LINUX TUTORIAL 1

LINUX
TUTORIAL

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 2

Table of Contents
1. WHAT IS LINUX? .............................................................................................................................................................. 4
1.1. History of UNIX .......................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2. History of LINUX ....................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.3. Why LINUX/UNIX .................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4. Layers of LINUX/UNIX ........................................................................................................................................... 5

2. GETTING STARTED ....................................................................................................................................................... 7

3. LINUX COMMANDS ....................................................................................................................................................... 8

3.1. Control Keys ................................................................................................................................................................ 8
3.2. Getting Help ................................................................................................................................................................. 8
3.3. LINUX Command Options ........................................................................................................................................ 9
3.4. LINUX Commands ................................................................................................................................................... 10
3.4.1. Basic File Commands ........................................................................................................................................ 10
3.4.2. Display Commands ............................................................................................................................................ 16
3.4.3. File Permissions .................................................................................................................................................. 20
3.4.4. System Resource Commands ........................................................................................................................... 22
3.4.5 List of User Commands ..................................................................................................................................... 28
3.4.6 List of Disk Space Commands .......................................................................................................................... 31

4. FILE SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................................................. 32

4.1. Directories in LINUX ............................................................................................................................................... 33
4.2. Commands in File System ....................................................................................................................................... 34
4.3. Commands for Showning File Details .................................................................................................................. 36

5. SHELL ................................................................................................................................................................................. 44
5.1. Built-in Commands ................................................................................................................................................... 44
5.2. Special Commands ................................................................................................................................................... 44
5.2.1Piping ....................................................................................................................................................................... 45
5.2.2 Command Seperator ............................................................................................................................................. 45
5.2.3Alias ......................................................................................................................................................................... 46

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 3

6. SHELL SCRIPTING........................................................................................................................................................ 47
6.1. Scripting ...................................................................................................................................................................... 47
6.2. Utilities ........................................................................................................................................................................ 47
6.2.1. Sort ......................................................................................................................................................................... 47
6.2.2. Join ........................................................................................................................................................................ 47
6.3. Shell Variables ......................................................................................................................................................... 48
6.3.1. Scalar Variables .................................................................................................................................................. 48
6.3.2 Array Variables ................................................................................................................................................... 48

7. SHELL PROGRAMMING IN BOURNE SHELL ................................................................................................. 49

7.1. Shell Scripting in Bourne ......................................................................................................................................... 49
7.2. Shell Variables ........................................................................................................................................................... 49
7.3. Arithmetic Expansion ............................................................................................................................................... 50
7.4. Control Commands ................................................................................................................................................... 50
7.5. Fille Descriptors ........................................................................................................................................................ 52
7.6. Text Processing Commands .................................................................................................................................... 53
7.7. File Archiving, Compression and Conversion .................................................................................................... 55
7.8. Applications ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.5
7.9. Editors .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.7
7.9.1 vi Editor ................................................................................................................................................................ 57
7.9.1.1. Cursor Movement .................................................................................................................................. 58
7.9.1.2. Inserting of Text .................................................................................................................................... 58
7.9.1.3. Deleting of Text ..................................................................................................................................... 58
7.9.1.4. File Manipulation .................................................................................................................................. 58
7.8.1.5. To see Multiple Files ............................................................................................................................. 59

8. KEY BOARD SHORTCUTS ......................................................................................................................................... 60

9. NETWORKING IN LINUX .......................................................................................................................................... 61

9.1. Addresses .................................................................................................................................................................... 61
9.2. Network Commands ................................................................................................................................................. 61

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 4

1. What is Linux?
1.1 History of UNIX
v UNIX is an Operating System (OS).
v UNIX was developed about 40 years ago i.e., 1969 at AT&T Bell Labs by Ken Thompson
and Dennis Ritche.
v It is a Command Line Interpreter.
v It was developed for the Mini-Computers as a time sharing system.
v UNIX was the predecessor of LINUX.

1.2 History of LINUX

v LINUX was created by Linus Torvalds in 1991.
v LINUX is a open source.
v LINUX is a variant of UNIX.

