Earth Science

SOIL AND MAN 3. Topography - or the shape of the land, plays a

big role in soil formation. Steep slopes make
Vermicomposting soil thinner because erosion happens faster.
The enhancement of organics in soil is one The direction the slope faces (slope aspect)
component of soil conservation. Soil affects how warm and wet it gets. This makes
conservation could be done through different soils in different places.
vermicomposting, a process that uses
earthworms such as African night crawlers 4. Biological factors - Living things, like plants,
(Eudrilus eugeniae) to turn organic wastes into animals, tiny creatures, and people, affect how
very high-quality composts which can then be soil forms. They dig, mix, and change it. People
mixed with soil to enrich its organic content. can help or harm the soil when they farm or
build in cities.
The Components of Soil
-Soil is made of Geosphere , atmosphere, 5. Time - Making soil takes a really long time,
hydrosphere, and biosphere. It is generally like hundreds to thousands of years. In mild
composed of 45% mineral (gravel, sand, silt, and places, it takes 200 to 400 years to make just 1
clay) 25% air, 25% water, and 5% organic matter cm of soil. It's quicker in warm, tropical areas
roots, (humus and dead and decaying and much slower in dry and cold ones.
organisms).
-Soil forms when rock weathers. Weathering, or Soil profile
the breakdown of rocks, may result from a ➢Soil formation happens slowly, and it creates
physical or chemical change. Soil formation different layers called soil horizons, each with
may be a slow or a rapid process, depending on its unique traits.
the factors at play. ➢Scientists have a system to categorize soils, which
helps them study and use them better. At the highest
There are five factors that affect soil formation: level, there are 12 types, known as soil orders
Composition of the Parent Material
Climate 1.Gelisols - Frozen soils found in the coldest
Topography regions on Earth
Biological factors 2.Histosols - high organic content and wet
Time. 3. Spondosols - sandy and acidic soils found in
moist climate that often support dense forest
1. The parent material - is crucial in making soil 4.Andisol - composed of volcanic ash
because it decides what kind of soil will be 5. Oxisols - very weathered and common in
created and how other factors will affect it. tropical climates
Some soils form right where the rocks break 6. Vertisols - claylike soils that shrink and swell
down, and these are called residual soils. But 7.Aridisols - very dry soils in arid regions
usually, soil gets moved from one place to 8.Ultisols - weathered soil
another by things like water, wind, and ice. 9.Mollisols - deep and fertile soil
10. Alfisols - moderately weathered productive
2. Climate - Temperature, rainfall, and moisture soils found in temperate and humid regions
affects the pattern and intensity of soil-forming 11. Inceptisols - slightly developed, young soil
processes such as weathering, leaching, found on steep slopes and mountain
transportation, and distribution. Climate also 12. Entisols - newly-formed soils found in
affects the type of organisms, biological activity, steep rocky lands
and rates of chemical reactions. Thus, soil types
vary depending on climate. Soil and soil Quality
Soil is not dirt-it is a resource. It is a main erosion is a natural process but is often made
component of land resources, agriculture, and much worse by poor management practices.
ecological sustainability. It also provides food 2. Soil compaction reduces the amount of air,
and a foundation for shelter. Soil is important in water, and space available to roots and soil
sustaining man's existence and provides organisms. An example of compaction is
humans with the following services: caused by repeated traffic or traveling on wet
1. Arable land for agriculture - arable lands are soil.
plowable lands which could be used to grow 3. Desertification is when land becomes so
crops. An important component of arable lands damaged that it can't go back to its original
is soil that can sustain plant and animal life. state. It happens due to human actions and
2. Regulating water and filtering potential overuse, leading to droughts and dry conditions.
pollutants - In the water cycle, soil plays an This is a big problem for soils worldwide and
important part in absorbing water and storing it impacts a significant part of the global
as groundwater, Water and dissolved solutes population and land, about one-sixth and a
also flew over the land or into and through the quarter respectively.
soil. 4. Intensive Farming. Since the 1960s, farming
3. Nutrient cycling - Soil is like a recycling has become more intense to feed more people.
center for important nutrients like carbon, But it has problems like using heavy machines,
