1

TRIANGULATION AND
TRILATERATION
1.1 GENERAL
The horizontal positions of points is a network developed to provide accurate control for topographic mapping,
charting lakes, rivers and ocean coast lines, and for the surveys required for the design and construction of
public and private works of large extent. The horizontal positions of the points can be obtained in a number of
different ways in addition to traversing. These methods are triangulation, trilateration, intersection, resection,
and satellite positioning.
The method of surveying called triangulation is based on the trigonometric proposition that if one side
and two angles of a triangle are known, the remaining sides can be computed. Furthermore, if the direction of
one side is known, the directions of the remaining sides D
can be determined. A triangulation system consists of F E
a series of joined or overlapping triangles in which an
occasional side is measured and remaining sides are
calculated from angles measured at the vertices of the
triangles. The vertices of the triangles are known as
triangulation stations. The side of the triangle whose
length is predetermined, is called the base line. The
lines of triangulation system form a network that ties C
A B
together all the triangulation stations (Fig. 1.1). Triangulation
Base line station
Fig. 1.1 Triangulation network
A trilateration system also consists of a series of joined or overlapping triangles. However, for trilateration
the lengths of all the sides of the triangle are measured and few directions or angles are measured to establish
azimuth. Trilateration has become feasible with the development of electronic distance measuring (EDM)
equipment which has made possible the measurement of all lengths with high order of accuracy under almost
all field conditions.
A combined triangulation and trilateration system consists of a network of triangles in which all the
angles and all the lengths are measured. Such a combined system represents the strongest network for
creating horizontal control.
Since a triangulation or trilateration system covers very large area, the curvature of the earth has to be
taken into account. These surveys are, therefore, invariably geodetic. Triangulation surveys were first carried
out by Snell, a Dutchman, in 1615.
Field procedures for the establishment of trilateration station are similar to the procedures used for
triangulation, and therefore, henceforth in this chapter the term triangulation will only be used.
2 Higher Surveying

1.2 PRINCIPLE OF TRIANGULATION

Fig. 1.2 shows two interconnected triangles ABC and BCD. All the angles in both the triangles and the length
L of the side AB, have been measured.
B D
Also the azimuth θ of AB has been measured at the
triangulation station A, whose coordinates (XA, YA), are known. N 6

4
The objective is to determine the coordinates of the 2
triangulation stations B, C, and D by the method of
triangulation. Let us first calculate the lengths of all the lines.
L
By sine rule in ∆ABC , we have 5
1

3
AB BC CA
= =
sin 3 sin 1 sin 2 A C
We have AB = L = lAB Fig. 1.2 Principle of triangulation
L sin 1
or BC = = l BC
sin 3
L sin 2
and CA = = lCA
sin 3
Now the side BC being known in ∆BCD , by sine rule, we have
BC CD BD
= =
sin 6 sin 4 sin 5
L sin 1
We have BC = = l BC
sin 3
 L sin 1  sin 4
or CD =   = lCD
 sin 3  sin 6
 L sin 1  sin 5
and BC =   = l BD
 sin 3  sin 6
Let us now calculate the azimuths of all the lines.
Azimuth of AB = θ = θ AB
Azimuth of AC = θ + ∠1 = θ AC
Azimuth of BC = θ + 180° − ∠2 = θ BC
Azimuth of BD = θ + 180° − (∠2 + ∠4) = θ BD
Azimuth of CD = θ − ∠2 + ∠5 = θ CD
From the known lengths of the sides and the azimuths, the consecutive coordinates can be computed as
below.
Latitude of AB = l AB cos θ AB = L AB
Departure of AB = l AB sin θ AB = D AB
Latitude of AC = l AC cos θ AC = L AC
Departure of AC = l AC sin θ AC = D AC
Latitude of BD = l BD cos θ BD = LBD
Departure of BD = l BD sin θ BD = LBD
 Triangulation and Trilateration 3

Latitude of CD = lCD cos θCD = LCD

Departure of CD = lCD sin θCD = DCD
The desired coordinates of the triangulation stations B, C, and D are as follows :
X-coordinate of B, XB = X A + D AB
Y-coordinate of B, YB = YB + L AB
X-coordinate of C, XC = X A + D AC
Y-coordinate of C, YC = Y A + L AC
X-coordinate of D, XD = X B + DBD
Y-coordinate of D, YD = YB + LBD
It would be found that the length of side can be computed more than once following different routes,
and therefore, to achieve a better accuracy, the mean of the computed lengths of a side is to be considered.

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF TRIANGULATION SURVEYS

The main objective of triangulation or trilateration surveys is to provide a number of stations whose relative
and absolute positions, horizontal as well as vertical, are accurately established. More detailed location or
engineering survey are then carried out from these stations.
The triangulation surveys are carried out
(i) to establish accurate control for plane and geodetic surveys of large areas, by terrestrial methods,
(ii) to establish accurate control for photogrammetric surveys of large areas,
(iii) to assist in the determination of the size and shape of the earth by making observations for
latitude, longitude and gravity, and
(iv) to determine accurate locations of points in engineering works such as :
(a) Fixing centre line and abutments of long bridges over large rivers.
(b) Fixing centre line, terminal points, and shafts for long tunnels.
(c) Transferring the control points across wide sea channels, large water bodies, etc.
(d) Detection of crustal movements, etc.
(e) Finding the direction of the movement of clouds.

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF TRIANGULATION SYSTEM

Based on the extent and purpose of the survey, and consequently on the degree of accuracy desired,
triangulation surveys are classified as first-order or primary, second-order or secondary, and third-order or
tertiary. First-order triangulation is used to determine the shape and size of the earth or to cover a vast area
like a whole country with control points to which a second-order triangulation system can be connected. A
second-order triangulation system consists of a network within a first-order triangulation. It is used to cover
areas of the order of a region, small country, or province. A third-order triangulation is a framework fixed within
and connected to a second-order triangulation system. It serves the purpose of furnishing the immediate
control for detailed engineering and location surveys.
4 Higher Surveying

Table 1.1 Triangulation system

S.No. Characteristics First-order Second-order Third-order
triangulation triangulation triangulation
1. Length of base lines 8 to 12 km 2 to 5 km 100 to 500 m
2. Lengths of sides 16 to 150 km 10 to 25 km 2 to 10 km
3. Average triangular error (after less than 1" 3" 12"
correction for spherical excess)
4. Maximum station closure not more than 3" 8" 15"
5. Actual error of base 1 in 50,000 1 in 25,000 1 in 10,000
6. Probable error of base 1 in 10,00,000 1 in 500,000 1 in 250,000
7. Discrepancy between two 5 k mm 10 k mm 25 k mm
measures (k is distance in
kilometre)
8. Probable error of the 1 in 50,000 to 1 in 20,000 to 1 in 5,000 to
computed distances 1 in 250,000 1 in 50,000 1 in 20,000
9. Probable error in 0.5" 5" 10"
astronomical azimuth

Table 1.1 presents the general specifications for the three types of triangulation systems.

1.5 TRIANGULATION FIGURES AND LAYOUTS

The basic figures used in triangulation networks are the triangle, braced or geodetic quadilateral, and the
polygon with a central station (Fig. 1.3).

Triangle Braced quadrilateral Polygon with central station

Fig. 1.3 Basic triangulation figures
The triangles in a triangulation system can be arranged in a number of ways. Some of the commonly
used arrangements, also called layouts, are as follows :
1. Single chain of triangles
2. Double chain of triangles
3. Braced quadrilaterals
4. Centered triangles and polygons
5. A combination of above systems.
1.5.1 Single chain of triangles
When the control points are required to be established in a narrow strip of terrain such as a valley
between ridges, a layout consisting of single chain of triangles is generally used as shown in Fig. 1.4. This
system is rapid and economical due to its simplicity of sighting only four other stations, and does not involve
observations of long diagonals. On the other hand, simple triangles of a triangulation system provide only
one route through which distances can be computed, and hence, this system does not provide any check on
the accuracy of observations. Check base lines and astronomical observations for azimuths have to be
provided at frequent intervals to avoid excessive accumulation of errors in this layout.
 Triangulation and Trilateration 5

B F
D

A C G
E
Fig. 1.4 Single of triangles

1.5.2 Double chain of triangles

A layout of double chain of triangles is shown in Fig. 1.5. This arrangement is used for covering the
larger width of a belt. This system also has disadvantages of single chain of triangles system.
A B G L
M

C F
H
K

E
D I J N

Fig. 1.5 Double chain of triangles

1.5.3 Braced quadrilaterals

A triangulation system consisting of figures containing four corner stations and observed diagonals
shown in Fig. 1.6, is known as a layout of braced quadrilaterals. In fact, braced quadrilateral consists of
overlapping triangles. This system is treated to be the strongest and the best arrangement of triangles, and it
provides a means of computing the lengths of the sides using different combinations of sides and angles.
Most of the triangulation systems use this arrangement.
C
B F G

H
A
D
E
Fig. 1.6 Braced quadrilaterals

1.5.4 Centered triangles and polygons

A triangulation system which consists of figures containing interior stations in triangle and polygon as
shown in Fig. 1.7, is known as centered triangles and polygons.
6 Higher Surveying

J E
H
I
A
K

C
F

G
Fig. 1.7 Centered triangles and polygons
This layout in a triangulation system is generally used when vast area in all directions is required to be
covered. The centered figures generally are quadrilaterals, pentagons, or hexagons with central stations.
Though this system provides checks on the accuracy of the work, generally it is not as strong as the braced
quadrilateral arrangement. Moreover, the progress of work is quite slow due to the fact that more settings of
the instrument are required.

