Weathering, Erosion and Soils

All of the changes occurring in rock material as the result of exposure to air and water. Weathering takes place
anywhere that water and/or air can penetrate. It produces altered material that is more stable at the Earth's
surface than the original parental material, and provides the material that becomes soil or sedimentary rock.
The driving forces for weathering are:

1. Solar energy - causes circulation of the atmosphere (weather) and determines climate and vegetation.
2. Earth's internal energy - forces within the Earth uplift deeply buried rock and expose it to weathering.

Two types of weathering are recognized:

A. Mechanical Weathering involves the physical disintegration of rock. The process produces smaller rock
particles that have the same composition as the parent material. Mechanical weathering may occur as a result
of:

 Frost Action/Frost Wedging - the 9% expansion of water during freezing in rock fractures breaks off
pieces of rock and produces talus slopes at bottom of cliffs. It is most effective where there is:

1. abundant water
2. many cracks and pore spaces in the rock
3. a climate with temperature fluctuations across the freezing point

 Exfoliation - removal of overlying rock which causes the underlying rock to expand and fracture due
to pressure release. Fractures (sheet joints) develop parallel to the rock surface and tend to peel off,
locally producing exfoliation domes.
 Thermal Expansion and Contraction - solids expand when heated and contract when cooled. Although
such expansion due to changes in temperature from day to night or from summer to winter may
contribute to rock disintegration, expeninents indicate it has only a minor effect.
 Abrasion - particles moved by water, ice, and air can be effective in wearing away rock.
 Salt Crystal Growth - similar to frost wedging, the force of growing salt crystals in fractures and pore
spaces can pry loose grains and expand openings. Such a process is important in arid and coastal areas.
 Action of Plants and Animals - roots of plants can widen cracks and burrowing animals can mix
soil/sediment particles and allow water to penetrate more quickly and deeply, speeding other
weathering processes.

B. Chemical Weathering involves the decomposition of rock, transforms the parent material chemically, and
releases mineral grains. Chemical weathering processes include:

 Solution - dissolving of minerals into solution. Most minerals have low solubility in pure water, but
rain contains carbonic acid, so that carbonate minerals dissolve readily in acidic solutions.
 Oxidation - atmospheric oxygen combines with metal ions to form oxides (or hydroxides). Oxidation
of pyrite, for example, produces sulfuric acid.
 Hydrolysis - reaction between a mineral and water can produce a new mineral or dissolved material.
Hydrolysis of feldspar, for example, produces clay.

What Factors Control the Rate of Chemical Weathering?

The rate of weathering is controlled by:

 Surface Area (Related to particle size) controls weathering because the smaller the particle size, the
larger the surface area exposed to weathering for a given volume of material. The presence of joints
therefore increases a rock's surface area. Spheroidal weathering, which produces rounded surfaces on
weathered rock, can be caused where:

1. Concentric shells of altered rock material (clay), produced by chemical weathering, are easily
removed.
2. Faster weathering of edges and corners of rock tends to produce rounded surfaces, where a
 sphere has the least volume to surface area ratio of any geometric form.
 Climate controls weathering in that rocks experience the most thorough and rapid chemical weathering
in warm, humid climates. Weathering rates are lowest in desert and cold climates.
 Parent Material (mineral composition of rock) controls weathering processes because minerals that
fonn at high temperature and high pressure are less stable at the Earth's surface than low temperature,
low pressure minerals. Bowen's Reaction Series can be used in reverse to predict the ease of chemical
weathering of common igneous minerals.
 Presence of Plants and Animals influence weathering as chemical and physical weathering rates are
increased by the action of plants and animals.
 Topography affects weathering as irregular, steep topography exposes more rock to weathering than
horizontal surfaces.

What is Soil?
Soil, a non-renewable resource, is the final product of weathering, and is defined as that portion of the regolith
(unconsolldated rock and mineral fragments covering the land surface) which is capable of supporting plant
life. Regolith can be generally grouped as either residual (soils formed on bedrock) or transported (soil formed
on material that has been moved to its current location).

What is a Soil Profile?

