Soil

Is a delicate but highly varied composition of mineral particles, organic

matter and living organisms in dynamic equilibrium.
 This variability reflects primarily the parent material from which
the soil was formed over very long periods of time and the
environment in which the soil has developed.
 It consists of weathered mineral materials (45%), organic matter
(5%), air (20-30%) and water (20-30%).
 Soil formation is a long-term process.
 It could take several thousands of years to form a single stratum of
soil.
 As it is a complex mixture of several constituents, its formation is
also more complex.
 The formation of a particular type of soil depends on parent
material, climate, topography, living organism and time.
 Weathering disintegrates the inorganic substances (rocks) of soils.
 It is the breakdown of rocks at the Earth's surface, by the action of
rainwater, extremes of temperature, and biological activity.
 There are three types of weathering involving in soil formation.
These are:
A. Mechanical (physical) weathering
 Physical disintegration causes decrease in size without appreciably
altering composition.
 Differential stresses due to heating and cooling or expansion of ice
break the rock.
 Abrasion (erosion by friction) due to water containing sediment or
wind carrying debris is another type of physical weathering.
 B. Biological weathering
 The process of biological weathering involves the weakening and
subsequent disintegration of rock by plants, animals and microbes.
 Roots of plant can exert pressure on rock.
 Although the process is physical, the pressure is exerted by a
biological process (i.e., growing roots).
 Microbial activity breaks down rock minerals by altering the rock‟s
chemical composition, thus making it more susceptible to
weathering.
C. Chemical weathering
 Chemical weathering involves the modification of the chemical
and mineralogical composition of the weathered material.
 A number of different processes can result in chemical weathering.
 The most common chemical weathering processes are hydrolysis,
oxidation, reduction, hydration, carbonation, and solution.
Soils have two basic properties:
Physical properties
Soil physical properties are influenced by composition and proportion of
major soil components.
Properties such as texture, structure, porosity etc. are categorized under
physical soil properties.
These properties affect air and water movement in the soil, and thus the
soil‟s ability to function.
Chemical Properties
Soil chemistry is the interaction of various chemical constituents that
takes place among soil particles and in the water retained by soil.
Soil properties like availability of minerals, electrical conductivity, soil
pH, etc.
Soil chemical properties affect soil biological activity and indirectly the
nutrient dynamics.