1.3 Why LINUX/UNIX?

v LINUX is free.
• Can view and edit the source code of OS
v It is fully customizable.
v Most Important Feature is Stability
• 30Years to get the bugs
• Important in shared environments and critical applications
v LINUX has better security structure.
v High Portability
• Easy to port new H/W Platform
• Written in C which is highly portable

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 5

1.4. Layers of LINUX/UNIX

v LINUX/UNIX has three most important parts.

They are Kernel, Shell and File System

Fig 1.1 Layers of Linux

1.4.1 Kernel:
v Kernel is the heart of the operating system.
v It is the low level core of the System that is the interface between
applications and H/W.
v Functions
• Manage Memory, I/O devices, allocates the time between user and
process, inter process communication, sets process priority

1.4.2 Shell:
v The shell is a program that sits on the as an interface between users and kernel
v It is a command interpreter and also has programming capability of its own.
v Shell Types
• Bourne Shell (sh) (First shell by Stephen Bourne)
• C Shell(sh)
• Korn Shell (ksh)
• Bourne Again Shell(bash)

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 6

1.4.3 File System:

v Linux treats everything as a file including hardware devices. Arranged as a
directory hierarchy.
v The top level directory is known as “root (/)”.

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 7

2. Getting Started
v Use username and password for login.
v Login is user unique name.
v Linux is case sensitive.
v Password can be changed by the user at any time.

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 8

3. LINUX Commands
v Commands tell the operating system to perform set of operations.
v The syntax form of the commands are
Command options arguments

3.1Control Keys:

v Control Keys performs special function.

v The control keys used in LINUX are

^S à Pause Display
^Qà Restart Display
^Cà Cancel Operation
^Uà Cancel Line
^Dà Signal end of file
^Và Treat following control character as normal character

3.2Getting Help:

v In LINUX/UNIX whenever you need help with a command type “man” followed by
the command name.
v The Syntax is
man [options] command
v Common options are

-M à Keyword path to man pages.

-k à Keyword list command for all keyword matches.

v We can use help command also.

command - -help

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 9

Fig. 3.1man command

3.3LINUX Command Options

The common command options used in LINUX are

-a à lists all the files and directories, even hidden ones which are preceded by (“.”)
-l à lists the size, creation date and permissions about all the files and directories in
the current directory
-d à lists the directory
-c à don’t create file if it already present
-f à force
-k à block Size
-R à recursive
-t à type
-V à version.

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 10

3.4 LINUX Commands:

3.4.1Basic File Commands:

Command: ls

v To lists the files in the current directory use “ls”.

v ls has many options:
-l à long list (Displays lots of info)
-t à lists by modification date
-S à lists by size
-h à lists file sizes in human readable format
-r à Reverse the order
-a à Lists all hidden files
-F à Lists files of Directory
v Type “man ls” in the terminal for more options
v Options can be combined as: “ls –ltr”
v ll (double l) can be used to list all files in long format

Fig. 3.2 ls command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 11

Command: cd
v cd dir_name
Moves to directory called dir_name
v cd ~
Moves to your home directory

v cd ..
Moves one level hierarchy down from the current directory

v cd .. /../
Moves two level hierarchy down from the current directory

v cd -
Moves to your previous directory

Fig. 3.3 cd command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 12

Command: mkdir
v To create a new directory use “mkdir”.
v Syntax: $ mkdir directoryname

v $mkdir –p dir1/dir2/dir3.
It will create the directory tree.dir3 will created under dir2 and dir2 is created
under dir1.

v $ mkdir dir5
$ cd !$ .
It will point the location of dir5.

v $ mkdir dir5; cd dir5.

It will create dir5 first and then point the location of dir5.Concatenation of
above two commands.(‘;’ called command separator, explained later)

Fig. 3.4 mkdir command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 13

Command: cat
v $ cat filename
It will display the contents of the file filename.
v $cat >flie1
Success is not a destination.
[Ctrl+d]
$

• The above command creates the file called file1 and you can enter the text
there only. After finishing your work press Ctrl+d (Press Enter after the
last line of your character to denote the end of the file).
• If file1 already exists then it over writes the contents of the file1.
• ”>” is called Redirection Operator.

v $cat >>flie1
It’s a progressive journey.
[Ctrl+d]
$ cat flie1
$ Success is not a destination. It’s a progressive journey.

