THE EFFECTS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

OF CHILDREN UPTO 16 YEARS IN KENYA: A SURVEY STUDY OF HURUMA

ESTATE IN ELDORET

Statement of the Problem

Interaction with some teachers in schools in Eldoret reveals a growing trend towards
violence and brutality towards pupils from their parents and homes. Often this violence
plays out in other forms towards fellow pupils. In 2004, for instance a fourteen year old
JSS student was arrested for raping another classmate. Further investigation revealed that
the perpetrator of this crime had suffered domestic violence.

Eldoret is predominantly a sprawling market town with the majority of the residents
living below the nation’s poverty line. This has resulted in a trend where many families
are pre-occupied with the pressures of daily living to the extent that some hoes are
witnessing indiscipline among pupils. In one of the Kenyan Daily Papers in 2005, a
fifteen year old JSS student was reported to have beaten his father mercilessly to an
unconscious stage for failing to pay his school fees. The propensity for pupils to be
violent is also in part influenced by the domestic ecology.

From preliminary discussion with some teachers within selected schools within Eldoret, it
was voted by these researchers that some pupils had the tendency of acting out violently,
showing disrespect to teachers and often using abusive words. While many of the schools
apparently had systems in place to respond to these behaviours, aspect of these
behaviours of pupils seems to have been condoned in some cases by the same parents.

Objectives of the study

The main objectives of the study will be to;
i) Find out the types of domestic violence and the possible causes
ii) Find out the effects of domestic violence on the school-going child or
adolescent
iii) To find out Signs that can be observed by either parents or teachers to indicate
a child is living with domestic violence
iv) To find out the Role played by either a parent or a teacher in the event a child
is living with domestic violence
v) Suggest way of eliminating or reducing the occurrence of domestic violence

Research questions
The main research questions will be:
i) What are the types of domestic violence and the possible causes?
ii) What are the effects of domestic violence on school pupils within area?
iii) What are the Signs that can be observed by either parents or teachers to
indicate a child is living with domestic violence?
iv) What roles are played by either a parent or a teacher in the event a child is
living with domestic violence?

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 v) What can be done to reduce domestic violence?

Significance of the Study

The problem of domestic violence is a national issue, and may not be limited to the area
in which the study was carried out. The study among others will bring home to policy
markers on the need to implement all kinds of laws relating to the rights of children
especially those relating to violence emanating from the home. Again the study will bring
to the knowledge of those adults who take the law into their own hands and inflict
violence acts on children to be careful of the repercussion of their actions on the life of
the adolescent.

Finally, the study will create awareness among significant others, opinion leaders and
educational authority on the effects of domestic violence on the child and its implications
to the Kenyan Society.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction
This chapter involves systematic identification, location and analysis of the previous
studies related to the matter of investigation. It is useful chapter that entails analysis of
casual observations and opinions related t this proposed study. Chapter two, through the
literature review, will help the researcher to get a thorough understanding and insight into
past works and trends records concerning the proposed study. The literature review will
enable the researcher to identify key areas that have thoroughly been researched on the
strength of weaknesses of past researchers, and identify the gaps to be filled from these
studies, (Ayoke, 2003).

2.1 Historical Development of Domestic Violence

Secondary Victimization of Children Exposed to Domestic Violence Children is entirely
dependent on their parents and their environment for physical nourishment, and
emotional survival. Emotional nurturing and warmth, as well as protection from threats to
a child’s sense of safety, self-esteem and well being, are essential for both physical and
emotional growth and development. Ideally, the physical, social and emotional
atmosphere within a home should provide a child with a safe and development-
stimulating environment. Normally the family plays a crucial role in protecting children
from traumatizing events and to assist them in recovery when necessary. Children in
violent families are however traumatized because of their families. The family is

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probably one of the most commonly used examples of an interdependent system, which
plays a crucial role in developing attitudes and behavior of children. A system consists of
several interrelated and interactive parts, which can never be viewed in isolation. A
holistic view of the system is necessary when a family system is studied, because change
in one part of the system will probably lead to changes in another part (Mickish, 2002).
When aspects of the systems theory and the social cognitive learning theory of Alfred
Bandura are combined, it supports the idea that children (one part of the system) may
imitate and learn the attitudes and behaviors modeled when domestic violence occurs (by
another part of the system). In a family where inter-parental violence occurs children can
also be influenced, either by witnessing the actual abuse in various ways or witnessing
the effect thereof on the mother.