Soil consists of a series of horizontal layers called horizons. A soil with well-developed horizons is called
mature, whereas a soil with poorly developed horizons is called immature. Soil horizons from top to bottom
are as follows:

1. O Horizon — This organic zone, that contains humus (produced by bacterial decay of organic matter)
is typicallv only a few cm thick.
2. A Horizon — This horizon is a zone of leaching (topsoil), where soluble material is leached out by
rainwater. The zone has higher organic content and biological activity than lower horizons.
3. B Horizon — This horizon represents a zone of accumulation (subsoil) where some material from the
A horizon is deposited as clay and iron oxides. It contains the fragipan (a dense layer) which is called
claypan when clay-rich or hardpan when cemented. Common hardpan cements are caliche (calcium
carbonate) or iron oxides.
4. C Horizon — This horizon consists of partially decomposed bedrock, and can not support plant life.

What Factors Control Soil Formation?

The factors controlling soil formation are similar to those controlling the rate of chemical weathering:

1. Climate is most important factor influencing soil type and depth.

2. Parent material exerts some control on soil type and depth, particularly for immature soils. The original
rock particles control the fertility of the soil by providing the inorganic nutrients.
3. Organisms contribute to soil formation and fertility.
4. Relief and Slope (Topography) Elevation affects climate and slope affects soil formation and erosion.
5. Time affects soil maturity in that soil develops faster on unconsolidated material than on bedrock.

How are Soils Classified?

Modern soil classifications are very complex. An older soil classification is easier to understand because it is
based on climate:

1. Pedalfer (Pedon is Greek for soil, Al = aluminum, Fe = iron) forms in humid temperate climates. The
A horizon is generally dark due to organic matter, but most soluble materials are leached, so that clays
and iron oxides are concentrated in the B horizon.
2. Pedocal (Cal = calcium) forms in arid and semi-arid climates, where calcium salts (caliche) accumulate
in a layer. The A horizon is lighter in color due to lower organic content and is less leached of soluble
materials. Alkaline soils can form in deserts where sodium salts are deposited in the A horizon.
3. Laterite forms in tropical rain forests, where extreme leaching removes everything but clays and iron
oxides. These soils are not fertile, despite lush vegetation. They are mined for bauxite (aluminum ore)
 and iron (oxides) in some places.

What causes Soil Degradation?

Soil degradation can be caused by any decrease in soil fertility, including erosion, chemical deterioration, and
physical deterioration:

 Erosion involves the movement (transportation) of weathered materials to a place of deposition. About
25% of U.S. cropland is eroding faster than it is being replaced by soil-forming processes. Improved
farming practices have significantly reduced erosion rates. Agents of erosion include gravity, water,
ice, and wind. Water erosion, for example, involves:

1. sheet erosion where erosion is fairly evenly distributed over the surface and removes thin layers
of soil.
2. rill erosion where erosion occurs in channels scoured by running water, producing rills
(shallow channels) and gullies (>30 cm).

The rate of erosion can be estimated by the amount of sediment (particles and dissolved material)
carried by streams in an area. Rates vary widely depending upon cllmate, topography, rock type, and
human influences (agriculture). Differences in erosion rate are usually caused by compositional or
grain-size differences, but can also be caused by the presence/absence of fractures/joints or by
differences in sunlight intensity. Differential erosion occurs where different portions of a rock body
erode at different rates, and typically produces unusual surfaces, shapes, and formations.
 

 Chemical deterioration of soils can be caused by several factors, that include loss of soil nutrients,
pollution, or salinization. Loss of Soil Nutrients can be caused by:

1. overuse of soil
2. clearing land of natural vegetation
3. insufficient use of fertilizer

Pollution can be caused by improper disposal of waste and overuse of pesticides and herbicides.
Salinization involves the concentration of soluble salts in topsoil due to extensive irrigation in a semi-
arid climate.
 

 Physical deterioration can be caused by compaction, where heavy machinery and animals compact soil
particles and reduce infiltration, or by exposure to air and sunlight, which can bake clay-rich soil into a
brick-like consistency (laterites). These processes make it impossible to plow soil or for seeds to take
root.

How is Weathering Related to Mineral Resources?

Ore deposits can be produced or concentrated by weathering processes:

1. Residual Deposits can develop where soluble substances are removed, leaving behind more valuable
mineral resources by residual concentration.
2. Enrichment of low-grade deposits can occur where rock containing sulfide minerals in low
concentrations is leached of metals by weathering solutions, leaving a gossan (hydrated ion ores
formed by leaching of pyrite and other sulfides). Downward infiltration of acid, metal-rich solutions
can cause deposition of oxidized ores above the water table and small zones of sulfide (supergene)
enrichment below the water table.
Weathering
Weathering is the chemical and physical processes that change the characteristics of rocks on the Earth’s
surface. It is also known as the preparation for erosion. In order for weathering to occur, the environment of a
rock sample must change and the rock needs to be exposed to some form of water and the air. Human processes
such as pollution, which can be a large factor in acid rain, along with the acts of other living organisms, can
cause chemical weathering to occur at faster rates. 