• The above command is used to append more text to already existing file.

v $cat flie1 file2 >file3

• The above command is used to write contents of the file1 and file 2 into
file3

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 14

Command: cp

v Syntax $ cp [options] Source Destination

Copies Source into Destination

v $ cp file1 file2
Copies file1 into file2

v $ cp -prf /home/kacper/ /hdd/backup/

Copies all files, directories, and subdirectories inside kacper into backup

v Options:
-i à interactive
prompts before overwriting

-f à force
if an existing destination file cannot be opened, remove it and try again

-p à preserve
preserve mode, ownership, and timestamps

-R, -r à recursive
copy directories recursively

-u à update
copy only when the SOURCE file is newer than the destination file or
when the destination file is missing

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 15

Command: mv

v To move a file to different location use “mv”.

v $ mv [options] Source Destination
v mv can also be used to rename a file.
v $ mv filename1 filename2 (Rename file)
v $mv /home/kacper/top.v /hdd/kacper/backup/
Moves the top.v into backup directory
v $mv -i /home/kacper/top.v /hdd/kacper/backup/
Asks before over writing the file

Command: rm

v To remove a file use “rm”.

v Syntax: $ rm filename
v rm –i * prompts you before deleting a file. The “i” stands for interactive.
v rm –rf * recursively removes all files and subdirectories in your current directory,
without prompting to delete files.
v Be very careful, deletions are permanent in UNIX/LINUX.

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 16

Command: rmdir

v To remove a empty directory use “rmdir”.

v Syntax :$ rmdir directoryname

Command: pwd

v To find your current path use “pwd”.

v Syntax: $ pwd
Displays the present working directory

3.4.2Display Commands:

Command: less

v “less” displays a file, allowing forward/backward movement within it.

v Use “/” to search for a string in the file.
v Press “q” to quit.
v Syntax:$ less [options]filename

Options
-c à clears the screen before displaying.
+n à starts printing from nth line

Fig. 3.5 less command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 17

Command: head
v “head” displays the top part of a file.
v By default it shows the first 10 lines.
v -n allows you to change the number of lines to be shown.
v Syntax:$ head [options]filename

v Example: “head –n50 file.txt” displays the first 50 lines of the file.txt

$head -18 filename

Displays the first 18 lines of the file called filename.

Fig. 3.6 head command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 18

Command: tail
v Displays last 10(by default) lines of a file.
v Same as head command.
v Syntax:$ tail filename
Displays the last 10 lines from the ending

$tail -12 filename

Displays the last 12 lines from the ending

Fig. 3.7tail command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 19

Command: more
v Read files and displays the text one screen at a time.
v Syntax:
$ more [options] filename

Options :
-c à clears the screen before displaying.
-n à displays the first n lines of the file. We can also see next lines by
pressing [Enter]
+n à displays the lines from nth line.

Fig. 3.8 more command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 20

3.4.3 File Permissions:

v Each file in UNIX/LINUX has an associated permission level.
v This allows the user to prevent others from reading/writing/executing their files or
directories.
v Use “ls –l filename ” to find permission level of that file.
v The permission levels are

• “r” means “read only” permission.

• “w” means “write” permission.
• “x” means “execute” permission.
• In case of directory, “x” grants permission to list directory contents.

Command: chmod

v If you own a file, you can change its permissions with “chmod”.
v Syntax:
$ chmod [user/group/others/all]+[permission] filename

Command: chgrp

v Change the group of the file.

Command: chown

v Change the owner of the file.

Example 1:

chmod 7 7 7 filename
user group others
è Gives user, group and others r, w, x permissions

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 21

Example 2: chmod 750 filename

è Gives the user read, write and execute.
è Gives group members read and execute.
è Gives others no permissions.
è Using numeric representations for permissions:
r = 4; w = 2; x = 1; total = 7

Fig. 3.9 File Permissions

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 22

3.4.4 System Resource Commands:

Command: date

v Reports the current date and time.

v Syntax:$ date

Fig. 3.10 date command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 23

Command: chsh

v Change the user’s login shell.

v Syntax: chsh (passwd –e/ -s)
v

Fig. 3.11chsh command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 24

Command: passwd
v Set or change your password.
v Syntax:$ passwd [options]