1.5.5 A combination of all above systems

Sometimes a combination of above systems may be used which may be according to the shape of the
area and the accuracy requirements.

1.6 LAYOUT OF PRIMARY TRIANGULATION FOR LARGE COUNTRIES

The following two types of frameworks of primary triangulation are provided for a large country to cover the
entire area.
1. Grid iron system
2. Central system.

1.6.1 Grid iron system

In this system, the primary triangulation
is laid in series of chains of triangles, which
usually runs roughly along meridians (north-
south) and along perpendiculars to the
meridians (east-west), throughout the country
(Fig. 1.8). The distance between two such
chains may vary from 150 to 250 km. The area
between the parallel and perpendicular series
of primary triangulation, are filled by the
secondary and tertiary triangulation systems.
Grid iron system has been adopted in India
and other countries like Austria, Spain, France,
etc.

Fig. 1.8 Grid iron system of triangulation

 Triangulation and Trilateration 7

1.6.2 Central system

In this system, the whole area is covered by a network of primary triangulation extending in all directions
from the initial triangulation figure ABC, which is generally laid at the centre of the country (Fig. 1.9).
This system is generally used for the survey of an area of moderate extent. It has been adopted in United
Kingdom and various other countries.

B
A

Fig. 1.9 Central system of triangulation

1.7 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE LAYOUT OF TRIANGLES

The under mentioned points should be considered while deciding and selecting a suitable layout of triangles.
1. Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.
2. Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably approximate squares.
3. Centered polygons should be regular.
4. The arrangement should be such that the computations can be done through two or more
independent routes.
5. The arrangement should be such that at least one route and preferably two routes form well-
conditioned triangles.
6. No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should be small, whichever end of the series is used
for computation.
7. Angles of simple triangles should not be less than 45°, and in the case of quadrilaterals, no angle
should be less than 30°. In the case of centered polygons, no angle should be less than 40°.
8. The sides of the figures should be of comparable lengths. Very long lines and very short lines
should be avoided.
9. The layout should be such that it requires least work to achieve maximum progress.
10. As far as possible, complex figures should not involve more than 12 conditions.
It may be noted that if a very small angle of a triangle does not fall opposite the known side it does not
affect the accuracy of triangulation.
8 Higher Surveying

1.8 WELL-CONDITIONED TRIANGLES

The accuracy of a triangulation system is greatly affected by the arrangement of triangles in the layout and the
magnitude of the angles in individual triangles. The triangles of such a shape, in which any error in angular
measurement has a minimum effect upon the computed lengths, is known as well-conditioned triangle.
In any triangle of a triangulation system, the length of one
side is generally obtained from computation of the adjacent triangle. C
The error in the other two sides if any, will affect the sides of the
triangles whose computation is based upon their values. Due to
accumulated errors, entire triangulation system is thus affected b a
thereafter. To ensure that two sides of any triangle are equally
affected, these should, therefore, be equal in length. This condition
suggests that all the triangles must, therefore, be isoceles.
Let us consider an isosceles triangle ABC whose one side
A c B
AB is of known length (Fig. 1.10). Let A, B, and C be the three
angles of the triangle and a, b, and c are the three sides opposite to
the angles, respectively. Fig. 1.10 Triangle in a triangulation system

As the triangle is isosceles, let the sides a and b be equal.

Applying sine rule to ∆ABC , we have
a c
= ... (1.1)
sin A sin C
sin A
or a =c ... (1.2)
sin C
If an error of δA in the angle A, and δC in angle C introduce the errors δa1 and δa 2 , respectively, in the
side a, then differentiating Eq. (1.2) partially, we get
cos A δA
δa1 = c ... (1.3)
sin C
sin A cos C δ C
and δa 2 = – c ... (1.4)
sin 2 C
Dividing Eq. (1.3) by Eq. (1.2), we get
δa1
= δA cot A ... (1.5)
a
Dividing Eq. (1.4) by Eq. (1.2), we get
δa 2
= −δ C cot C ... (1.6)
a
If δA = δC = ± α, is the probable error in the angles, then the probable errors in the side a are
δa
= ± α cot 2 A + cot 2 C
a
But C = 180° – (A + B)
or = 180° – 2A, A being equal to B.
δa
Therefore = ± α cot 2 A + cot 2 2 A ... (1.7)
a
δa
From Eq. (1.7), we find that, if is to be minimum, (cot2A + cot2 2A) should be a minimum.
a
 Triangulation and Trilateration 9

Differentiating cot²A + cos² 2A with respect to A, and equating to zero, we have

4 cos4A + 2 cos²A – 1 = 0 ...(1.8)
Solving Eq. (1.8), for cos A, we get
A = 56°14' (approximately)
Hence, the best shape of an isoceles triangle is that triangle whose base angles are 56°14' each. However,
from practical considerations, an equilateral triangle may be treated as a well-conditional triangle. In actual
practice, the triangles having an angle less than 30° or more than 120° should not be considered.

1.9 STRENGTH OF FIGURE

The strength of figure is a factor to be considered in establishing a triangulation system to maintain the
computations within a desired degree of precision. It plays also an important role in deciding the layout of a
triangulation system.
The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Surveys has developed a convenient method of evaluating the strength of
a triangulation figure. It is based on the fact that computations in triangulation involve use of angles of
triangle and length of one known side. The other two sides are computed by sine law. For a given change in
the angles, the sine of small angles change more rapidly than those of large angles. This suggests that smaller
angles less than 30° should not be used in the computation of triangulation. If, due to unavoidable
circumstances, angles less than 30° are used, then it must be ensured that this is not opposite the side whose
length is required to be computed for carrying forward the triangulation series.
The expression given by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Surveys for evaluation of the strength of figure,
is for the square of the probable error (L²) that would occur in the sixth place of the logarithm of any side, if the
computations are carried from a known side through a single chain of triangles after the net has been adjusted
for the side and angle conditions. The expression for L² is
4
L² = d ²R ... (1.9)
3
where d is the probable error of an observed direction in seconds of arc, and R is a term which represents the
shape of figure. It is given by
D−C
R = ∑(δ2A + δ Aδ B + δ2B ) ... (1.10)
D
where
D = the number of directions observed excluding the known side of the figure,
δ A , δ B , δ C = the difference per second in the sixth place of logarithm of the sine of the distance angles A, B
and C, respectively. (Distance angle is the angle in a triangle opposite to a side), and
C = the number of geometric conditions for side and angle to be satisfied in each figure. It is given
by
C = (n' – S' + 1) + (n – 2S + 3) ... (1.11)
where
n = the total number of lines including the known side in a figure,
n' = the number of lines observed in both directions including the known side,
S = the total number of stations, and
S' = the number of stations occupied.
For the computation of the quantity Σ(δ 2A + δ Aδ B + δ 2B ) in Eq. (1.10) , Table 1.2 may be used.
In any triangulation system more than one routes are possible for various stations. The strength of
figure decided by the factor R alone determines the most appropriate route to adopt the best shaped triangulation
net route. If the computed value of R is less, the strength of figure is more and vice versa.
10 Higher Surveying

Table 1.2 Values of δ 2A + δ A δ B + δ 2B

10° 12° 14° 16° 18° 20° 22° 24° 26° 28° 30° 35° 40° 45° 50° 55° 60° 65° 70° 75° 80° 85° 90°
0
10 428 359
12 359 295 253
14 315 253 214 187
16 284 225 187 162 143
18 262 204 168 143 126 113
20 245 189 153 130 113 100 91
22 232 177 142 119 103 91 81 74
24 221 167 134 111 95 83 74 67 61
26 213 160 126 104 89 77 68 61 56 51
28 206 153 120 99 83 72 63 57 51 47 43
30 199 148 115 94 79 68 59 53 48 43 40 33
35 188 137 106 85 71 60 52 46 41 37 33 27 23
40 179 129 99 79 65 54 47 41 36 32 29 23 19 16
45 172 124 93 74 60 50 43 37 32 28 25 20 16 13 11
50 167 119 89 70 57 47 39 34 29 26 23 18 14 11 9 8
55 162 115 86 67 54 44 37 32 27 24 21 16 12 10 8 7 5
60 159 112 83 64 51 42 35 30 25 22 19 14 11 9 7 5 4 4
65 155 109 80 62 49 40 33 28 24 21 18 13 10 7 6 5 4 3 2
70 152 106 78 60 48 38 32 27 23 19 17 12 9 7 5 4 3 2 2 1
75 150 104 76 58 46 37 30 25 21 18 16 11 8 6 4 3 2 2 1 1 1
80 147 102 74 57 45 36 29 24 20 17 15 10 7 5 4 3 2 1 1 1 0 0
85 145 100 73 55 43 34 28 23 19 16 14 10 7 5 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 0
90 143 98 71 54 42 33 27 22 19 16 13 9 6 4 3 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
95 140 96 70 53 41 32 26 22 18 15 13 9 6 4 3 2 1 1 0 0 0 0
100 138 95 68 51 40 31 25 21 17 14 12 8 6 4 3 2 1 1 0 0 0
105 136 93 67 50 39 30 25 20 17 14 12 8 5 4 2 2 1 1 0 0
110 134 91 65 49 38 30 24 19 16 13 11 7 5 3 2 2 1 1 1
115 132 89 64 48 37 29 23 19 15 13 11 7 5 3 2 2 1 1
120 129 88 62 46 36 28 22 18 15 12 10 7 5 3 2 2 1
125 127 86 61 45 35 27 22 18 14 12 10 7 5 4 3 2
130 125 84 59 44 34 26 21 17 14 12 10 7 5 4 3
135 122 82 58 43 33 26 21 17 14 12 10 7 5 4
140 119 80 56 42 32 26 20 17 14 12 10 8 6
145 116 77 55 41 32 25 21 17 15 13 11 9
150 112 75 54 40 32 26 21 18 16 15 13
152 111 75 53 40 32 26 22 19 17 16
154 110 74 53 41 33 27 23 21 19
156 108 74 54 42 34 28 25 22
158 107 74 54 43 35 30 27
160 107 74 56 45 38 33
162 107 76 59 48 42
164 109 79 63 54
166 113 86 71
168 122 98
170 143
 Triangulation and Trilateration 11

