, and air pollution have been ob- dactylifera)
served to markedly influence salt tolerance. As evaporation American elm Radish Asparagas
demand increases (high temperature and lower relative
Navy bean Sweet pea Athel
humidity), many crops appear less salt tolerant. The detri- (tamarix
mental effects of ozone have been observed to be moderated
aphylla)
by maintaining moderate levels of salinity. This interaction
Jerusalem artichokes Pima cotton
may be of practical significance for some leafy vegetables
Persian (English) Acola cotton
and forage crops. walnut
Black walnut Potato
Peron Sunflower (native)
Specific Ion Effects
* Within each group, the plant first given is most sensitive and the last most .
A few specific ions have a direct toxic effect on certain tolerant.
sensitive crops at relatively low concentrations. Tree crops

1-44
210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition. Dec. 1991
Acid Soils AI(OH),O is the dominant species and the net negative charge
Soil leaching (weathering) takes place over much of the of the mineral complex is that of the silicate mineral. In
Earth's land surface where rainfall exceeds evapotranspira- highly weathered soils, oxides of Fe and A1 are abundant.
tion for the greater part of the year. The leached soil be- Such soils may have a large part of the cationexchange
comes acidic as soluble salts, soluble soil minerals, and capacity that is pH dependent.
bases are removed. Under slight to moderate intensity
weathering, only the surface soil becomes acidic while the Effects of Soil Acidity on Plant Growth
subsoil may remain neutral or alkaline. As leaching becomes Many soil parameters are changed as soil acidity is
more intense, the entire soil profile becomes acidic. In altered; therefore, it is difficult to determine the exact reason
humid tropical zones, strongly weathered soils return again for poor plant growth under acid conditions. Many experi-
to neutral to slightly acid conditions if soils are high in ments have emphasized, however, the different nutritional
aluminum (Al) and iron (Fe) hydroxide. abnormalities that take place under field conditions. Pro-
Many factors other than the normal weathering processes vided the soil pH does not go below 4.0 - 4.5, there is little
of soils cause them to be acid. The parent materials of the direct detriment because of hydrogen ions; rather, Al,' and
soils may have been acidic, or the soils may have been con- Mn,' are present in soil solution in sufficient quantities to be
taminated by mine spoils containing iron pyrite (FeS,) or toxic to plants in varying degrees, depending on the species
other sulfides which are oxidized to H,SO, and Fe(OH), in and cultivar of the specific crop.
the presence of air and water and can result in soils having a Deficiencies of calcium (Ca) frequently hinder crop
pH as low as 2. Marine flood plains that are high in sulfides growth under acid soil conditions, as do deficiencies of
become extremely acid in one to two years following magnesium (Mg) and molybdenium (Mo). Generally,
drainage. Organic acids are formed as plant residues are phosphorous (P) availability is suppressed in acid soils, but
decomposed by organisms and cause forest soils and organic the resulting deficiencies frequently have been acccounted
soils to be acidic. Acid precipitation, having a pH as low as 3 for by P immobilization in roots by the conduction elements
to 4 because of the emissions from the combustion of fossil of plants. In addition to the direct effects of acidity on the
fuels (coal and petroleum), may lower the pH of sensitive chemical status of inorganic elements, the impedance of the
soils, noncalcareous soils that have low organic matter populations and the activities of micro-organisms that are
contents and low clay contents and, consequently, very low responsible for transformations involving nitrogen (N),
cation-exchange capacities. Finally, most nitrogen and sulfur (S), and phosphorus (P) reduce the availability of
phosphorous fertilizers increase the acidity of soils. Nitrogen these elements to crops.
increases the acidity of soils when the ammonium form is Correcting acid soil conditions by liming has, in some
converted to nitrate by soil micro-organisms; and diammo- instances, been associated with reduced availability of some
nium phosphate does so when the ammonium ions, which inorganic ions. Therefore, care should be taken that adequate
are part of the chemical formula of the fertilizer, are also amounts of affected ions are made available by fertilization.
converted to nitrate. Liming acid soil reduces the availability of exchangeable
potassium (K). Boron (B)deficiencjl has been associated
Chemistry of Acid Soils with liming in the southern region of the United States and
The chemical nature of acid soils is linked closely to the zinc (Zn) deficiencies have been attributed to liming. Figure
solution chemistry of A1 and, to some extent, Fe. When the 1-29 illustrates nutrient availability in acid soils.
soil cation-exchange capacity is saturated with hydrogen ions
from strong acids, the hydrogen ions are rapidly replaced Crop Response to Liming in the United States
with A1 and Fe ions from within the crystal structure of the Soil acidity in the United States that is sufficient to limit
clay mineral. crop production is generally restricted to subhumid and
Hydrolysis reactions lead to hydroxy complexes such as humid regions (fig. 1- 1). Localized conditions that are
Al(OH)2+,AI(OH),', and Fe(OH)(H,0),2+.Such reactions are favorable for acid soil development, however, may take
important because these compounds form a thin layer around place even in low rainfall areas.
layered silicate minerals; and, because they are positively Liming is considered to be an essential component of
charged, they influence the cation-exchange capacity of sustained crop productivity in the Southern United States.
soils. At low soil pH values (4.5 to 5.0), the net cation- High usage of acid forming fertilizers increases the need for
exchange capacity of the soil will be lowest because the 2+ liming in the region; however, actual lime usage has not
ion species above predominate and neutralize some of the historically kept pace with that required for optimum crop
negative charge. At neutral to slightly basic conditions, production.