Fig. 3.12passwd command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 25

Command: ps
v To view the processes that you are running.
v Syntax: ps [options]
v Example
$ ps –u username
Displays the process of the specified user
$ps –aux
Displays all processes including user and system process
$ps –aux |grep “user1”
Displays all the process of user1

Fig. 3.13ps command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 26

Command: top
v To view the CPU usage of all processes.
v Syntax:$ top

Fig. 3.14 top command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 27

Command: kill
v A user can only start/kill the process that have the user id.
v kill is used for terminating the process.
v Syntax: $ kill [-signal] [process id]

$kill -9 process id
It gives the guarantee that the process would be killed. It is stronger signal
called SIGKILL
$ kill 0
Terminates all current process except your shell

Fig. 3.15 kill command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 28

3.4.5 List of user commands:

Command: who

v Lists all users currently on system.

v Syntax: $ who

Fig. 3.16 who command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 29

Command: who am i
v Reports the details about the command user.
v Syntax:$ who am i

Fig.3.17 who am i command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 30

Command: whoami
v Reports the username of the command user.
v Syntax:$ whoami

Fig. 3.18 whoami command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 31

3.4.6 List of disk Space commands

v $ du [options] [directory or file]
Gives the amount of disk space in use

v $du –sh file/dir

Gives the size of the file/dir

v $df -h or df –kh
Gives the Available space mounted on file System

v $free
Gives the free space

Fig 3.19 disk space commands

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 32

4 File System
v Linux files are organized by a hierarchy of labels, commonly known as hierarchy
structure.
v There are three types of files.
v They are

Ø Regular Files:
§ This contains a sequence of bytes that generally corresponds to code or
data.

Ø Directory Files:
§ Directory file contains an entry for every file and subdirectory that it is
placed.

Ø Device Files:
§ These files correspond to the printers or other devices connected to the
system.

Fig. 4.1File System

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 33

4.1 Directories in LINUX:

v Directory: /bin
/bin contains the binaries which are needed to run LINUX.

v Directory: /boot
/boot has all the files required for booting LINUX on system.

v Directory: /dev
/dev has the devices for all the files.

v Directory: /etc
/etc contains the configuration files of the various software.
Normally no one touch this directory.

v Directory: /home
/home is like My Documents in Windows.
This contains the username as the sub directory.

v Directory: /lib
/lib contains the libraries required fo r the system files.

v Directory: /lost+found
/lost+found contains the files which are damaged or which are not linked to
any directory
These damages are due to the incorrect shutdown.

v Directory: /mnt
This is the directory in which we mount the devices and other file systems.

v Directory: /opt
Here the optional softwares are installed.

v Directory: /root
The directory for the user root

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 34

4.2 Commands in File System:

Command: fgrep

v fgrep is used to search for exact strings in text files.

v The fgrep contains various options.
v They are
è -i for ignore case.
è -v for displaying the lines that don’t match.
è -n for displaying the line number with the line where the match
was found.
v Syntax:$ fgrep [options] textfiles

Command: find

v The find command is used to find the files in the hard drive.
v By using the find command we can find the files by date and also we can
specify the range of times.
v Example: $ find /user/bin –type f –atime +100 –print
v We can also use find to show the postscript files in our directory.
v Example: $ find *.pl
v Syntax :$ find directory [options] [actions]

Fig. 4.2find command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 35

Command: locate
v The locate command is much faster than the find command.
v Finding a file using locate is faster when compared to the find command.
v The files are printed with the path if we use this command.
v Syntax:$ locate [search string]

Fig. 4.3 locate command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 36

4.3 Commands for showing file details:

Command: wc

v $ wc[options] filename .
Gives the number of lines, words and characters in a file called filename

v wc –l filename
Gives the number of lines
v wc –w filename
Gives the number of words
v wc –c filename
Gives the number of characters

Fig. 4.4 wc command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 37

Command: sort
v It prints the lines of the file in sorted order.
v Syntax:
$ sort filename