1.10 ACCURACY OF TRIANGULATION

Errors are inevitable and, therefore, inspite of all precautions the errors get accumulated. It is, therefore,
essential to know the accuracy of the triangulation network achieved so that no appreciable error in plotting
is introduced. The following formula for root mean square error may be used.
ΣE 2
m= ... (1.12)
3n
where m = the root mean square error of unadjusted horizontal angles in seconds of arc as obtained from
the triangular errors,
ΣE = the sum of the squares of all the triangular errors in the triangulation series, and
n = the total number of triangles in the series.
It may be noted that
(i) all the triangles have been included in the computations,
(ii) all the four triangles of a braced quadrilateral have been included in the computations, and
(iii) if the average triangular error of the series is 8", probable error in latitudes and departures after a
distance of 100 km, is approximately 8 m.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1.1 If the probable error of direction measurement is 1.20", compute the maximum value of R for
the desired maximum probable error of (i) 1 in 20,000 and (ii) 1 in 10,000.
Solution: (i) L being the probable error of a logarithm, it represents the logarithm of the ratio of the true
value and a value containing the probable error.
 1 
In this case L = the 6th place in log 1 ± 
 20000 
= the 6th place in log ( (1 ± 0.00005)
log (1 + 0.00005) = 0.0000217
The 6th place in the log value = 21
Hence L = ± 21
It is given that d = 1.20"
From Eq. (1.9), we have
4 2
L² = d R
3
3 L2
Rmax =
4 d2
3 212
= × = 230.
4 1.202

L = the 6th place in log 1 ±

1 
(ii) 
 10000 
log (1 + 0.0001) = 0.0000434
The 6th place in the log value = 43
Hence L = ±43
3 432
Rmax = × = 963.
4 1.20 2
12 Higher Surveying

Example 1.2 The probable error of direction measurement is 1". Compute the maximum value of R if the
maximum probable error is
(i) 1 in 25000
(ii) 1 in 5000.
Solution:
 1 
(i) log 1 +  = 0.0000174
 25000 
The 6th place in the log value = 17
Hence L = ±17
From Eq. (1.9), we get
3 L2
Rmax =
4d2
The value of d is given as 1"
3 × 17 2
Rmax = = 217.
4 × 12
 1 
(ii) log1 +  = 0.0000086
 50000 
The 6th place in the log value =9
Hence L = ±9
3× 92
Rmax = = 61.
4 ×12
D−C
Example 1.3 Compute the value of for the following triangulation figures if all the stations have
D
been occupied and all the lines have been observed in both directions :
(i) A single triangle
(ii) A braced quadrilateral
(iii) A four-sided central-point figure without diagonals
(iv) A four-sided central-point figure with one diagonal.
Solution: (i) Single triangle (Fig. 1.11)
From Eq. (1.11), we have
C = (n' – S' + 1) + (n – 2S + 3)
Fig. 1.11
n' = 3
n =3
S =3
S' = 3
C = (3 – 3 + 1) + (3 – 2 × 3 + 3) = 1
and D = the number of directions observed excluding the known side.
= 2 (total number of lines – 1)
= 2 × (3 – 1) = 4
D−C 4 −1
= = 0.75.
D 4
 Triangulation and Trilateration 13

(ii) Braced quadrilateral (Fig. 1.12)

n =6
n' = 6
S =4
S' = 4
C' = (6 – 4 + 1) + (6 – 2 × 4 + 3) = 4
D = 2 × (6 – 1) = 10
D−C 10 − 4 Fig. 1.12
= = 0.6.
D 10
(iii) Four-sided central-point figures without diagonals (Fig. 1.13)
n =8
n' = 8
S =5
S' = 5
C = (8 – 5 + 1) + (8 – 2 × 5 + 3) = 5
D = 2 × (8 – 1) = 14
D−C 14 − 5
Therefore = = 0.64.
D 14
Fig. 1.13
(iv) Four-sided central-point figure with one diagonal. (Fig. 1.14)
n =9
n' = 9
S =5
S' = 5
C = (9 – 5 + 1) + (9 – 2 × 5 + 3) = 7
D = 2 × (9 – 1) = 16
D−C 16 − 7
Therefore = = 0.56.
D 16
Fig. 1.14

D−C
Example 1.4 Compute the value of for the triangulation nets shown in Fig. 1.15 (a – d). The
D
directions observed are shown by arrows.

(a )
(b )

(c )
(d )
Fig. 1.15
14 Higher Surveying

Solution: (i) Fig. 1.15a

From Eq. (1.11), we have
C = (n' – S' + 1) + (n – 2S + 3)
n = the total number of lines
= 11
n' = the total number of lines observed in both directions
=9
S = the total number of stations
=7
S' = the total number of stations occupied
=6
C = (9 – 6 + 1) + (11 – 2 × 7 + 3) = 4
and D = the total number of directions observed excluding the known side
= 2 × (n' – 1) + number of lines observed in one direction
= 2 × (9 – 1) + 2 = 18
D−C 18 − 4
Therefore = = 0.78.
D 18
(ii) Fig. 1.15b
n = 13
n' = 11
S =7
S' =7
C = (11 – 7 + 1) + (13 – 2 × 7 + 3) = 7
D = 2 × (11 – 1) + 2 = 22
D−C 22 − 7
Therefore = = 0.68.
D 22
(iii) Fig. 1.15c
n = 13
n' = 11
S =7
S' =7
C = (11 – 7 + 1) + (13 – 2 × 7 + 3) = 7
D = 2 × (11 – 1) + 2 = 22
D−C 22 − 7
Therefore = = 0.68.
D 22
(iv) Fig. 1.15d
n = 19
n' = 19
S = 10
S' = 10
C = (19 – 10 + 1) + (19 – 2 × 10 + 3) = 12
D = 2 (19 – 1) + 0 = 36
D−C 36 − 12
Therefore = = 0.67.
D 36
 Triangulation and Trilateration 15

Example 1.5 Compute the strength of the figure ABCD for all the routes by which the length CD can be
computed from the known side AB. Assume that all the stations were occupied.
Solution:
From Eq. (1.10), we have
D −C
R = Σ(δ 2A + δ A δ B + δ C2 )
D
For the given figure in Fig. 1.16, we have
n =6
n' = 6
S =4
S' = 4
D = 2 × (n – 1)
= 2 × (6 – 1) = 10
Hence C = (n' – S' + 1) + (n – 2S + 3)
= (6 – 4 + 1) + (6 – 2 × 4 + 3) = 4
D−C 10 − 4
and = = 0.60.
D 10 Fig. 1.16

(a) Route-1, using ∆s ABC and ADC with common side AC

For ∆ABC the distance angles of AB and AC are 26° and 100° = 44° + 56°, respectively.
From Table 1.2,
δ100
2
+ δ100δ 26 + δ 226 = 17
For ∆ADC , the distance angles of AC and DC are 112° = (44° + 68°) and 38°, respectively,
δ112
2
+ δ112 δ 38 + δ 38
2
=6
R1 = 0.6 × (17 + 6) = 13.8 −
~ 14
(b) Route-2, using ∆s ABC and BCD with common side BC
For ∆ABC the distance angles of AB and BC are 26° and 54°, respectively,
δ 54
2
+ δ54δ 26 + δ 226 = 27
For ∆BCD , the distance angle of BC and CD are 68° and 56°, respectively,
δ 68
2
+ δ 68δ 56 + δ 56
2
=4
R2 = 0.6 × (27 + 4) = 18.6 − ~ 19
(c) Route-3, using ∆ ABD and ACD with common side AD
s

From ∆ABC the distance for both the sides AB and AD is 44°.
δ 244 + δ 44 δ 44 + δ 244 = 13
From ∆ACD , the distance angles of AD and CD and 30° and 38°, respectively,
δ 38
2
+ δ 38δ30 + δ30
2
= 31
R3 = 0.6 × (13 + 31) = 26.4 −
~ 26
(d) Route-4, using ∆ ABD and BCD with common side BD.
s

From ∆ABD , the distance angles of AB and DB are 44° and 92° = (38° + 54°), respectively,
δ 92
2
+ δ 92 δ 38 + δ 38
2
=7
From ∆BCD , the distance angles of BD and CD are 56° = (30° + 26°) and 56°, respectively,
δ56
2
δ 56δ56 + δ562
=7
16 Higher Surveying

R4 = 0.6 × (7 + 7) = 8.4 −
~8
Since the lowest value of R represents the highest strength, the best route to compute the length of CD
is Route-4, having R4 = 8.

