How soils form

Soil is the thin layer of material covering the earth’s surface and is formed
from the weathering of rocks. It is made up mainly of mineral particles,
organic materials, air, water and living organisms—all of which interact
slowly yet constantly.

Most plants get their nutrients from the soil and they are the main source of
food for humans, animals and birds. Therefore, most living things on land
depend on soil for their existence.

Soil is a valuable resource that needs to be carefully managed as it is easily

damaged, washed or blown away. If we understand soil and manage it
properly, we will avoid destroying one of the essential building blocks of our
environment and our food security.

The soil profile

As soils develop over time, layers (or horizons) form a soil profile.

Most soil profiles cover the earth as 2 main layers—topsoil and subsoil.

Soil horizons are the layers in the soil as you move down the soil profile. A
soil profile may have soil horizons that are easy or difficult to distinguish.

Most soils exhibit 3 main horizons:

 A horizon—humus-rich topsoil where nutrient, organic matter and

biological activity are highest (i.e. most plant roots, earthworms,
insects and micro-organisms are active). The A horizon is usually
darker than other horizons because of the organic materials.
 B horizon—clay-rich subsoil. This horizon is often less fertile than the
topsoil but holds more moisture. It generally has a lighter colour and
less biological activity than the A horizon. Texture may be heavier than
the A horizon too.
 C horizon—underlying weathered rock (from which the A and B
horizons form).
 Some soils also have an O horizon mainly consisting of plant litter
which has accumulated on the soil surface.

 The properties of horizons are used to distinguish between soils and

determine land-use potential.
Factors affecting soil formation
Soil forms continuously, but slowly, from the gradual breakdown of rocks
through weathering. Weathering can be a physical, chemical or biological
process:

 physical weathering—breakdown of rocks from the result of a

mechanical action. Temperature changes, abrasion (when rocks collide
with each other) or frost can all cause rocks to break down.
 chemical weathering—breakdown of rocks through a change in their
chemical makeup. This can happen when the minerals within rocks
react with water, air or other chemicals.
 biological weathering—the breakdown of rocks by living things.
Burrowing animals help water and air get into rock, and plant roots can
grow into cracks in the rock, making it split.
The accumulation of material through the action of water, wind and gravity
also contributes to soil formation. These processes can be very slow, taking
many tens of thousands of years. Five main interacting factors affect the
formation of soil:

 parent material—minerals forming the basis of soil

  living organisms—influencing soil formation
 climate—affecting the rate of weathering and organic decomposition
 topography—grade of slope affecting drainage, erosion and deposition
 time—influencing soil properties.
Interactions between these factors produce an infinite variety of soils across
the earth’s surface.

Parent materials
Soil minerals form the basis of soil. They are produced from rocks (parent
material) through the processes of weathering and natural erosion. Water,
wind, temperature change, gravity, chemical interaction, living organisms
and pressure differences all help break down parent material.

The types of parent materials and the conditions under which they break
down will influence the properties of the soil formed. For example, soils
formed from granite are often sandy and infertile whereas basalt under moist
conditions breaks down to form fertile, clay soils.

Organisms
Soil formation is influenced by organisms (such as plants), micro-organisms
(such as bacteria or fungi), burrowing insects, animals and humans.

As soil forms, plants begin to grow in it. The plants mature, die and new ones
take their place. Their leaves and roots are added to the soil. Animals eat
plants and their wastes and eventually their bodies are added to the soil.

This begins to change the soil. Bacteria, fungi, worms and other burrowers
break down plant litter and animal wastes and remains, to eventually
become organic matter. This may take the form of peat, humus or charcoal.

Climate
Temperature affects the rate of weathering and organic decomposition. With
a colder and drier climate, these processes can be slow but, with heat and
moisture, they are relatively rapid.

Rainfall dissolves some of the soil materials and holds others in suspension.
The water carries or leaches these materials down through the soil. Over
time this process can change the soil, making it less fertile.

Topography
The shape, length and grade of a slope affects drainage. The aspect of a
slope determines the type of vegetation and indicates the amount of rainfall
received. These factors change the way soils form.

