1. All students are expected to have access to a working Ubuntu (22.04 LTS) set up by the first tutorial session.
2. Students may follow instructions here or here to dual boot their systems. It is also fine to use a virtual installation or a standalone Ubuntu installation. Please remember to back up all your important data before trying this. (or) Download the VMware workstation for Windows from: https://www.vmware.com/in/products/workstation-pro/workstation-pro-evaluation.html. Once VMware is installed in your windows machine, follow the steps mentioned in below URL to download Ubuntu and creating virtual machine: https://ubuntu.tutorials24x7.com/blog/how-to-install-ubuntu-20-04-lts-on-windows-using-vmware- workstation-player
3. Write a command which displays
1. the calendar of current month 2. the month you were born
4. What is the result of the following commands?
Command Observe and analyze $cal -1 $cal -3 $cal –h $ date $ who $whoami $who -H $who -Hu $Passwd $man who
5. Create new files using cat and ed command.
6. Assume that you are in home directory. Type the following commands and observe the results. $ls $ls –l $ls –a $ls .. $ls . $ls ~ $ls ../. $ls ./.. $ls –lt $ls –ls $ls –lh $ls –al
7. Construct the following directory structure (using both absolute and relative path):
Assume that your present working directory is /home/sim1/BITS/Pilani/ Create a file student_id.doc under WASE directory using relative path Assume that your present working directory is /home/sim1/BITS/Pilani/ Execute following command: $mkdir ./../newdir Find out where newdir folder is created.
8. Assume that your present working directory is /home/sim1/BITS/ . User wishes to update the contents of file info.txt under WIBangalore using relative path. He tries to use the following: $ cat > /WIBangalore/info.txt $ cat > ~/WIBangalore/info.txt $ cat >> ~/WIBangalore/info.txt Identify the correct command. BITS Pilani - Hyderabad Campus Operating Systems (CS F372)
Tutorial 0
The objective of this tutorial is to learn some Linux OS concepts and commands.
1. Run the command ps with various options and explain the output (important fields) $ ps ( to read manual page for any command, run man <command> $ ps –e You will see that each process has a unique id (called pid). Use pipe ( | ) to send output to ‘more’ to view output one screen at a time. What are Unix pipes? $ ps –ef $ pstree (to see process tree. Look at the tree and find the bash process. Go up the tree by using grep to look at parents recursively. You can see that init process is at the root of this tree.) $ ps –ef | grep [parent pid]..
2. Run a program and use kill pid to terminate it. E.g. open vi in the background ( tell them about background processes), and terminate it by its pid. $ sleep 100& (command to sleep for 100 seconds) [1] 12175 shows pid $ kill 12175 (use kill -9 <pid> if this doesn’t work)
3. Create hard link to a file. What is a hard link? Need for hard links? Assume a file 1.c is present with some text content; run the following commands $ ln 1.c 2.c $ ls –li After running the above command, you will see two files with same size and inode number (what is inode?) Now, delete 2.c, and again run “ls –li” Repeat the above process but now delete the original file instead of the new one. Nothing changes except the file name. Directories have at least 2 links. Why?
4. Create symbolic link to a file. What is a symbolic link aka soft link aka sym link? $ ln –s 1.c 2.c $ ls –li The output is different this time, 2.c is shown as a symbolic link to 1.c (look at the first letter in the permission field, and also look at the end of the output line corresponding to 2.c). The inode is also different. Attempting to read content of 2.c will result in content of 1.c being read instead. The symbolic link file just contains the name of the file it is pointing to; you can see this by running: $ readlink 2.c it will show 1.c as its content Copying the symbolic link to another file copies the content of the original file the symbolic link is pointing to. $ cp 2.c 3.c $ ls –li to see the inodes Now delete the symbolic link. $ rm 2.c $ ls –li Now delete all .c files (use rm <filename>) Repeat the above process of creating symbolic link, but now delete the original file instead of the symbolic link. $ ln –s 1.c 2.c $ ls –li $ rm 1.c The symbolic link remains but the file it points to has become invalid. Try copying 2.c to another file….will result in an error. $ cp 2.c 3.c cp: cannot stat ‘2.c’: No such file or directory Why are symbolic links needed?