Fig. 4.5 sort command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 38

Command: uniq
v Used to print the file by removing duplicate adjacent lines.
v Syntax: uniq filename
v Ex: $ uniq text

v uniq –u filename --unique

Prints the only unique lines

v uniq –d filename --repeated

Prints the only duplicate lines

v uniq –c filename --count

Prints the number of times each line occurred

v sort file | unique

Removes the duplicate entries when you are trying to merge two files. First it
will sort the file and then passed to uniq (| is called pipe, explained later section)

Fig 4.6 uniq command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 39

Command: touch
v Used to create empty file.
v Syntax :$touch file2
It will create the file called file2 of size zero bytes, if file2 doesn’t exist.

v Used to change the time stamps.(i.e. dates and times of the recent modification or
access)
v For example to change the last access time of file6 to 10:10 a.m. May 2, 2009, it can
be done in the following way.

$ touch –d ‘2 May 2009 10:10’ file6.

It will change the time stamp of the file6.It can be verified by the following way.
$ ls –l file6
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 120 May 2 2009 file6

$ touch –t 08021130 file7

It can change the date and time. The expression 08021130 denotes the
Month, day, hour and minute. In general the expression type is MMDDhhmm.

Fig 4.6 touch command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 40

Command: tee

v Sends the output in two directions at a time

v Syntax: tee [options ] filename .
v Ex : $ls –l |tee file2
It will list all the files in the current directory and as well stores in the file called
file2.

$ls –l |tee –a file2

It will append the list to file2.

Fig 4.7 tee command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 41

Command: cmp
v This cmp command tests whether two files are identical and reports position of first
character.
v It shows 0 if they are identical, otherwise it shows 1.
v Syntax:
$ cmp filename1 filename2

Fig. 4.8 cmp command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 42

Command: find
v This command is used to find the location of a file.
v Syntax: find path selection criteria
v Ex: $find . –name “top.v”
It will look for top.v in the current directory.

$find . –type d
Finds all directories.

$find /home/kacper -type d

Finds all directories and subdirectories inside the kacper

$find /home/kacper -type d -name “.*”

Finds all hidden directories

$find . –type f
Finds all normal files

$find . –type f –name”.*”

Finds all hidden files

Fig. 4.9 find command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 43

Command: diff
v $ diff filename1 filename2
It compare two files for differences .
v $vimdiff filename1 filename2 or sdiff filename1 filename2
It will display the two files side by side

Fig. 4.10vimdiff command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 44

5. SHELL
v The shell is a unique and multi- faceted program.
v The shell is a command interpreter and a programming language in built.
v There are various types of shells.
v The commonly used shells are Bourne Shell (sh), C Shell (csh or tcsh) and Korn Shell
(ksh).
v The first shell is Bourne Shell (sh).
v These shells have their own built in functions which allow for the creation of the shell
scripts.
v Through the shell, user interacts with the kernel.
v The prompt for the Bourne shell is $ or # for the root user and the prompt for the C
shell is %.
v We can start shell and exit by using the CTRL+D.
v All shells use different syntax and provide different services.

5.1 Built-in Commands:

cd Change the working directory.

echo Writing the standard output in string.
eval Evaluating the given data.
case Case conditional loop.
exec Executing the given command.
exit Exiting the current shell.
export Share the specified environment variable with other shells.
for For conditional loop.
if If conditional loop.
set Set variables for the shell.
test Evaluate the expression as true or false.
trap Trap for a typed signal and execute commands.
unmask Set a default file permission mask for new files.
unset Unset shell variables.
wait Wait for a specified process to terminate.
while While conditional loop.

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 45

5.2 Special Commands:

Command: mount and unmount windows

v Syntax to mount windows in LINUX:

$ mount /dev/hda1/home/username/directoryname
v Syntax to unmount windows in LINUX:
$ unmount /dev/hda1/home/username/directoryname

Command: mount and unmount pen drive (USB)

v Syntax to mount pen drive (USB) in LINUX:

$ mount /dev/sda1/home/username/dire ctoryname
v Syntax to unmount pen drive (USB) in LINUX:
$ unmount /dev/sda1/home/username/directoryname

5.2.1 Piping:

v Programs can output other programs. This process is called piping.

v Pipe (‘|’) used to connect commands to create a pipeline
v Output of program1 can be used as input of program2 using pipes.
v Syntax:

$ ls |wc –l

It will display number of files in the current directory. Here, the output of ls is
passed directly to input of wc, and ls is said to be piped to wc.