Soil materials are progressively moved within the natural landscape by the
action of water, gravity and wind (for example, heavy rains erode soils from
the hills to lower areas, forming deep soils). The soils left on steep hills are
usually shallower. Transported soils include:

 alluvial (water transported)

 colluvial (gravity transported)
 aeolian (wind transported) soils.
Read more about soil erosion.

Time
Soil properties may vary depending on how long the soil has been
weathered.

Minerals from rocks are further weathered to form materials such as clays
and oxides of iron and aluminium.

Queensland (and Australia) is a very old weathered landscape with many

ancient soils.

There are five main types of soil in Kenya:

1. Loamy Soils

Loam soil is primarily a mixture of clay and sand soil. In Kenya, loamy soil is majorly found in
Western Kenya and parts of the Rift Valley.

Characteristics of loam soils:

i) Usually very fertile.
ii) Well drained.
iii) Moderate moisture retention capabilities.
iv) High level of nutrients.
v) Varied particle size.
2. Alluvial Soils

Alluvial soils are also referred to as young soils. In Kenya, alluvial soils are in most cases found
deposited in the valleys and mouths of large water sources e.g rivers such as Ewaso Nyiro,
Sondu, Tana among others.
In Kenya, these soils are common in the southern parts of the Rift Valley.
They are formed from volcanic lava and ash.

Characteristics of alluvial soils:

i) Highly fertile.
ii) May be highly magnetic as a result of the contaminants and heavy metals from water sources
which create alluvial soils.
iii) Contain some portions of lime, potassium and phosphorus.
Volcanic Soils

Volcanic soils are also commonly referred to as red earth soils. They are commonly found in
highland areas which have previously been affected by volcanic activities.
In Kenya, these soils are in East and West of the Rift Valley.
This soils are ideal for growing coffee, tea and pyrethrum.

Characteristics of volcanic soils:

i) They are well drained.
ii) Rich in nutrients.
iii) High amounts of volcanic glass material.
iv) High water retention capacity.
v) Light and easily tilled.
vi) Not highly weathered.
Black Cotton Soils

Black cotton soils are also referred to as clay soils.

In Kenya, they are commonly found in Mwea, Athi, Kapiti, Kano and Trans Mara.

Characteristics of black cotton soils:

i) Poorly drained.
ii) Become easily waterlogged when it rains.
iii) Crack when dry.
iv) Very sticky when wet.
v) Very small particles with tiny pore spaces.
vi) High water retention capability.
vii) Poorly aerated.
Sandy soils

In Kenya, sandy soils are commonly found in arid and semi-arid areas of northern and north-
eastern Kenya, the coastal regions and some river valleys.
These soils support scanty vegetation and have very little humus.

Characteristics of sandy soils:

i) Very light and prone to water and wind erosion.

ii) Has large particles.
iii) Loses water quickly.
iv) Highly saline.
v) Highly acidic
vi) Large air spaces
vii) Low in nutrients

Soil Erosion
“Soil erosion is the natural process in which the topsoil of a field is
carried away by physical sources such as wind and water.”

Cause of Soil Erosion

Following are the important causes of soil erosion:

Rainfall and Flooding

Higher intensity of rainstorms is the main cause of soil erosion. Four types of
soil erosion are caused by rainfall:

 Rill erosion
 Gully erosion
 Sheet erosion
 Splash erosion

The raindrops disperse the soil, which is then washed away into the nearby
streams and rivers. Regions with very heavy and frequent rainfall face a
large amount of soil loss. The flowing water during floods also erodes a lot of
soil by creating potholes, rock-cut basins, etc.

Agriculture
The farming practices are the major cause of soil erosion. The agricultural
activities disturb the ground. The trees are cleared and the land is ploughed
to sow new seeds. Since most of the crops are grown during the spring
season, the land lies fallow during winters. Most of the soil is eroded during
winters.
Also, the tyres of tractors make grooves on the land, making a natural
pathway for water. Fine soil particles are eroded by wind.

Grazing
The grazing animals feed on the grasses and remove the vegetation from the
land. Their hooves churn up the soil. They also pull out plants by their roots.
This loosens the soil and makes it more prone to erosion.