MAJOR SOIL TYPES IN ETHIOPIA

Soils of Ethiopia are basically derived from crystalline, volcanic and
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks.
One can therefore, say that some of the soil divisions in the country are
based on the geologic structure.
However, it should be born in mind that, there are soils formed due to
long waited deposition of sediments.
FAO has identified 18 soil associations in Ethiopia at scale of 1:2,000,000.
Out of the major soils, 11 soil associations cover about 87.4 percent of
the land area.
The six major groups of soils in Ethiopia are discussed under the following
points:
A. Environmental condition i.e. parent material, climatic conditions,
topography, the way they were formed.
B. Characteristic i.e. significant chemical and physical properties.
C. Agricultural suitability in relation to texture, structure, topography,
moisture-storage capacity, etc.
D. Occurrence: general location of the soil types.
1. Nitosols and Acrisols
 Nitosols develop on gently sloping ground.
  They are strongly weathered soils but far more productive than
most other tropical soils.
 They are basically associated with highlands with high rainfall and
they were, probably, formed on forest covered areas originally.
 Due to the high rainfall, there is considerable soil leaching which
makes the nitosols to be poor in soluble minerals like potassium,
calcium etc.; and rich in non-soluble minerals like iron and
aluminum. The reddish-brown color of these soils is because of
high concentration of iron (ferric) oxides due to leaching. But they
are now widely found on cultivated areas and on mountain
grasslands.
 Nitosols are dominantly found in western highlands (Wellega),
southwestern highlands (Kaffa, Illuababora), Southern highlands,
Central highlands, and Eastern highlands.
o Acrisols are one of the most inherently infertile soils of the tropics,
becoming degraded chemically and organically very quickly when
utilized.
o Acrisols have very low resilience to degradation and moderate
sensitivity to yield decline.
o In Ethiopia, it has lost most of the base nutrients and are
characterized by low productive capacity.
o Acrisols are found along with nitosols mostly in some pockets of
southwestern highlands of Ethiopia where there is high rainfall.
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2. Vertisols
o Vertisols are heavy clay soils with a high proportion of swelling
clays when wet, and cracks when dry.
 o In Ethiopia, they are commonly found in parts of Northwestern,
Central and Southeastern highlands (especially in Gojjam, Shewa,
Arsi, Bale and central Hararghe).
3. Lithosols, Cambisols and Regosol
o These soils are mostly found in rugged topography and steep
slopes.
o There is little evidence of pedogenic processes (soil forming
processes).
o As a result, they are young, shallow and coarse textured and so
have low water holding capacity.
o By and large, these soils are found in different parts of rugged and
steep slopes of Central Highlands, on the Rift Valley Escarpments
and highlands in of western Hararghe. Regosol and Lithosols are
also found in the Danakil and eastern Ogaden.
4. Xerosols, Yermosols and Solanchaks
o These are soils of desert or dry steppe soils majorly available in arid
and semiarid areas.
o Though the degree may vary, desert soils are characterized by high
salt content and low organic content, because of the scanty
vegetation.
o These soils are extremely subjected to wind erosion and
concentration of soluble salts.
o Yermosols are even drier and more problematic than Xerosols.
o Solanchaks are saline soils which develop in areas of high
evaporation and capillary action. In Ethiopia, Xerosols are found in
Ogaden and northeastern escarpments, whereas the Yermosols
and Solonchaks cover the Ogaden and Afar plains. The Solonchaks
are majorly located in salty plains of Afar.
5. Fluvisols
o Fluvisols develop on flat or nearly flat ground, on recent alluvial
deposits.
o These soils are associated with fluvial (river), marine (sea) and
lacustine (lake) deposits.
o These are soils formed due to deposition of eroded materials from
highlands.
o The deposition takes place in depressions, lower valleys and
lowlands.
o Lower regions of rivers like Omo, Awash, Abay and the plains of
Akobo and Baro Rivers are home for fluvivsols. Lakes region (main
Ethiopian rift) is also characterized by fluvisols.
o Fluvisols are highly variable, but much prized for intensive
agriculture
6. Luvisols
o Luvisols develop mainly in areas where pronounced wet and dry
seasons occur in alternation.
o Where leaching is not very high, they are found in association with
nitosols.
o Luvisols have good chemical nutrients and they are among the best
agricultural soils in the tropics.
o So, they are intensively cultivated.
o However, when luvisols are found on steep slopes (stony) and on
flat areas (waterlogged) they are avoided and left for grazing.
o In Ethiopia, places with luvisols include Lake Tana area, parts of
Northern, Central and Eastern Highlands and Southern lowlands.
 SOIL DEGRADATION
Soil degradation is defined as a change in any or all of soil status resulting
in a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services.
It could also be the deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological
properties of soil.
It is a critical and growing global problem.
It is a major concern for at least two reasons.
First, soil degradation undermines the productive capacity of an