Weathering Process
The weathering process occurs when rocks are exposed to the hydrosphere (water) and atmosphere (air). These
weathering agents can change the physical and chemical characteristics of rocks. As rocks are broken down
(weathered) they can be classified as different types of sediments, which are: boulders, cobbles, pebbles, sand,
silt, clay, and colloids. The chart below from page 6 of the Earth Science Reference Tables explains the sizes of
each of these sediments.

Physical Weathering
Physical weathering occurs when rocks are broken in to smaller pieces without changing the chemical
composition of the rock. Think of a physical change (e.g., ripping a piece of paper) where the sample will
change in size but all its other characteristics will remain the same. There are a few types of physical weathering
such as:

Frost action/ice wedging is the breakup of rock caused by the freezing and thawing (contracting and
expansion) of water. Water can seep into the cracks of a rock and as the climate cools the water freezes and
expands breaking the rock apart. A very similar process occurs on roads, which causes potholes.

Abrasion is the physical wearing down of rocks as they rub or bounce against each other. This process is most
common in windy areas, under glaciers, or in stream channels.

Exfoliation is the peeling away of large sheets of loosened materials at the surface of a rock. Common in shale,
slate, and mica.

Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering occurs when a rock is broken down by chemical action resulting in a change in the
composition of a rock. Such as the change a piece of paper would go through after being burned. The main
agents of chemical weathering are oxygen, rainwater, carbon dioxide, and acids produced by decaying plants
and animals that leads to the formation of soil. There are a few types of chemical weathering such as:

Oxidation occurs when oxygen interacts chemically with minerals. For example, when a nail rusts oxygen
combines with the iron in the nail to form iron oxide.

Hydration occurs when water interacts chemically with minerals. For example, when hornblende and feldspar
unite with water they eventually form into clay.

Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide interacts chemically with minerals. When carbon dioxide is dissolved
in water, it forms weak carbonic acid. Carbonic acid when it comes in contact with the surface of the earth
dissolves large masses of limestone, creating caves and caverns. Other common terms associated with
carbonation are sink holes, karst topography, stalactites and stalagmites.

Weathering rates overall depend on 3 different factors:

 Particle size/surface area exposed to the surface

 Mineral composition
 Climate

Soil Formation
One of the major products of weathering is soil. Soil is a combination of particles of rocks, minerals, and
organic matter produced through weathering processes. Soil contains the necessary nutrients to support various
forms of plant and animal life.
As a result of the weathering processes and biologic activity, soil horizons (layers) form. Soil horizons vary in
depth depending on an areas climate and weathering rates.

The below diagram is a mature soil profile common to New York State:

A soil profile refers to the layers of soil; horizon O, A, B, and C, and D. Horizon O refers to the organic
material on the upper most part of the profile (this layer is usually very thin). Horizon A refers to the upper
layer of soil, right below the O layer. It is commonly known as topsoil. In the woods or other areas that have
not been plowed or tilled, this layer would probably include organic material (humus), such as fallen leaves,
twigs, decaying plant and animal remains. The material helps prevent erosion, holds moisture, and decays to
form a very rich soil known as humus. Horizon A provides plants with nutrients they need for a great life.

The layer below horizon A is horizon B known as the subsoil. Organic material from layer A is not present in
horizon B and therefore there is much less humus. Horizon B usually will contain a fair amount of clay and iron
oxides, but also may contain some elements from horizon A because of the process of leaching. Leaching
resembles what happens in a coffee pot as the water drips through the coffee grounds. Leaching may also bring
some minerals from horizon B down to horizon C.

If horizon B is below horizon A, then horizon C must be below horizon B. Horizon C consists mostly of
weatherized big rocks known as Parent material (the rock that he soil formed from).

Horizon D, which is not shown in this illustration, usually contains solid bedrock.

Erosion
Once a rock material has been weathered, it is ready to be transported, or eroded. Erosion refers to the
transportation of rock, soil, and mineral particles from one location to another. Erosion is different from
weathering since erosion has the moving element. The main driving force behind all agents of erosion is
gravity. Without gravity the other major natural agents of erosion such as: wind, running water, glaciers,
waves, and rain would not occur.