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2ndEdition, Dee. 1991

Figure 1-29.

Nutrient Availability in Acid Soils: The Wider the Bar, the More Available is the Nutrient.

I 1 I I 1 1
.
:I.; :. . : : : . :: ' :.
. ..;...>... .;..:.,:;.. ..........
...........
'

. .. . . ......:
' ' - ; ' , . : , " . " ' . . . : .1
.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. .. .:..:..... Iron
' ' I
. . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . .......... . .
'..'....?..

'.""
I ' ' .
I
. .".' ........
I '
I I
...........
I ._ . _. .
. . . .... ... .. .. .: .. . '. . . . . . . . "
. '

... .Manganese
. . . . . . . .;.':.::. d

I I 1 I I I

Lime usage in the Midwest was higher before the 1950's development. As in all regions, some growing crops actually
when leguminous meadow crops were used extensively as a perform best on acid soils.
source of nitrogen to maintain acceptable crop yields. In the Western States, precipitation that is sufficient to
Following this period, the use of large quantities of commer- develop acid soil conditions in the normal course of soil
cial N-fertilizer materials was introduced, and the basic development is restricted to areas relatively close to the
cation reserves were markedly lowered. Soils now require Pacific Ocean. These areas are most frequently of mountain-
regular applications of lime to maintain productivity. ous terrain on the western slope that is not substantially
Most soils in the Northeastern States require regular cultivated.
applications of lime for normal plant growth and yield.
Some very young limestone-derived soils are still calcareous Determining Lime Requirement
in their upper horizons and require no lime at this stage of Contrasting crop species vary considerably in their
tolerance of acid soils; therefore, the crops that are to be

