GEOLOGY

AND
FOREST SOIL

For. Fely Rose Nacario

Presenter
Soil is a dynamic natural body derived from the
weathering of rocks and minerals is composed of
organic matter, air and water, and possesses
distinct characteristics and properties which in turn
influence plant growth.
 SOIL AS A SCIENCE

Soil science deals with the study of soil as a

natural resource on the surface of the earth which
include soil formation, classification and mapping,
physical, chemical, biological and fertility
properties of soil per se and those properties in
relations to the management for crop production.
 APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF
SOIL SCIENCE

i.] Pedological approach- the soil is considered as

a natural body with major emphasis on properties
related to its genesis and classification as it occur
in its environments. The information gathered by
the pedologist would be of interest to road and
building contractors or highway engineers
ii.] Edaphologic approach- considers the physical,
chemical and biological properties of the soil as
they relate to crop production. The information
gathered by the edaphologist would be of interest
to farmers, agriculturist and foresters.
 Sub specialization of soil science:

• Soil fertility
• Soil microbiology
• Soil conservation and management
• Soil chemistry
• Soil physics
• Soil survey and classification
• Soil geology
 Composition of the Earth’s crust

• The earth crust is the outermost part of the earth

about 16 km or 10 miles deep. It is the main
source of material from which inorganic soil is
derived and is considered the soil parent
material;
• Crust is a surface layer on soils with thickness
ranging from few mm to 3 cm. It is more
compact, hard and brittle when dry than the
mantle beneath it.
Estimated composition of the 16 km part of
the earth (Clark and Washington 1984):

a. Igneous Rock (95%)

b. Shale (4%)
c. Sandstone (0.75%)
d. Limestone (0.25%)
Relative distribution of the elements found in
the Earth’s crust
ELEMENTS %
Oxygen 46.5

Silicon 27.5

Aluminum 8.10

Iron 5.10

Calcium 3.60

Magnesium 2.10

Sodium 2.60

Potassium 2.60

Titanium 0.60

Phosphorus 0.10

Manganese 0.09
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE SOIL
These percentages are
only generalizations at
best. In reality, the soil is
very complex and
dynamic. The composition
of the soil can fluctuate on
a daily basis, depending
on numerous factors such
as water supply,
cultivation practices,
and/or soil type.
 Size of Common Means of Dominant
Mineral matter fraction name observation composition

 Normally composed very course stone/gravel naked eye rock

of small rock fragments
Coarse Sand naked eye primary
fragments and
minerals
mineral of various Fine Silt microscope primary and
kinds; secondary
minerals
 Rock fragments are
remnants of
very fine Clay microscope secondary
massive rocks from minerals
which soil have
been formed by Major classes of inorganic particles and
weathering. their general properties
Organic matter a. It influences soil properties
and plant growth;
It represents an
accumulation of partially
b. It promotes granulation of
decayed and synthesized mineral particles largely
plant and animal residue responsible for loose and easily
as a result of microbial manageable condition or
activity. productive soils.
c. It is the major source of N, P,
Humus is the more
resistant product of and S.
decomposition derived d. It increases the water holding
from those synthesized by capacity.
microorganisms and those
modified from the original e. It is the main source of energy
plant tissue for both plants and animal
organisms.
f. It increases nutrient holding
capacity of the soil.
Soil water • Hydrologic cycle- the cycling of
water from the earth’s surface to the
atmosphere and back (driven by
It fills up the pore solar energy)
spaces and act as • Permanent wilting point- water
universal solvent, content of a soil when a plant wilts
nutrient carrier and does not recover even if
and a nutrient conditions improve.
itself. It also • Anaerobic soil- soil that is void of or
stabilizes soil without oxygen due to water logging
temperature.
• Transpiration- loss of water from
plants
• Evapotranspiration- the combined
process of water loss from plants
and the soil surface
 Types of soil water:

• Gravitational water- drains freely from the soil due to

gravity usually within 24-48 hours in a well-drained soil; not
available to plants because it rapidly moves out of the root
zone.
• Capillary water or cohesion water- held loosely in the pores
or around the soil particles, can move in the soil and is
available for plants.
• Adhesion water- water that is held so tightly by soil particles
that it cannot move.
• Available water- soil water that can be absorbed by plant
roots; water lying between field capacity and wilting point.
 Water movement
• Gravitational flow- moving under the influence of gravity;
occurs under saturated conditions, thus is also called
saturated flow.
• Infiltration- the process of water entry into soil thru the
surface whose direction may be either downward or lateral
or both. Infiltration rate is the distance travelled by water
thru a soil column. It is initially high but decreases with time;
decrement also decreases so that it tends to approach a
steady infiltration rate.
• Percolation- the movement of more water flowing thru the
wetted soil. This movement carries away the nutrient and
other salts dissolved from the soil (leaches the soil).
• Capillary flow- occurs in unsaturated soil, so it is called
unsaturated flow. Here, water will move toward the “drier”
region (lower potential).
• Capillary rise- movement of water upward in the soil thru soil
capillaries as surface soil dries, drawing moisture from
below; moisture moves from areas of high potential to areas
of low potential.
• Vapour flow- the movement of water in vapour state, from
moist soil to drier soil.
 Soil moisture constants:

• Saturation
• Field Capacity
• Wilting point
• Hygroscopic percentage/ hygroscopic
coefficient
• Oven dryness
 THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

evaporation, transpiration, sublimation, advection, condensation,

precipitation, canopy interception, runoff, infiltration, sub-surface
flow/percolation,
PHASE TRANSITIONS

Solid → gas sublimation

Solid → liquid melting/fusion
Gas → solid deposition/desublimation
Gas → liquid condensation
Liquid → gas evaporation/boiling
Liquid → solid solidification/freezing
 Water Storage
• Aquifer
-Porous water-bearing formation capable of
yielding exploitable quantities of water. (WMO,
2006)
-A formation, group of formations, or part of a
formation that contains sufficient saturated
permeable material to yield significant quantities of
water to wells and springs (LOHMANN, 1972)
Water Storage
Water Storage
 Measuring Soil water

a. Potentiometers
b. Resistance Blocks
c. Neutron Probe
d. Gravimetric method

Weight basis- most weight of water is taken, oven-dried

and weighed again. The difference between the weights is
the weight of water in the soil.
% moisture = [(moist weight-dry weight)/dry weight] x 100
 Gravimetric method
Example 1. Suppose one needs to measure the moisture percentage of
a soil at field capacity. If the sample weight were 150g when wet and
127g when dry.
% H2O = [(150g – 127g0/127g)] x 100 = 18%

Example 2. After a large soaking rain, a soil was sampled as it dried. The
following weights were observed:
• Immediately after the rain - 300g
• Two days after the rain - 270g
• Five days after the rain - 250g
• When plants growing on the soil wilt - 220g
• When the soil is air-dried - 210g
• When the soil is oven-dried - 200g
% Saturation
Weight of soil moisture = 300g (after the rain) – 200g (ODW) =
100g
% moisture = (100g/200g) x 100 = 50%
% Moisture at field capacity
Weight of soil moisture = 270g (after 2 days) – 200g (ODW) = 70g
% moisture = (70g/200g) x 100 = 35%
% Moisture at 5 days
Weight of soil moisture = 250g (after 5 days) – 200g = 50g
% moisture = (50g/200g) x 100 = 25%
% Moisture at wilting point
Weight of soil moisture = 220g (water wilts) – 200g = 20g
% moisture = (20g/200g) x 100 = 10%
% Moisture at air dryness
Weight of soil moisture = 210g (air dried) – 200g = 10g
% moisture = (10g/200g) x 100 = 5%
% Total available water = Water retained after 2 days – wilting point
Weight of soil moisture = 270 (at 2 days) gas water is lost by –
220g (wilting point) = 50g

% Available water at 5 days = retained water after 5 days – soil wilts

Weight of soil moisture = 250g – 220g = 30g
% moisture = (30g/200g) x 100 = 15%
% Gravitational water = water after rain – 2 days after the rain
Weight of soil moisture = 300g -270g = 30g
% moisture = (30g/200g) x 100 = 15%
Example 3. If the soil moisture content is 50%, field capacity is 40% and
permanent wilting point is 20%, compute for the amount of available water
in the soil.

Amount of available water = moisture at field capacity – moisture at

permanent wilting point
= 40% - 20% = 20%

Example 4. Calculate the gravimetric moisture content of a soil sample if

its fresh weight = 25g, oven-dry weight = 20g.
Gravimetric moisture content = [(moist weight – dry weight) / dry
weight] x 100
= [(25g – 20g)/20g] x 100 =25%
Soil Air
It is located in the mares of
soil pores separated by soil Soil air vs. Atmospheric air
solids not occupied by
water; soil air has higher Element Soil air Atmosph
moisture content than eric air
atmospheric air.
N2 78.60% 78.03%
The CO2 content is higher
O2 20.00% 21.00%
and more concentrated
than 0.03% found in the
atmosphere Co2 0.50% 0.03%
 What is soil organic carbon?
• Soil organic carbon is a measureable component of soil
organic matter. Organic matter makes up just 2–10% of
most soil's mass and has an important role in the
physical, chemical and biological function of agricultural
soils.
• What is soil organic matter?
SOM is composed mainly of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, and has small amounts of other elements,
such as nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur, potassium,
calcium and magnesium contained in organic
residues.
 What is soil organic carbon?