Erosion occurs in many ways as stated above. It usually takes many years for erosion to be noticed, such is the
case with the Grand Canyon. But it is common to see erosion take place in a quick fashion. An example would
be the recent erosion along the California coastline. May homes and a great deal of land has eroded into the
Pacific due to intense wave action and weak soil/bedrock compositions. However, California will not just fall
into the ocean because of erosion. The amount of land being lost is very small compared to the total land mass.

Factors Affecting Transportation of Sediments

Running water is the primary agent of erosion on Earth. Most running water is found in streams and rivers.
There are many factors that affect the movement of sediments in a stream.

Gradient (slope), discharge, and channel shape influence a stream’s velocity and the erosion and deposition of
sediments. Sediments carried by a stream are almost always rounded due to the grinding action of the water on
the rocks, a process called abrasion. Streams are usually formed in V-shaped valleys; and deltas, flood plains,
and meanders are results of what a stream can form. The watershed of a stream is the area drained by a stream
and its tributaries (smaller feeder streams).

The average velocity (speed) of a stream depends on its slope and discharge, which in turn can explain the
carrying power of a stream. As the velocity of the stream water increases, the size of the particles carried in the
stream also increases, a direct relationship.

Streams carry materials in 4 distinct ways:

Floatation, solution (dissolved particles), suspension (within the water profile), and bed load (bouncing and
dragging along the stream bed. See the graph below from page 6 of  the Earth Science Reference Tables to
explain particle size to stream speed.
Meanders are another very important part of stream erosion. In a meandering stream velocity is lowest (High
Potential Energy) along the inner banks because it is there that water encounters the most friction, and
therefore the flow is reduced. Along a straight channel segment, water moves the fastest in mid-channel, near
the surface. But as water moves around a bend, the zone of high velocity (High Kinetic Energy) swings to the
outside of the channel. As water rushes past the outer part of the bend, sediment is continuously eroded from the
riverbank and is swept downstream. With the slower flow concentrated around the inner side of each bend,
coarse sediment accumulates. Thus, a meandering pattern is created along the course of the river, with shallow
water and on the inside bends and steep banks on the outside.

Since the material lining the banks does not remain uniform the entire length of a river system, another
landform -- an oxbow lake -- can develop. If river water runs into resistant sediments, the movement of the
meander can slow downstream. As other meanders continue to migrate through softer sediments upstream, they
eventually intersect the slower-moving meander and cut off the channel between the two, forming an
independent loop that will become a lake (see below).

Adapted from original illustration by Steven Fick, Canadian Geographic, July/Aug '93

Valleys Eroded by Streams and Glaciers

Valleys that have been eroded by streams are v-shaped, while valleys that have been eroded by glaciers are u-
shaped.

Effect of Humans on Erosion

Humans add greatly to the natural processes of land erosion through activities, such as highway and
construction, destruction of forests (clear-cutting), set forest fires, poor landfill projects, etc… Today, human
activities contribute more than ever to the erosion on the Earth’s surface.
Deposition
Deposition is the final step in the erosional-depositional system. Rock particles that are picked up and
transported by one of the eroding agents will ultimately be deposited somewhere else, and agents of erosion
become agents of deposition. Final deposition of particles (sediments) usually occurs at the mouth of a stream.
This is due to the faster flowing stream emptying into a slower larger body of water. When deposition occurs at
the mouth of a stream or river a process called horizontal sorting takes place. The sediments that were once
carried down the stream are arranged from largest to smallest.

Factors Affecting Deposition

The major factors that affect the rate of deposition are particle size, shape, density, and the velocity of the
transporting stream.

Size: The smaller particles settle more slowly than the larger particles, due to the pull of gravity. The smaller
particles tend to stay in suspension for longer periods of time. This form of deposition is called graded bedding
or vertical sorting. The diagram below shows graded bedding.

Shape: A round sediment compared to a flat (skipping stone) sediment of equal size will settle faster in a body
of water. This is due to the resistance the flat particle will undergo as it settles through the water. The round
particle will meet little resistance and settle at a must faster rate. The graphic below shows the relationship.
Density: The density of particles also influences the rates at which sediments settle out of running water and
wind. If particles are the same size but have different densities the higher density particle will settle faster.

Velocity: The velocity of the transporting stream determines when sediments will be deposited. If the stream
slows down during a drought period the carrying power will decrease and the particle sizes carried and
deposited will also decrease. If a stream is flowing faster due to flood conditions then the carrying power of the
stream will increase and the sizes of particles deposited will increase as well.