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

grown affect liming recommendations. Table 1-10 gives the The Ca and Mg compounds in agricultural lime will
optimum soil pH range for several crops commonly grown neutralize soil acidity. A listing of liming materials includes
on mineral soils in regions requiring lime additions. Some quicklime, hydrated lime, limestone, marl, shells, by-
potato growers in Maine maintain low pH to control scab products such as slag, and irrigation water. The calcium and
disease. Legumes are generally the crops most sensitive to magnesium contents of ground water that is used for
soil acidity. Organic soils should be allowed to decline to irrigation can be equal to 1,000 pounds or more of calcium
much lower pH values than mineral soils; satisfactory crop carbonate per acre foot of water and can neutralize all the
yields are achieved at pH values ranging as low as 5.0 to 5.7. acidity generated by added fertilizers, yet still raise the pH of
At these pH values organic soils usually contain an abun- the soil over a period of time.
dance of Ca and Mn. Generally, A1 and Fe contents are well If the soils to be imgated have a sodium adsorption ratio
below toxic levels. greater than 13 and the irrigation water contains calcium or
magnesium and carbonate or bicarbonate ions, a slightly or
Table 1-10.-Permissible soil pH rangesfor various crops
moderately acid soil is preferable. In the acid soil calcium
growing on mineral soils in Michigan (C. M. Woodruff;
ions remain in the soil solution, rather than precipitating as
1967. In Soil Acidity and Liming. Robert W. Pearson and
the carbonate, and compete with sodium ions for adsorption
Fred Adams,,[Link] Monograph No. 12. Amer. Soc.
on the exchange complex. The dispersion of clays due to
Agron. Madison, WI,p. 222).
sodium can also be reduced by maintaining some salinity in
Crop Soil pH Crop Soil pH the irrigation water.
range range Limestone is the most common liming material used; it
may be calcite (CaCO,), dolomite (CaCO, MgCO,), or a
Least acid-tolerant More acid-tolerant mixture of these materials. Agricultural lime usually
contains impurities that have no effect on soil acidity. The
Alfalfa 6.3 to 7.8 Buckwheat 5.0 to 7.0 chemical effectiveness of lime is measured by its CaCO,
Asparagas 6.0 to 8.0 Oats 5.0 to 7.0 equivalency.
Barley 6.5 to 7.8 Potatoes 5.2 to 6.5 The rate of the reaction of lime with soil depends not only
Beans 6.0 to 7.5 Raspberry 5.0 to 7.0 on its chemical purity, but also on particle size. Fineness is
Peas 6.0 to 7.5 Rye 5.0 to 7.0 usually measured by expressing the percentages of material
Red clover .O to 7.5 Strawberries 5.0 to 6.5 passing a series of specific, sized sieves. The approximate
Soybeans 6.0 to 7.0 Vetch 5.0 to 7.0 amounts of finely ground limestone that are needed to raise
Sugar beets 6.0 to 7.5 the pH of soils are shown in table 1- 1 1. Adjustment of these
Sweet clover 6.5 to 7.9 amounts may be required to fit local conditions.

Medium acid-tolerant Strongly acid soils required

Corn 5.5 to 7.5
Cotton 5.5 to 7.5 Cranberries 4.2 to 5.0
Grasses 5.5 to 7.5
Trefoil 5.5 to 7.5
Wheat 5.5 to 7.0

A problem in managing acid soils is to determine the

amount of lime needed to elevate soil pH to a desired level.
Theoretically, the best procedure is to titrate a soil sample
with a standard base to measure the amount of base needed
to bring the pH to a specified level. To be accurate, however,
a relatively long reaction time must accompany each titration
step, which renders this approach somewhat impractical. A
more commonly accepted technique is to add a pH buffer
solution to the soil. The amount of buffer consumed or the
pH of the soil-buffer suspension after equilibration is
compared with the calibrated results of field lime experi-
ments for similar soils of a specific geographic region.

210-VI,NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Table 1-11.-Approximate amounts offinely ground lime-
stone needed to raise the pH of a 7-inch layer of soil.'

Soil regions and textural Limestone requirements

classes

From pH From pH From pH

3.5 to 4.5 to 5.5 to
pH 4.5 pH 5.5 pH 6.5
-

Soils of warm-temperate and -------Tons per acre-------

tropical region^:^
Sand and loamy sand
Sand loam
Loam
Silt loam
Clay loam
Muck

Soils of cool-temperate and

temperate region^:^
Sand and loamy sand
Sandy loam
Loam
Silt loam
Clay loam
Muck

'All limestone goes through a 2 mm mesh screen and at least

112 through a 0.15 mm mesh screen. With coarser materials,
applications need to be greater. For burned lime, about 112
the amounts given are used; for hydrated lime, about 314.

2Red-yellowpodzolic, red latosol, etc.