It is divided into ‘living’ and ‘dead’ components and can

range from very recent inputs, such as stubble, to largely
decayed materials that are thousands of years old. About
10% of below-ground SOM, such as roots, fauna and
microorganisms, is ‘living’.

Organic matter contributes to nutrient retention and

turnover, soil structure, moisture retention and availability,
degradation of pollutants, carbon sequestration and soil
resilience.
SOM 4 distinct fractions
1. dissolved organic matter
2. particulate organic matter
3. humus
4. resistant organic matter
Soil Properties

Soil Physical properties

Soil Chemical properties
Soil Biological properties
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

A. Horizonation

Soil “horizons” are discrete layers that make up a soil

profile. They are typically parallel with the ground surface.
In some soils, they show evidence of the actions of the soil
forming processes.
SOIL PROFILE

• A soil profile is a vertical cross section of the soil. When

exposed, various soil horizons, or layers of soil, become
apparent. A soil profile is usually studied to a depth
• of 3 to 5 feet.
• To STUDY SOILS we dig a pit called a PEDON (3’ x 3’ x 5’
deep)
PEDON
• The smallest unit or
volume of soil that
contains all the soil
horizons of a particular soil
type, usually having a
surface area of 1 square
meter (10.67 square feet)
and extending from the
ground surface down to
bedrock.
• Because of these processes… LAYERS are
formed in soils called HORIZONS
• There are three primary soil horizons, called
master horizons. They are A, B, and C. These
are part of a system for naming soil horizons in
which each layer is identified by a code: O, A,
E, B, C, and R.
• O horizon is an organic layer made up of partially decayed plant and
animal debris; generally occurs in undisturbed soil, such as in a
forest.
• A horizon is often referred to as the topsoil and is the surface layer
where organic matter accumulates; It provides the best environment
for the growth of plant roots, microorganisms, and other life.
• E horizon is the zone of greatest eluviation (The movement of
organic matter, chemical substances, and mineral particles from the
upper horizons of soil to the lower horizons by the downward
movement of water). Color is usually very light.
• B horizon is often referred to as the subsoil. It is often called the
“zone of accumulation” because chemicals leached from the A and
E horizons accumulate here; it has less organic matter and more
clay than the A horizon.
- The A, E, and B horizons are known as the solum. This is where
most of the plant roots grow.
• C horizon is called the substratum. It lacks the properties of the A
and B horizons because it is influenced less by the soil-forming
processes. It is usually the parent material of the soil.
• R horizon is the underlying bedrock, such as limestone, sandstone,
or granite. It is found beneath the C horizon.
• SOILS change over time in response to 4
processes…

– ADDITIONS
– LOSSES
– TRANLOCATIONS
– TRANSFORMATIONS
 Addition- fallen leaves, windblown dust, or chemicals
from air pollution are added to the soil.
 Loss- materials are lost from the soil because of deep
leaching or erosion from the surface.
 Translocation—movement of materials within the soil;
occur with deeper leaching into the soil or with upward
movement caused by evaporating water.
 Transformation—materials are altered in the soil.
Examples are organic-matter decay, weathering of
minerals to smaller particles, and chemical reactions.
B. Soil Color

• The colour of the soil is usually the first thing people

notice; mostly this is just the topsoil but it does not reflect
the entire soil. The topsoil is usually darker than lower
layers (or horizons) because this is where organic matter
accumulates.
• Colour can be a useful indicator of some of the general
properties of a soil, as well as some of the chemical
processes that are occurring beneath the surface.
• Soil colour is usually due to 3 main pigments:

• black—from organic matter

• red—from iron and aluminum oxides
• white—from silicates and salt.
 In well aerated soils, oxidized or ferric (Fe+3) iron
compounds are responsible for the brown, yellow, and
red colors you see in the soil.
 When iron is reduced to the ferrous (Fe+2) form, it
becomes mobile, and can be removed from certain
areas of the soil.
 When the iron is removed, a gray color remains, or the
reduced iron color persists in shades of green or blue.
 Upon aeration, reduced iron can be reoxidized and
redeposited, sometimes in the same horizon, resulting in a
variegated or mottled color pattern.
 These soil color patterns resulting from saturation, called
“redoximorphic features”, can indicate the duration of the
anaerobic state, ranging from brown with a few mottles, to
complete gray or “gleization” of the soil.
 Soils that are dominantly gray with brown or yellow mottles
immediately below the surface horizon are usually hydric.
Mosaic of different soil colours
The Munsell Color Chart
A color space that specifies colors
based on three properties of color:
HUE- describes where in the color
spectrum the soil color exist.
VALUE- describes the lightness of
the color.
CHROMA- indicate the strength of
the color.
In Munsell notation, the color is
written in the order HUE-VALUE-
CHROMA (HVM).

