Cracks in Concrete

AUTHOR: AU YONG THEAN SENG
www.madisonvelocity.blogspot.com
TOPICS HIGHLIGHTED
CRACKS IN CONCRETE: INTRODUCTION
Why Does Concrete Crack?

Non-structural Cracks
Structural Cracks
What are the differences between structural and non-structural crack?
TYPES OF CRACK AND HOW IT OCCURS
Sulfate attack crack

Loading crack
Plastic shrinkage crack
Drying shrinkage crack
D-cracking
Alkali-aggregate reaction crack
Thermal crack
Settlement crack
Corrosion crack
Crazing
Tree growth crack
PREVENT BEFORE IT’S TOO LATE!

Optimum water ratio
Curing method
Solid ground
Proper usage of material
Control joints
Reinforcement steel
Cover for reinforcement
Coating on reinforcement
Coating on concrete
Corrosion inhibitor
Cathodic protection
CRACKS IN CONCRETE: INTRODUCTION
Why Does Concrete Crack?
Cracks! At the sight of a crack in concrete, most of us panic. Lots of questions

asked and few answers. Most cracks occur as a result of shrinkage of
concrete. Shrinkage is simply a reduction in the volume of concrete as it
hardens. If this reduction in volume were unrestricted, then a crack would not
occur. However, in reality, ground friction and a number of things such as
structural connections inhibit free shrinkage and thus cause cracks.
How much shrinkage is normal? A 100-foot-long regular-weight concrete slab

normally would shrink by about 3/4 inch. In other words, you should expect
cracks totaling in widths up to 3/4 inch in every 100 feet of concrete. Lightweight
concrete shrinks more. It is important to note that concrete does crack and that
this is normal. What is not normal is an unsightly and excessive amount of
cracks.
Non-structural Cracks
Not every crack threatens the structural safety of a building. In fact, in many
instances, cracks are merely cosmetic in nature. These cracks are typically seen
in flat work such as driveways, patio, walkways and curbs.
Typical causes of these cracks are
o Poor workmanship
o Inappropriate joint detailing
o Higher shrinkage of concrete
Sometimes such nonstructural cracks in driveways and sidewalks become more

than just an eyesore. Tree roots and impact from vehicles can cause raveling as
well as vertical and horizontal offsets at the cracks. When these offsets become
trip hazards, repairs are necessary.
Structural Cracks
A majority of structural cracks occur as a result of the following conditions:
o Design deficiency
o Construction deficiency
o Settlement or heaving of soil
o Reinforcement corrosion
Sometimes structural cracks manifest themselves with some side effects. Doors
and windows do not open and close easily. Floors feel uneven. Vinyl flooring
tears as a result of crack movement. Stucco (plaster applied while soft to cover
exterior walls or surface) begins to show new cracks and even interior corners
may develop new cracks. Longitudinal cracks can develop along the length of the
foundation as a result of corrosion of reinforcement.
What are the differences between structural and non-structural crack?
To summarize what had been discussed above on their definitions, structural

crack refers to crack that developed at the core or frame that form the
foundation of the building itself. Normally, any types of crack occurred in this
case is very dangerous and must be dealt immediately. Non-structural as the
name itself implies, refers to any parts of the building that doesn’t belong to the
core or frame of the building for example wall (except load bearing wall),
driveway, patio, and walkway. Cracks occurred in this case are not that
threatening if compared to structural crack. Still, this doesn’t mean that it won’t
harm the occupants living inside, as no matter what structure if left not properly
cared will cause catastrophe eventually.
Figure 1: (clockwise from top left) i) Wing wall crack of a tunnel (non-structural) ii) Verandah crack
(non- structural) iii) Column crack and spalling (structural) iv) Beam crack of a bridge (structural)
Figure 2: Don’t judge a crack by its plaster! Sometimes, people might confuse whether it was the
column that cracks or the plaster covering the column did.
TYPES OF CRACK AND HOW IT OCCURS
Sulfate attack crack
Sulfate attack can be 'external' or 'internal'.
External: due to penetration of sulfates in solution into the concrete from outside.
Internal: due to a soluble source incorporated into concrete at the time of mixing.
External sulfate attack
This is the more common type and typically occurs where water containing
dissolved sulfate penetrates the concrete. A fairly well-defined reaction front
can often be seen in polished sections; ahead of the front the concrete is normal,
or near normal. Behind the reaction front, the composition and microstructure of
the concrete will have changed. The effect of these changes is an overall loss
of concrete strength. These changes may vary in type or severity but
commonly include:
o Extensive cracking
o Expansion
o Loss of bond between the cement paste and aggregate
o Alteration of paste composition
Sources of sulfate which can cause sulfate attack include:
o Seawater
o Oxidation of sulfide minerals in clay adjacent to the
o Bacterial action in sewers - anaerobic bacterial produce sulfur dioxide
o Masonry - sulfates in bricks can be gradually released over a long period
Figure 3: Image of sulfate attack in concrete. Ettringite (arrowed) has replaced some of the
calcium silicate hydrate in the cement paste. As a consequence, the paste will be weakened.
Although much of the cement paste here remains apparently unaltered (top right), if widespread
within the concrete, sulfate attack can significantly weaken the concrete.
Internal sulfate attack
Internal sulfate attack occurs when a source of sulfate is incorporated into the
concrete when mixed. Examples include the use of sulfate-rich aggregate,
excess of added gypsum in the cement or contamination. Proper screening and
testing procedures should generally avoid internal sulfate attack.
Delayed ettringite formation
Delayed ettringite formation (DEF) is a special case of internal sulfate attack.

