SOIL

Generally soil refers to the loose surface of the earth as identified from the original rock and
mineral from its derived through weathering processes. In other word soil is defined as an
accumulation of natural bodies which has been synthesized in profile form from a diversified
mixture of disintegrated and weathered mineral and decaying organic matter which cover the
surface of the earth which supplies, when containing the optimum amount of air and water
mechanical support and substance of plant.

TYPE OF SOIL

1. Sandy.
2. Loamy.
3. Clay.

SIOL FORMATION
INTRODUCTION
Soil is a collection of individual soils, each with distinctive profile characteristics.
Soils are crucial to life on earth because to a great degree, the quality of the soil
determines the nature of plant ecosystems and the capacity of land to support
animal life and society. In view of the above statements, a closer look will be taken
to elucidate the mechanisms of soil formation processes.

Factors Determining Soil Formation

Based on observation and careful field and laboratory research, five major factors
that control the formations of soils have been recognized. These factors are parent
materials, climate, biota, topography and time.However, in certain situations one of
the factors could have had dominant influence in determining the difference among
a set of soils, such a set of soils are referred to as lithosequence, climosequence,
biosequence, toposequence, or chronosequence as the case may be. That is to say
the dominating influence is by the parent material
(lithosequence), climate (climosequence), biota (biosequence), topography
(toposequence) or time (chronosequence).
Parent Materials
The nature of the parent materials profoundly influences soil characteristics. For
example, a soil might inherit a sandy texture that is coarse–grained, quartz–rich
parent materials such as granite or sandstone. Furthermore, the chemical and
mineralogical composition of parent material also influence the characteristics of
soil formed
Climate
The most influential factor acting on parent material is perhaps climate.
It determines the nature and intensity of the weathering that occurs over large
geographic areas. Precipitation and temperature both affect the rate of chemical,
physical and biological processes.
Biota
Activities of living organisms (flora and fauna) potentially enhance organic matter,
nutrient cycling and aggregate stability. For example, leading of soil mineral and
erosion of surface soil could be slowed down by natural vegetative cover.
Moreover, animals play significant role in soil – formation processes, change
animals like bush rates, moles and smaller ones like earthworms bone tunnels in
soil, thereby enhancing movement of water and air into the subsurface layers.
Topography
The elevation, slope and landscape position may either hasten or retard the work
climate forces. For example, steep slopes generally encourage rapid soil loss by
erosion and allow less rainfall to enter the soil before running off.
Time
Soil forming processes take time to show their effects because time interacts with
the order factors of soil formation.

2 Weathering Processes
Weathering is a biochemical process that involves both destructs and synthesis.
Without appreciably affecting soil composition, physical disintegration breaks
down rock into smaller rocks and eventually into sand and silt particles. Also, the
minerals decompose chemically, releasing soluble materials and synthesizing new
minerals. During the chemical changes, particle size continues to decrease, and
constituents continue to dissolve in the aqueous weathering solution.
Physical Weathering (Bio-Integration)
Temperature, abrasion by water, ice and wind, and living organisms (flora and
fauna) all act together brining, about physical weathering. For instance, rocks heat
up during the day and cool down at might, causing alternate expansion and
contraction of the rocks. Furthermore, water has tremendous cutting power
especially when loaded with sediments.
Physical weathering is also enhanced by plant roots which sometimes enter cracks
in rocks resulting in further breakdown of the rocks.
Biochemical Weathering
Water, oxygen, microbes and plant – root exudates are various agents acting in
concert to convert primary minerals (e.g. feldspars and micas) to secondary
minerals (e.g. clays and carbonates) and release plant nutrient elements in soluble
forms. Chemical weathering is governed by six basic types of reactions:
 Hydration, hydrolysis, dissolution, carbonation and order acid reactions, oxidation
– reduction (redox), chelation.
3.3 Soil Formation Processes
During the formation (genesis) of a soil from parent material, the regolith (loose
earth materials above solid rock) undergoes many profound changes. These
changes are brought about by variations in the four broad soil forming processes.
Transformations
This occurs when soil constitutions are chemically or physically modified or
destroyed and others are synthesized from the precursor materials.
Translocations
Translocations involve of movement of in organic and organic materials laterally
within a horizon or vertically from one horizon up or down to another.
Additions
Inputs of materials to the developing soil profiled from outside sources are
considered additions.
Losses
Materials are lost from the soil profile from outside source are considered
additions.
CONCLUSION
The parent materials from which soils develop vary widely around the world.
Knowledge of these materials, their sources, mechanism for their weathering, and
means of transport and deposition are essential to understanding soil genesis.