1.11 ROUTINE OF TRIANGULATION SURVEY

The routine of triangulation survey, broadly consists of
(a) field work, and (b) computations.
The field work of triangulation is divided into the following operations :
(i) Reconnaissance
(ii) Erection of signals and towers
(iii) Measurement of base line
(iv) Measurement of horizontal angles
(v) Measurement of vertical angles
(vi) Astronomical observations to determine the azimuth of the lines.

1.12 RECONNAISSANCE
Reconnaissance is the preliminary field inspection of the entire area to be covered by triangulation, and
collection of relevant data. Since the basic principle of survey is working from whole to the part, reconnaissance
is very important in all types of surveys. It requires great skill, experience and judgement. The accuracy and
economy of triangulation greatly depends upon proper reconnaissance survey. It includes the following
operations:
1. Examination of terrain to be surveyed.
2. Selection of suitable sites for measurement of base lines.
3. Selection of suitable positions for triangulation stations.
4. Determination of intervisibility of triangulation stations.
5. Selection of conspicuous well-defined natural points to be used as intersected points.
6. Collection of miscellaneous information regarding:
(a) Access to various triangulation stations
(b) Transport facilities
(c) Availability of food, water, etc.
(d) Availability of labour
(e) Camping ground.
Reconnaissance may be effectively carried out if accurate topographical maps of the area are available.
Help of aerial photographs and mosaics, if available, is also taken. If maps and aerial photographs are not
available, a rapid preliminary reconnaissance is undertaken to ascertain the general location of possible
schemes of triangulation suitable for the topography. Later on, main reconnaissance is done to examine these
schemes. The main reconnaissance is a very rough triangulation. The plotting of the rough triangulation may
be done by protracting the angles. The essential features of the topography are also sketched in. The final
scheme is selected by studying the relative strengths and cost to various schemes.
For reconnaissance the following instruments are generally employed:
1. Small theodolite and sextant for measurement of angles.
2. Prismatic compass for measurement of bearings.
3. Steel tape.
4. Aneroid barometer for ascertaining elevations.
5. Heliotropes for ascertaining intervisibility.
6. Binocular.
7. Drawing instruments and material.
8. Guyed ladders, creepers, ropes, etc., for climbing trees.
 Triangulation and Trilateration 17

1.12.1 Erection of signals and towers

A signal is a device erected to define the exact position of a triangulation station so that it can be
observed from other stations whereas a tower is a structure over a station to support the instrument and the
observer, and is provided when the station or the signal, or both are to be elevated.
Before deciding the type of signal to be used, the triangulation stations are selected. The selection of
triangulation stations is based upon the following criteria.

Criteria for selection of triangulation stations

1. Triangulation stations should be intervisible. For this purpose the station points should be on the
highest ground such as hill tops, house tops, etc.
2. Stations should be easily accessible with instruments.
3. Station should form well-conditioned triangles.
4. Stations should be so located that the lengths of sights are neither too small nor too long. Small
sights cause errors of bisection and centering. Long sights too cause direction error as the signals
become too indistinct for accurate bisection.
5. Stations should be at commanding positions so as to serve as control for subsidiary triangulation,
and for possible extension of the main triangulation scheme.
6. Stations should be useful for providing intersected points and also for detail survey.
7. In wooded country, the stations should be selected such that the cost of clearing and cutting, and
building towers, is minimum.
8. Grazing line of sights should be avoided, and no line of sight should pass over the industrial areas
to avoid irregular atmospheric refraction.
Determination of intervisibility of triangulation stations
As stated above, triangulations stations should be chosen on high ground so that all relevant stations
are intervisible. For small distances, intervisibility can be ascertained during reconnaissance by direct
observation with the aid of binocular, contoured map of the area, plane mirrors or heliotropes using reflected
sun rays from either station.
However, if the distance between stations is large, the intervisibility is ascertained by knowing the
horizontal distance between the stations as under.

Case-I Invervisibility not obstructed by intervening ground

If the intervening ground does not obstruct the intervisibility, the distance of visible horizon from the
station of known elevation is calculated from the following formula:
D2
h = (1 − 2m) ... (1.13)
2R
where h = height of the station above datum,
D = distance of visible horizon,
R = earth’s mean radius, and
m = mean coefficient of refraction taken as 0.07 for sights over land,
and. 0.08 for sights over sea.
Substituting the values of m as 0.071 and R as 6370 km in Eq. (1.13), the value of h in metres is given by
h = 0.06735 D 2 ... (1.14)
where D is in kilometres.
18 Higher Surveying

In Fig. 1.17, the distance between two stations A and B of heights h A and hB , respectively, is D. If D A
and DB are the distances of visible horizon from A and B, respectively, we have
hA
DA = = 3.853 hA ... (1.15)
0.06735
B"

A' T
B'
Datum hB
DA DB hB'
hA D

A B

Fig. 1.17 Intervisibility not obstructed by intervening ground

We have D = D A + DB
or DB = D − D A
For the known distance of visible horizon DB as above, the height of station B is computed. If the
computed value is h'B , then
2
h'B = 0.06735 DB ... (1.16)
The computed value of height hB' is compared with the known value hB as below :
If hB ≥ h'B , the station B will be visible from A, and
if hB < h'B , the station B will not be visible from A.

If B is not visible from A, (h'B − hB ) is the required amount of height of signal to be erected at B. While
deciding the intervisibility of various stations, the line of sight should be taken at least 3 m above the point of
tangency T of the earth’s surface to avoid grazing rays.

Case-II Intervisibility obstructed by intervening ground

In Fig. 1.18, the intervening ground at C is obstructing the intervisibility between the stations A and B.
From Eq. (1.15), we have
D A = 3.853 h A ... (1.17)
The distance DT of the peak C from the point of tangency T, is given by
DT = D A − DC ... (1.18)
A' C"
" B"
C' h C B0
hC ' T
hC C
hC' DT hB''
hA B'
Datum
DC DA
D DB hB' hB
A B

Fig. 1.18 Intervisibility obstructed by intervening ground

 Triangulation and Trilateration 19

2
and h'C = 0.06735 DT ... (1.19)
2
h'B = 0.06735 D B ... (1.20)
If h'C > hC , the line of sight is clear of the obstruction,
and it becomes Case-I discussed above. If h'C < hC then
C"
the signal at B is to be raised. The amount of raising required
hB"
at B is computed as below.
From similar ∆s A'C'C" and A'B'B" in Fig. 1.19, we ( hc–h'c) = h"c

get
A'
C' B'
h"C h"B
= DC
DC D
D
D
or h"B = h"C ... (1.21) Fig. 1.19
DC
where h"C = hC − h'C .
The required height of signal above station B0 is
B0B" = (BB' + B'B") – BB0
= (h'B +h"C ) −hB ... (1.22)

Alternate method (Captain G.T. McCaw’s method)

A comparison of elevations of the stations A and B (Fig. 1.20) decides whether the triangulation
stations are intervisible or not. A direct solution suggested by Captain McCaw is known as Captain McCaw’s
method.

ξ Line of sight B"

A' D
C'
h hc
hA D at u hB
C m
S- x
S +x 2S
A B

Fig. 1.20 Captain McCaw’s method of ascertaining intervisibility

Let h A = elevation of station A

hB = elevation of station B
hC = elevation of station C.
2S = distance between A and B
(S + x) = distance between A and C
(S – x) = distance between C and B
h = elevation of the line of sight at C
ξ = zenith distance from A to B
= (90°-vertical angle).
20 Higher Surveying

From Captain McCaw’s formula

1 1 x (1 − 2m)
h= (h3 + hA ) + (hB − hA ) − (S 2 − x 2 ) cos ec2 ξ ... (1.23)
2 2 S 2R
Practically in most of the cases, the zenith distance is very nearly equal to 90° and, therefore, the value
of cosec² ξ may be taken approximately equal to unity.
However, for accurate calculations,
( hB − h A ) 2
cosec² ξ = 1 + ... (1.24)
4S 2
 1 − 2m 
In Eq. (1.23), the value of   is usually taken as 0.06735.
 2R 
Therefore
1 1 x
h = (hB + h A ) + (hB − h A ) − ( S 2 − x 2 ) × 0.06735 ... (1.25)
2 2 S
If h > hC , the line of sight is free of obstruction. In case h < hC , the height of tower to raise the signal at
B, is computed from Eqs. (1.21) and (1.22).