It occurs in concrete which has been cured at elevated temperatures, for
example, where steam curing has been used. It can also occur in large concrete
pours where the heat of hydration has resulted in high temperatures within the
concrete. DEF causes expansion of the concrete due to ettringite formation
within the paste and can cause serious damage to concrete structures. DEF is
not usually due to excess sulfate in the cement, or from sources other than the
cement in the concrete. A definition of delayed ettringite formation DEF occurs if
the ettringite which normally forms during hydration is decomposed, and then
subsequently re-forms in the hardened concrete. Damage to the concrete
occurs when the ettringite crystals exert an expansive force within the concrete
as they grow. If expansion causes cracking, ettringite may subsequently form
in the cracks but this does not mean the ettringite in the cracks caused the
cracks initially. DEF causes a characteristic form of damage to the concrete.
While the paste expands, the aggregate does not. Cracks form around these
non-expanding 'islands' within the paste - the bigger the aggregate, the bigger
the gap.
Figure 4: Diagram showing how paste expansion produces a small gap around small aggregate
particles and a bigger gap around larger particles.
Figure 5: Scanning electron microscope image of limestone aggregate particle. The cement paste
has expanded and a gap has formed between the aggregate and the cement paste. This is
characteristic of damage to concrete due to DEF. The aggregate is no longer contributing to
concrete strength, since it is effectively detached from the cement paste. Often, these gaps
become filled with ettringite.
Loading crack
A loading crack is a result of the loading to which the structure is subjected.

A properly designed structure would not exhibit these cracks, but an improperly
designed structure is very susceptible to this damage. Vertical cracking at the
end of a structure is typically due to a concentrated force being applied at the
top of a structure which exceeds the shear capacity within the end section of
the structure. This type crack typically maintains a tight appearance at the top
and at the bottom but may show a wider gap at approximately mid-height of the
structure. This would tend to indicate a bulging effect of the end segment of the
structure away from the remainder of the structure. This crack is illustrated
below:
Figure 6: Bulging on end wall when subjected to concentrated load
Horizontal cracking within the centre portion of the structure is typically caused
by lateral pressures on the structure which exceed the flexural capacity of
the structure. These pressures are normally generated by saturated soil
conditions being applied to a basement type structure. When the pressures
exerted by the soils retained behind this structure exceed the flexural capacity of
the structure, a crack is generated. Observing within the crack, one will note that
the crack on the exposed face of the structure is considerably wider than the
crack on the concealed face of the structure. Accompanying this crack, one will
find a measurable amount of bowing within the structure. This will exhibit itself
as a bulge at mid-height into the basement area. This type cracking is illustrated
below:
Figure 7: Bulging of wall when subjected to soil behind it
Plastic shrinkage crack
When water evaporates from the surface of freshly placed concrete faster than
it is replaced by bleed water, the surface concrete shrinks. Due to the restraint
provided by the concrete below the drying surface layer, tensile stresses develop
in the weak, stiffening plastic concrete, resulting in shallow cracks of varying
depth. These cracks are often fairly wide at the surface.
Figure 8: Crack due to plastic shrinkage
Drying shrinkage crack
Because almost all concrete is mixed with more water than is needed to hydrate
the cement, much of the remaining water evaporates, causing the concrete to
shrink. Restraint to shrinkage, provided by the sub grade, reinforcement, or
another part of the structure, causes tensile stresses to develop in the hardened
concrete. Restraint to drying shrinkage is the most common cause of
concrete cracking. In many applications, drying shrinkage cracking is inevitable.
Therefore, contraction (control) joints are placed in concrete to predetermine the
location of drying shrinkage cracks.
Figure 9: Crack due to drying shrinkage
D-cracking
D-cracking is a form of freeze-thaw deterioration that has been observed in