Logging and Mining

A large number of trees are cut down to carry out the logging process. Trees
hold the soil firmly. The canopy of the trees protects the soil from heavy
rainfall. The leaf litter that protects the soil from erosion, is also lost during
logging.

Mining activities also disturb the land and leave the soil more prone to
erosion.

Construction
The construction of roads and buildings exposes the soil to erosion. The
forests and grasslands are cleared for construction purposes, which exposes
the soil making it vulnerable to erosion.

Rivers and Streams

The flowing rivers and streams carry away the soil particles leading to a V-
shaped erosion activity.

Heavy Winds
During dry weather or in the semi-arid regions, the minute soil particles are
carried away by the wind to faraway lands. This degrades the soil and results
in desertification.

Effects of Soil Erosion

The major effects of soil erosion include:

Loss of Arable Land

Soil erosion removes the top fertile layer of the soil. This layer is rich in the
essential nutrients required by the plants and the soil. The degraded soil
does not support crop production and leads to low crop productivity.

Clogging of Waterways
The agricultural soil contains pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers, and several
other chemicals. This pollutes the water bodies where the soil flows.

The sediments accumulate in the water and raise the water levels resulting
in flooding.

Air Pollution
The dust particles merge in the air, resulting in air pollution. Some of the
toxic substances such as pesticides and petroleum can be extremely
hazardous when inhaled. The dust plumes from the arid and semi-arid
regions cause widespread pollution when the winds move.

Desertification
Soil erosion is a major factor for desertification. It transforms the habitable
regions into deserts. Deforestation and destructive use of land worsens the
situation. This also leads to loss of biodiversity, degradation of the soil, and
alteration in the ecosystem.

Destruction of Infrastructure
The accumulation of soil sediments in dams and along the banks can reduce
their efficiency. Thus, it affects infrastructural projects such as dams,
embankments, and drainage.
Soil Erosion Prevention
Soil erosion is a serious environmental issue. Steps should be taken to curb
this problem. Following are some of the methods of soil erosion prevention:

1. Plant trees on barren lands to limit erosion of soil.

2. Add mulch and rocks to prevent the plants and grass underneath to prevent soil
erosion.
3. Mulch matting can be used to reduce erosion on slopes.
4. Put a series of fibre logs to prevent any water or soil from washing away.
5. A wall at the base of the slope can help in preventing the soil from eroding.
6. Every household should have a proper drainage system so that water flows down
into proper water collecting systems.

Key Points of Soil Erosion

 It is the natural process of wearing away topsoil, but human activities have
accelerated the process.
 It is usually caused due to the removal of vegetation, or any activity that renders
the ground dry.
 Farming, grazing, mining, construction and recreational activities are some of the
causes of soil erosion.
 The effects of soil erosion are not just land degradation. It has led to a drastic
increase in pollution and sedimentation in rivers that clogs the water bodies
resulting in a decline in the population of aquatic organisms.
 Degraded lands lose the water holding capacity resulting in floods.

The health of the soil is of utmost importance to the farmers and the
population that depends upon agriculture for food and employment. There
are several challenges to resist soil erosion, but there are solutions to
prevent it as well.

