General Introduction: 1.1 Definitions and Concept

Shell Intensive Training Programme General Introduction
Geophysics
1.
General Introduction
1.1 Definitions and Concept

Geophysics is the science that applies the principles of physics to the study of the Earth (usually the earth subsurface). In order to achieve this, measurements are s made at or near the earth surface to obtain data arising from the vertical and/or s lateral variations of the distribution of subsurface physical properties of earth materials (rocks and minerals). The interpretation of this data is capable of detecting and delineating local and regional features that could be of economic interest and/or aid in the unravelling of the Earth interior. Most geologic features that would be of s economic interest as natural resource comprise the concentrations of specific minerals or pore fluids. Such concentrations are not usually common in nature. Hence geophysics seeks to detect areas of this UNCOMMON concentrations usually referred to as ANOMALIES. Geophysical method of subsurface investigation provides a relatively rapid and costeffective means of deriving large area information coverage of subsurface geology. Although geophysical data can sometimes be prone to ambiguities and uncertainties of interpretation, the only better alternative is drilling of boreholes and wells and this is very expensive in comparative terms and also drilling provides subsurface information ONLY at discrete locations. Geophysical exploration for subsurface resources is however not an exclusive alternative to drilling but when properly applied can optimise exploration programmes by reducing wildcat drilling and the incidence of dry holes to the barest minimum. While the main thrust of exploration geophysics is to detect and delineate both salient and large scale features, instrumentation and operations for large scale studies such as the internal structure of the earth differ in design and usage from that required for the search for natural resources of the upper crust which is relatively small scale. Before getting into the different scales and methods of geophysical studies it is necessary to take a quick review of the internal structure of the earth as obtained from seismological studies of earthquakes.
Okueze, E
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Geophysics
1.2
Internal Structure of the Earth
The analysis of seismological data recorded from earthquake waves, (fig 1.1) shows that the Earth is internally made up of 3 principal regions CRUST, MANTLE and CORE.
Fig. 1.1 (a) Earthquake wavefronts and raypaths for direct P-waves. (b) Raypaths for some reflected and refracted waves, illustrating wave nomenclature.
This study is usually referred to as Earthquake seismology. The recording and analysis of resulting seismic waves from earthquakes especially since the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake shows a whole range of variations of the physical properties of Okueze, E Page 2 of 5 Univation
Geophysics
the rocks of the Earth with depth (P and S- wave velocities, density, pressure and temperature), (Fig. 1.2).
Fig. 1.2 Earth-layering.(a) Terminology. (b) Variation of physical properties with depth within the earth. P= pressure in 1011 Pa, =density in g/cm3, =S-wave velocity in km/s,
=P-wave velocity in km/s, G= gravity in Gal, T=temperature in K. Dashed curve

represents solidus in the core (Sheriff, 1999).
Mohorovicic in 1909 detected an interface boundary from his analysis where P-wave velocities increased remarkably known as the Moho (i.e. the Mohorovicic discontinuity )at a depth range of 10 to 40km. Gutenberg also detected another major discontinuity in 1913 at approximately 2850km depth. Interestingly he discovered that S-value reduced to almost half while densities shot up almost three times at this boundary known as the Gutenberg discontinuity. While the Moho defined the boundary between the Crust and the Mantle, Gutenberg defined that between the mantle and the core. However, 2 main transition zones were interpreted to occur at 900km depth (dividing the mantle into upper and lower) and at 5000km depth marking the end of the Outer core as different from the Inner core. Okueze, E Page 3 of 5 Univation
Geophysics
At Gutenberg boundary, S-waves stopped propagating and P-wave velocity reduced to a half. This phenomenon has been interpreted to mean that the waves encountered a liquid medium at this depth and hence the Outer core is believed to be liquid. At the 5000km depth, Lehmann analysis in 1936 showed that P-wave s velocities shot up again to about 1.5 of its value indicating a solid medium once again as the Inner core. It was also observed that other physical properties increased gradually from this 5000m depth till the centre of the Earth at about 6400km depth. The crust and the Mantle are further grouped into 3 subdivisions the Lithosphere (which is cold, rigid and brittle) at 0-125km depth; the Astemosphere (which is warm, mobile and plastic) between 125-250km depth; and the Mesosphere (which is highly dense, has high temperature and pressure and is basically non-magnetic) is at a depth range of 250-2850km. TheMoho which is the lowermost boundary of the crust lies at about 10km depth at its shallowest point beneath the deep ocean basins within the Pacitic abyssal plains and up to 40-50km depth at its thickest area within the continental area of the Hymalayas in Asia. The interaction of the warm and mobile Astemosphere, which is continuously in a convective motion with the overlying cold, rigid, and brittle Lithosphere, gives rise to the major geologic processes which have shaped the Earth surface since the s beginning of time. Volcanic eruptions, Earthquake phenomenon, ocean basins and mountain chains are all part of and the result of the Astermosphere-Lithosphere interaction now generally referred to as Plate Tectonics. Further details of these phenomena and the internal structure of the Earth are discussed in Lowrie (1997). Incidentally, in all the depths of the Earth, all exploration activities for natural resources take place within just about the first 10km of the crust. Natural resources where they occur are formed through various geologic processes many of which are exclusive. In other words, resources such as coal or hydrocarbons do not form during processes that can form minerals such as Olivines, Cassiterites, quartz etc. While volcanic activities give rise to the formation of the above minerals, sedimentation, diagenesis and time give rise to the formation of coal and hydrocarbons. Therefore distribution of natural resources is not arbitrary but well organised and structured. All successful applications of geophysical investigations for subsurface Okueze, E Page 4 of 5 Univation
Geophysics
resources must then take into account the regional and/or local geologic setting. Exploration for coal or hydrocarbons should take place within sedimentary basins while the search for Olivines, Felspar, Cassiterite etc should be concentrated in basement regions.
Okueze, E
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Shell Intensive Training Programme General Introduction

1.1 Definitions and Concept

Shell Intensive Training Programme General Introduction

Internal Structure of the Earth

Shell Intensive Training Programme General Introduction

=P-wave velocity in km/s, G= gravity in Gal, T=temperature in K. Dashed curve

Shell Intensive Training Programme General Introduction

Shell Intensive Training Programme General Introduction

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