some pavements after three or more years of service. Due to the natural
accumulation of water in the base and sub base of pavements, the aggregate
may eventually become saturated. Then with freezing and thawing cycles,
cracking of the concrete starts in the saturated aggregate at the bottom of the
slab and progresses upward until it reaches the wearing surface. D-cracking
usually starts near pavement joints.
Figure 10: D-cracking occurred at pavement joints.
Alkali-aggregate reaction crack
Alkali-aggregate reactivity is a type of concrete deterioration that occurs when

the active mineral constituents of some aggregates react with the alkali
hydroxides in the concrete. Alkali-aggregate reactivity occurs in two forms
alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). Indications of the
presence of alkali-aggregate reactivity may be a network of cracks, closed or
spalling joints, or displacement of different portions of a structure.
Figure 11: Concrete with alkali-aggregate reactivity
Thermal crack
Temperature rise (especially significant in mass concrete) results from the heat
of hydration of cementitious materials. As the interior concrete increases in
temperature and expands, the surface concrete may be cooling and
contracting. This causes tensile stresses that may result in thermal cracks at the
surface if the temperature differential between the surface and center is too
great. The width and depth of cracks depends upon the temperature differential,
physical properties of the concrete, and the reinforcing steel.
Figure 12: Structures in hot climate countries face severe thermal crack problem.
Settlement crack
Loss of support beneath concrete structures, usually caused by settling or

washout of soils and sub base materials, can cause a variety of problems in
concrete structures, from cracking and performance problems to structural
failure. Loss of support can also occur during construction due to inadequate
formwork support or premature removal of forms.
Figure13: Effect from settling of soil on the slab above it
The three diagrams below show how settlement on soil causing cracks on the
wall resting above it
Figure 14: How different settlements affect the cracking mode
Corrosion crack
Steel reinforcement, in the alkaline environment provided by concrete, is in a

stable condition because a protective oxide layer forms on the steel surface,
which stops corrosion. There are, however, two situations where this
passivating environment at the reinforcement can be disrupted. The first is
known as carbonation. This is when atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in
water to form carbonic acid, which neutralises the concrete alkalinity. The
carbonation proceeds through the concrete cover and eventually reaches the
reinforcement, at which point the passive layer is no longer sustained and
corrosion occurs. The second disruptive effect is chloride attack.
Chlorides may have been cast in the original mix, or may be introduced from an
external source such as de-icing salts or a marine environment. When in
sufficient concentration at the reinforcement, they will disrupt the passive film on
the steel and also cause corrosion to occur rapidly. To support the corrosion
activity there must be oxygen and water available and this is normally the case in
atmospherically exposed concrete. Corrosion of reinforcing steel and other
embedded metals is one of the leading causes of deterioration of concrete. When
steel corrodes, the resulting rust occupies a greater volume than steel. The
expansion creates tensile stresses in the concrete, which can eventually cause
delamination and spalling.
Figure 15: Inside view on corroded reinforcement grows double its size
Figure 16: Sign of delamination in beam
Crazing
Crazing is a pattern of fine cracks that do not penetrate much below the surface
and are usually a cosmetic problem only. They are barely visible, except when
the concrete is drying after the surface has been wet.
Figure 17: Crack clearly visible when the surface has been wetted
Tree growth crack
Sometimes, the effect of Mother Nature do cause harm to the structure itself.
Roots that grow underneath the ground can cause the slab above it to crack.
Worse come to worse is when a tree growth inside the building, pushing the
beams, columns and walls aside, causing cracks and collapse eventually.
Though it might not come into consideration during design stage, but this kind of
crack if it happened, will bring down the reputation of both the architects and the
engineers themselves.
Figure 18: Effects of tree growth on the structure around it which should be avoidable. Imagine
what if the roots grow underneath your concrete building?
PREVENT BEFORE IT’S TOO LATE!