Glacial Deposition
Glacial ice deposits are very different from stream (water) deposits. Glacial deposits of gravel, boulders, and
sand are unsorted with no layer as in graded bedding. Till which is the accumulation of sediments carried by a
glacier is very sharp like broken glass. Again this is very different from stream sediments which are usually
round and smooth due to abrasion.

The diagram below shows the unsorted nature of glacial deposits:

Landforms

Landscape Characteristics
Earth’s landscapes are the results of the interaction of crustal materials, forces, climate, human activities, and
time.

Landscape Regions
Landscape regions can usually be identified by the elevation of the region. Mountains, plateaus, and plains
identify landscape regions. Mountains have high elevation and deformed rock structures due to the great forces
that occur when mountains are forming. Plateaus have medium to high elevation. Plains are low in elevation
and usually have horizontal rock layers. The boundaries between these 3 distinct areas are generally well
defined. Landscape regions tend to be separated by mountains, large bodies of water, and other natural
boundaries. The image below is from page 2 of the Earth Science Reference Tables and explains where the
three different landscape regions can be found in New York State.

Landscape Formation
The two major forces that oppose each other in the formation of landscapes are the forces of uplifting and
erosion, also referred to as constructive and deconstructive forces. The uplifting process is constructive and
includes natural occurrences such as: folding and faulting, earthquakes, volcanoes. This leads to erosion, which
is part of the forces of deconstruction.

Climate also plays a large role in the formation of landscapes. Depending on location areas that are dry (arid)
have very little vegetation present with large canyons. An area that is humid will get moderate to high amounts
of precipitation. This leads to large amounts of vegetation and well-defined soil profiles. Humid areas are also
known for their rounded hills.

Bedrock effects how the landscape looks according to its resistance to weathering and erosion. Stream drainage
patterns are influenced by the rock beneath them. There are 4 main types of stream drainage patterns. They are
known as DART: Dendritic, Annular, Radial, and Trellis:

 Dendritic - treelike, flat relatively uniform materials.

 Annular – eroded hill areas. Looks like a "dart board".
 Radial – central point drainage. Ex. Mtn. or volcano. Pattern extends outward down the steep landscape
from the highest point.
 Trellis - abrupt bends in stream (90o), pattern locally influenced by faults, joints, folds.

Glaciers are made up of fallen snow that, over many years, compresses into large, thickened ice masses.
Glaciers form when snow remains in one location long enough to transform into ice. What makes glaciers
unique is their ability to move. Due to sheer mass, glaciers flow like very slow rivers. Some glaciers are as
small as football fields (Valley or Alpine), while others grow to be over a hundred kilometers long (Ice sheet).

Since the mid-nineteenth century, scientists and naturalists have closely studied
glaciers. In this photograph from 1894, two men approach a yawning crevasse.
For safety, they use rope harnesses, attaching themselves to more stable ground
further away from the crevasse. Even today, people doing fieldwork on glaciers
take these precautions. (H.F. Reid Collection at the World Data Center for
Glaciology, Boulder)
Presently, glaciers occupy about 10 percent of the world's total land area, with most located in polar regions like
Antarctica and Greenland. Glaciers can be thought as remnants from the last Ice Age, when ice covered nearly
32 percent of the land, and 30 percent of the oceans. An Ice Age occurs when cool temperatures endure for
extended periods of time, allowing polar ice to advance into lower latitudes. For example, during the last Ice
Age which ended about 11,000 year ago, giant glacial ice sheets extended from the poles to cover most of
Canada, all of New England, much of the upper Midwest, large areas of Alaska, most of Greenland, Iceland,
much of Great Britain and Ireland, and the northwestern part of the former Soviet Union.

Within the past 750,000 years, scientists know that there have been eight Ice Age cycles, separated by warmer
periods called interglacial periods. Currently, the Earth is nearing the end of an interglacial, meaning that
another Ice Age is due in a few thousand years. This is part of the normal climate variation cycle. Greenhouse
warming may delay the onset of another glacial era, but scientists still have many questions to answer about
climate change. Although glaciers change very slowly over long periods, they may provide important global
climate change signals. (Referenced from: http://nsidc.org/glaciers)

Glacial deposition has literally carved out landscape regions around the world and in New York State. As
glaciers move over the land they act as a "bulldozer" changing the view of the landscape. As glaciers pass over
the land they leave distinct features that are very common to New York State. Since New York State was once
cover by ice miles thick it is very easy to find the features in the image below somewhere near your school.