T h e suggestions for muck soils are for those essentially free

of sand and clay. For those containing much sand or clay the
amounts should be reduced to values midway between those
given for muck and the corresponding class of mineral soil.
If themineral soils are unusually low in organic matter, the
recommendations should be reduced about 25 percent; if
unusually high, increased by about 25 percent, or even more.

4Podsol,gray-podzolic,brown forest, brown podzolic, etc.

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dee. 1991

 Scheduling Irrigations

Water Balance Allowable Water Depletion

Growth of most agricultural crops is favored by a soil
A water balance procedure states the appropriate time to water content that is high enough to encourage crop growth
irrigate and the amount of water to apply. The water balance and development, but not so high that aeration becomes re-
procedure requires specific information in order to make the strictive. These concepts are illustrated in figure 1-31. If soil
proper calculations. water is plant-extracted to levels approaching the PWP,
Figure 1-30 illustrates the components of a field water water is held so tenaciously by the soil that plants can no
balance. Both rainfall and imgation water are stored in the longer obtain sufficient water to meet the potential for
soil; therefore, the effective plant root zone provides a transpiration. Transpiration is restricted and yield losses take
a reservoir for water storage. In order to determine effectively place. Excessive filling of the soil pore space with water
the capacity of the reservoir, information is required for the excludes sufficient air to meet plant oxygen requirements,
water retaining properties of the soils and the root develop- and yields are again reduced. Plant species vary in their
ment characteristics of the individual crops. A reliable tolerance to either deficits or excesses. Water management
estimate of the potential ET or ETo is required along with the programs must reflect individual crop characteristics.
appropriate crop curve so that kc values are known. With ETo A critical water level varies with the soil as well as with
and Kc, estimates of ETcmpare determined from the relation: the crop. Figure 1-10 shows that at a 15 percent available
ETc= @To) (Kc). water level the soil water tensions are at 5.8, 8.7, and 10.7

Figure 1-30.

Components of a Field Water Balance.

Evapotranspiration

Evaporat~on

Water dwerted
for lrr~gation
at the farm

Changes In sod
water storage
I

'.
Canal
Seepage I
$ --.-.----
I
L 11
I 1
II
Bottom of the root zone
8

\I
V
'r
\'
Usable return
flow
(groundwater)

1-49
210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991
bars, respectively, for sand, loam, and clay. The water Figure 1-31.
content of the sand, however, is almost down to the wilting
point. More energy is required for a plant to extract water
Generalized Relationship Between Soil-Water
from the clay at the 15 percent level than from the sand at Retention and Crop ~ r o w t h
that level, but more water is available in the clay soil which
provides a greater safety factor. To provide a reasonable
safety factor, the lower limit of water depletion in the sandy
soil must be higher than 15 percent for most crops. To
illustrate this point, suppose the sand, loam, and clay soils
hold 0.7, 1.4, and 2.4 inches of plant available water,
respectively, per foot of soil depth at field capacity or 100
percent available water. At 15 percent available water re-
maining, there are 0.10,0.21, and 0.36 inch per foot of soil
depth for the sand, loam, and clay soils. For a root profile
depth of five feet, the sandy soil only has a total of 0.5 inch
of available water remaining.
Table 1-12 lists some commonly grown crops and
suggested available water content that should remain in the
soil profile at the time irrigations are made.
Soil water content
Table 1-12.-Suggested percentage of available soil water
content remaining in the crop root zone when an irrigation
should be scheduled for several common crops.
and proliferation, the effective depth must be determined for
Crop Season First Later a specific location.
Irrigation Irrigation
percent of the available water Net Water Calculations
remaining The available water in a soil can be calculated if water
contents representing FC and PWP are known for the
Potatoes 50 (vine appropriate soil depths. Some characteristics of a Hinckley
killed) loamy sand are given in table 1-13 to illustrate the proce-
Sugar beets 50 dure. The PWP is usually taken as the water content at the
Sweet corn 60 15-bar tension level; FC is approximated by the 1/10 bar
Field corn 50 tension for sandy soils, and 1/3 bar represents the FC for
Mint 60 medium- to fine-textured soils. For irrigation purposes,
Beans 60 water content is expressed in units of water depth (inches,
Small grains 60 (boot centimeters, etc.) per unit depth of soil; water and soil depths
through must be in the same units. Water content expressed in this
flowering) manner represents a volumetric base instead of a gravimetric
Onions 70 or weight base and is most appropriate for water depth
Alfalfa hay 50 calculations. Gravimetric water content is converted to a
Pasture 50 volumetric content by multiplying gravimetric water content
by the soil bulk density. To calculate the available water
Soil-Water Extraction Depth between FC and PWP, the following formula can be used:
This is the soil depth used to determine the effective D = (B. D.) (d) (AWC) / (dw) (100)
region of water uptake by plants. It is not necessarily the
maximum rooting depth, especially for plants that have a where D is inches or centimeters of water in soil depth (d),
long taproot. It is the depth to which an average mature plant B.D. is soil bulk density (grams oven dry soil/cm3volume
can actively extract an appreciable amount of soil water. sampled), d is soil depth in inches or centimeters, AWC is
Because of the many factors that influence root development gravimetric water content between FC and PWP in percent-
age by weight, and dw is density of water taken as 1 g/cm3.