Children exposed to inter-parental violence might listen to the violence from their
bedrooms, or they might be forced to watch their mother being assaulted, beaten, raped or
even killed by their mother’s partner. Children might not actually have to witness the
abuse directly, but Secondary Victimization of Children Exposed to Domestic Violence 6
can still be aware of it by sensing their mother’s fear and her being upset and also by
seeing her wounds (Stephens, McDonald & Juries, 2000). The impact of inter-parental
violence may also disrupt their lives further, when their mother seeks refuge elsewhere
(e.g. shelters) because these circumstances demands adaptation to a different environment
than that they were used to at home.

Children are then often forced to adapt to new living conditions, sharing a „home‟ with
strangers, going to new schools, meeting and making new friends, abiding by new rules
of living in the shelters, living without their fathers, pets and everything they were
accustomed to. Abused women often feel destitute because their spouses isolated them
from their friends and family. These women often escape from their homes in fear for
their lives and can sometimes not seek refuge at their friends or families, because the
friends‟ lives might then also be endangered. The husband may then also know where to
locate them. Women especially in rural communities do not have the resources to start
new lives and is often obliged to seek refuge at shelters (POWA, 2003). The parenting

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abilities of battered women might also be affected by domestic violence (DeVoe &
Smith, 2002). Primary victims of domestic violence might be more likely to become
aggressive towards their own children, display less warmth in their parent-child
interactions, and be less consistent in their parenting efforts. This can contribute to the
child‟s negative experiences of his home environment and can impact negatively on
his/her development.

According to the developmental theory of Erick Erickson, infancy is a stage when a child
is especially dependent on the nurturing and care provided by parents, to overcome
Secondary Victimization of Children Exposed to Domestic Violence developmental
challenges and to build trusting relationships (Louw, Van Ede & Louw, 1998). If
inadequate parenting occurs it may influence a child’s future relationships and
development. The parent-child relationship is affected by the battered women’s struggle
to cope with her own physical injuries and emotional reactions to her victimisation. The
trauma that children and adolescents are exposed to, by witnessing inter-parental violence
can cause several short- and long-term detrimental effects that can impact negatively on
their development.

Today, domestic violence1 is recognized as a serious societal problem in the United

States. Yet, children in families in which such violence occurs have remained largely
invisible as victims. Concern about children’s exposure to domestic violence is
increasing, however, in light of a growing body of knowledge regarding the prevalence
and effects of childhood exposure to domestic violence. Research suggests that between
3.3 million and 10 million children in the United States are exposed to domestic violence
each year.4 And more than a decade of empirical studies indicates that this exposure can
have significant negative effects on children’s behavioral, emotional, social, and
cognitive development.

According to Fantuzzo, (1997), Families affected by domestic violence touch all service
systems and live in every community. Children exposed to domestic violence are in our
schools, day-care centers, health care institutions, child welfare systems, and other

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agency settings. Law enforcement personnel have contact with children exposed to
domestic violence through on-site police responses to domestic violence calls. Virtually
every branch of our court system handles cases involving domestic violence. Though
domestic violence cuts across the economic spectrum, poor families are more likely to be
affected.6 In fact, many families in which domestic violence is present struggle with
multiple problems, including poverty, substance abuse, and exposure to other forms of
violence. For example, current research indicates that in 30% to 60% of families
experiencing either domestic violence or child maltreatment, the other form of violence is
also present.

In response to the growing awareness of the potential harm to children exposed to

domestic violence, a wide range of agencies and service providers are developing
intervention policies and practices. Professional organizations, including the National
Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges, the American Bar Association, the
American Medical Association, and the American Psychological Association, have
published intervention recommendations, convened task forces, commissioned reports, or
sponsored conferences to address this problem.