SOIL CLASSFICATION (SOIL TAXONOMY)

INTRODUCTION
Soil classification system, called soil taxonomy, provides a hierarchical grouping
of natural soil bodies. In this unit, we shall be looking at soil properties and
nomenclature employed in classification. Classification based on soil properties
lessens the likelihood of controversy over the classification of a given soil which
can occur when scientists deal with systems based on presumed mechanism of soil
formations’.
1. Bases of Soil Classification
Soil taxonomy based on observable properties of soils as they are found today.
Such properties for example, include moisture, temperature status, soil color,
texture and structure of the soil. Chemical and mineralogical properties, such as the
contents of organic matter, clay, iron and aluminum oxides, silicate clays, salts,
the pH, the percentage base saturation (cation exchange capacity), and soil depth
are other important criteria for classification. Precise measurements are also
employed in defining soil horizons, the presence or absence of the help to
determine the place of a soil in the classification system.
Diagnostic Surface Horizons
The epipedon (from the Greek epi, over and pedon, soil) includes the upper part of
the soil darkened by organic matter, the upper eluvial horizons, or both. Seven
epipedons are recognized, but only five (comollic, umbric, ochric, melanic, histic)
occur naturally over wide areas. The other two, anthropic and plaggen, are the
result of intensive human us e. They are common in parts of Europe and Asia
where soils have been utilised for many centuries. The mollicepipedon (Latin
mollis, soft) is a mineral surface horizon noted for its dark colour due to
accumulated organic matter. The Umbricepipedon (Latin umbra, shade; hence,
dark) has the same general characteristics as the mollicepipedon except that the
cation exchange capacity is less than 50%. Umbricepipedon commonly develops in
areas with somewhat higher rainfall and where the parent material has lower
content of calcium and magnesium. The Ochricepipedon (Greek ochris, pale) is a
mineral horizon that is either too thin, too light in colour, or too low in organic
matter to be either a mollic or umbric horizon. It is usually not as deep as the
mollic or umbricepipedon. The Ochricepipedon (Greek ochris, pale) is a mineral
horizon that is either too thin, too light in colour, or too low in organic matter to be
either a mollic or umbric horizon. It is usually not as deep as the mollic or
umbricepipedon. The melanicepipedon (Greek melas, black) is a mineral horizon
that is very black in colour due to its high organic matter content (organic carbon
>6%), it is characteristic of soils developed from volcanic ash. And the
histicepipedon (Greek histos, tissue), a 20- to 60-cm-thick layer of organic solid
materials overlaying a mineral soil that is formed in wet areas, is a layer of peat or
muck with a black to dark brown color and very low in density.
Subsurface Horizons
Many subsurface horizons (18) are used to characterize different soils in soil
taxonomy. Each horizon provides a characteristic that helps place a soil in its
proper class in the system. For example the argillic horizon is a subsurface
accumulation of high-activity silicate clays that have moved downward from the
upper horizons or have formed in place. The natric horizon likewise has silicate
clay accumulation, but the clays are accompanied by more than 15% exchangeable
sodium on the colloidal complex and by columnar or prismatic soil structural units.
The kandic horizon has an accumulation of Fe and Al oxides as well as low
activity silicate clays. The oxic horizon is a highly weathered subsurface horizon
that is very high in Fe and Al oxides, and in low –activity silicate clays. The spodic
horizon is an alluvial horizon that is characterized by the accumulation of colloidal
organic matter and aluminum oxide (with or without iron oxide).
The sombic horizon is also an illuvial horizon, dark in colour because of high
organic matter accumulation. It has a low degree of cation exchange capacity. The
albic horizon is a light-colored eluvial horizon that is low in clay and oxides of Fe
and Al. Calcic horizons contain an accumulation of carbonates (CaCo3) that often
appear as white chalklike nodules. Gypsic horizons have an accumulation of
gypsum (CaSQ4.2H2O), and salic horizons an accumulation of soluble salts. These
are found mostly in soils of arid and semiarid regions.
In some subsurface horizons, the materials are cemented or densely packed,
resulting in relatively impermeable layers called pans (duripan, fragipan and placic
horizons). These can resist water movement and the penetration of plant roots.
Such pans constrain plant growth and may encourage water runoff and erosion
because rainwater cannot move readily downward through the soil.
Classification Based on Soil Moisture Regime
A soil moisture regime refers to the presence or absence of either water saturated
conditions (usually groundwater) or plant-available soil water.
Soil moisture regime classes are used to characterize soils.
Aquic - Soil is saturated with water and virtually free of gaseous oxygen.
Udic - Soil moisture is sufficiently high year-round in most years to meet plant
needs.
Ustic - Soil moisture is intermediate between udic and aridic regimes.
Aridic - The soil is dry for at least half of the growing season and moist for less
than 90 consecutive days. This regime is characteristic of arid regimes.
Xeric - This soil moisture regime is found in typical
Mediterranean type climates.
Classification Based on Soil Temperature Regime
Soil temperature regimes, such as frigid, mesic, and thermic, are used to classify
soils at some of the lower levels in soil taxonomy.
Classification Based on Soil Temperature Regime
Soil temperature regimes, such as frigid, mesic, and thermic, are used to classify
soils at some of the lower levels in soil taxonomy.
CONCLUSION
In this unit, we have learnt that is an unconsolidated, or loose, combination of
inorganic and organic materials. The inorganic components of soil are principally
the products of rocks and minerals that have been gradually broken down by
weather, chemical action, and other natural processes. The organic materials are
composed of debris from plants and from the decomposition of the many tiny life
forms that inhabit the soil.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL

 INTRODUCTION
Soil physical properties profoundly influence how soils function in an ecosystem
and how they can best be managed, likewise the growth of many plant species are
closely related to soil physical properties, also the movement over and through
soils of water and its dissolved nutrients and chemical pollutions. The basis soil
physical properties such as color, texture, pore sizes and other physical properties
of soil horizons are used by soil scientists in classifying soil profiles and in making
decisions about soil suitability for agricultural and environment projects.
1. Physical Properties of Soil Colour
Soils display a wide range of colors like red, yellow and even green. Some soils are
nearly black, white, bright and dull grays. Soils typically change with depth
through the various layers within a soil profile. Soil colors have little effects on the
behavior and use of soils. However, they do provide valuable dues to the nature of
other soil properties and conditions. A standard system for accurate color
description has been developed using munseu color charts. In this system, a small
piece of soil is compared to standard color chips in a soil color book. Each color
chip is described by the three components of color i.e. the hue (in soils, usually
redness or yellowness), the chroma (intensity or brightness) and the gray (lightness
or darkness).
Three major factors have the greatest influence on the color of soil:
i. Organic matter content
ii. Water content
iii. Presence and oxidation states of iron and manageress oxides.
2 Soil Texture
Soil texture describes the size of the soil particles three broad groups of textural
classes are recognized sandy soils, loamy soil, and clayey soils. Within each group,
specific textural class names convey an idea of the size distribution of particles and
indicate the general native of soil physical properties. The twelve textural classes
form a graduated sequence from the sands, which are coarse in texture and easy to
more about, to the clays which are very fine and difficult to handle physically.

Table 1: Soil Textural Class Name

Soils Texture Basic Soil Textural Class
Names
Sandy soils Coarse Sands loamy sands