ecosystem.
Second, it affects global climate through alterations in water and energy
balances and disruptions in cycles of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and other
elements.
There are three major types of soil degradation.
These are:
o A.Physical Degradation: refers to the deterioration of the
physical properties of soil. This includes:
o Compaction: densification of soil is caused by the elimination
or reduction of structural pores.
o Soils prone to compaction are susceptible to accelerated
runoff and erosion.
o Soil erosion: is a three-phase process consisting of the
detachment of individual soil particles, transportation and
deposition.
o The continuous strike of soil surface by rain droplets
considerably weakness the soil and makes susceptible to
erosion.
 o In Ethiopia, an estimated average of 42 tons per hectare of
soils is eroded annually.
o B. Biological Degradation Reduction in soil organic matter
content, decline in biomass carbon, and decrease in activity
and diversity of soil fauna are ramifications of biological
degradation.
o Because of prevailing high soil and air temperatures,
biological degradation of soil is more severe in the tropics
than in the temperate zone.
o It can also be caused by indiscriminate and excessive use of
chemicals and soil pollutants.
o C. Chemical Degradation
o Nutrient depletion is a major cause of chemical degradation.
o Chemical degradation is also caused by the buildup of some
toxic chemicals and an elemental imbalance that is injurious
to plant growth.
CAUSES OF SOIL DEGRADATION
Soil degradation may result from natural and human-induced
causes.
Topographic and climatic factors such as steep slopes, frequent
floods and tornadoes, storms and high-velocity wind, high-
intensity rains and drought in dry regions are among the natural
causes.
Deforestation and overexploitation of vegetation, overgrazing,
indiscriminate use of agrochemicals and lack of soil conservation
practices, and over extraction of ground water are some
anthropogenic causes of soil degradation.
 SOIL EROSION CONTROL MEASURES
We have two major soil erosion control mechanisms. These are:
A. Biological Control measures
These types of soil erosion control mechanisms include vegetative strips,
plantation, and reforestation.
Biological controls can prevent splash erosion, reduces the velocity of
surface runoff, increases surface roughness which reduces runoff and
increases infiltration, and etc.
B. Physical control measures
Physical measures are used to control the movement of water and wind
over the soil surface.
The major types of physical erosion control measures commonly applied
in Ethiopia includes terracing, check dams, gabion, trenches, contour
ploughing, soil bunds etc.
NATURAL VEGETATION OF ETHIOPIA
 Natural vegetation refers to a plant cover that develops with little
or no human interference.
 It can also be seen as any original plant cover grown in an area.
 Its distribution on the surface of the earth is uneven majorly
controlled by factors such as climate, soil types, drainage, etc.
 However, to a large extent, temperature and precipitation affect
the spatial distribution and the original plant cover of a region.
 That is why, more than any other single element, the natural
vegetation of an area becomes a very good indicator of the climatic
conditions.
  Natural vegetations are vital for human beings in many ways.
 Plants can provide shelter, food, source of fuel, pasture and
grazing, raw material for industries, source of timber and non-
timber products.
 other uses include moderating effect on local climate, as home of
wild life, medicinal values, minimizing soil erosion etc.
 The characteristics of Ethiopia's natural vegetation are to a large
extent determined by elevation (and temperature) and rainfall.
 In Ethiopia, since temperature is mostly controlled by elevation,
the spatial distribution of natural vegetation in the country is
strongly correlated to it.
 Lowlands due to their low rainfall and high temperature have harsh
environment and are characterized by xeromorphic plants (plants
which are adapted to drought and high temperatures).
 Highlands (up to about 3000 m) are cooler than the lowlands and
where there is adequate moisture a variety of forests can be seen.
 Plants whose growth is limited by the low temperature
characterize high altitude areas (mostly above 3000 m).
 Ethiopia possesses an estimated number of 6000 species of higher
plants of which 10% are endemic.
MAJOR NATURAL VEGETATION TYPES OF ETHIOPIA
Taking altitude into consideration it is possible to broadly classify the
vegetation belts of Ethiopia into the following five groups.
1. Afro-alpine and sub-afro alpine Region
2. Forest Region
3. Woodland Savannah Region
4. Steppe Region
5. Semi-desert Region
1. Afro-alpine and Sub-afro alpine Region
Ethiopia has the largest extent of Afro-alpine and sub afroalpine
habitats in Africa.
This vegetation type, also known as high mountain vegetation is similar
to the Alpine vegetation in temperate regions.
These ecosystems are found on mountains having an elevation ranging
between 3,200 and 4,620 meters above sea level.
The Afro-alpine habitat covers nearly 1.3% of the total landmass of
Ethiopia.
The Afro-alpine region is found at very high altitudes (4,000 – 4,620 m).
Like any other landform in Ethiopian, the climate of Afro-alpine
ecosystems is controlled by latitude and altitude.
The annul precipitation which ranges between 800 and 1,500 mm, is