Community-based domestic violence organizations, many of which have served battered

women and their children for more than two decades, have expanded their children’s
services to provide more comprehensive responses. Through cross-agency collaborations,
innovative pilot programs are being implemented at various sites throughout the country
to offer mental health services to children exposed to domestic violence and improve law
enforcement responses to domestic violence incidences in which children are present.
Policymakers are devoting increased attention to this issue, and several states have passed
legislation, especially in the family law area, designed to improve outcomes for children
exposed to domestic violence.

Though many of these approaches hold promise, few programs have been evaluated. It is
difficult to find funding for intervention programs in this field, and even more difficult to
obtain adequate funding for thorough evaluations. Yet, without this research,

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policymakers cannot determine which interventions yield the best results, and service
providers do not have the quantitative information they need to improve programs and
justify their long-term support. Despite the limitations in current research regarding the
efficacy of programs for children exposed to domestic violence, the potential harms to
these children necessitate action.

Sweeping policy changes are premature, given our limited understanding of their
potential impact. However, short of such changes, there is much work that can be done to
improve interventions for children affected by domestic violence. Domestic violence is
assuming national and international attention (Amnesty International 1995). It is a type of
violence that is prevalent in many homes, and the World over. It is a form of violence
that occurs in the form of defilement, assault, sexual harassment, and rape or battering,
child abuse, for example denial of right, necessities and opportunities, threatening
patterns of communication such as insults, harassment, neglectful lack of action.

Domestic violence has been outlined by Amnesty International as most violent attacks on
an individual or group of people or women. It involves physical, sexual and
psychological violence in the family including battering, sexual abuse of female children
in the household, dowry related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation and
other traditional practices harmful to any member of the household. Domestic violence
may be exhibited by any member of the household, (Amnesty International, 1995).

All over the World, governments and non-governmental and international organisations
are trying to collaborate to come out with appropriate ways to handle these burning
issues. Women all over the World agitated and fought for human dignity, more
especially, the dignity of women. Significant among these moves was the Beijing
Platform for Action (BPFA, 1998). International Federation of Women lawyers (FIDA) is
one of the organisations in Kenya which plays advocacy roles in combating all kinds of
violence against children and women in society. On the international front, Avoke,
Hayford, Ihenacho, and Ocloo (1999) cited the United Nations declaration (1998) which

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enjoined member states to protect the rights of citizens, particularly the vulnerable groups
such as women, children, the disabled and disadvantaged.

2.2 Nature of Domestic Violence

According to Cusack et al (1999), most forms of violence inflicted upon women and
children in Kenya by persons known to them or in some cases by strangers are considered
a “private matter” and given no name or value. In everyday life, we see our relationships
in a variety of circumstances. According to Cussack et al (1999), violence is a forceful
way of getting something from someone. It is also living with someone and being forced
to do things you do not understand and things that hurt. Violence refers to those actions
that have a harmful physical (intentional infliction of pain on an individual) or mental
effect (forced to do things that cause displeasure) on the individual. Physical violence can
be perceived from five themes. They are; Cruel punishment, Forced labour, Beatings,
Assault with weapon and, and Death.

Most at times, children and women are targeted for these acts. Cruel punishment come in
the forms of starving children or food rationing, inserting pepper and ginger into anus of
children, putting children’s fingers into hot oil and the like. Common among forced
labour is the situation in which parents or guardians send their children to relatives and
other people to be made a housemaid or houseboy for a little remuneration from their
masters. These children are forced to work for long hours at work described as “hard”
with little time off, all in exchange for food and shelter. Teachers use students to work for
them unofficially without the students consent, and these requests are accompanied by
unspoken threat that school work will suffer if not adhered to the request.

Beating can be described as physical assault with various degree of physical injury,
descriptions of which is severity (stab wound) if weapons are used. Beating can range
from isolated slapping using a hand to the regular use of fists, feet and weapons in attacks
that targeted any part of the body. Another form of violence may be psychological which
is behaviour that is directed at an emotional level or has emotional impact such as
inability to sleep or eat (restlessness). It includes threatening behaviour, verbal abuse and