Loamy soils Medium Very fine sandy loan, loan

Silt loan.
Moderately fine Sandy clay loam silt clay
Loan clay
Clayey soils Fine Sandy clay
Silty clay
Clay
Source: US Department of Agriculture Classification System
3 Soil Structure
Soil structure describes the manner in which soil particles are aggregated, in other
words, this property defines the native of the system of pores and channels in a
soil. The term structure relates to the arrangement of primary soil particles in
grouping called aggregates or peds. The pattern of pores and peds defined by soil
structure greatly influences water movement, heat transfer, aeration, and porosity
in soils. Soil structure is characterized in terms of the shape (or type), size, and
distinctness (or grade) of the peds. The four principal shapes of soil structure are
spheroidal, platy, prim like, and block like.
I. Spheroidal Soil Structure
Granular, usually separated from each other in a loosely packed arrangement. They
typically range from less than 1 to greater than 10mm in diameter. Granular
structures are characteristics of many surface soils, particularity those high in
organic matter. They are prominent in grassland soils and soils that have been
worked by earthworms.
ii. Plate like Soil Structure
It is characterized by thin horizontal peds or plates and may be found in both
surface and sub-surface horizons. Platy structure may be inherited from soil parent
materials, and in some cases compaction of clayey soils by heavy machinery can
create plate like soil structure.
iii. Prism like Soil Structure
Columnar and prism like structure are characterized by vertically oriented prism or
pillar like peds that very in height among different soils and may have a diameter
of 150mm or more. They commonly occur in subsurface horizons in arid and
semiarid regions.
iv. Block like Soil Structure: Blocky peds are irregular, roughly cube like and
range from about 5 to 50mm across. The individual blocks are not shaped
independently, but are molded by the shapes of the surrounding blocks. Blocks like
soil structures promote good drainage, aeration and root penetration.
4 Soil Density
Soil particle density (Dp) is defined as the mass per unit volume of soil solids.
Particle density is essentially the same as the specific gravity of a solid substance.
The chemical composition and crystal structures of a mineral determines its
particle density. Dp is not affected by pore space, and therefore is not related to
particle size or to the arrangement of particles.
A second important mass measurement of soils is bulk divinity (Db) which is
defined as the mass of a unit volume of dry soil. This volume includes both solids
and pores. Bulk density is affected by soil texture and depth in soil profile.
Changes in bulk density for a given soil are easily measured and can alert soil
managers to changes in soil quality and ecosystem function for example, increase
in bulk density indicate a poorer environment for root growth, reduced aeration,
and undesirable changes in hydrologic function, such as reduced water infiltration
5 Soil Pore Sizes
One of the main reasons for measuring soil bulk density is that this value can be
used to calculate the pore space. For soils with the same particle density the lower
the density, the higher the percent pore space
(Total porosity). Percentage pore space = (Db x 100)
Dp
Soil pores occur in a wide variety of sizes and shapes that largely determine what
role the pore can play in soil. Pores can be grouped by size into macropores,
mesopores and miropores. Continuous cropping of soils originally high in organic
matter, often results in a reduction of macropore spaces
4. CONCLUSION
Physical properties exert a marked influence on the behavior of soils with regard to
plant growth, hydrology and environment management uses. The nature and
properties of the individual particles, their size distribution, and their arrangement
in soils determine the total volume of non – solid pore space, as well as the pore
sizes, thereby impacting on water and air relationships.
.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
1. INTRODUCTION
The soil is developed through the process of weathering of the parent rocks that
make up the earth’s crust. It is considered as a natural entity, a biochemically
weathered and synthesized product of nature. Many elements are found within the
earth’s crust and most of which are in the soil. These elements combine in different
ways to make the chemical constituents of the soil. These take part in all various
reactions of the soil to ensure that nutrients are made available to the plants.
Through this the plant and animal lives are supported.
2. Chemical Nature of Soils
Soil is an entity that has its chemical nature that arises from the parent materials
from which it is made. Rocks are the main soil forming materials. Each type of
rock has its composition that eventually form the chemical content of any soil that
is formed after the weathering processes. About 92 chemical elements are known
to exist in the earth’s crust. When one considers the number of possible
combinations of large number of these elements, it is not surprising that 2000
minerals have been recognized. However, a few of these elements predominate and
of real importance. These are hydrogen (H), carbon (C), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), silicon (Si) and alkali and alkaline earth metals. Various trace
elements also called micronutrients, are present as enzyme cofactors and include
iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), magnesium (Mg), manganese
(Mn), molybdenum (Mo) and zinc (Zn). Furthermore, approximately 98% of the
crust of the earth is composed of 8 chemical elements. O-46%, Si-27.7%, Al-8.1%,
Fe-5%, Ca-3.6%, Na-2.8%, K-2.6%, and Mg=2.1%. Silicon and oxygen compose
about 75% of all these elements. These elements are evenly distributed throughout
the earth surface. These elements have combined with themselves and some others
to constitute the minerals. With all these put together, the soil can be described as
predominantly a sand silt-clay matrix, containing living (biomass) and dead
(necromass) organic matter, with varying amounts of gases and liquids within the
matrix.