Example of Munsell notation:

“5YR 4/3; where 5YR is
the hue, 4 is the value, and 3 is
the chroma.
C. Soil Texture
Refers to the proportion of the soil “separates” (specific
ranges of particle sizes) that make up the mineral
components of soil.

Soil separates:
 Sand < 2 to 0.05 mm
 Silt = 0.05 to 0.002 mm
 Clay = < 0.002 mm
• Soil texture can affect the amount of pore spaces within
the soil.
 Sand - creates larger pores – small amount of total
pore spaces
 Clay - creates small pores - more pores present

- Soil separates of sand, silt and clay are called “fine-

earth fraction (Inorganic particles less than 2 mm in
diameter). Inorganic soil particles 2mm and larger are
called “rock fragments”
- Organic Soil Material- OM content of a soil exceeds
20-30% (dry weight basis), the soil is called organic
soil.
Organic soil description

• Peat – organic material in which the plant parts are still

recognizable
• Muck – highly decomposed organic material; no plant
parts are recognizable
• Mucky peat – decomposition is intermediate between
muck and peat
D. Soil Structure

Peds - aggregated soil separates which becomes discrete

structural unit
Soil structure – peds that are organized into repeating
pattern; commonly described in terms of the shape of the
individual peds occur within a soil horizon.
Pores – between peds and cracks through which soil air
and water are conducted
SOIL STRUCTURE TYPES

Granular - roughly spherical like grape nuts. Usually 1-10

mm in diameter. Most common in A horizons where plant
roots, microorganisms, and sticky products of organic
matter decomposition binds soil grains into granular
aggregates.
Platy - flat peds that lie horizontally in the soil. Platy
structure can be found in A, B and C horizons. It commonly
occurs in an A horizon as the result of compaction.
Blocky – roughly cube-shaped with more or less flat
surface; if edges and corners remains sharp_angular
blocky; if rounded_angular blocky.
Size ranges from 5-50 mm across. Typical of B horizon;
formed by repeated expansion and contraction of clay
minerals.
Prismatic – larger, vertically elongated blocks, often with
five sides; sizes commonly 10-100 mm across. Commonly
occur in fragipans.
Columnar – units are similar to prism and are bounded by
flat or slightly rounded vertical faces; tops of columns, in
contrast to those prisms are very distinct and normally
rounded.
Structureless Soil Types:

Massive – compact, coherent soil not separated into peds;

clayey, usually have very small pores, slow permeability,
and poor aeration.
Single grain – in some very sandy soils, every grain acts
independently, there is no binding agent to hold grains
together. Permeability is rapid, fertility and water holding
capacity are low.
E. Soil Consistence

- Refers to the ease with which an individual ped can be

crushed by the fingers; soil consistence and its description
depends on soil moisture content.
 MOIST SOIL

• Loose- non-coherent when dry or moist; does not

hold together in a mass
• Friable- when moist, crushed easily under gentle
pressure between thumb and forefinger and can be
pressed together into a lump
• Firm- when moist crushed under moderate pressure
between thumb and forefinger, but resistant in
distinctly noticeable
 WET SOIL

• Plastic- when wet, readily deformed by moderate

pressure but can be pressed into a lump; will form a
“wire” when rolled between thumb and forefinger
• Sticky- when wet, adheres to other material and tends
to stretch somewhat and pull apart rather than pull
free from other material
 DRY SOIL

• Soft- when dry, breaks into powder or individual

grains under very slight pressure
• Hard- when dry, moderately resistant to pressure; can
be broken with difficulty between thumb and
forefinger
F. Soil Bulk Density

- Is the proportion of the weight of a soil relative to its

volume. It is expressed as a unit of weight per volume,
and is commonly measured in units of grams per cubic
centimeters (g/cc); it is the indicator of the amount of
pore spaces available within individual soil horizons, as it
is inversely proportional to pore spaces.
- Incorporation of large amounts of organic matter into the
soil will lower the bulk density, while processes that
compact the soil will increase bulk density.