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infantalisation of women. Certain traditional practices are violent in nature. Female
circumcision is one form of such traditional practices which many women underwent as
teenagers or children, some even as infants (Amnesty International 1995). Other
examples include widowhood rites which sometimes has element of violence in its
administration and a type of enslavement of female called “Trokosi”. Nolan (1998)
categorised a broad range of violent acts and abuse children are likely to fall victim to,
and these include: Emotional deprivation of love and physical contact, Verbal abuse that
involves constantly being shouted at, Exposure to violent aggressive scenes at home,
Physical neglect, Deprivation of food warmth and shelter, and Lack of adult protection
bullying, sexual assault and emotional neglect.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

The study will be guided by the Erickson’s theory developed by Hook, Watts &
Cockcroft, 2002. The theory consists of eight stages of psychosocial development
including the impact of biological and societal influences on the individual’s
development. Each stage in the cycle of life presents the individual with a new adaptive
psychosocial life task, which the individual needs to resolve if further healthy
development is to occur (Hook, Watts & Cockcroft, 2002). The psychosocial virtues and
values of hope, will, purpose, skill, and fidelity can be attained once the individual made
a healthy resolution of a crisis.

Crises or key challenges is the turning points of maturation, where the individual needs to
reach a compromise between two Secondary Victimization of Children Exposed to
Domestic Violence opposing poles, to reach the above mentioned virtues of healthy
development (Hook et al., 2002). The successful resolution of each stage therefore does
not merely imply the selection of the positive pole of each developmental challenge, but
rather a synthesis between the two opposing poles to attain a developmental virtue.
Although each developmental period consists of an ultimate virtue with its challenges,
the challenges and virtues of previous stages are still present in the current developmental
phase which can still influence an individual’s development (Hook et al., 2002).

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Infancy Stage one of Erickson’s theory consists of a compromise between basic trust
versus basic mistrust, and the virtue attained is hope. This developmental period ranges
from birth to approximately two years of age. The maternal figure has a significant
impact on a child’s attainment of hope, where a balance between trust and mistrust can be
reached according to Erickson (Hook et al., 2002). The quality of the maternal
relationship creates a sense of trust in children, where the mother seems trustworthy to
fulfill a baby’s needs and to protect him from harm. The maternal care provided helps a
child to evaluate others and their surroundings as safe and trustworthy. Violent events can
however threaten a child’s sense of secure attachment, which is an essential base from
which children evaluate their environment. Symptoms of mistrust in infants who witness
violence can often be characterized by poor sleep and sleeping habits, excessive crying
and a higher susceptibility to illness and irritability (Senecal, 2002). These characteristics
of the infants may also be used as an excuse by the perpetrator to assault the mother and
to accuse her of bad parenting (Baker et al., 2002).

Toddlers and Early Childhood. Stage two of Erickson’s theory consists of autonomy
versus shame (toddlers up to three years of age). The child is encouraged to become more
autonomous while they develop a right sense of conduct (Hook et al., 2002). They can
develop a synthesis of will, by attaining greater independence from their caregivers.
Toddlers are involved in a range of activities during this stage wherein their greater
attainment of independence leads to feeling autonomous or the inverse thereof to doubt
their abilities. Toddlers can also become aggressive, cruel and manifest irrational fears if
successful development did not occur. Stage three entails initiative versus guilt to reach
the virtue of purpose. Children in this phase of development are able to meet the
challenges of the social environment in a directed or purposeful way. If successful
development takes place, children in this phase will be responsible. If it does not occur,
children may become rigid, self-conscious and hesitant to take responsibility. Children
aged two to six years learn, during this developmental period, how to express their
aggression and anger, as well as other emotions in appropriate ways. Exposure to
domestic violence can however teach children unhealthy ways of expressing their anger
and aggression, especially when they receive conflicting messages of what is seen and

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what they are taught (Baker et al., 2002). This developmental period is also critical in
forming a preschooler’s ideas about gender roles based on social messages from their
home environment. Gender stereotypes of males being aggressors and females being
victims can be learnt, which may impact on the continuation of the cycle of violence in
future generations. A boy may for example view the expression of his masculinity, by
imitating and identifying with his father who demonstrates his manhood through hostile
and aggressive behavior. A girl may identify with her mother’s femininity by being
submissive and withdrawn (Senecal, 2002).