2. Mineral Matrix (Inorganic/Organic Soils)

The soil is predominantly minerals or inorganic in composition. Even in their
surface layer organic matter contents of mineral soils are comparatively low,
generally ranging from 1-10%. In contrast, soils in swamps, bogs and marshes
commonly contain 80-90% organic matter. These organic soils when drained and
cleaned are most productive, especially for high value crops such as fresh market
vegetables. It is this organic soil deposits that are excavated, bagged and sold as
organic supplements for home gardens and plants. The inorganic portion is
variable in size and composition made of small rock fragments and minerals of
various kinds. The minerals are extremely variable in size-some are large as the
smaller rock fragments, other such as colloidal clay particles. Quartz and some
other minerals have persisted with little change in composition. Other minerals
such as the silicate clays and iron oxides have been formed by weathering of less
resistant minerals.
Table 1: Primary Minerals Found in Soils
Size/Fraction Common Name Means of Observation
Dominant Composition
Very coarse Stone Naked eyes Rock
fragments
Coarse Sands Naked eyes 1
minerals
Fine Silt Microscope 1&2
minerals
Very Fine Clay Electron micro Most 2
minerals
In general, primary minerals dominate the coarser fraction of soils, whereas
secondary minerals are most prominent in the fine materials, especially clays.
Clearly, mineral particle size will have much to do with the properties of the solid
in the field. The minerals present in soils depend on the types of rocks that were
weathered for their formation. It also depends on the type reactions that have taken
place in the process of weathering. Some of these reactions particularly chemical
processes of weathering bring about new forms of minerals from the rock forming
soils.
3. Soil Reaction
The degree of soil acidity or alkalinity, usually expressed as soil pH, is a master
variable that affects a wide range of soil properties–chemical, biological, and,
indirectly, even physical. This chemical variable greatly influences the availability
for root uptake of many elements including both nutrients and toxins. The activity
of soil microorganisms is also affected. The mix of plant species that dominate a
landscape under natural conditions often reflects the pH of the soil. So for people
attempting to produce crops or ornamental plants, soil pH is a major determinant of
which species will grow well or even grow at all in a given site.
4 Soil pH
pH is a measure of the active hydrogen ion (H+) concentration. It shows the acidity
or alkalinity of a soil, and also called soil reaction. pH scale ranges from 0-14,
which value below seven 7 acidic and above 7 is alkaline. pH7 (neutral) i.e. H+
and OH- are equal (10-7moles/liter). pH of 4.0 is ten (10) times more acidic than
pH of 5.0. Important effect pH in soil is on ion solubility, which in turn affects
microbial and plant growth. A pH range of 6.0-6.8 is ideal for most crops because
it coincides with optimum solubility of the most important plant nutrients. Some
minor elements e.g. iron and most heavy metals are more soluble at lower pH that
is at acidic conditions. This makes pH management important in controlling
movement of heavy metals (and potential ground water contamination) in soil. In
an acid soil, H+ and Al+ are dominant exchangeable cations. Al+ is soluble under
the acid conditions, and its reactivity with water hydrolysis produces H+. Calcium
(Ca+) and magnesium ion (Mg) are basic cations, as their amounts increase the
relative amount of acidic cations will decrease. Factors that affect soil pH include
parent materials (PM), vegetation and climate. Some rocks and sediments produce
soils that are more acidic than others. Quartz-rich sandstone is acidic whilst
limestone is alkaline. Vegetation e.g. conifers produce organic acid which can
contribute to lower soil pH values. In humid conditions, soil becomes more acidic
as a result of rainfall (runoff) which brings about ashing of cations and replaced
with hydrogen ion. Also, addition of fertilizer to replenish soil fertility also
produces some hydrogen ion (H+).
5 Cation Exchange Capacity
Soil is the store house of plant nutrients which exist in solution as positively
charged cations and negatively charged anions. Both the organic component have
a net negative charge, however, clay particles are known to have excess negative
charge at the edges and surfaces of their crystals. These charged sites attract
cations, which would otherwise be moving in solution and hold them to the
crystals surface that depends upon the cation and the type of clay involved. In soil,
the attracted nutrient cations are usually not permanently fixed to the particle, they
bind loosely to negatively charged site until they are absorbed by the plant roots or
exchanged for other nutrient cations in the soil solution. This replacement is called
cation adsorption or more commonly known as cation exchange. The ability of a
soil to hold cations in readily exchangeable positions is considered good for plant
nutrition. This ability is measured quantitatively centimoles of exchangeable
charge per kilogram of substrate (c mol kg-) and is called the cation exchange
capacity or cation adsorption capacity (CEC.)