Pore space = 1 – bulk density/particle density

 Bulk density is the weight of soil in a given volume.
 Soils with a bulk density higher than 1.6 g/cm3 tend to
restrict root growth.
 Sandy soils are more prone to high bulk density.
 Example:

At a bulk density of 1.60 g/cc, pore space equals 0.40 or

40%; bulk density greater than 1.60 g/cc tend to restrict
root growth. At a bulk density of 1.06 g/cc, pore space
equals 0.60 or 60%;

The addition of even a small percentage of organic soil

material to a mineral soil can affect the bulk density of that
soil
 Sandy soils usually have higher bulk densities (1.3–1.7
g/cm3) than fine silts and clays (1.1 – 1.6 g/cm3)
because they have larger, but fewer pore spaces.
 In clay soils with good soil structure, there is a greater
amount of pore space because the particles are very
small, and many small pore spaces fit between them.
 Soils rich in organic matter (e.g. peaty soils) can have
densities of less than 0.5 g/cm3.
 Bulk density increases with compaction at depth and
very compact subsoils or strongly indurated horizons
may exceed 2.0 g/cm3 (NLWRA, 2001; Cresswell and
Hamilton, 2002).
 Soil “A”: 100% mineral soil material; bulk
density = 1.33 g/cc

 Soil “B”: 95% mineral soil material and 5%

organic soil material; bulk density = 1.26 g/cc
 SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

A. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Cations- positively charged ions- it exist in the soil
environment through some plant nutrients and metals.
Common cations found in soil:
 hydrogen (H+), aluminum (Al+3), calcium (Ca+2),
magnesium (Mg+2), and potassium (K+)
 Clay and organic matter particles are predominantly
negatively charged (anions), and have ability to hold
cations from being leached
 SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Cation exchange- a process by which adsorbed cations are

subject to replacement by other cations in a rapid,
reversible process; it is important mechanism in soils for
retaining and supplying nutrients, and for adsorbing
contaminants.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)- is a measurement of the
magnitude of the negative charge per unit weight of soil;
the greater the clay and organic matter content, the greater
the CEC should be.
Absorption is the process in which a fluid is dissolved by a
liquid or a solid (involves the entire volume of the absorbing
substance); Adsorption is the process in which atoms, ions or
molecules from a substance (it could be gas, liquid or dissolved
solid) adhere to a surface of the adsorbent (surface-based
process)
 SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

B. Soil Reaction (pH)- measurement of the active hydrogen

ion (H+) concentration; indicator of the acidity or alkalinity
of a soil.
 pH scale ranges from 0-14; values < 7.0, acidic; values >
7.0 alkaline; pH value of 7 neutral, where H+ and OH-
are equal; pH of 4.0 is ten times more acidic than a pH of
5.0
 Importance of pH in soil

 The most important effect of pH in the soil is on ion

solubility, which in turn affects microbial and plant growth
 pH range of 6.0 to 6.8 is ideal for most crops because it
coincides with the optimum solubility of the most
important plant nutrients.
 Some minor elements (iron) and most heavy metals are
more soluble at lower pH; it helps in controlling heavy
metals movement (potential ground water contamination)
in soil.
 Factors affecting soil pH in soil
 Parent material
 Vegetation
 Climate

- Some rocks and sediments produce soils that are more

acidic than others (quartz- rich sandstone is acidic;
limestone is alkaline).
- Addition of fertilizers to soil can also produce hydrogen
ions; liming the soil adds calcium which replaces
exchangeable and solution H+ and raises soil pH.
- To decrease the soil pH, sulfur can be added which
produces sulfuric acid
 SOIL BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

Nitrogen Cycle
Carbon Cycle
The Nitrogen Cycle
This concerns soil properties related to faunal activity in soil, include
nematodes, earthworm, protozoa, fungi, bacteria and different
arthropods.
Mineralization (ammonification)
 Pure forms of nitrogen are converted to ammonium by decomposers
or bacteria;
 when a plant or animal dies, or an animal expels waste, the initial
form of nitrogen is organic. Bacteria or fungi convert the organic
nitrogen within the remains back into ammonium (NH4+).

Nitrification
 Bacteria are able to transform nitrogen in the form of ammonium,
which is produced by the decomposition of proteins into nitrates
which are available to growing plants.
Nitrogen fixation

 Carried out by free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil or water

such as Azotobacter, or those that live in close symbiosis with
leguminous plant, such as rhizobia; these bacteria form colonies in
nodules they create on the roots and are able to convert nitrogen
from the atmosphere into nitrogen containing organic substance.
Denitrification

 Returns nitrogen to the atmosphere

 Denitrifying bacteria (Achromobacter and Pseudomonas) tend to
anaerobe, and convert nitrates and nitrites in soil into nitrogen gas
(nitrous oxide or nitric oxide.
 In excess, denitrification can lead to overall losses of available soil
nitrogen and subsequent loss of soil fertility.
The Carbon Cycle
Carbon element is exchanged between the biosphere, pedosphere,
geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of earth; this is the most
important process on the planet because it allows the earth to recycle
and reuse its most abundant element.
 Microbes living within the soil recycle nutrients through the soil
system, much of the organic material added to the litter or within the
root zone is almost completely consumed by microbes.