$cat file | head | tail -6

It will display last six lines of first of first ten lines. Like this we can connect
number of commands

5.2.2 Command Separator:

v Semi colon (‘;’) used to execute commands one after another.
v Syntax: $ comand1 ; comand2
v Ex: $ls –l ; cat file
It will lists all files first and then displays the contents of file called file.

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 46

5.2.3Aliases:
v Aliases are used to define shorthand for complex commands.
v The alias can be set and it be removed by using the unalias command.
v Syntax:
$ alias name command
$ unalias name command
v Example: $ alias cls clear
$ unalias cls clear

Fig. 5.1Alias

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 47

6. Shell Scripting

6.1Scripting:

v Shell scripting provides the solution to a task as a combination of the UNIX utilities.
v Here pipes and file handling are used to connect subtasks.
v Scripting uses advanced utilities such as sort, cut, paste, join, grep, sed, awk, etc.

6.2 Utilities:

6.2.1Sort:

v Sort records in file and the order default is ascending dictionary order.
v The available options for sort are

-t Field separator
-k Field to sort by
-n Use numeric order
-r Reverse direction

6.2.2 Join :

v Join combines two files based on value of common field.

v It’s similar to join operation in relation algebra.
v The available options are

-1 Field to join on first file

-2 Field to join on second file
-t Field separator

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 48

6.3 Shell Variables:

v Variables are wo rds/strings that take the value.
v The shell allows the user to create, assign and delete variables.
v The programmers use the variables according to scripts they write.
v There are two types of variables, they are

è Scalar variables.
è Array variables.

6.3.1 Scalar variables:

v A scalar variable can hold only one value at a time.
v Here the variables are declared as
name = value;
v Scalar variables are also called as name value pairs.
v Because a variables name and its value can be thought as a pair.

6.3.2 Array variables :

v Array provides a method of grouping a set of variables.

v Here we can create a single array variable and store the other variables.
v Syntax:
$ name[index] = value;
v Example:
$ fruit [0] = apple;
$ fruit [1] = orange;

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 49

7. Shell Programming in Bourne Shell

v Here the Commands run from a file in a subshell.
v We can write programs interactively by starting another new shell at the command
line.

7.1 Shell Scripting in Bourne:

v In Bourne shell the first line is always #! /bin/sh.

v Here by using the chmod we can set the file permissions for the file.
v Example:

#! /bin/sh
echo “Enter the phrase \c”
read param
echo param = $param

Output:

$ ./filename.sh
Hello There
param = Hello There

7.2 Shell variables:

v Variables are referenced by $name .

v Example:

#! /bin/sh
var1 = Kacper
var2 = Technology
echo $var1 $var2

Output:

$./filename.sh
Kacper Technology

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 50

7.3 Arithmetic Expansion:

v Arithmetic Expansion is in the form of $((Expression)).
v The value of the expression will replace the substitution.

v Example:

#! /bin/sh
echo $((5+5+5))

Output:

$./filename.sh
15

7.4 Control Commands:

Command: Conditional if (for SH Shell)

v The conditional if statement is present in present in sh shell and also in csh shell.
v Both shells have different syntax.
v Syntax:

if condition1
then command list if condition1 is true
elseif condition2
then command list if condition2 is true
else
command list if condition1 is false
fi

Command: Conditional if (for CSH Shell)

v Syntax:

if condition1) then
command list if condition1 is true
else if (condition2) then
command list if condition2 is true
else
command list if condition1 is false
endif

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 51

Command: while condition

v The while command goes in the loop as long the condition is true.
v Syntax:

while condition
do
command list
break
continue
done

Command: for and foreach

v One way to loop through a list of string values is with the for and foreach
commands.
v Syntax:

for variable [in list_of_values]

do
command list
done
v Ex: If you want to run list of files you van use foreach in following manner.(no
need to write the script, you can directly use in command window)
$foreach i cat ( `cat list`) # list contains all files what you want run
%echo $i
% run_cmd $i
%end

It will run all the files present in list.