Semein mountains are typical examples of afroalpine vegetations.

Compared to the Afro-alpine, the Sub-afro-alpine region is found at a
lower elevation, roughly between 3,300 and 4,000 meters.
As a result, the plants in this region are adapted to somewhat less
extreme environment than the Afro-alpine. 287
Vegetation in the Afro-alpine region consists of tussock grasslands,
scrub, scattered mosses and lichens
while the Sub-afro alpine region is dominated by woodland, often
degraded to scrub stages and also wet grasslands.
Lobelia rhynchopetalum (giberra) and Erica arborea (Asta) are some of
the dominant species in the Afro-alpine and Sub-afro alpine regions
respectively.
2. Forest Region
Forest is a complex ecosystem consisting predominantly of trees that
shield earth and support numerous life forms.
Not all forests are similar in terms of species composition, structure and
physiognomy.
In any geographical region, environmental factors such as climate, soil
types, topography and elevation determine the types of forests.
In Ethiopia, forests are found at different elevations, 450 to 3,500m in
humid parts and 2,300 to 3,300 m in most arid parts. Moreover, forests
are characterized by variation in mean annual rainfall that range
between 200 and 2,200mm.
These wide variations in rainfall and altitude result in two broad
classification of forests: Highlands and Lowland forests.
Highland forests include Hagenia Abyssinia (Kosso), Juniper procera
(tid), Arundinaria Alpina(kerkha), Podocarpus falcatus (zigba), Aningeria
adolfi-friedericii (keraro) and Olea africana (Weyra)
Riverine forests are classified as lowland forests and are found in some
places such as the banks of Awash, Wabishebelle, Ghenale etc.
3. Woodland Savannah Region
Like the forests, the woodland savannahs are also found in areas of wide
altitudinal ranges (250 to 2,300 m).
Although the mean annual rainfall ranges between 200 and 1,400 mm,
the large part of this region is found at a lower elevation and in a drier
environment. Woodland savannah region can be broadly classified into
three divisions:
Juniper procera (tid) is dominant species for both the Junipers Forests
and Junipers Woodlands. The difference is in height: 3 - 45 meters tall in
the forests and 10 -15 meters in the woodlands.
Acacia woodlands are dominated by both trees and shrubs, which
belong to the same genus 'Acacia'. E.g. Acacia etbaica(grar),Acacia
mellifera (Konter).
Mixed deciduous woodlands: As the name implies, most of the trees in
mixed deciduous woodlands shed their leaves during the dry season.
4. Steppe and Semi Desert Regions
These are regions in the arid and semiarid parts of the country where
the temperature is very high and the rainfall very low.
Both are found at low elevations, the steppe at elevations of 100 to
1,400 m above sea level and the semi-deserts at 130 meters below sea
level to 600 meters above sea level.
WILDLIFE RESOURCES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
Wildlife resources in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa contribute
significantly to the region's biodiversity, cultural heritage, and economic
activities. The diverse ecosystems, ranging from highland plateaus to
lowland savannas and coastal areas, support a wide array of terrestrial
and aquatic species. Here are key aspects of wildlife resources in this
region:
1. Terrestrial Wildlife:
• Large Mammals: Ethiopia is home to a variety of large mammals,
including elephants, lions, giraffes, and various antelope species. The
Bale Mountains and Simien Mountains are known for their populations
of endemic species such as the Ethiopian wolf and the Walia ibex.
• Endemic Species: The region boasts a number of endemic species,
meaning they are found nowhere else on Earth. The Gelada baboon,
Ethiopian wolf, and the Swayne's hartebeest are examples of species
unique to Ethiopia.
• Protected Areas: National parks and wildlife reserves, such as the
Simien Mountains National Park and the Omo National Park, have been
established to conserve and protect the diverse terrestrial wildlife in the
region.
2. Avian Diversity:
• Endemic Bird Species: Ethiopia is recognized as a birdwatcher's
paradise with over 800 bird species. The country is home to numerous
endemic bird species, including the Ethiopian thick-billed raven, wattled
ibis, and the Abyssinian catbird.
• Migratory Routes: The Horn of Africa serves as a crucial migratory
route for birds traveling between Europe and Africa. Coastal areas,
wetlands, and Rift Valley lakes provide essential habitats for migratory
bird species.
3. Aquatic and Marine Life:
• Lakes and Rivers: The Rift Valley lakes, such as Lake Tana and Lake
Abaya, support diverse aquatic life, including various fish species and
water birds. The Ethiopian portion of the Nile River is also important for
fish biodiversity.
• Red Sea Coastline: The Red Sea coastline along the Horn of Africa
features marine life, including coral reefs and a variety of fish species.
Eritrea and Djibouti, in particular, have coastal ecosystems with rich
biodiversity.
4. Cultural and Economic Significance:
• Cultural Importance: Wildlife holds cultural significance for many
communities in the region. Certain species are revered or play a role in
local myths and traditions. The Gelada baboon, for example, is
considered sacred by some communities.
• Tourism and Recreation: Wildlife resources contribute to the tourism
industry, attracting visitors interested in safari experiences,
birdwatching, and nature tourism. This has economic benefits for local
communities and national economies.
5. Conservation Challenges:
• Habitat Loss: Urbanization, agricultural expansion, and deforestation
contribute to habitat loss, threatening the survival of many wildlife
species. Conservation efforts aim to address these challenges and