Among preschoolers signs of terror can be identified by yelling, irritable behavior,

hiding, shaking and stuttering (Senecal, 2002). Younger children also appear to be more
likely to experience somatic complaints and to regress to earlier stages of functioning and
development (Baker et al., 2002; Senecal, 2002). Ambivalent feelings towards their
parents can be identified when these children get older and anger and overt hostility
toward their mother may replace initial sympathy for a battered mother.

Late Childhood. Inferiority complexes, low self esteem, feelings of unworthiness and
incompetence can present itself when children do not reach a balance between the fourth
development stage of industry versus inferiority (Hook et al., 2002). In this stage children
need to aspire becoming a productive member of society, but domestic violence at home
can negatively impact on their development. Late childhood is characterized by an
increased complexity in thinking about right and wrong with an emphasis on fairness and
intent that is characteristic of normal development of school aged children (seven to
twelve years of age). Baker et al. (2002) states that the impact of exposure to inter-
parental violence may make children more prone to adopt rationalizations to justify
violence. Excuses like „it‟s the alcohol he used that made him violent‟ or „the victim
deserved the abuse‟ is often viewed as valid justifications by school-aged children.
Academic and social success forms an integral part of the child‟s developing self-
concept. Academic achievement is decreased by children either being tired or too
distracted and worried to concentrate in class. This links to the developmental stage of
Erickson where children may feel inferior because of poor academic achievements and

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social success (Hook et al., 2002). Baker et al. (2002) also states that gender roles
associated with intimate partner abuse may also become evident when children learn
gender roles associated with domestic Secondary Victimization of Children Exposed to
Domestic Violence, for example males being the perpetrators and females the victims.
Males tend to be disruptive, acting aggressively towards objects and people, and throwing
severe temper tantrums. Females on the other hand tend to have an increasing assortment
of somatic complaints or show withdrawn, passive, and clinging behavior (Black &
Newman, 2000).

Adolescence. In this developmental phase the dominant challenge is integrating different

aspects of one self to secure a sense of one‟s identity versus role confusion (Hook et al.,
2002). Being able to be at peace with one-self refers to an affinity between the individual,
their social roles and community ties. It requires that the individual integrate all the
aspects of their previous developmental phases and are able to answer three questions
regarding his/her identity: “Who am I?”, “Where do I belong?” and “What do I want out
of life?”. Erickson identified several factors that can occur (e.g. withdrawal, isolation,
delinquency and substance abuse) if an integration of a person‟s identity could not be
obtained. Adolescence (13 to 18 years) is a demanding and challenging developmental
period in terms of biological, cognitive, emotional and social aspects. During this
developmental stage adolescents develop an increased sense of self and autonomy from
their family. Being witnesses of domestic violence can however impact negatively on
their communication and negotiation skills. Physical changes in their appearance may
also make adolescents more prone to impose their will with physical intimidation or
aggression towards their siblings and peers. Having confidence in their own bigger
physical appearance, may contribute to adolescents also being abused or hurt during
physical confrontations between parents, when they physically try to intervene.
Peers play an increasingly important role in an adolescent’s life. The desire for
acceptance and the influence of peers can make an adolescent more susceptible to adopt
maladaptive coping strategies. The importance of peers may contribute to the shame and
fear adolescents‟ experience if their peers find out about the abuse at home. They may
avoid spending time at home and than use maladaptive coping strategies to avoid

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negative feelings and violence at home by using drugs. Adolescents exposed to domestic
violence at home are also prone to have difficulties in establishing healthy relationships,
because of what they have witnessed at home and tend to imitate maladaptive practices in
their relationships.

Adolescent girls may develop extreme distrust in men and may express negative attitudes
about marriage, whereas boys may often side with their fathers and may also start to
abuse their mothers (Black & Newman, 2000). Adolescents tend to place responsibility
on the victim of abuse, which can explain why adolescent boys tend to handle their
frustration by repeating violent experiences. Typically they repeat the behavior that was
modeled by the aggressor by assaulting their mother or siblings (Senecal, 2002).
Adolescents from violent families may therefore use aggression as a predominant form of
problem solving and may even project the blame onto others. Adolescents may also
become manipulators of their family system, and may blame the mother for them
experiencing family problems, including difficulty within the school setting and
increased social delinquency (Senecal, 2002). This could also contribute to adolescents
having difficulty to adjust to changing circumstances.