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 52

7.5 File Descriptors :

v The file descriptor has 3 standard file descriptors.

v They are
è Stdin, Standard input to the program.
è Stdout, Standard output from the program.
è Stderr, Standard error output from the program.

v The file redirections are listed below:

> Output redirect

>! Output redirect but overrides noclobber option of csh

>> Append output

>>! Append output but overrides noclobber option of csh and creates the file if it
doesn’t already exist
| Pipe output to another command

< Input redirection

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 53

7.6.1Text Processing Commands:

v awk/nawk [options] filename, scan for patterns in a file and process results.
v grep/egrep/fgrep [options] ‘search string’ filename, search the argument for all the
occurrences of the search string and list them.
v sed [options] filename, stream editor for editing files from a script or from the
command line.

Command: grep

v The grep command is to search the regular expressions in LINUX files.

v fgrep searches for exact strings and egrep uses “extended” regular expressions.
v Syntax:
$ grep [options] regexp [filename]

grep “module” top.v

It will look for module in top.v

grep -i Ignores the case

-n Display numbers
-e Multiple patterens (grep –e “patrn1” –e “patrn2” filename)

Fig. 7.1 grep command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 54

Command: sed
sed works by sequentially reading a file into memory and then performs the
specified action.

sed for substitution.

Ex: (i) $sed [option] ‘s/oldvalue/newvalue/’ filename
It will display the file called filename after the substitution.

sed –i It will do substitution(insert) in the file ,filename.

(sed -i ‘s/oldvalue/newvalue/’ filename )

g To make Global replacement.

(sed ‘s/oldvalue/newvalue/g’ filename )

e For multiple Substituions

(sed -e ‘s/oldvalue1/newvalue1/’ –e ‘s/oldvalue2/newvalue2/’ filename )

Fig. 7.2 sed command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 55

7.7 File archiving, Compression and Conversion:

v zip [options] filename It is used to squash the bunch of files into a zip file.

v Example: $zip filename.zip [file1 file2 file3 ...] or [dir1 dir2 dir3 ...]
It will create a file named filename.zip containing all the files or
directories

$unzip filename.zip
It will copy all the files or directories from filename.zip into current
directory

v tar key[options] filename tar archive refer to man pages for details on creating,
listings and retrieving from archive files. These files can be stored in disk and tape.

v Example: $tar -cf filename.tar [file1 file2 file3… ] or [dir1 dir2 dir3...]
It will create a file named filename.tar containing all the files or
Directories

$tar tvf filename.tar

It will display all files in filename.tar

$tar -xvf filename.tar

It will copy all the files or directories from filename.tar into current
directory

7.8 Applications

There are some frequently used applications or programs which may be invoked
through commands also. This will be useful particularly when user is working through
remote login. However, these commands will work only if the applications are installed.

v xpdf, kpdf and Acrobat Reader are viewers for Portable Document Format (PDF)
files
v Syntax: xpdf filename.pdf
kpdf filename.pdf
acroread filename.pdf

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 56

For OpenOffice
v oowriter is a viewer and editor for MS Office like document files.
v Syntax : oowriter filename.doc or filename.odt
It will open a file called filename.doc
oowriter
It will open new file

v ooimpress is used for preparing Power point like Presentations

v Syntax : ooimpress filename.ppt or filename.pps
It will open a file called filename.ppt
ooimpress
It will open new file

v oodraw is used for preparing drawings.

v Syntax: oodraw filename.sxd
It will open a file called filename.sxd
oodraw
It will open new file

v oocalc is used to open and edit Spreadsheet like xls or sxc files .
v Syntax: oocalc filename.sxc or filename.xls
It will open a file called filename.sxc
oocalc
It will open new file

For Mozilla Firefox

v firefox is used to open Mozilla web browser.

v Example:$firefox www.systemverilog.in
It will open corresponding web page.

$firefox
It will open the browser

For Opera Browser

v opera is used to open opera web browser

v Example:$opera www.systemverilog.in
It will open corresponding web page.