210-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

Table 1- 13.-Water retention characteristics of a Hinckley Within recent years, reasonably reliable daily ET data
loamy sand. have become available from climatic stations at strategic lo-
cations. This information is frequently available through one
Textural Bulk In or more news media sources or computer linkage. By
Hori- class Depth density 1/10 15 soil In knowing the daily values at a site for rainfall events, ET, and
zon (in) (g/cm3) bar' bar2 (inlin) horizon net irrigation amount, the daily balance can be computed and
(gravimetric (in) compared to the amount of available water that can be
percent) depleted safely before an irrigation is required.
Computation is started when the soil is at field capacity or
Ap Loamy sand 0-8 1.15 21.1 8.3 0.147 1.18 a known water content. Following a heavy rain or an irriga-
B21 Loamy sand 8-14 1.25 22.5 8.7 0.172 1.03 tion, the soil may be at field capacity, but this should be
B22 Loamy sand 14-20 1.23 17.0 5.1 0.146 0.88 verified in the field. The soil water content should always be
C Sand 20-26 1.39 9.8 3.0 0.095 0.57 verified at the starting time. At a given time of the day, each
D Sand 26-32 1.47 6.0 1.4 0.068 0.41 morning if convenient, the available water in the soil is
Total = 4.07 computed by subtracting the previous day's ET from the
previous morning's balance. The previous day's irrigation or
'Field capacity. rainfall is added to the previous morning's balance. When
2Permanent wilting point.
the daily balance reaches the point at which soil water is
depleted to the predetermined allowable limit, it is time to
The last two columns of table 1-13 were calculated using
irrigate. Ignoring application efficiency, the net amount of
this formula. For example, the available water in the Ap
water to be replaced in the soil by irrigation is the amount
horizon for a 1-inch soil depth is:
that brings the soil water content up to FC. To arrive at the
D = (1.15) (1) (12.8) / (1) (100) = 0.147 inch balance on the morning following irrigation, this amount is
added. The balance is then computed daily until another
or (0.147 inchlinch) (8 inches) = 1.18 inches water for the irrigation is indicated. Should an irrigation amount not be
Ap horizon. adequate to return the profile to field capacity, the profile
For an irrigation system design, the total available water is available water content is set to the actual amount present.
calculated for a soil depth based on the root system of a This tactic is used in humid areas to more efficiently utilize
mature plant of the crop to be grown. Root systems of plants rainfall should it occur shortly after an irrigation application
were discussed earlier. The total amount of available water and to reduce the leaching of nutrients into the ground water.
held by the soil of table 1-13 for all horizons is 4.07 inches. The water retention properties of table 1-13 can be used to
Suppose a mature, effective crop root system extends to a illustrate the procedure. Suppose a crop rooting depth is 26
depth of 26 inches in this soil; then the total available water inches, the total plant available water is 3.66 inches for this
at FC in the root zone is 1.18 + 1.03 + 0.88 + 0.57 = 3.66 depth in the Hinckley loamy sand. If a crop is allowed to
inches. If research or experience shows that crop yield is deplete 60 percent of the amount, 2.2 inches of allowable
lowered when more than 50 percent of the available water is depletion can occur before soil water must be replenished. A
depleted from the effective or design root zone, then the crop water balance accounting procedure for these conditions is
should be irrigated when (0.50) (3.66) inches = 1.83 inches shown in table 1-14. -.- - - -.
of water have been depleted from the soil profile. When rainfall or imgation takes in excess of the
amount needed to bring the soil back to FC, the extra
Water Balance Accounting Procedures amount is assumed to percolate below the root zone; the
The water-accounting procedure is based on two funda- daily balance is recorded as the FC level. Should high
mental concepts, namely: intensity rains cause runoff before the soil is filled to FC, it
1. If there is an adequate supply of soil water, will be necessary to either estimate or measure the effective
evapotranspiration rate for a given crop depends on the rainfall percolating into the soil that is available for plant
climatological evaporative demand. use. This amount is added to achieve the daily balance.
2. If the soil water content of a soil is known at a given
time, the water content at any later time can be computed by
adding irrigation or rainfall and subtracting ET during the
elapsed period.