 The by-products of this microbial consumption are CO2, H2O, and a

variety of other compounds, collectively known as humus (less
palatable for microbes and is not decomposed very quickly).
END OF MIDTERM

Thank You and God

Bless!!!
SOIL ORIGIN and DEVELOPMENT

• SOILS are a SLOWLY RENEWABLE resource

It takes 100’s to 1000’s of YEARS for SOILS to

DEVELOP…

…but they do GROW, CHANGE, and DEVELOP

over TIME
 ROCKS, MINERALS and NUTRIENTS
• ROCK (solid bedrock of earth’s crust) is broken down to
PARENT MATERIAL (smaller rocks) and through the
process of WEATHERING is further broken down to SOIL

– ROCK – Solid bedrock which is a mixture of MINERALS of

DIFFERENT KINDS and PROPORTIONS

– MINERALS – PURE INORGANIC ELEMENTS or COMPOUNDS of

a DEFINITE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION usually CRYSTALLINE
in form

– NUTRIENTS – Dissolved IONS in water called the SOIL SOLUTION

The Rock Cycle
ROCKS - 3 MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS

• IGNEOUS ROCK – created by the COOLING and

SOLIDIFICATION of MOLTEN ROCK
– LAVA (extrusive) & MAGMA (intrusive)
Types of Igneous Rocks:
 Texture Types:
1. Coarse-grained: Large crystals
2. Fine-grained: Small crystals
Basalt
• MAFIC
• FINE GRAINED
• EXTRUSIVE
Diorite
• FELSIC
• COARSE GRAINED
• INTRUSIVE
Gabbro
• MAFIC
• COARSE GRAINED
• INTRUSIVE
Pumice
• FELSIC
• FINE GRAINED
• EXTRUSIVE
Scoria
• MAFIC
• FINE GRAINED
• EXTRUSIVE
ROCKS - 3 MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS

• SEDIMENTARY ROCK – deposits of MUD and SAND

(through wind and water erosion) that are CEMENTED
together by CHEMICALS or PRESSURE
• The three types of sedimentary rocks
are:
1. Detrital/Clastic Sedimentary rock
2. Chemical
3. Organic
• Detrital sedimentary rocks are made
from the broken fragments of other
rocks.

• Weathering & Erosion helps to

get the materials to make detrital
sedimentary rocks.
 Example:
If the sediments
are small, they can
stick together and
form solid rock.
This process is
called
compaction.
• When rock is exposed to air, water, or ice,
it breaks down chemically and
mechanically.
• This process, which breaks rocks into
smaller pieces, is called weathering.
• The movement of weathered material is
called erosion.
• Compaction helps form detrital
sedimentary rocks.
ROCKS - 3 MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS

• METAMORPHIC ROCK - formed when either IGNEOUS or

SEDIMENTARY ROCK is subjected to GREAT HEAT &
PRESSURE
 SOIL FORMATION
• SOIL is formed from the
WEATHERING of ROCK

– PHYSICAL WEATHERING

• FRACTURING due to
expansion and contraction

– Frost Wedging - freezing

and thawing of water
– Heating and cooling
 SOIL FORMATION
– PHYSICAL WEATHERING

• EROSION or wearing down of rock

– Water
– Wind
 SOIL FORMATION
• WEATHERING of ROCK

– CHEMICAL WEATHERING

• DISSOLUTION - Water
DISSOLVES minerals into
SOLUTION
 SOIL FORMATION
– CHEMICAL WEATHERING

• HYDROLYSIS – Water reacts

with minerals in rock create NEW,
SOFTER COMPOUNDS
 SOIL FORMATION
– CHEMICAL WEATHERING

• OXIDATION – O2 reacts with

minerals in rock to form NEW
COMPOUNDS
 SOIL FORMATION
• WEATHERING of ROCK

– PLANTS ….can also PHYSICALLY and

CHEMICALLY WEATHER ROCK

• ROOT WEDGING – Plant roots

PHSICALLY force open cracks by
ROOT GROWTH

• LICHENS – exude acid which

CHEMICALLY WEATHERS rock
 FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

• The TYPE of SOIL developed depends on the

amount of TIME a PARENT MATERIAL of a
specific TOPOGRAPHY is exposed to the effects of
CLIMATE and VEGETATION (or LIFE).