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1.6 Two stations A and B, 80 km apart, have elevations 15 m and 270 m above mean sea level,
respectively. Calculate the minimum height of the signal at B.
Solution: (Fig. 1.21)
It is given that
h A = 15 m
hB = 270 m
D = 80 km

A' T B"
B'
DA DB
15 m 80 km 2 7 0 m h'
B
A B

Fig. 1.21
From Eq. (1.15), we get
D A = 3.853 h A = 3.853 × 15 = 14.92 km
We have
DB = D – D A
or = 80 – 14.92
= 65.08 km
Therefore h'B = 0.06735 DB2
= 0.06735 × 65.08² = 285.25 m
Hence, since the elevation of B is 270 m, the height of signal required at B, is
= 285.25 – 270 = 15.25 −~ 15.5 m.
 Triangulation and Trilateration 21

Example 1.7 There are two stations P and Q at elevations of 200 m and 995 m, respectively. The distance
of Q from P is 105 km. If the elevation of a peak M at a distance of 38 km from P is 301 m, determine whether Q
is visible from P or not. If not, what would be the height of scaffolding required at Q so that Q becomes visible
from P ?
Solution: (Fig. 1.22)
From Eq. (1.15), we get
PT = 3.853 × 200 = 54.45 km
Therefore MT = PT – PM
= 54.45 – 38 = 16.45 km
Using Eq. (1.14) and the value of MT, we get
MM' = 0.06735 × 16.452 = 18.23 m
The distance of Q from the point of tangency T is
QT = 105 – 54.45 = 50.55 km
Therefore QQ' = 0.06735 × 50.552 = 172.10 m

Qo
M"
P' Mo hg'
T Q'
301m M' hn'
M 995
m
0m 105 km
20 m
38
P
Q

Fig. 1.22

From similar ∆ P'M'M" and P'Q'Q", we have

s

M'M" Q'Q"
= PQ
PM
PQ
Q'Q" = M'M"
PM
PQ
= (MM" – MM' )
PM
105
= × (301 – 18.23) = 781.34 m
38
We have QQ" = QQ' + Q'Q"
= 172.10 + 781.34 = 953.44 m
As the elevation 995 m of Q is more than 953.44 m, the peak at M does not obstruct the line of sight.
Alternatively, from the similar ∆s P'M'Mo and PQ′Qo , we have
M ′M o Q ′Qo
= PQ
PM
PM
or M'Mo = PQ Q ′Qo
22 Higher Surveying

PM
= PQ (QQo − QQ ′)
38
= × (995 − 172.10) = 297.81
105
The elevation of line of sight P'Qo at M is
MM o = MM' + M ′M o
= 18.23 + 297.81 = 316.04.
Since the elevation of peak at M is 301 m, the line of sight is not obstructed by the peak and, therefore,
no scaffolding is required at Q.
Example 1.8 Solve the problem given in Example 1.7 by Capt. McCaw’s method.
Solution: (Fig. 1.22)
From Eq. (1.25), the elevation of line of sight at M joining the two stations is
1 1 x
h = (hQ + hP ) + (hQ − hP ) − ( S − x ) × 0.06735
2 2
2 2 S
It is given that
hP = 200 m
hQ = 995 m
hM = 301 m
2S = 105 km or S = 52.5 km
S + x = 38 km or x = – 14.5 km
Therefore
1 1 (−14.5)
h = × (995 + 200) + × (995 − 200) ×
2 2 52.5
− (52.5 2 − 14.5 2 ) × 0.06735
= 316.24 m.
The elevation of the line of sight p'Q0 at M is 316.24 m, and the elevation of the peak is 301 m, therefore,
the line of sight is clear of obstruction.
Example 1.9 In a triangulation survey, the altitudes of two proposed stations A and B, 100 km apart, are
respectively 425 m and 750 m. The intervening ground situated at C, 60 km from A, has an elevation of 435 m.
Ascertain if A and B are intervisible, and if necessary find by how much B should be raised so that the line of
sight must nowhere be less than 3 m above the surface of the ground. Take R = 6400 km and m = 0.07.
Solution: (Fig. 1.20)
From the given data we have
h A = 425 m, hB = 750 m, hC = 435 m, R = 6400 km, m = 0.07
2S = 100 km, or S = 50 km
S + x = 60 km or x = 10 km
Eq. (1.23) gives
1 1 x (1 − 2m)
hC′ = (hB + h A ) + (hB − h A ) − ( S 2 − x 2 ) cosec 2 ξ
2 2 S 2R
Taking cosec2 ξ = 1, and substituting the values of the given data in the above equation, we have
1 1 10
h = × (705 + 425) + × (705 − 425) × − (50 2 − 10 2 )
2 2 50
(1 − 2 × 0.07)
× 1× × 1000 = 431.75 m
2 × 6400
 Triangulation and Trilateration 23

As the elevation of the line of sight at C is less than the elevation of C, the line of sight fails to clear C by
435 – 431.75 = 3.25 m
To avoid grazing rays, the line of should be at least 3m above the ground. Therefore, the line of sight
should be raised to 3.25 + 3 = 6.25 m at C.
Hence, the minimum height of signal to be erected at B
6.25
= ×100 = 10.42 m.
60
Station Mark
The triangulation stations should be permanently marked on the ground so that the theodolite and
signal may be centered accurately over them. The following points should be considered while marking the
exact position of a triangulation station :
(i) The station should be marked on perfectly stable foundation or rock. The station mark on a large
size rock is generally preferred so that the theodolite and observer can stand on it. Generally, a hole
10 to 15 cm deep is made in the rock and a copper or iron bolt is fixed with cement.
(ii) If no rock is available, a large stone is embeded about 1 m deep into the ground with a circle, and
dot cut on it. A second stone with a circle and dot is placed vertically above the first stone.
(iii) A G.I. pipe of about 25 cm diameter driven vertically
into ground up to a depth of one metre, also served
Metal pipe
as a good station mark.
(iv) The mark may be set on a concrete monument. The
station should be marked with a copper or bronze
tablet. The name of the station and the date on which
it was set, should be stamped on the tablet. Stone slab
(v) In earth, generally two marks are set, one about 75 75 cm
cm below the surface of the ground, and the other Copper bolt
extending a few centimeters above the surface of the
ground. The underground mark may consist of a
stone with a copper bolt in the centre, or a concrete Concrete
75 cm
monument with a tablet mark set on it (Fig. 1.23).
(vi) The station mark with a vertical pole placed centrally,
should be covered with a conical heap of stones
placed symmetrically. This arrangement of marking
Fig. 1.23 Station mark
station, is known as placing a cairn (Fig. 1.27).
(vii) Three reference marks at some distances on fairly permanent features, should be established to
locate the station mark, if it is disturbed or removed.
(viii) Surrounding the station mark a platform 3 m × 3 m × 0.5 m should be built up of earth.

1.13 SIGNALS
Signals are centered vertically over the station mark, and the observations are made to these signals from
other stations. The accuracy of triangulation is entirely dependent on the degree of accuracy of centering the
signals. Therefore, it is very essential that the signals are truly vertical, and centered over the station mark.
Greatest care of centering the transit over the station mark will be useless, unless some degree of care in
centering the signal is impressed upon.
24 Higher Surveying

A signal should fulfil the following requirements :

(i) It should be conspicuous and clearly visible against any background. To make the signal
conspicuous, it should be kept at least 75 cm above the station mark.
(ii) It should be capable of being accurately centered over the station mark.
(iii) It should be suitable for accurate bisection from other stations.
(iv) It should be free from phase, or should exhibit little phase (cf., Sec. 1.15).
1.13.1 Classification of signals
The signals may be classified as under :
(i) Non-luminous, opaque or daylight signals
(ii) Luminous signals.
(i) Non-luminous signals
Non-luminous signals are used during day time and for short distances. These are of various types, and
the most commonly used are of following types.
(a) Pole signal (Fig. 1.24) : It consists of a round pole painted black and white in alternate strips, and
is supported vertically over the station mark, generally on a tripod. Pole signals are suitable upto
a distance of about 6 km.
(b) Target signal (Fig. 1.25): It consists of a pole carrying two squares or rectangular targets placed at
right angles to each other. The targets are generally made of cloth stretched on wooden frames.
Target signals are suitable upto a distance of 30 km.