nitrogen, and phosphorus. These nutrients are cutting down forests, and damaging the land.
stored, changed, and reused in the soil. For This hurts the soil, making it lose quality and
example, nitrogen from the air needs bacteria to harming the creatures that keep soil healthy.
convert it into a form that plants can use, and 5. Urbanization, the growth of cities and a rising
this happens in the soil. Soil plays a key role in population has led to land being turned into
these nutrient processes. urban areas filled with concrete buildings, roads,
4. Foundation and support - Soil structure and pavement. This is a problem for soil
provides a base for plant roots. Soils along the because once it's covered in concrete, it's tough
bedrock also provide foundation support for to undo. This stops the soil from doing its job,
human shelter and structures such as houses like cycling nutrients and supporting the
and roads. environment.
5. Mineral deposits - Some soils, known as
laterites, are rich in minerals like iron, nickel, and 5 Practical Ways to Conserve Soil
aluminum. They form in hot and wet tropical 1. Plant trees and ground cover. They protect
regions through long-term chemical changes in against erosion by wind and soften the impact
the rocks beneath them. These soils often have of rain. Roots also stabilize and enrich the soil.
a reddish color due to their high iron content. 2. Use "no-dig" gardening. Digging can harm
They can be mined for these valuable minerals. soil structure, making it prone to erosion by
wind and water.
How Human Activities Degrade Soil Qualities 3. Don't compact soil. Avoid walking on wet soil.
➢Soil is a crucial yet finite resource that can't be Make designated paths in gardens and natural
quickly replaced. It's often underappreciated. areas.
Our growing population is pressuring soil 4. Hiking tip: Don't take shortcuts that harm
through intensive farming, urbanization, and plants and cause erosion.
more. 5. Manage rainwater runoff. Create channels
➢The Food and Agriculture Organization of the and drains to stop soil erosion.
United Nations (UN FAO) defines soil degradation
as when soil health declines, reducing its ability to Conservation Of Soil Resources
provide what the ecosystem needs. Degraded soil
can't properly support its environment. We can reduce the impact of human activities
1. Soil erosion refers to absolute soil losses in on soil by practicing sustainable soil
terms of topsoil and nutrients. It is indeed the management. This means adding more organic
most visible effect of soil degradation. Soil matter, keeping the soil covered with plants, not
tilling too much, using nutrients carefully, using - evaporation of water from the leaves and
crop rotations, preventing erosion, and avoiding stems of plants.
soil compaction. CONDENSATION
- the change from vapor into liquid.
1.Boost soil health by adding more organic PRECIPITATION
matter, which enhances structure and helps with - water droplets or ice crystals in the clouds
water and nutrient retention. become large and heavy.
2.Protect soil by keeping it covered with plants, SUBLIMATION
creating homes for soil organisms, and - a process where ice directly transforms water
improving water access. This can be done by to water vapor.
leaving crop leftovers or planting cover crops. INFILTRATION
3. Minimize excessive tillage to keep soil - rain that falls into the land surface penetrates
structure intact and prevent erosion. the soil.
4. Efficiently manage pests and nutrients by HYDROGEOLOGY
regularly checking soil conditions and pests, and - study of the distribution, availability and the
using chemicals only when needed, in the right flow of groundwater
amounts, and at the right time.
5.Improve soil by rotating crops over time, EARTH’S WATER
which allows the soil to recover and diversifies
plant and organism life. EARTH’S WATER BUDGET
6. Prevent erosion by covering and vegetating - Total amount of water in the planet that
the ground and managing excess water. To stop generally remains constant through time.
soil compaction, limit human activity to
designated areas and paths. THE UNITED NATIONS WATER DEVELOPMENT
characterized the amount of water in different
WATER RESOURCES reservoir’s
Hydrosphere
-part of Earth’s subsystem containing the ocean, 97.5% ocean (largest reservoir)
lakes, streams, underground water, snow and 2.5% freshwater
ice. 68.7% glaciers
-makes up about 71% of Earth’s surface 30.1% ground water
0.8% permafrost
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
•Earth is the only planet where water in its liquid RESIDENCE TIME
exists. In the form of ice and vapor. - Average length of time spent by water
•Water cycle molecules in a reservoir.
•Movements of water around Earth's surface
and its subsystems. SALTWATER RESERVOIR