5. What is sudo? Use sudo for running privileged commands e.g .
$ sudo apt-get install vim [You may need to enter password] It will download and install vim from the repository on the Internet. To uninstall, run $ sudo apt-get remove vim
6. Boot process: Linux booting comprises the following steps:
BIOS (from ROM) Boot Loader - MBR (master boot record – in the first sector, used to load GRUB) - GRUB (Grand Unified Boot Loader) Kernel Init Runlevel scripts Read more at : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_startup_process 7. Listing Directory contents : To obtain a list of all filenames in the current directory $ ls Shows lists of filenames in the current directory arranged in ASCII collating sequence with one filename in each line. $ ls calendar $ ls perl
8. Deleting Files : rm The rm (remove) command deletes one or more files. A file once deleted can’t be recovered. $ rm $ rm chap01 chap02 $ rm * Sometimes need to delete all files in a directory as part of a cleanup operation. The * when used by itself, represented all files and can use rm with it.
9. top : The top command allows users to monitor processes and system resource usage on Linux $ top
10. Grep command is a powerful tool that searches for matching a regular expression against text in a file, multiple files or a stream of input. It searches for the pattern of text that you specify on the command line and prints output for you. $ grep options pattern filename(s)
Options Description -c : This prints only a count of the lines that match a pattern -h : Display the matched lines, but do not display the filenames. -i : Ignores, case for matching -l : Displays list of a filenames only. -n : Display the matched lines and their line numbers. -v : This prints out all the lines that do not matches the pattern -e exp : Specifies expression with this option. Can use multiple times. -f file : Takes patterns from file, one per line. -E : Treats pattern as an extended regular expression (ERE) -w : Match whole word -o : Print only the matched parts of a matching line, with each such part on a separate output line.
11. cat (“concatenate“)
cat command allows us to create single or multiple files, view contain of file, concatenate files and redirect output in terminal or files. $ cat options file
It is used to find out number of lines, word count, byte and characters count in the files specified in the file arguments. $ wc options filename
Options Description -l : Counts number of lines -w : Counts words -c : Counts characters Tutorial 0
The objective of this tutorial is to learn the concepts related to booting an OS.
1. GRUB (Grand Unified Boot Loader):
GRUB is the boot loader that Linux systems use to boot the operating system of your choice.
By default, in a single boot system the GRUB menu won’t be displayed. So press Shift immediately after POST to make GRUB menu visible. You can see the list of OS installed in your system and can select one of them
You can change various options in the Grub in Linux.
To make the GRUB changes above effective, you need to run :
$ sudo update-grub
Now, during next booting any changes made in /etc/default/grub will be effective.
Some of the options you can modify are:
GRUB_DEFAULT OS you want to boot, numbered 0 onwards. 0 by default.
GRUB_HIDDEN_TIMEOUT timeout to show GRUB (in sec) GRUB_HIDDEN_TIMEOUT_QUIET=true to display the time for the above GRUB_TIMEOUT time to load the default OS (in sec)
Make changes to GRUB_TIMEOUT; setting it to 0 would timeout immediately or you can increase the time to say 60. In this case, the menu will be displayed for 60 seconds.
2. BIOS
You can change options in ROM-BIOS which will affect the whole system. Find out the interrupt key. It will likely be one of F8, F12, or Del. To find out the interrupt key, restart your system. When the system powers, press the interrupt key to enter the BIOS menu.
(NOTE: DO NOT CHANGE THE PASSWORD IN BIOS)
Select “Enter Setup”. You will get screen like below. You can view various system related stuff or make changes to the system parameters here.
You can make changes to the boot order of various devices from Primary Boot Sequence.
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