– PARENT MATERIAL
– CLIMATE
– LIFE
– TOPOGRAPHY
– TIME
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

– PARENT MATERIAL – are broken up rocks that

have started that process of WEATHERING

• RESIDUAL SOILS - are soils formed in PLACE

– Less common
– Form SLOWLY from weathering
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

• TRANSPORTED SOILS –
are soils that have been
TRANSPORTED and
DEPOSITED from the
original site to another

– More common
– Form FASTER

• GLACIAL ICE
• WIND
• WATER
• GRAVITY
• VOLCANIC ACTION
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

• CUMULOSE SOILS –
soils that accumulate in
one spot

– Usually formed under

WATERLOGGED
conditions
– Containing > 20%
organic matter
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

– CLIMATE
• Temperature
– Decreased Temp >>> decreases weathering >>> soil forms
slower
– Decreased Temp >>> decreases decomposition >>> increases
OM overall

• Rainfall
– Increased rainfall >>>increases leaching of nutrients
– Increased rainfall >>>increases plants >>> increases OM
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

– LIFE

• PLANTS affect soils

– GRASSLANDS vs.
FORESTS

• SOIL BIOLOGY – all

sorts of ORGANISMS
that aid in mixing, OM
decomposition, holding
and releasing of WATER
and NUTRIENTS
FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

– TOPOGRAPHY- lay of the land

• SLOPE – steepness of site
• ASPECT – which direction the slope faces
 FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FORMATION

- TIME
– The longer the TIME, the
MORE DEVELOPED the
SOIL PROFILE

• 0 year – when soil first

exposed to atmosphere
• YOUNGER SOILS show
fewer layers in the profile
• OLD SOILS show more
layers
 Erosion
Causes:
1. Land-use
2. Climate
3. Soil
4. Hydrology
5. Landforms
 Types of Erosion
Main Types of Soil Erosion:

1. Wind erosion
2. Gravity erosion
3. Water erosion
Wind erosion
 Three types of soil movement
which occur during wind erosion:
1. Suspension
2. Saltation
3. Creep
 Wind Erosion Protection
1. Mulch
2. Soil Moisture
3. Reducing Field Width
4. Strip Cropping
5. Windbreaks
 1. MULCH
type of protective
covering which is in
direct contact with the
ground, provides more
protection than canopy
cover. It can vary from
straw, to compost, to
wood chips, or saw dust.
Spread evenly onto the
ground, mulch helps to
reduce water evaporation,
control weeds, and enrich
the soil.
2. SOIL
MOISTURE
Wind erosion is
directly related to
how wet or saturated
a soil is. A moist soil
is much more stable
than a dry one
because the water
seems to cement the
soil particles
together.
3. REDUCING
FIELD WIDTH

Wind erosion
increases directly
with field length or
width. As soil
particles bounce and
skip along the
surface their erosive
capabilities seem to
compound, or
increase with
distance.
 4. STRIP
CROPPING
a combination
of contouring and
crop rotation in
which alternate strips
of row crops and soil
conserving crops
(sods) are grown on
the same slope,
perpendicular to the
wind or water flow.
5. WIND BREAKS

Can be both living or

inanimate objects. They
can range from trees and
shrubs, to fences and
concrete walls. When
positioned perpendicular
to the wind, wind breaks
will deflect the wind
stream and reduce wind
velocity.
 WATER EROSION
Erosion due to water related processes may
be grouped into:
1. Erosion due to rain
2. Erosion due to surface flow
3. Erosion due to subsurface flow
4. Coastal erosion
5. Glacial erosion
Sheet erosion
due to rainfall
Sheet erosion is the removal of soil in thin layers by raindrop
impact and shallow surface flow. It results in loss of the finest
soil particles that contain most of the available nutrients and
organic matter in the soil.

Soils most vulnerable to sheet erosion are overgrazed and

cultivated soils where there is little vegetation to protect and
hold the soil. Early signs of sheet erosion include bare areas,
water puddling as soon as rain falls, visible grass roots,
exposed tree roots, and exposed subsoil or stony soils. Soil
deposits on the high side of obstructions such as fences may
indicate active sheet erosion.
 Erosion Due To
Surface Flow

Sheet erosion due to

surface flow.
 Erosion Due To
Surface Flow

Rill erosion due to

surface flow.
Rillsare shallow drainage lines less than 30cm deep. They develop
when surface water concentrates in depressions or low points
through paddocks and erodes the soil.
Rill erosion is common in bare agricultural land, particularly
overgrazed land, and in freshly cultivated soil where the soil structure
has been loosened. The rills can usually be removed with farm
machinery.
Rill erosion is often described as the intermediate stage between
sheet erosion and gully erosion.
 Erosion Due To
Surface Flow