POPULATION AND SETTLEMENT IN KENYA

Most of Kenya’s population is rural and lives in scattered settlements, the
location and
concentration of which depend largely on climatic and soil conditions. Before
European
colonization, virtually no villages or towns existed except along the coast,
while urbanization
was confined to fishing villages, Arab trading ports, and towns visited by
dhows from the Arabian
Peninsula and Asia. The modern cities of Mombasa, Lamu, and Malindi were
among the
preexisting urban areas that were expanded during the colonial period.
Nairobi, originally a Maasai
watering hole, became important because of its connection to the railroad,
which came through the
area at the beginning of the 20th century. Other towns, such as Eldoret,
Embu, Kisumu,
and Nakuru, were established by Europeans as administrative centres,
mission stations, and
markets. The migration from rural to urban areas has accelerated since
independence, spurred by
greater economic development in urban areas. In the late 1960s about one-
tenth of the national
population lived in urban areas of 1,000 or more people; by the turn of the
21st century the figure
had more than doubled. The largest coastal city is Mombasa, while the
majority of Kenyans in the interior live in the capital city, Nairobi. The influx
of people has placed a major burden on the
provision of such services as education, health and sanitation, water, and
electricity.
FACTORS INFLUENCING POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN KENYA
These factors are:
(a) Physical
(b) Human/socio-economic
Physical factors
The major physical factors determining the distribution of population in
Kenya include climate,
soils, topography, mineral deposits and pests and diseases
Climate
The key climatic parameters influencing the distribution of population in
Kenya are rainfall and
temperature. Areas characterized by high (>1000mm), reliable and
predictable rainfall; and
moderate temperatures (15-200c) are densely populated. Such places have a
high agricultural
potential and therefore support large populations. Areas with moderate to
high rainfall (750-
1000mm), which are also characterized by warm to cool temperatures (20-
250c), are moderately
populated; while those receiving less than 700mm with high temperatures
(>250c) are sparsely
populated. The latter, which is commonly referred to as arid to semi-arid
areas or marginal lands
have a low potential and are mainly occupied by pastoralists (Maasai,
Turkana). However, due to
high population pressure and subsequent land shortage in the high potential
zones, the marginal
areas are today recipients of large numbers of migrants from the
overcrowded areas. Unfortunately
the rising number of immigrants is contributing immensely to land
degradation problems in these
fragile areas.
Relief/Topography
Mountainous areas, especially at altitudes above 2100m have low and sparse
population. At such
altitudes, low temperature and inadequate oxygen make life generally
impossible. Moreover, apart
from limiting agricultural land, the steep slopes of the mountains constitute a
constraint on the
movement of people and the development of a modern transport network.
The mountainous
regions of Kenya are sparsely populated. Hilly places with gentle slopes, e.g.
those lying between
1300 m and 2100 m, and some lowlands are some of the densely populated
regions in Kenya.
These places have moderate and comfortable temperatures, receive
effective precipitation, have
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mature and fertile soils and are easily accessible. They have a high
agricultural potential. However,
rugged and steep slopes, which are usually characterized by poorly
developed and infertile soils,
and hence a low agricultural potential do not attract large populations. Unlike
in the temperate
world, aspect (the compass direction in which sloping land faces) does not
exert any significant
influence in the distribution of population in Kenya. This is because in Kenya
the sun is almost
vertically overhead throughout the year. However leeward sides of
mountains, which normally
receive low and unreliable rainfall (<350mm) and have poor soils and
generally a weak agricultural
base, have low and sparse populations. There is more of livestock farming in