2.4 Causes of Domestic Violence

According to (Cusack et al 1999) there are varieties of causes to domestic violence these
are categorised into three broad areas: Verbal alteration that can escalate into violent
behaviour, Financial issues that can lead to disagreements and violence, Offensive
conduct, From the perspective of (cusack et al 1999) the causes of domestic abuse more
especially violence against women and children are Infidelity, aspect of polygamy, socio-
economic reasons, disobedience, family interference, marital disharmony, outside
influences and vices.
School related reasons such as refusing to go to school, being late to school, refusing to
perform personal chores of teachers, late payment of school fees, disobedience in school
and other petty offences which include cheating in examination are other causes linked to
domestic abuse (Cusack et al 1999). Afrifa (1994) argues that inspite of the free
education in Kenya over a quarter of acentury afte independence only 44% of children

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are enrolled in the Primary School, and he attributes the lack of full access to education
as a violation of pupils rights. He further cites from a newspaper article, which states that,
some families were openly selling their children because of poverty and hunger (Afrifa
1994 cited in Avoke, 2003).

2.5 Effects of Domestic Violence

Children who live with domestic violence face numerous risks, such as the risk of
exposure to traumatic events, the risk of neglect, the risk of being directly abused, and the
risk of losing one or both of their parents. All of these can lead to negative outcomes for
children and clearly have an impact on them. Research studies consistently have found
the presence of three categories of childhood problems associated with exposure to
domestic violence: Behavioral, social, and emotional problems, Cognitive and attitudinal
problems, Long-term problems

Children also display specific problems unique to their physical, psychological, and
social development. For example, infants exposed to violence may have difficulty
developing attachments with their caregivers and in extreme cases suffer from "failure to
thrive." It should be noted that there also are limitations and uncertainties to the research
since some of the children in such studies do not show elevated problem levels even
under similar circumstances. Preschool children may regress developmentally or suffer
from eating and sleep disturbances. School-aged children may struggle with peer
relationships, academic performance, and emotional stability. Adolescents are at a higher
risk for either perpetrating or becoming victims of teen dating violence. Reports from
adults who repeatedly witnessed domestic violence as children show that many suffer
from trauma-related symptoms, depression, and low self-esteem.

2.6 Children's Protective Factors in Response to Domestic Violence

Studies documenting the types of problems associated with children who are exposed to
domestic violence reveal a wide variation in their responses to the violence. Children's
risk levels and reactions to domestic violence exist on a continuum where some children
demonstrate enormous resiliency while others show signs of significant maladaptive

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adjustment. Protective factors such as social competence, intelligence, high self-esteem,
outgoing temperament, strong sibling and peer relationships, and a supportive
relationship with an adult, are thought to be important variables that help protect children
from the adverse effects of exposure to domestic violence. In addition, research shows
that the impact of domestic violence on children can be moderated by certain factors,
including: The nature of the violence, Coping strategies and skills, The age of the child,
The time since exposure, Gender, and the presence of child abuse

Wolfe et al (1986) posit that children who are victims of domestic violence suffer
traumatising events such as injury or death. Negative feelings such as withdrawal,
depression abnormal fears, regression, learning problems or a decline in school
performance, truancy, bullying, difficulty in building and maintaining relationships,
impulsiveness, behavioural problems, denial and emotional problems are coupled with
daily activities of children who suffer or witness domestic violence.

Depression has devastating effects on children eating disorders, psychosomatic illness,

and difficulties at school and instances in substance abuse. According to Wolfe et al
(1986) children who were victims or witness to physical domestic violence are more
likely to become perpetrators of domestic violence as adults than those who were not
victimised.

2.7 Prevalence and Effects of Child Exposure to Domestic Violence

Researchers agree that millions of children are exposed to domestic violence each year;
however, there is no consensus regarding the specific number of children affected. The
often-cited figures of 3.3 million and 10 million are estimates derived from
methodologically limited studies. This absence of trustworthy statistics on the prevalence
of child exposure to domestic violence affects the ability of policymakers, practitioners,
and advocates arguing for and designing effective interventions and policies for this
population, (VERMAAK, 2002).