Fig. 1.24 Pole signal Fig. 1.25 Target signal

(c) Pole and brush signal (Fig. 1.26): It consists of a straight pole about 2.5 m long with a bunch of
long grass tied symmetrically round the top making a cross. The signal is erected vertically over
the station mark by heaping a pile of stones, upto 1.7 m round the pole. A rough coat of white wash
is given to make it more conspicuous to be seen against black background. These signals are very
useful, and must be erected over every station of observation during reconnaissance.
(d) Stone cairn (Fig. 1.27): A pile of stone heaped in a conical shape about 3 m high with a cross shape
signal erected over the stone heap, is stone cairn. This white washed opaque signal is very useful
if the background is dark.
 Triangulation and Trilateration 25

Fig. 1.26 Pole and brush signal Fig. 1.27 Stone cairn
(e) Beacons (Fig. 1.28): It consists of red and white cloth tied
round the three straight poles. The beacon can easily be
centered over the station mark. It is very useful for making
simultaneous observations.
(ii) Luminous signals
Luminous signals may be classified into two types :
(i) Sun signals
(ii) Night signals.
(a) Sun signals (Fig. 1.29): Sun signals reflect the rays of the sun
towards the station of observation, and are also known as heliotropes.
Such signals can be used only in day time in clear weather.
Heliotrope : It consists of a circular plane mirror with a small hole at
its centre to reflect the sun rays, and a sight vane with an aperture carrying
Fig. 1.28 Beacon
a cross-hairs. The circular mirror can be rotated horizontally as well as
vertically through 360°. The heliotrope is centered over the station mark, and the line of sight is directed
towards the station of observation. The sight vane is adjusted looking through the hole till the flashes given
from the station of observation fall at the centre of the cross of the sight vane. Once this is achieved, the
heliotrope is disturbed. Now the heliotrope frame carrying the mirror is rotated in such a way that the black
shadow of the small central hole of the plane mirror falls exactly at the cross of the sight vane. By doing so, the
reflected beam of rays will be seen at the station of observation. Due to motion of the sun, this small shadow
also moves, and it should be constantly ensured that the shadow always remains at the cross till the
observations are over. Sun

Cross-hairs
Mirror
Reflected ray

Hole

Fig. 1.29 Heliotrope

26 Higher Surveying

The heliotropes do not give better results compared to signals. These are useful when the signal station
is in flat plane, and the station of observation is on elevated ground. When the distance between the stations
exceed 30 km, the heliotropes become very useful.
(b) Night signals: When the observations are required to be made at night, the night signals of following
types may be used.
1. Various forms of oil lamps with parabolic reflectors for sights less than 80 km.
2. Acetylene lamp designed by Capt. McCaw for sights more than 80 km.
3. Magnesium lamp with parabolic reflectors for long sights.
4. Drummond’s light consisting of a small ball of lime placed at the focus of the parabolic reflector,
and raised to a very high temperature by impinging on it a stream of oxygen.
5. Electric lamps.

1.14 TOWERS
A tower is erected at the triangulation station when the station Lamp
or the signal or both are to be elevated to make the observations
possible form other stations in case of problem of intervisibility. Windows

The height of tower depends upon the character of the terrain

and the length of the sight.
The towers generally have two independent structures. Screen
The outer structure is for supporting the observer and the signal
whereas the inner one is for supporting the instrument only. The
Outer tower
two structures are made entirely independent of each other so (with bracings)
that the movement of the observer does not disturb the instrument
setting. The two towers may be made of masonary, timber or
steel. For small heights, masonary towers are most suitable. Inner tower
(without bracings)
Timber scaffolds are most commonly used, and have been
constructed to heights over 50 m. Steel towers made of light
sections are very portable, and can be easily erected and
dismantled. Bilby towers patented by J.S. Bilby of the U.S. Coast
and Geodetic Survey, are popular for heights ranging from 30 to
40 m. This tower weighing about 3 tonnes, can be easily erected
by five persons in just 5 hrs. A schematic of such a tower is
shown in Fig. 1.30.
Fig. 1.30 Bilby tower

1.15 PHASE OF A SIGNAL

When cylindrical opaque signals are used, they require a correction in the observed horizontal angles due an
error known as the phase. The cylindrical signal is partly illuminated by the sun, and the other part remains in
shadow, and becomes invisible to the observer. While making the observations, the observer may bisect the
bright portion or the bright line. Thus the signal is not bisected at the centre, and an error due to wrong
bisection is introduced. It is, thus, the apparent displacement of the signal. The phase correction is thus
necessary so that the observed horizontal angles may be reduced to that corresponding to the centre of the
signal.
Depending upon the method of observation, phase correction is computed under the following two
conditions.
 Triangulation and Trilateration 27

(i) Observation made on bright portion S

In Fig. 1.31, a cylindrical signal of radius r, is centered over
the station P. The illuminated portion of the signal which the θ
observer from O is able to see, is AB. The observer from the r P
station O, makes two observations at A and B of the bright A
portion, AB. Let C be the midpoint of AB. C
F
Let θ = the angle between the sun and the line OP B

α1 and α 2 = the angles BOP and AOP, respectively

D = the horizontal distance OP α
α = half of the angle AOB
β D
1 α1
= ( α 2 − α1 ) α2
2
β = the phase correction
1 S
= α1 + α = α1 + ( α 2 − α1 )
2 θ
1
or = ( α1 + α 2 ) ... (1.26)
2
O
From ∆OAP we get
Fig. 1.31 Phase correction when
r observation made on the bright portion
tan α 2 =
D
α 2 being small, we can write
r
α2 = radians ... (1.27)
D
As the distance PF is very small compared to OP, OF may be taken as OP. Thus, from right angle
∆BFO , we get
BF BF BF
tan α1 = = = ... (1.28)
OF OP D
From ∆PFB, we get
BF = r sin (90 – θ ) = r cos θ
Substituting the value of BF in Eq. (1.28), we get
r cos θ
tan α1 =
D
α1 being small, we can write
r cos θ
α1 = radians ... (1.29)
D
Substituting the values of α1 and α 2 in Eq. (1.26), we have
1  r r cos θ  r  1 + cos θ 
β =  +  =  
2D D  D 2 
r 2 θ
= cos radians ... (1.30)
D 2
r θ
= cos 2 seconds
D sin 1" 2
206265r 2 θ
β = cos seconds ... (1.31)
D 2
28 Higher Surveying

(ii) Observations made on the bright line S

In this case, the bright line at C on the cylindrical signal of
radius r, is sighted from O (Fig. 1.32). S r
Let CO = the reflected ray of the sun from the bright line at C A P

β = the phase correction

1 F
θ = the angle between the sun and the line OP 90°– — (θ–β) C
2
B

β)
The rays of the sun are always parallel to each other,

2 (θ–
therefore, SC is parallel to S1O .

– —1
9 0°
∠SCO = 180° – (θ − β)
1 D
∠PCO = 180° – ∠SCO β
2
1
or = 180° – [180° − (θ − β)]
2 S1
1
= 90° + (θ − β) ... (1.32) θ
2
Therefore,
∠CPO =180° – (β + ∠PCO ) ... (1.33) O

Substituting the value of ∠PCO from Eq. (1.32) in Eq. Fig. 1.32 Phase correction when observation
made on the bright line
(1.33) and after simplification, we get
1
∠CPO = 90° – ( θ + β)
2
As β is very small compared to θ, it can be ignored,
Therefore
1
∠CPO = 90° – θ
2
From the right angle ∆CFP , we have

CF  1 
= sin CPO = sin  90° − θ 
CP  2 
 1 
or CF = r sin  90° − θ  ... (1.34)
 2 
From ∆CFO , we get
CF
tan β = ... (1.35)
OF
PF being very small compared to OP, OF may be taken as OP. Substituting the value of CF from Eq.
(1.34) and taking OF equal to D, we get the Eq. (1.35) as

 1 
r sin  90° − θ 
 2 
tan β =
D
 Triangulation and Trilateration 29

θ
r cos
β = 2
or radians
D
P
206265 r θ
β = cos seconds ... (1.36)
D 2
The phase correction β is applied to the observed
S1
horizontal angles in the following manner.
Let there be four stations S1, S2, P, and O as shown in
(Fig. 1.33). The observer is at O, and the angles S1OP and
POS 2 have been measured from O as θ1′ and θ′2 , respectively.
θ1' S2
If the required corrected angles are θ1 and θ 2 , then θ2'
θ1
θ1 = θ1′ + β θ2
β
and θ 2 = θ′2 − β
when β is the phase correction.
While applying the corrections the directions of the phase
O
correction, and the observed stations with respect to the line
OP, must be noted carefully.
Fig. 1.33 Applying the phase correction to the
measured horizontal angles

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1.10 A cylindrical signal of diameter 4 m, was erected at station B. Observations were made on
the signal from station A. Calculate the phase corrections when the observations were made
(i) on the bright portion, and
(ii) on the bright line.
Take the distance AB as 6950 m, and the bearings of the sun and the station B as 315° and 35°,
respectively.
Solution: Given that θ = Bearing of sun – bearing of B
= 315° – 35° = 280°
Diameter 4
r = = = 2m
2 2
D = 6950 m
(i) (Fig. 1.31)
From Eq. (1.31), the phase correction
206265r θ
β = cos 2 seconds
D 2
206265 × 2 280°
= × cos 2 = 34.83 seconds.
6950 2
(ii) (Fig. 1.32)
From Eq. (1.36), the phase correction
206265r θ
β = cos seconds
D 2
206265 × 2 280°
= × cos = 45.47 seconds.
6950 2
30 Higher Surveying

Example 1.11 The horizontal angle measured

between two stations P and Q at station R, was
38°29'30". The station Q is situated on the right of the S
P
line RP. r

The diameter the cylindrical signal erected at

station P, was 3 m and the distance between P and R
was 5180 m. The bearing of the sun and the station P N
were measured as 60° and 15°, respectively. If the
observations were made on the bright line, compute

5180 m
the correct horizontal angle PRQ.
Solution: (Fig. 1.34)
38 Q
From the given data β ° 29
15° ' 30
"
θ = 60° – 15° = 45° 60° S
D = 5180 m
θ
r = 1.5 m
From Eq. (1.36), we get
206265r θ
β = cos R
D 2
206265 ×1.5 45° Fig. 1.34
= cos
5180 2
= 55.18 seconds
The correct horizontal angle PRQ = 38° 29' 30" + β
= 38°29'30" + 55.18" = 38°30'25.18".