210-VI. NEH 15-1. 2nd Edition. Dec. 1991

Table 1 - 14.-Example of water balance accounting Pressure Chamber
procedure. The primary features of the pressure chamber are the
chamber, pressure gauge, control valve, and a small nitrogen
Day after Profile available ET of Cumulative gas tank to serve as a pressure source. Leaving sufficient
initialing water remaining crop (in) ET (in) petiole length to extend through a sealed stopper to make a
(in) measurement, the petiole and attached leaf are cut from the
plant. Once the petiole or spur is severed, water withdraws
within the xylem vessels, because the external pressure is
several times that inside the conducting tissue. Leaves are
sealed inside the chamber with the petiole cut surface
extending upward through a pressure-sealed rubber stopper
or "0"ring. The chamber is pressurized to force the water in
the xylem back exactly to the cut petiole surface; pressuriza-
tion is stopped and a reading is taken from the gauge. The
positive chamber pressure now matches the negative
potential of the xylem fluid. Care must be taken during this
measurement process to suppress water evaporation from the
leaf so as to ensure accurate readings.
Pressure chamber readings change drastically during the
day. Figure 1-32 shows two curves for different stress levels
At the end of 12 days, 2.2 inches of water are needed to in cotton. Leaves have the highest leaf water potential just
bring the profile back to field capacity. before sunrise. After sunrise the increased light causes
stomata to open and transpiration begins; leaf water potential
Plant-Based Concepts declines until approximately solar noon. Readings remain
relatively stable after solar noon for about 2.5 to 3 hours;
The primary advantage of plant-based measurements for then leaf water potential progressively increases, reflecting
irrigation scheduling is due to the fact that plant growth is plant water recovery until a slightly lower leaf water
directly related to plant water status and only indirectly potential than the level of the previous day is reached in late
related to soil water and atmospheric conditions. The plant evening or early morning.
essentially integrates its soil water and atmospheric environ- With cotton and some other crops, midday readings can be
ments and reflects the prevailing conditions in growth made conveniently for irrigation scheduling; however, some
processes. Because the rate of many of these expansive crops, like tomatoes, may have rather erratic midday
growth processes are related to plant-water status, measure- readings due to stornatal closure when water stress develops.
ment of the plant-water status can yield valuable data When this takes place, predawn readings of crop water status
indicative of plant growth and development. must be used to schedule imgations. Predawn readings can
The visual appearance of crops has been used for many be made on essentially all crop species.
years as a guide to scheduling irrigations. In the early Predawn leaf water potential uses the plant much like a
1960's, the pressure chamber became commercially avail- tensiometer except the range of readings is not restricted to
able as a practical method for measuring leaf water potential. one atmosphere or less as with tensiometers. Readings
More recently, infrared thermometry techniques have been reflect the integration of the soil matrix potential throughout
developed to measure leaf or canopy temperatures. Growing the root zone. Research has shown that the relationship
indicator plants that will exhibit water stress symptoms between soil water depletion and leaf water potential is
earlier than the crop itself is an old idea that is not used linear. When correlated, the leaf water potential can be used
frequently. All plant-based techniques have in common the Q determine when to irrigate and how much water to apply.
property of indicating when to irrigate, but they provide no There are some advantages, however, to making midday
information on how much water to add at an irrigation. Leaf readings for those crops that allow this approach. At midday,
water potential measurements and leaf or canopy tempera- greater differences in leaf water potential exist between
ture measurements provide excellent scheduling techniques; water-stressed and adequately irrigated plants; this is illus-
a good water management scheme can be achieved by trated for cotton in figure 1-32. An additional advantage is
combining these techniques with measurements of the soil the convenience of making measurements at midday rather
water status in order to determine the required amount of than predawn. Regardless of whether measurements are
irrigation water.