TYPES OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLES SALINITY

1.Evaporation - saltiness if salt water
2.Transpiration
3.Condensation 3 MAJOR ZONE IN THE OCEAN
4.Precipitation
1. surface layer
EVAPORATION 2. thermocline
- A process in which liquid water changes into 3. deep zone
vapor.
- occurs in the ocean, surface water bodies and SURFACE LAYER
soil. - Consists of relatively warm, low density water.
TRANSPIRATION THERMOCLINE
- temperature of water decreases rapidly •LAKES
DEEP ZONE - large inland bodies of fresh or saline water.
- Temperature is uniformly low •PONDS
GLACIERS AND ICE SHEETS - small shallow lakes.
GLACIER •DAMS
- permanent body of ice, which consists largely - barriers
of recrystallized snow.
ICE SHEET GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES FROM NATURAL
- mass of glacial land ice LAKES
PERMAFROST - water will accumulate behind the barrier and
- soil, rock, or sediments are frozen for more will form a lake
than 2 consecutive years. - provides freshwater for irrigation, industrial,
municipal, residential and recreational purposes.

WETLANDS
SURFACE WATER RESERVOIRS - land areas where water covers the surface for
significant periods.
SURFACE WATER - biologically diverse environment filled with
- includes the stream, lakes and wetlands. species that rely on both land and water for
Where water from rainfall, melting snow, and ice survival.
and groundwater flaws
TYPES OF WETLANDS
TYPES OF RESOURCES 1. MARSH- shallow wetland
1. irrigation 4. fishing 2. SWAMP- wetland with lush trees
2. recreation 5. drinking 3. ESTUARY- partly enclosed coastal waters.
3. transport 6. hydropower
FLOODS
•STREAM - natural event wherein an area that is usually
- moving body of surface water. dry is submerged under water.

FLUVIAL/RIVERINE FLOOD
•CHANNELS - when a stream discharge is greater than the
- passageway where particles and dissolved capacity of the channel.
substances are transported.
•RIVER TYPES OF FLOODS
-stream with a considerable volume and a well 1. FLASH FLOODS- high velocity of torrent of
defined channel. water.
•TRIBUTARIES 2. COASTAL FLOODING- low-lying areas along a
- smaller stream. flood.
•DRAINAGE BASIN OR WATERSHED 3. PLUVIAL- heavy rainfall creates a flood.
- land area in which the water flows into a
particular stream. GROUND WATER
•DRAINAGE DIVIDE - fresh water found in the rock and soil layers
- line that separates individual drainage basins. beneath the surface
•INTERFLUVE - largest reservoir of liquid freshwater on Earth.
- elongated land form separating individual AQUIFERS
streams. - water bearing rock layers.
•OVERLAND FLOW POROSITY
- water moves downhill - total amount of empty pore spaces in the rock.
•STREAM FLOW PERMEABILITY
- water enters the channel.
- ability of the rock or sediments to allow water - water flows underground and contributes to
to pass through. the groundwater.
GROUNDWATER PROFILE
- when a well is excavated in the ground, the first GAINING OR EFFLUENT STREAM
layer encountered is the moist layer on the - streams that are fed by underground water.
surface.
ZONE OF AERATION WATER AS A RESOURCE
- spaces between the particles are filled mainly Most of the early human civilization developed
with air. along the world’s greatest river’s- the Tigris and
ZONE OF SATURATION Euphrates of Mesopotamia, the Nile River, and
- layer beneath the zone of aeration. the Yellow river of the Huang-He civilization.
WATER TABLE Their vast floodplains supported agriculture and
- boundary between the zone of aeration and the large channels allowed commerce to flourish.
zone of saturation. Today, billions of people are still dependent on
CAPILLARY FRINGE water channels for food, water, transportation,
- directly above the water table recreation, and religious activities.
TOPOGRAPHY
- shape of the water table. ACTIVITIES AFFECTING THE QUALITY OF
WET SEASON WATER
- The water table is found at shallow depths. Throughout the world, there is an increasing
DRY SEASON pressure on Earth’s water resources, mainly
- migrates deeper below the ground. because of human activities that sped up and
caused climate change and variations in natural
AQUIFERS, ARTESIAN WELLS AND SPRINGS conditions. the human activities affecting water
UNCONFINED AQUIFER resources include the following:
- groundwater is free to rise to its natural level.
1. Population growth, particularly in water-short
regions.
CONFINED AQUIFER 2. Movements of large numbers of people from
- water is trapped and held down by pressure the countryside to towns and cities.
between impermeable rocks called aquiclude. 3. demands for greater food security and higher
ARTESIAN WELL living standards.
- water could rise on this well without pumping if 4. increased competition between different
the well is located at an elevation uses of water resources.
RECHARGE ZONE 5. pollution from factories, cities, and
- land area where water enters the ground and farmlands.
replenish the groundwater
DISCHARGE ZONE •The degradation of ecosystems occurs due to
- groundwater flows out of the aquifer and onto changes in landscapes that lead to too much
land surface or even in a submarine soil and sediments delivered to streams in a
environment. process of sedimentation.

SPRING •Mining in certain metals have also caused

- ground water emerges to the ground surface. surface water to become acidic, producing a
discharge called acid mine drainage.
GROUNDWATER-STREAM RELATIONSHIP
- interaction between groundwater flow and •Improper waste disposal also contributes to
streamflow. the degradation of streams and lakes in urban
areas.
LOSING OR INFLUENT STREAM
•The consequence of excessive groundwater
withdrawal includes spring yields, diminished
river flow, poorer water quality, damage to
natural habitat and the gradual sinking of land
known as subsidence.

WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND

CONVERSION
involves planning, developing, distributing, and
managing the optimum use of water resources

Examples:
1. RAINWATER HARVESTING
- for direct consumption and for replenishment
of groundwater
2. Diversion of surface water into basins in
recharge zones to increase infiltration, reduce
evaporation, and improve water quality.
3. building of dams and reservoirs to provide
additional storage.

•(current technological advances make the

wastewater reusable after extensive treatment
to remove biodegradable materials, nutrients,
and pathogens)
•In the middle east, countries in coastal areas
practice desalination
•DESALINATION- reduction of mineral content
by taking salt out of seawater and brackish
water to produce freshwater.