Clay particles Ca2+ + 2H+ < – > Clay particles H+H+ +Ca2+
Clay particles soil solution) Clay particles

Some plants nutrients and metal exist as positively charged ions or cations in the
soil environment. Among the cations found in soils are hydrogen (H+), Aluminum
(Mg+) and Potassium (K+), Calcium (Ca++), Sodium (Na+) and Ammonium
(NH4+). Most heavy metals also exist as cations in the soil environment. Clay and
organic matter particles are predominantly negatively charged (anions) and have
ability to hold cations from being leached or washed away. The adsorbed cations
are in a rapid reversible process called cation exchange (CE). Cations leaving the
exchange sites enter the soil solution, where they can be taken up by plants, react
with other soil constituents, or be carried away with drainage water. The cation
exchange capacity or CEC of a soil is a measurement of the magnitude of the
negative charge per unit weight of soil, or the amount of cations a particular
sample of soil can hold in an exchangeable form. The greater the clay and organic
matter content, the greater the CEC. Though, different types of clay minerals and
organic matter can vary in CEC. During cation exchange, hydrogen ions are
released from the root hairs. These root hairs in turn exchange with nutrients
cations adsorbed on the surfaces of the clay particles forcing them into solution
where they can be assimilated by plants. The uptake of these nutrient cations
depends not only on the solubility of the nutrient cations and their being in an
exchangeable position but also on their being in close proximity of the root
surfaces. The process of diffusion can be achieved. The action site of the cation
exchange is the interface where soil colloid meets root surfaces in a bath of soil
solution.
The moment a plant rootlet comes in contact with a root surface holding adsorbed
cation, the root gives out hydrogen ions in exchange for these nutrient cations.
Some of the cations then migrate from the swarm of cations adsorbed unto the clay
surface and move from the root hairs. The places of these cations are then taken by
hydrogen ions released from the root hairs. The nutrient cations are then trans
located into the water transporting through xylem tissue of the plant to the stem
and leaves for plant nutrition hence, this is why the cation exchange capacity
quantifies the ability of a soil to provide nutrient reserve for plant uptake. CE is an
important mechanism in soils for retaining and supplying plant nutrients, and for
absorbing contaminants. CE plays an important role in waste water treatment in
soils. Indeed, adsorption of cations and their exchange is probably second only to
photosynthesis, as it is the primary mechanism in plant nutrition.
4. CONCLUSION
The chemical properties are of utmost importance to plant nutrition. The presence
of the various elements from the soil forming rocks combining to form many
inorganic substances which are essential to plant and animal lives cannot be over
emphasized. The different soil reactions that bring about the formation of the
nutrients are also very important. The cation exchange which brings about the
uptake of the various nutrients in solution and which is as important as
photosynthesis is of many advantages to the entire ecosystem. It provides a major
retention mechanism within the soil which prevents leaching of essential elements.
The process also acts as a buffer for soil ecosystem in cases of abrupt fluctuations
in soil salinity and pH. CE also improves the water holding capacity of the soil and
forms a biotic-mineral complex which is of utmost importance to the soil
ecosystem, as many microbes adsorbed on the soil particles at interface of cation
exchange, play vital roles in the decomposition of organic materials to simpler
compounds that can be utilized by the plants for food.