210-VI, NEH 15-1. 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

 -
Diurnal Leaf Water Potential Curves for Cotton of Contrasting Water Stress Levels

'acala sj-2' - Panoche clay loam

10 July

0 ,Wet

(Max.)

(Min.) Air temp.

-
21O

1200 1600
Pacific standard time (hrs.)

made at predawn or at midday, success depends on time to the next needed irrigation can be estimated by
having water status-growth relationships identified for extrapolating the decline function. For uniform climatic
individual crops. This information is available only for a few conditions this estimate will be fairly accurate, but accuracy
crop species, but research to develop more information is will decline with increased variability in evaporative
ongoing. demand.
After an irrigation, pressure chamber readings decline
linearly with time. The decline is fairly rapid for sandy soils Leaf or Canopy Temperature Methods
that hold comparatively little available water for plants, but Crop leaf or canopy temperature measurements as a
quite slow for clay soils that have a high water retention means of assessing crop water stress have been extensively
capability. Once the rate of decline has been established, the researched in recent years, and the technique is proving to be

1-53
210-VI, NEH 15-1,2nd Edition, Dec. 1991
of considerable utility. The technique relies on the concept water is applied. The amount applied should be just enough
that, if a crop is well supplied with water, transpiration will to produce the return of the CWSI to the nonstressed
be at the maximum possible rate and the crop canopy will be condition.
relatively cool compared to the surrounding air. When the
available soil moisture is depleted to some threshold level, Visual Appearance
which depends on the environmental evaporation demand, The appearance of a crop gives some indication of when
transpiration will be reduced from the maximum potential an irrigation is needed. Plant wilting is perhaps the most
and the crop canopy will increase in temperature. At this obvious sign of water stress; however, the growth of most
stage or later, photosynthesis is reduced; this results in yield crops may be retarded before visible wilting takes place.
reduction. Some crops undergo a distinct color change in the foliage
In using plant temperature measurements to quantify crop with the onset of plant water stress. Beans, cotton, and
water stress, the foliage-air temperature difference is peanuts, for example, become bluish green to dark green as
obtained. Because this parameter is influenced by environ- available soil water becomes limiting. Color changes may be
mental factors such as air vapor pressure deficit, net radia- visible in such crops sufficiently early to allow irrigation
tion, and windspeed in addition to soil water content, the leaf without much yield loss.
or canopy air temperature difference (T, - TJ is "normal- Pronounced diurnal movement of leaves takes place in
ized" for environmental variability. In this use, the term some crops because of the reduced turgor pressure of plant
normalize means that the readings for crop stress will be cells. Sorghum undergoes changes in leaf angle that report-
constant regardless of whether the evaporative demand of a edly can be used successfully to schedule irrigation.
measurement time of day is high or low. The approach that
is illustrated in figure 1-33 uses the air vapor pressure deficit Indicator Plants
alone to normalize the air (T, - Td)parameter. Since evapora- Indicator plants that are naturally more susceptible to soil
tive demand is normalized, readings can theoretically be water deficits can be used to provide a visual signal for a
made during a relatively broad time span; in practice, needed irrigation. A general requirement is that the indicator
readings are usually done shortly after solar noon. plant must have a top to root ratio exceeding the main crop;
The two essential components of this method are a no therefore, water stress will occur earlier for the indicator
water-stress base line for a particular crop and an upper limit plants. The crop itself can be used this way by preparing test
representing T, - Tdwhen transpiration is completely plants that have restricted root systems. Restricted root
suppressed. A detailed discussion of the various parameters systems can be achieved by mechanical barriers or by
of the method is given by Idso et al. placement of the plants in a soil that is mixed with sand to
A crop water stress index (CWSI) is calculated by reduce its available water supply.
measuring the relative amount of departure of T, - Tdfrom
the nonstressed base at a particular, observed value of vapor
pressure deficit. A CWSI value of 0 represents no stress, and
a value of 1 represents a total cessation of transpiration. As
the rates of actual to potential evapotranspiration go from 1
to 0, the CWSI index goes from 0 to 1.
A considerable amount of reliable equipment is available
commercially for making CWSI measurements. Advantages
of this technique include the ability to make rapid measure-
ments of a large number of plants, especially if canopy
temperature is the measurement objective.
CWSI can be correlated with soil water depletion at a
specific site. Information to date indicates that this relation-
ship is linear until soil water is depleted to a relatively low
level. When this is done, the CWSI can be used to determine
when to irrigate and how much water to apply. Correla-
tion of CWSI and soil water depletion can be made by
periodically measuring the soil water content in the crop root
zone and plotting CWSI vs. soil water depletion or by
observing the change in CWSI when a specific amount of