promote sustainable land use practices.
Population of Ethiopia and the Horn
1. Population Data and Sources:
• Regular and reliable population data are crucial for socioeconomic
development planning and administration.
• Three conventional sources of obtaining population data are census,
sample surveys, and vital registration.
• Census is a total process of collecting, compiling, and publishing
demographic, economic, and social data at a specified time.
• Sample surveys involve selecting a population/sample to represent the
entire population, offering advantages such as cost reduction.
• Vital registration is a continuous, permanent, and legal recording of
vital events like births, deaths, marriages, and adoptions.
2. Population Dynamics:
• Population growth or decline results from the combined effects of
fertility, mortality, and migration.
• Ethiopia has a large and fast-growing population, ranking 2nd in Africa
after Nigeria.
3. Demographic Measurements:
• Various measurements include crude birth rate, general fertility rate,
total fertility rate, crude death rate, infant mortality rate, maternal
mortality rate, life expectancy at birth, and natural rate of increase.
4. Levels and Trends in Fertility and Mortality Rates:
• Birth and death rates vary significantly between rural and urban areas
of Ethiopia.
• Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and life expectancy show variations among
different regions.
• High birth rates are attributed to factors like little family planning, lack
of population education, and early marriage.
5. Comparison with Other Countries in the Horn of Africa:
Different countries in the Horn of Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia,
Eritrea, Djibouti) are compared in terms of birth rates, death rates,
infant mortality rates, and life expectancy.
6.Population Growth and Consequences:
Countries in the Horn of Africa experience higher population growth
rates exceeding 2.6%, leading to consequences like low per capita GNP,
increased unemployment, inflation, and environmental problems.
6. Migration:
• Migration is described as an old and inevitable phenomenon in
Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa.
7. Population Structure:
• Sex structure and age structure are briefly mentioned, with a
reference to the old age index.
8. Population Distribution:
• Population distribution in Ethiopia is uneven due to physical and
human factors, including climate, soil, economic activities, and
urbanization.
Measures of population distribution include population density, crude
density, physiological density, and agricultural/rural density.
9. Examples of Population Density in Ethiopian Regions:
• The text provides examples of population density in different regions
of Ethiopia, showing variations between regions.
10. Demographic Measurements:
• Crude Birth Rate (CBR): The number of live births per 1000 population
in a given year. It provides a broad overview of fertility levels.
• General Fertility Rate: The total number of live births per woman of
reproductive age. It is a more specific measure of fertility, relating births
to women in the reproductive age group.
• Total Fertility Rate (TFR): The average number of children a woman
would have at the end of her reproductive period if current age-specific
fertility rates remain unchanged. It gives a projection of future fertility
patterns.
11. Comparison with Other Countries:
• The text provides data on birth rates, death rates, infant mortality
rates, and life expectancy for Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Eritrea, and
Djibouti. This comparative analysis allows for an understanding of the
variations in demographic indicators across the Horn of Africa.
13. Population Growth and Consequences:
• The consequences of rapid population growth include low per capita
Gross National Product (GNP), increased unemployment and under-
employment, continuous inflation, and overcrowding of infrastructural
and social facilities. Environmental problems such as deforestation, soil
erosion, and loss of biodiversity are also highlighted.
14. Migration:
• Migration is described as an old and inevitable phenomenon.
However, the text doesn't go into specific details about the patterns,
causes, or impacts of migration in the Horn of Africa.
15. Population Structure:
• Sex Structure: The distribution of males and females in the population.
• Age Structure: The composition of a population in terms of the
distribution of individuals across different age groups. It's a key factor in
understanding population dynamics.
16. Population Distribution:
• Physical Factors: Climate, soil, vegetation, drainage, and slope are
mentioned as physical factors affecting population distribution.
• Human Factors: Economic activities, urbanization, and
industrialization are cited as human factors influencing population
distribution.
17. Measures of Population Distribution:
• Crude Density: The total population divided by the total area. It
provides a general overview of population distribution but doesn't show
variations within a given area.
• Physiological Density: The ratio between total population and the
arable part of a country. It indicates the pressure of population on land
resources.
• Agricultural/Rural Density: Considering only the agricultural
population in relation to cultivated land. It provides a better indication
of population pressure on land resources.
18. Population Density in Ethiopian Regions:
• The text provides examples of population density in different regions
of Ethiopia, highlighting variations. For instance, the Southern Nations,
Nationalities, and Peoples' Region (SNNPR) have the largest population
density, while Somali, Afar, and Benishangul-Gumuz have lower
densities.