these areas than crop
farming.
Soils
Kenya populations are to a large extent agriculture-based, and tend to
concentrate in places with
fertile soils. Areas of volcanic, alluvial or loamy soils are more fertile than
regions with sandy or
clay soils. The former are not only deep, well aerated, and easy to work but
also contain high
organic content and as such attract huge populations. They are considered
favourable and
conducive environments for diverse agricultural activities. The reverse is true
of areas with sandy
soils such as the Arid and semi-arid areas (ASALs) of North Eastern Kenya
which are largely
characterized by low and sparse populations. Sandy soils although well
aerated are coarse in
texture and as such have a low water retention capacity. They are therefore
not conducive for crop
production (with the exception of a few crops such as dates and palm trees).
Clay soils (e.g. Athi
plains Kenya) are also not very attractive to human settlements because
they are poorly drained
and are usually water logged most of the time, heavy and hence too
expensive to cultivate.
Minerals
Kenya has inadequate mineral deposits. However the few that are available
play a crucial part in
the distribution of population in the region. Places with mineral deposits have
dense and nucleated
populations. What do you think are the effect of TITANIUM in Kwale County,
Kenya?
Pests and Diseases
Kenya has a favourable environment for human settlement and agriculture.
Unfortunately this
environment is also conducive to a variety of pests (mainly tsetse fly and the
mosquito) and
associated diseases (trypanosomiasis and malaria), which affect a
substantial part of Kenya. The
tsetse fly thrives in places below 1600m and those receiving over 400mm of
rainfall. Mosquitoes
survive in places below 1500m with stagnant water, poor drainage and
rainfall of over 400mm. At the moment Malaria, which is transmitted by
mosquitoes, is a killer disease in Kenya, after HIVAIDS.
Populations are thus sparse in areas conducive to pests and diseases.
However, man is
deterministic in nature and has continually worked hard to eradicate pests
and diseases from the
earth’s surface. Through improvements in science and technology,
pesticides, insecticides and
medicine to combat pests and diseases have been found. For instance, the
Kenya Medical Research
Institute (KEMRI) and KETRI, among others are working tirelessly in the
search for Malaria and
HIV-AIDS cure. Unlike in the past when malaria was restricted to lowland
areas, of late there are
increasing cases of malaria in highland areas. For instance, there has been a
rapid increase in the
number of people affected by highland malaria in Kericho and Kisii in Kenya.
Socio-economic Factors
In recent times, certain sites on the earth’s surface have gained socio-
economic advantages over
others because of the functions they perform as administrative
headquarters, ports and industrial
towns or cities. These areas form some of the most highly and densely
populated areas of the world
today. They are less extensive than the densely populated agricultural or
rural areas and are centers
of in-migration.
RURAL TO URBAN MIGRATION AND URBANIZATION PROBLEMS
Urbanization in Kenya, like in the rest of the world, is a function of natural
population change and
rural-urban migration. Natural population change: The rate of natural
increase of population in
urban areas of Kenya is much higher than that of the rural areas. This is due
to reduced death rates especially child mortality because of advanced
medical facilities and high fertility among urban women resulting mainly
from improved standards of living. Urban areas are perceived as better than
rural areas. Perceived better wage labour opportunities and higher
incomes/wages in urban area as opposed to shortage of agricultural land,
and scarce income generating opportunities in the rural areas entice people
especially young ones to urban centres. As a matter of fact, there has been
some kind of ‘mass exoduses’ of rural folks to urban areas, a phenomenon
contributing significantly to the expanding numbers of urban populations.
The quick growth of urban population in Kenya has led to myriad
environmental and socio-economic problems, which the governments are
finding extremely difficult to deal with. These include:

Inadequate housing
Urban authorities have not been able to provide adequate shelter for the
escalating urban
population. The high demand for housing is remains unmet. As a result,
thousands of immigrants
stream into urban centers, they are faced with inadequate accommodation.
They therefore spread out into the outskirts of the cities where they
construct temporary houses without any proper plan. These slum areas have
inadequate essential facilities and services such as water, sewage, electricity
and adequate refuse disposal systems. For example Kibera and Mathare
slums in Nairobi are overcongested, with inadequate facilities and are major
crime areas.
Inadequacy of physical structures and social amenities
The larger the city grows, the greater is the need for public services, utilities
and transport. The
total and per capita consumption of water and electricity increases; the
demand for buses surpasses the supply; and better and more effective
means of refuse disposal are demanded. The result is that only a few urban
residents, usually the high and medium income groups, are provided with
basic services including clean water supply and sanitation. In the low-income
residential areas and in the slums, refuse is often carelessly dumped in open
grounds while the drains are inadequate to carry surplus water and sewage
away. Electricity supply is also inadequate in addition to schools,hospitals,
and security and fire services.
Pollution
Pollution in Kenya urban areas takes various forms and emanates from
different sources.
Air pollution: Most of the air pollutants come from vehicle exhaust and
industrial emissions and
involve noxious gases and particulate matter (tiny solid respirable particles
present in the air,
sometimes visible as dust or smoke). The open burning of household and
yard waste is also a
source of air pollution particularly in the residential areas. Poor architectural
designs and the
presence of high-rise buildings, which interfere with the wind patterns, and
dispersal of certain
pollutants compound air pollution. For instance carbon monoxide emitted by
vehicles can be
trapped between buildings in the case of places with high rising buildings,
increasing their
concentration. One major form of air pollution is the suspended particulate
matter. The suspended particles include substance such as sulphate, nitrates
and hydrocarbons. These substances can sometimes interact with other
substances in the air to form acid rain. And due to their small size, the
human body is unable to filter out the smallest of suspended particulates.
These enter the lungs and cause various respiratory diseases such as
asthma, lung cancer and bronchitis.
Water pollution
The key sources of water pollution are agricultural, industrial and domestic.
Surface runoff and industrial effluents have polluted the waters in rivers
running through urban
areas. For instance River Nairobi, which rises from the foothills of the Kikuyu
Escarpment has
very clean and unpolluted water at the source. However, pollution levels
increase with a rise in
human activity, and gets worse as it crosses Nairobi city. The same could be
said about all the
rivers flowing through Nairobi City County. They are choking with human
waste, oils, greases and
industrial wastes. Most industrial activities are potential sources of water
pollution. Industrial
discharges either directly into water systems or sewers regularly surpass
permissible amounts. For example majority of leather tanning factories
discharge sulphides and heavy metals into water courses causing a great
deal of pollution. Inadequately treated sewage and raw sewage also
contributed to water pollution. Although waste treatment takes place at the
treatment plants, not all pathogens are removed from the sewage. Faecal
coli and wastes dumped around bridges as well as direct dumping of excess
rubbish and waste in rivers and streams reduce their stream volume capacity
which in turn can cause flooding in addition to reducing the quality of the
water in the systems. Pollution increases turbidity, which in turn reduces
photosynthetic activity, an important link in the food chain. When this
happens the affected water lack the ability to support plant growth and
animal life.
Noise pollution
Increased motor traffic in the Kenyan cities (Nairobi, Mombasa, Kisumu,
Nakuru)
is a major source of noise, which can be detrimental to human health.
Extreme noise has been
associated with increased hearing rate in sheep. In Nairobi city, matatus for
a long time played
loud music. The ear-splitting music produced noise above 55 decibels, which
could easily impair
hearing faculties. Studies have shown that people who are exposed to high
noise levels especially
those exceeding decibels suffer from high blood pressure, urinary problems
and hearing loss
among other ailments.
Unemployment and underemployment
As already noted, urbanization is growing at a high rate. Demand for
employment is thus growing
at an unprecedented rate. Unfortunately, Kenyan economies are growing at
a rather slow rate, one that does not generate enough job opportunities to
match the demand. The increasingly high numbers of unskilled workers
among the immigrants further complicates this situation. Majority of the
immigrants lack basic technical skills required in urban occupation and are
not qualified for the available jobs. Unemployment is thus rampant and is
largely to blame for the increasing crime rate (carjacking robberies and rape
cases), prostitution, and street children problem.
Traffic congestion
The expansion of economic activity has increased transport needs, a
phenomenon that has led to increased vehicles in the region. In addition,
improved urban incomes and availability of cheap
(used) vehicles form Dubai and Japan has also contributed to increased
number of vehicles in
urban areas. Traffic congestion especially during peak hours is now
characteristic of the major
urban centres. Movement almost comes to a halt causing unnecessary
delays and wastage of
valuable time which if quantified could translate to massive monetary losses.
Traffic congestion
constrains economic productivity, damages people’s health and degrades
the quality of their lives.
Mitigation measures to urban problems in Kenya
Growth centers strategy
The Kenyan government is keen about the decentralization of development
beyond the centers of power. Kenya has sought to decentralize future urban
expansion through growth centers strategies. The aim is to spread
urbanization around the countries rather than permit excessive
concentration in a few cities and towns. The regional development policy is
being pursued by Kenya in her effort to induce economic growth in Kisumu
and Eldoret towns. Establishing a better-balanced urban hierarchy is a
means of developing the economic capacities of the regions and also an
essential tool in integrating rural and urban economies. In the spirit of
decentralization, Kenya government is encouraging the location of industries
in the rural areas. This will increase employment opportunities and generate
incomes and hence boost standard of living in the rural areas.
Administrative decentralization
The Kenyan government is now committed to the promotion of economic and
social initiatives
beyond the centers of power and decision-making, the capital city.
Making rural areas attractive
Governments are reducing the rural urban imbalances by providing rural
areas with electricity,
tapped water, all weather roads and health facilities. Kenya, for instance,
through her devolution
policy is providing essential services to the rural areas. Policies aiming at
making farming a viable
and profit-making venture are also being put in place.