.lo-VI, NEH 15-1, 2nd Edition, Dec. 1991

F~gure1-33

Foliage-Air Temperature Differential Versus Air Vapor Pressure Deficit for Well-Watered Alfalfa Grown at a
variety of Specific Sites and Dates

32 48 64

Air vapor pressure deficit (millibars)

210-VI,NEH 15-1, 2ndEdition. Dec. 1991

Automation in Irrigation Scheduling

Plant water uptake to satisfy growth and evapotranspira- Scheduling frequent irrigations can be accomplished with
tion processes follows a diurnal cycle. The water moves automatic feedback control that is based on soil water
from a periodically replenished root zone (source), through potential. Because the storage capacity of soil is deempha-
the plant, then to the atmosphere (sink). At the end of a sized and water is applied to supply the water potential
typical irrigation cycle, soil-water storage becomes depleted, continuum and match the evapotranspiration rate, there is
the hydraulic conductivity decreases drastically, and the root less margin for error. Timeliness is important.
system cannot resupply water fast enough to meet the To monitor soil moisture and control an irrigation system
atmospheric evapotranspiration demand of the plant, thereby automatically, equipment is required that will sample several
creating a plant-water deficit or stress condition. sensors sequentially, will compare each sensor output to the
Irrigation methods capable of operating frequently, such set threshold level, and will compute outputs capable of
as mini-sprinkler, trickle, and subsurface, offer the means to controlling the irrigation system. Desktop computers and
maintain soil water at nearly constant levels. They place the microprocessors have been used successfully.
soil-water-root environment under the control of the irriga- In addition, commercial equipment is available to measure
tor, whether the irrigator is a human or computer. Because soil matric potential and to control the irrigation system
any disruption to the irrigation schedule creates detrimental automatically. The computer calculates the average readings
water or oxygen stress for the crop automatically, control of of soil matric potential sensors, compares the average soil
high-frequency irrigation must be automatic, redundant, and matric potential that is measured to the threshold value at
capable of responding to small and rapid changes in soil which each irrigation is to be applied, and turns on the
water, plant water, or evapotranspiration. irrigation system for a preselected time period if needed.

* U.5. G.P.0.:1992-311-411:60016/SCS

210-VI, NEH 15-1, andEdition, Dec. 1991