1.16 MEASUREMENT OF BASE LINE

The accuracy of an entire triangulation system depends on that
attained in the measurement of the base line and, therefore, the
measurement of base line forms the most important part of the
triangulation operations. As base line forms the basis for
computations of triangulation system it is laid down with great
accuracy in its measurement and alignment. The length of the Base line
base line depends upon the grade of the triangulation. The length A B
of the base is also determined by the desirability of securing
strong figures in the base net. Ordinarily the longer base, the
easier it will be found to secure strong figures.
The base is connected to the triangulation system
through a base net. This connection may be made
through a simple figure as shown in Fig. 1.35, or
through a much more complicated figures discussed in
the base line extension (Sec. 1.16.3).
Fig. 1.35 Base net
Apart from main base line, several other check bases are also measured at some suitable intervals. In
India, ten bases were measured, the length of nine bases vary from 6.4 to 7.8 miles, and that of the tenth base
is 1.7 miles.
 Triangulation and Trilateration 31

1.16.1 Selection of site for base line

Since the accuracy in the measurement of the base line depends upon the site conditions, the following
points should be taken into consideration while selecting the site for a base line.
1. The site should be fairly level or gently undulating. If the ground is sloping, the slope should be
uniform and gentle.
2. The site should be free from obstructions throughout the length of the base line.
3. The ground should be firm and smooth.
4. The two extremities of the base line should be intervisible.
5. The site should be such that well-conditioned triangles can be obtained while connecting extremities
to the main triangulation stations.
6. The site should be such that a minimum length of the base line as specified, is available.
1.16.2 Equipment for base line measurement
Generally the following types of base measuring equipments are used :
1. Standardised tapes : These are used for measuring short bases in plain grounds.
2. Hunter’s short base: It is used for measuring 80 m long base line and its extension is made by
subtense method.
3. Tacheometric base measurements : It is used in undulating grounds for small bases (cf., Chapter 8
of Plane Surveying).
4. Electronic distance measurement: This is used for fairly long distances and has been discussed in
Chapter 11.
Standardised tapes : For measuring short bases in plain areas standardised tapes are generally used.
After having measured the length, the correct length of the base is calculated by applying the required
corrections. For details of corrections, refer to Chapter 3 of Plane Surveying. If the triangulation system is of
extensive nature, the corrected lengths of the base is reduced to the mean sea level.
Hunter’s short base : Dr. Hunter who was a Director of Survey of India, designed an equipment to
measure the base line, which was named as Hunter’s short base. It consists of four chains, each of 22 yards
(20.117 m) linked together. There are 5 stands, three-intermediate two-legged stands, and two three-legged
stands at ends (Fig. 1.36). A 1 kg weight is suspended at the end of an arm, so that the chains remain straight
during observations. The correct length of the individual chains is supplied by the manufacturer or is determined
in the laboratory. The lengths of the joints between two chains at intermediate supports, are measured directly
with the help of a graduated scale. To obtain correct length between the centres of the targets, usual corrections
such as temperature, sag, slope, etc., are applied.
To set up of the Hunter’s short base the stand at the end A (marked in red colour) is centered on the
ground mark and the target is fitted with a clip. The target A is made truly vertical so that the notch on its tip
side is centered on the ground mark. The end of the base is hooked with the plate A and is spread carefully till
its other end is reached. In between, at every joint of the chains, two-legged supports are fixed to carry the
base. The end B (marked in green colour) is fixed to the B stand and the 1 kg weight is attached at the end of
the lever. While fixing the end supports A and B it should be ensured that their third leg should face each other
under the base. Approximate alignment of the base is the done by eye judgement.
For final alignment, a theodolite is set up exactly over the notch of the target A, levelled and centered
accurately. The target at B is then bisected. All intermediate supports are set in line with the vertical cross-hair
of the theodolite. At the end again ensure that all the intermediate supports and the target B are in one line.
In case the base is spread along undulating ground, slope correction is applied. To measure the slope
angles of individual supports, a target is fixed to a long iron rod of such a length that it is as high above the
tape at A as the trunion axis of the theodolite. The rod is held vertically at each support and the vertical angles
for each support are read.
32 Higher Surveying

B
A

Fig. 1.36 Hunter’s short base

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Example 1.12 A tape of standard length 20 m at 85° F was used to measure a base line. The measured
distance was 882.10 m. The following being the slopes for the various segments of the line.
Segment Slope
100 m 2°20'
150 m 4°12'
50 m 1°06'
200 m 7°45'
300 m 3°00'
82.10 m 5°10'

Find the true length of the base line if the mean temperature during measurement was 63°F. The coefficient
of expansion of the tape material is 6.5 × 10 –6 per °F.
Solution: (refer to Sec. 3.5 of Plane Surveying):
Correction for temperature
Ct = α (t m − t 0 ) L
= 6.5 ×10 −6 × (63 − 65) × 882.10
= 0.126 m (subtractive)
Correction for slope
Cs = Σ[(1 − cos α ) L]
= (1 − cos 2°20' ) × 100 + (1 − cos 4°12' ) × 150 + (1 − cos1°06' ) × 50
+ (1 − cos 7°48′) × 200 + (1 − cos 3°00 ′) × 300 + (1 − cos 5°10′) × 82.10
= 3.079 m (subtractive)
Total correction = Ct + Cs
= 0.126 + 3.079
= 3.205 m (subtractive)
Corrected length = 882.10 – 3.205
= 878.895 m.
Example 1.13. A base line was measured between two points A and B at an average elevation of
224.35 m. The corrected length after applying all correction was 149.3206 m. Reduce the length to mean sea
level. Take earth’s mean radius as 6367 km.
 Triangulation and Trilateration 33

Solution: (Refer Sec. 3.5 of Plane Surveying):

The reduced length at mean seal level is
R
L' = ( R + h) L

6367
× 149.3205
= 6367 +  224.35 
 1000 
= 149.3152 m.
1.16.3 Extension of base line
Usually the length of the base lines is much shorter than the average length of the sides of the triangles.
This is mainly due to the following reasons:
(a) It is often not possible to get a suitable site for a longer base.
(b) Measurement of a long base line is difficult and expensive.
The extension of short base is done through forming a base net consisting of well-conditioned triangles.
There are a great variety of the extension layouts but the following important points should be kept in mind in
selecting the one.
(i) Small angles opposite the known sides must be avoided.
(ii) The length of the base line should be as long as possible.
(iii) The length of the base line should be comparable with the mean side length of the triangulation
net.
(iv) A ratio of base length to the mean side length should be at least 0.5 so as to form well-conditioned
triangles.
(v) The net should have sufficient redundant lines to provide three or four side equations within the
figure.
(vi) Subject to the above, it should provide the quickest extension with the fewest stations.
There are two ways of connecting the selected base to the triangulation stations. There are
(a) extension by prolongation, and
(b) extension by double sighting.
(a) Extension by prolongation
Let up suppose that AB is a short base line (Fig. 1.37) which is required to be extended by four times. The
following steps are involved to extend AB.
F

A H
B E

Fig. 1.37 Base extension by prolongation

34 Higher Surveying

(i) Select C and D two points on either side of AB such that the triangles BAC and BAD are well-
conditioned.
(ii) Set up the theodolite over the station A, and prolong the line AB accurately to a point E which is
visible from points C and D, ensuring that triangles AEC and AED are well-conditioned.
(iii) In triangle ABC, side AB is measured. The length of AC and AD are computed using the measured
angles of the triangles ABC and ABD, respectively.
(iv) The length of AE is calculated using the measured angles of triangles ACE and ADE, and taking
mean value.
(v) Length of BE is also computed in similar manner using the measured angles of the triangles BEC and
BDE. The sum of lengths of AB and BE should agree with the length of AE obtained in step (iv).
(vi) If found necessary, the base can be extended to H in the similar way.
(b) Extension by double sighting
Let AB be the base line (Fig. 1.38). To extend the base to the length of side EF, following steps are
involved.
(i) Chose intervisible points C, D, E, and F.
(ii) Measure all the angles marked in triangles ABC and ABD. The most probable values of these
angles are found by the theory of least-squares discussed in Chapter 2.
(iii) Calculate the length of CD from these angles and the measured length AB, by applying the sine
law to triangles ACB and ADB first, and then to triangles ADC and BDC.
C

A
E F
B

D
Fig. 1.38 Base extension by double sighting
(iv) The new base line CD can be further extended to the length EF following the same procedure as
above. The line EF may from a side of the triangulation system.
If the base line AB is measured on a good site which is well located for extension and connection to the
main triangulation system, the accuracy of the system is not much affected by the extension of the base line.
In fact, in some cases, the accuracy may be higher than that of a longer base line measured over a poor terrain.