$opera
It will open the browser

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 57

7.9 Editors :
v Editors are the one by which we can edit the files.
v There are two types of editors and they are
èTextual editor.
èGraphical editor.

v The textual editors are

è vi/vim
è emacs
è pico

v The graphical editors are

è gvim
è emacs/xemacs
è dtpad (CDE)
è jot (SGI)

7.9.1 vi Editor:
v The vi editor is a visual editor.
v The vi editor is most commonly used editor in the LINUX.
v There are three modes in vi editor.
è Command mode
è Insert mode
è Command line mode

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 58

7.9.1.1 Cursor Movement :

v Arrow keys are used for the movement.
v Alternative keys used for the cursor keys are h for left, j for down, k for up and
l for right.
v ^f forward one screen.
v ^b back one screen.
v ^d down half screen.
v ^u up half screen.
v G go to the last line of the file.
v $ end of the current file.
v 0 beginning of the current line.
v e end of the word.

7.9.1.2 Inserting the Text :

v i insert text before the cursor.

v a append text after the cursor.
v I insert text at begging of the line.
v A append text at the end of the line.
v o open new line after current line.
v O open new line before current line.

7.9.1.3 Deleting the Text :

v dd deletes the current line.

v D deletes from cursor to the end of line.
v X deletes the current character.

7.9.1.4 File Manipulation:

:w Write changes to file

:wq Write changes and quit
:w! Force overwrite of file
:q Quit if no changes made
:q! Quit without saving changes
:! Shell escape
:r! Insert result of shell command at cursor position

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 59

7.9.1.5 To see Multiple Files

vim –o file1 file2

We can see file1 and file2 at a time, shown below.

[Ctrl] ww for cursor movement from one file to another file

Fig 7.3 vi –o command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 60

8. Keyboard Shortcuts

v [Ctrl] e : moves cursor to the ending of the command

v [Ctrl] a : moves the cursor to the starting of the command

v [Ctrl] l : clears the command window. Functions like clear command.

v [Ctrl] z :to suspend the process (moves the process into background ). bg can be
used to find the background jobs. fg can be used to bring the background
job into foreground.

v [Ctrl] c or [ctrl] |: kill the process.

v [Ctrl] u : erase the current line.

v [Ctrl] k : erase the line from the position of cursor

v [Ctrl] w : delete the word before the cursor

v [Esc] p : find the last command that contains the letters you typed. For example
you had used this command sed ‘s/old1/new1/’ –e ‘s/old2/new2/’
filename earlier. If you want to use again no need to type the whole
command again instead yo u can type sed then press [Esc]p ,it will
display previous command.

v [Esc] b : moves the cursor to the beginning of the previous word.

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 61

9. Networking in LINUX
9.1 Network Addresses:

v The IP address of a host consists of two parts, network address and host address.
v Here the network address will be same for all nodes in the network.
v The host address is unique and it is for the host only.
v Example:
192.168.22.150
Here the network address is 192.168.22 and the host address is 150.

9.2 Network Commands:

Command: ifconfig

v ifconfig sets the IP address and the subnet mask of the interface.
v It also used to activate and deactivate an interface.
v Command:$ ifconfig

Fig. 9.1ifconfig command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 62

Command: sftp

v To Transfer a file from one terminal to other through FTP

v Syntax :sftp <ip_address>
put <filename_with_path> <path_of_connected_terminal>
get < path_of_connected_terminal > < path_where_tobe_copied>

v Example
$ ls
and_gate.v fa.v Mem_ctr mux41.v SONET
$ sftp 192.168.1.167
Connecting to 192.168.1.167...
sftp> cd /hdd/backup
sftp> put fa.v /home/Kacper/
Uploading fa.v to /home/Kacper/fa.v
sftp> get /hdd/scratch/buglist.xls /home/Kacper/
Uploading buglist.xls to /home/Kacper/
sftp> quit
$ls
and_gate.v fa.v Mem_ctr mux41.v SONET buglist.xls

Fig. 9.2 sftp command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc

 LINUX TUTORIAL 63

Command: ssh
v ssh (Secure SHell) is a program for logging into a remote machine and for
executing commands on a remote machine.
v Syntax: $ssh [-l login_name ] hostname
v Exampl: $ssh ip address
We can connect to that particular system

Command: netstat

v netstat are used to check the connectivity of the network.

v Commad:
$ netstat –rn

Fig. 9.3 netstat command

07/10/2009 Linux Tutorial 1.0.doc