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One promising approach to improving understanding about the prevalence of childhood
exposure to domestic violence is to use data gathered by professionals in close contact
with domestic violent incidences (such as law enforcement officers). In their article,
Fantuzzo and Mohr (1998) illustrate the value of such data. They describe a multicity
research project in which investigators created a sample of study cases using domestic
violence misdemeanors.7 Results indicated that children, particularly those under the age
of five, were disproportionately present in households experiencing domestic violence,
and that these homes were more likely to have other risk factors present as well, such as
poverty, substance abuse, low educational achievement of the principal care provider, and
single-female heads of household. Though this study shows the potential of using data
gathered by professionals close to the violent incident, it was not a national study and did
not include all types of domestic violence cases.

Exposure to domestic violence can have serious negative effects on children. These
effects may include behavioral problems such as aggression, phobias, insomnia, low self-
esteem, and depression. Children exposed to domestic violence may demonstrate poor
academic performance and problem-solving skills, and low levels of empathy. Exposure
to chronic or extreme domestic violence may result in symptoms consistent with
posttraumatic stress disorder, such as emotional numbing, increased arousal, avoidance of
any reminders of the violent event, or obsessive and repeated focus on the event.
Retrospective studies indicate that there may also be negative effects in adulthood,
including depression, low self-esteem, violent practices in the home, and criminal
behavior. The effects of domestic violence can vary tremendously from one child to the
next.

The family situation, community environment, and the child’s own personality may
either strengthen the child’s ability to cope or increase the risk of harm. For example,
studies indicate that children exposed to both domestic violence and child maltreatment
typically show higher levels of distress than children exposed only to domestic violence.

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Additional research is needed to determine if the presence of other stressors such as
poverty, homelessness, substance abuse, and exposure to community violence exacerbate
the negative effects of exposure to domestic violence. Not all children exposed to
violence suffer significant harmful effects. Based on research presented in the article by
Osofsky, (1998) concerning children’s resilience in the face of community violence and
war, it is likely that the most critical protective factor for a child is the existence of a
strong, positive relationship between the child and a competent and caring adult. Children
exposed to violence need to be able to speak openly with a sympathetic adult about their
fears and concerns, and also, ideally, have someone intervene to improve the situation.
Most children rely on one or both parents to provide nurturing support in the face of
crises and emotionally challenging situations, but ongoing exposure to violence can
sometimes hamper the parents’ abilities to meet these needs. Parents living with chronic
violence may feel emotionally numb, depressed, irritable, or uncommunicative, and thus
may be less emotionally available to their children. In cases of domestic violence, in
which one parent is a victim of the violence and the other is the perpetrator, children may
be even less able to turn to their parents for support and reassurance. The limited research
to date on resilience and exposure to domestic violence indicates that maternal
functioning, particularly as it relates to the mother’s emotional availability, may be
critical to children’s ability to cope with the exposure. Yet, battered mothers may be less
emotionally available to their children because they are preoccupied with the violence
and trying to stay safe, and/or because they are experiencing depression, (VERMAAK,
2002).

Their parenting practices may be compromised in other ways as well. Studies of battered
women’s patterns of affectionate or aggressive conduct toward their children either reveal
no differences when compared with control groups, or suggest that battered women may
use more punitive child-rearing strategies or exhibit aggression toward their children.

The limited research to date on the relationship between battering fathers and their
children indicates that these fathers may be less available to their children, less likely to
engage in rational discussions with their children, and less affectionate than fathers who

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are not violent. Still, more research on the effects of domestic violence on parenting is
needed. Because the battered parent can be a critical support for the child, and because
children often have ongoing contact with the batterer, services must be available to help
parents improve their interactions with their children, (Ayoke, 1997).

Africa (Mathews, Abrahams, Jewkes, Martin & Vetten, 2003). These statistics urges
prevention and intervention strategies not only targeting the needs of primary victims
(women and mothers) but also secondary victims (children exposed to domestic violence)
in Kenya. The aims of this study are to identify common and unique symptoms of
children exposed to domestic violence, and to identify internalized and externalized
symptoms of children according to their developmental stage in two shelters in Kenya

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