Economic Activities in Ethiopia

Ethiopia has a diverse and evolving economy with various economic
activities contributing to its development. Here are key economic
activities in Ethiopia:
1. Agriculture:
• Agriculture is a vital sector and a significant source of employment for
the majority of the population.
• Subsistence farming is common, with crops such as teff, maize, barley,
and pulses grown for domestic consumption.
• The country is known for its coffee production, and coffee is a major
export commodity.
2. Livestock Farming:
• Livestock farming, including cattle, goats, and sheep, is an integral part
of Ethiopian agriculture.
• Livestock contributes to the livelihoods of many rural communities,
providing meat, milk, and other products.
3. Textile and Garment Industry:
• Ethiopia has been working to develop its textile and garment industry,
attracting foreign investment in manufacturing.
• The sector focuses on producing apparel for both domestic
consumption and export.
4. Construction and Infrastructure:
• Ethiopia has been investing heavily in infrastructure development,
including roads, bridges, and dams.
• The construction sector has seen significant growth, with large-scale
projects contributing to economic development.
5. Services and Tourism:
• The services sector, including trade, finance, and telecommunications,
is expanding.
• Tourism is gaining importance, with attractions such as historical sites,
natural landscapes, and cultural heritage drawing visitors.
6. Mining and Resources:
• Ethiopia has significant mineral resources, including gold, platinum,
and potash.
• The mining sector has attracted foreign investment, and efforts are
being made to develop and exploit these resources sustainably.
7. Manufacturing and Industry:
• The government has been promoting industrialization as part of its
economic development strategy.
• Manufacturing activities include food processing, cement production,
and the production of textiles and leather goods.
8. Technology and Innovation:
• Ethiopia has been making efforts to advance its technology and
innovation sector.
• Initiatives such as the development of technology parks and
investment in information and communication technology (ICT) are
underway.
9. Energy and Power:
• Ethiopia has invested in expanding its energy capacity, particularly
through hydropower projects.
• The country aims to become a major exporter of electricity to
neighboring countries in the region.
10. Finance and Banking:
• The financial sector, including banking and microfinance, is developing
to support economic activities.
• Access to financial services is expanding, contributing to economic
growth and poverty reduction.
11. Social Enterprises and Agriculture Cooperatives:
• Ethiopia has a strong tradition of social enterprises and agricultural
cooperatives that play a role in rural development.
• These entities contribute to community empowerment and
sustainable development.
11. Export-oriented Horticulture:
• Ethiopia has become a notable exporter of flowers, vegetables, and
fruits.
• Horticulture has gained prominence as a source of foreign exchange
earnings.
12. Agro-Processing:
• Agro-processing involves adding value to agricultural products before
they reach the market.
• Ethiopia has seen growth in agro-processing industries, including the
production of processed foods, beverages, and edible oils.
13. Telecommunications and Information Technology (IT):
• The telecommunications sector has witnessed significant growth and
liberalization.
• Investments in IT infrastructure and services contribute to economic
development, connectivity, and access to information. 15. Renewable
Energy:
• Ethiopia has significant potential for renewable energy, particularly
hydropower, wind, and geothermal.
• The government is investing in renewable energy projects to meet
domestic demand and export surplus electricity to neighboring
countries.
16. Education and Training:
• Human capital development through education and training is
considered a crucial economic activity.
• Efforts are made to enhance the skills of the workforce to meet the
demands of a growing and diversified economy.
17. Finance and Investment Promotion:
• The government has implemented policies to attract foreign direct
investment (FDI) and promote domestic investment.
• Financial institutions play a role in providing capital for businesses and
entrepreneurs.
18. Healthcare and Pharmaceuticals:
• The healthcare sector is a critical component of social development.
• Efforts are made to improve healthcare infrastructure and access to
essential medical services.
19. Water Resource Management:
• Given its importance for agriculture and other sectors, water resource
management is a key economic consideration.
• Investments are made in irrigation systems and water infrastructure.

20. Special Economic Zones (SEZs):

• Special Economic Zones have been established to attract investments
and promote export-oriented industries.
• These zones offer incentives and infrastructure to facilitate business
operations.
21. Rural and Agricultural Development Programs:
• Various programs aim to enhance agricultural productivity and
improve rural livelihoods. • Initiatives include the promotion of
sustainable farming practices, access to credit, and market linkages.
22. Environmental Conservation and Sustainable Practices:
• Ethiopia is actively engaged in environmental conservation efforts.
• Sustainable practices, including reforestation and land management
programs, contribute to environmental protection.
23. Export Promotion and Trade:
• The government focuses on diversifying exports to increase foreign
exchange earnings.
• Efforts are made to enhance trade relations with neighboring
countries and other global partners.
24. Microfinance and Small Enterprise Development:
• Microfinance institutions play a crucial role in providing financial
services to small and micro-enterprises.
• These initiatives contribute to poverty alleviation and the
empowerment of local communities.
 ADAMA SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY

Geography of Ethiopia & the Horn Assignment

TEMESGEN HAILU
UGE/27778/14