Gully erosion due to

surface flow.
Gullies are channels deeper than 30cm that cannot be
removed by normal cultivation.
They can be spectacular to look at but over time actually lose
less soil than sheet and rill erosion. Gullies occur when
smaller water flows concentrate and cut a channel through the
soil.
 Erosion Due To
Surface Flow

Streambank erosion
due to surface flow.
Pipe Or Tunnel
Erosion Due To
Subsurface Flow
Tunnel erosion occurs when surface water moves into
and through dispersive subsoils. Dispersive soils are
poorly structured so they erode easily when wet.
The tunnel starts when surface water moves into the soil
along cracks or channels or through rabbit burrows and
old tree root cavities.
As the tunnel expands, parts of the tunnel roof collapse
leading to potholes and gullies.
Coastal Erosion
Coastal erosion
caused by water
Displacement of land along the coastline due to the action of
waves, currents, tides, wind-driven water, waterborne ice, or other
impacts of storms.

Destructive waves are responsible for erosion on the coastline.

There are four types of erosion:

Hydraulic action - this is the sheer power of the waves as they

smash against the cliff. Air becomes trapped in the cracks in the
rock and causes the rock to break apart.
Abrasion - this is when pebbles grind along a rock platform, much
like sandpaper. Over time the rock becomes smooth.

Attrition - this is when rocks that the sea is carrying knock against
each other. They break apart to become smaller and more
rounded.

Solution - this is when sea water dissolves certain types of rocks.

In the UK, chalk and limestone cliffs are prone to this type of
erosion.
Glacial Erosion

An avalanche (also called a

snowslide) is an event that
occurs when a cohesive slab of
snow lying upon a weaker layer
of snow fractures and slides
down a steep slope.
 GRAVITY
EROSION
Mass movement of
soil occurs on steep
slopes under the
influence of gravity.
The process involves
the transfer of slope-
forming materials
from higher to lower
grounds due to self
weight.
Gravitational erosion represents the movement of soil or rock
from one place to another due to gravity's pull.
Even though geologists recognize water and ice as the
biggest agents of erosion, it is the force of gravity that
powers them both.

Mass movement- downward movement due to the force of

gravity.

Types of mass movement: avalanches, landlslides.

Example: In clay soils with high shrink-swell capacity water

enters the soil through cracks and then swells the subsoil,
increasing its weight on the slope.
Soil and Conservation
Measures
 Fascine
A rough bundle of
brushwood or other
material used for
strengthening an earthen
structure, or making a path
across uneven or wet
terrain. Typical uses are
protecting the banks of
streams from erosion,
covering marshy ground
and so on.
 Riprap
Also known as rip rap, rip-
rap, shot rock, rock armor or
rubble, is rock or other
material used to armor
shorelines, streambeds,
bridge abutments, pilings and
other shoreline structures
against scour and water or ice
erosion. Common rock types
used include granite and
limestone.
 Gabion
A cage, cylinder, or box
filled with rocks, concrete,
or sometimes sand and soil
for use in civil engineering,
road building, military
applications and
landscaping. For erosion
control, caged riprap is used.
For dams or in foundation
construction, cylindrical
metal structures are used.
 The Use of Vetiver Grass
The utilization of Vetiver
grass planting for soil and
water conservation has been
operated in various areas
such as sloping land, high
land, plain, lowland
and water resource land by
planting them in the soil
erosion area prior to the
crop plantation for
prevention and after for
rehabilitate the area.
 Contour Rockwalls

they are more permanent structures which are built in

areas with abundant rocks. A one meter wide area is
leveled to provide a good base for the wall.
 Check dam

A small, sometimes
temporary, dam
constructed across a
swale, drainage ditch,
or waterway to
counteract erosion by
reducing water flow
velocity.
 Drainage System/Canal

Used for removal of

excess water from
rainfall and
underground seepage(
drain water from
contour canals in the
field.
 Balabag/Babag
primarily aims to arrest the
downward movement of soil
especially after heavy rains,
thus extending the
productivity of the marginal
slopes. In addition, the
practice also improves and
maintains soil fertility
(considering the fertilizer
trapping of the babag)
particularly the organic matter
contribution of the decayed
wood to the soil.
 Farm Ponds/Water
Impounding Dams

Depressions on the
farm, especially in
heavily gullied areas,
can be utilized as farm
ponds to store water
and minimize the
potential runoff.