1.17 MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL ANGLES

The instruments used for triangulation surveys, require great degree of precision. Horizontal angles are
generally measured with an optical or electronic theodolite in primary and secondary triangulation. For
tertiary triangulation generally transit or Engineer’s transit having least count of 20" is used.
Various types of theodolities have been discussed in Sec. 4.4.5 of Plane Surveying. The salient features
of the modern theodolities are as follow:
(i) These are small in dimension, and light in weight.
(ii) The graduations are engraved on glass circles, and are much finer.
(iii) The mean of two readings on the opposite sides of the circles can be read directly through an
eyepiece, saving the observation time.
(iv) There is no necessity to adjust the micrometers.
 Triangulation and Trilateration 35

(v) These are provided with optical plummet which makes possible accurate centering of the instrument
even in high winds.
(vi) These are water proof and dust proof.
(vii) These are provided with electrical arrangement for illumination during nights if necessary.
(viii) Electronic theodolites directly display the value of the angle on LCD or LED.
1.17.1 Methods of observation of horizontal angles
The horizontal angles of a triangulation system can be observed by the following methods:
(i) Repetition method
(ii) Reiteration method.
The procedure of observation of the horizontal angles by the above methods has been discussed in
Sec. 4.5 of Plane Surveying.
(i) Repetition method
For measuring an angle to the highest degree of precision, several sets of repetitions are usually taken.
There are following two methods of taking a single set.
(a) In the first method, the angle is measured clockwise by 6 repetitions keeping the telescope normal.
The first value of the angle is obtained by dividing the final reading by 6. The telescope is inverted,
and the angle is measured again in anticlockwise direction by 6 repetitions. The second value of
the angle is obtained by dividing the final reading by 6. The mean of the first and second values of
the angle is the average value of the angle by first set.
For first-order work, five or six sets are usually required. The final value of the angle is the mean of
the values obtained by different sets.
(b) In the second method, the angle is measured clockwise by six repetitions, the first three with
telescope normal and the last three with telescope inverted. The first value of the angle is obtained
by dividing the final reading by 6. Now without altering the reading obtained in the sixth repetition,
the explement angle (i.e., 360°– the angle), is measured clockwise by six repetitions, the first three
with telescope inverted and the last three with telescope normal. The final reading should
theoretically be zero. If the final reading is not zero, the error is noted, and half of the error is
distributed to the first value of the angle. The result is the corrected value of the angle by the first
set. As many sets as desired are taken, and the mean of all the value of various sets, is the average
value of the angle. For more accurate work and to eliminate the errors due to inaccurate graduations
of the horizontal circle, the initial reading at the beginning of each set may not be set to zero but to
different values. If n sets are required, the initial setting should be sucessively increased by 180°/n.
For example, for 6 sets the initial readings would be 0°, 30°, 60°, 90°, 120° and 150°, respectively.
(ii) Reiteration method or direction method
In the reiteration method, the triangulation signals are bisected successively, and a value is obtained for
each direction in each of several rounds of observations. One of the triangulation stations which is likely to
be always clearly visible may be selected as the initial station or reference station. The theodolites used for the
measurement of angles for triangulation surveys, have more than one micrometer. One of the micrometer is set
to 0° and with telescope normal, the initial station is bisected, and all the micrometers are read. Each of the
successive stations are then bisected, and all the micrometers are read. The stations are then again bisected
in the reverse direction, and all the micrometers are read after each bisection. Thus, two values are obtained for
each angle when the telescope is normal. The telescope is then inverted, and the observations are repeated.
This constitutes one set in which four value of each angle are obtained. The micrometer originally at 0° is now
brought to a new reading equal to 360°/mn (where m is the number of micrometers and n is the number of sets),
and a second set is observed in the same manner. The number of sets depends on the accuracy required. For
first-order triangulation, sixteen such sets are required with a 1" direction theodolite, while for second-order
triangulation four, and for third-order triangulation two. With more refined instrument having finer graduations,
however, six to eight sets are sufficient for the geodetic work.
36 Higher Surveying

1.18 MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL ANGLES

Measurement of vertical angles is required to compute the elevation of the triangulation stations. The method
of measurement of vertical angles is discussed in Sec. 4.5.4 of Plane Surveying.

1.19 ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS

To determine the azimuth of the initial side, intermediate sides, and the last side of the triangulation net,
astronomical observations are made. For detailed procedure and methods of observation, refer to Chapter 7.

1.20 SOME EXTRA PRECAUTIONS IN TAKING OBSERVATIONS

To satisfy first-second, and third-order specifications as given in Table 1.1, care must be exercised. Observer
must ensure the following:
1. The instrument and signals have been centred very carefully.
2. Phase in signals has been eliminated.
3. The instrument is protected form the heating effects of the sun and vibrations caused by wind.
4. The support for the instrument is adequately stable.
5. In case of adverse horizontal refraction, observations should be rescheduled to the time when the
horizontal refraction is minimum.
Horizontal angles should be measured when the air is the clearest, and the lateral refraction is minimum.
If the observations are planned for day hours, the best time in clear weather is from 6 AM to 9 AM and from
4 PM till sunset. In densely clouded weather satisfactory work can be done all day. The best time for measuring
vertical angles is form 10 AM to 2 PM when the vertical refraction is the least variable.
First-order work is generally done at night, since observations at night using illuminated signals help in
reducing bad atmospheric conditions, and optimum results can be obtained. Also working at night doubles
the hours of working available during a day. Night operations are confined to period from sunset to midnight.

1.21 SATELLITE STATION AND REDUCTION TO CENTRE

A c B
To secure well-conditioned triangles or to have good visibility, objects
such as chimneys, church spires, flat poles, towers, lighthouse, etc., θA θB
are selected as triangulation stations. Such stations can be sighted α
from other stations but it is not possible to occupy the station directly b β
below such excellent targets for making the observations by setting
up the instrument over the station point. Also, signals are frequently a
O
blown out of position, and angles read on them have to be corrected
to the true position of the triangulation station. Thus, there are two
types of problems: θ φ
γ
1. When the instrument is not set up over the true station, and
2. When the target is out of position. S C
d
In Fig. 1.39, A, B, and C are the three triangulation stations. It is not
possible to place instrument at C. To solve this problem another station Fig. 1.39 Reduction to centre
S, in the vicinity of C, is selected where the instrument can be set up, and
from where all the three stations are visible for making the angle observations. Such station is known as
satellite station. As the observations from C are not possible, the observations form S are made on A, B, and,
C from A and B on C. From the observations made, the required angle ACB is calculated. This is known as
reduction to centre.
 Triangulation and Trilateration 37

In the other case, S is treated as the true station point, and the signal is considered to be shifted to the
position C. This case may also be looked upon as a case of eccentricity of signal. Thus, the observations from
S are made to the triangulation stations A and B, but from A and B the observations are made on the signal at
the shifted position C. This causes errors in the measured values of the angles BAC and ABC.
Both the problems discussed above are solved by reduction to centre.
Let the measured
∠BAC = θ A
∠ABC = θ B
∠ASB = θ
∠BSC = γ
Eccentric distance SC = d
The distance AB is known by computations form preceding triangle of the triangular net. Further, let
∠SAC = α
∠SBC = β
∠ACB = φ
AB = c
AC = b
BC = a
As a first approximation in ∆ABC the ∠ACB may be taken as
= 180° − (∠BAC + ∠ABC )
or φ = 180° − (θ A + θ B ) ...(1.37)
In the triangle ABC we have
c a b
= =
sin φ sin θ A sin θ B
c. sin θ A
a = ...(1.38)
sin φ
c. sin θ B
and b = sin φ ...(1.39)

Compute the values of a and b by substituting the value of φ obtained from Eq. (1.37) in Eqs. (1.38) and
(1.39), respectively.
Now, from ∆s SAC and SBC we have
d b
=
sin α sin (θ + γ )
d a
=
sin β sin γ
d sin (θ + γ )
sin α =
b
d sin γ
sin β =
a
As the satellite station S is chosen very close to the main station C, the angles α and β are extremely
small. Therefore, taking sin α = α, and sin β = β in radians, we get.
d sin( θ + γ )
α= b sin 1"
38 Higher Surveying

d sin( θ + γ )
or = × 206265 seconds ...(1.40)
b
d sin γ
and β= × 206265 seconds ...(1.41)
a
In Eqs. (1.40) and (1.41), θ, γ , d , b and a are known quantities, therefore, the values of α and β can be
computed. Now a more correct value of the angle ∠ACB can be found.
We have
∠AOB = θ + α = φ + β
or φ = θ+ α − β ...(1.42)
Eq. (1.42) gives the value of φ when the satellite station S is to the left of the main station C. In the
general, the following four cases as shown in Fig. 1.40a, can occur depending on the field conditions.
Case I: S towards the left of C (Fig. 1.39)
φ = θ+α−β
Case II: S towards the right of C (Fig. 1.40b), the position S2.
φ = θ−α+β ...(1.43)
Case III: S inside the triangle ABC (Fig. 1.40c), the position S3.
φ = θ−α−β ...(1.44)
Case IV: S outside the triangle ABC (Fig. 1.40d), the position S4.
φ = θ+α+β ...(1.45)
A B A B

S3
α β

S2 φ θ
S1
C
C S2
S4 d
(a) (b)

A B A B

α θ β α φ β

S3 C
φ
d θ
d

S4
C
(c) (d)
Fig. 1.40 Locations of satellite station with reference to triangulation stations C

1.22 ECCENTRICITY OF SIGNAL

When the signal is found shifted from its true position, the distance between the shifted signal and the station
point d is measured. The corrections α and β to the observed angles BAC and ABC, respectively, are computed
from Eqs. (1.40) and (1.41), and the corrected values of the angles are obtained as under (Fig. 1.39):
Correct ∠BAS = θ A + α ...(1.46)
Correct ∠ABS = θ B − β ...(1.47)
For other cases shown in Fig. 1.40, one can easily find out the correct angles.