Optimum water ratio
Shrinkage is a primary cause of cracking. As concrete hardens and dries, it

shrinks. This is due to the loss, thru evaporation, of excess mixing water. Thus, in
most cases, the wetter the concrete mix, the greater the shrinkage will be.
Concrete slabs can shrink as much as 1/2 inch per 100 feet. The actual amount
is 1/16th inch for every ten feet of horizontal distance. This shrinkage causes
forces in the concrete which literally pull the slab apart. Cracks are the end result
of these forces. Concrete does not require much water to achieve maximum
strength. In fact, a wide majority of concrete used in residential work, in many
cases, has too much water. This water is added to make the concrete easier to
install. It is a labor saving device. This excess water not only promotes cracking,
but it can severely weaken the concrete.
Curing method
Rapid drying of the slab will significantly increase the possibility of cracking. The
chemical reaction which causes concrete to go from the liquid or plastic state to a
solid state requires water. This chemical reaction, or hydration, continues to
occur for days and weeks after concrete was poured. Engineers must make sure
that the necessary water is available for this reaction by adequately curing
the slab. The use of liquid curing compounds, covering the slab with plastic,
wet burlap, and other methods can be used to cure concrete.
Figure 19: Burlap (arrowed) was used to help the curing of the newly-poured concrete
Solid ground
The ground upon which the concrete will be placed must be compacted. Never
pour concrete on frozen ground as once the ice melt it will cause void in the soil.
If the new concrete is poured over soft, uncompacted soil, a heavy delivery truck
will easily bend and crack the concrete as it passes over the soft spot. This is
why concrete needs to be poured on solid and compacted soils.
Figure 20: A worker using high frequency vibration to cause the soil to settle into a denser mass
Proper usage of material
Many people had wondered why ancient structures are so strong and still
standing till now. Engineers had found that these buildings were over-designed
or in other words, maximum usage of construction material. Let’s take an
example of a driveway concrete slab. A 5-inch thick slab is definitely better in
sustaining heavy vehicles than a 4-inch thick slab which is more likely to crack
under loading. Some contractors might suggest that 4-inch is just enough when
cost comes into consideration but a 5-inch thick is even safer in reality. Thicker
concrete is a good idea for better load bearing structure (for this case, it was
slab). Cracking can be minimized by following other guidelines as well. Installing
proper strength concrete for intended use is always a good practice as
concrete is available in many different strengths.
Control joints
Professionals who install concrete driveways install crisp tooled lines in the slabs.
These are called control joints. Installing adequate control and isolation joints at
regular intervals in the slab helps to account for horizontal and vertical
movement in slabs. These joints can also be formed with a tool or saw-cut soon
after the slab has hardened. The purpose of these joints is to create a zone of
weakness where the forces which are pulling on the slab will relieve themselves.
Isolation joints allow a slab to move independently of other fixed or stationary
objects. The control joints must be deep enough to perform their job. The
minimum depth of the joint should be 1/4 the thickness of the slab.
Figure 21: (From left to right) i) Picture showing a type of nicely cut control joint ii) A worker is
cutting a control joint on the deck iii) Crack developed beside a control joint iv) Typical
manufactured control joint
Reinforcement steel
Reinforcing steel for residential purposes comes in two basic varieties, wire
mesh, or rigid reinforcing bars. The use of reinforcing steel can help in the
event a crack develops. Steel will hold cracked slabs together. Without steel,
cracks can grow in size and you can get offsets where one part of the slab is
higher or lower than an adjacent piece. Steel needs to be placed no more than 2
inches down from the top of the slab for maximum performance. Reinforcing
steel is also quite inexpensive. It is usually very easy to properly install. Steel
can significantly enhance the strength and durability of concrete. In addition to
all of the other measures taken to prevent concrete from cracking, steel offers a
low cost last line of defense.
Figure 22: Wire mesh holds the concrete together from developing into bigger crack
Cover for reinforcement
The deterioration of reinforced concrete is mainly due to reinforcement corrosion.

The mechanism of this deterioration is to be reminded. Reinforcements corrode
when they are in contact with a high amount of aggressive agents. This is the
reason why, the prevention of reinforcement corrosion, in structures to be built, is
obtained mainly by controlling the thickness and the quality of the concrete
cover. The concrete cover thickness around reinforcement also depends on the
environment aggressiveness. But, in addition to the requirements given by the
designer, it is significant to consider the implementation (reinforcements
positioning) to estimate the durability of a reinforced concrete really in place.
Figure 23: Concrete cover provides shielding for reinforcement from exposure to air. However, in
this case things gone too late and rehabilitation needed for a new cover.
Coating on reinforcement
When reinforced concrete structures are exposed to a very aggressive

environment, an additional protection can be considered by covering the
reinforcement steel. The two types of the most frequent covers on steel are
organic coatings and metal coatings (hot-dip galvanising). These protective
coatings which must adhere to steel must also ensure good a bond between
reinforcement and concrete.
Figure 24: Picture shows conventional reinforcement bar (top), coated reinforcement (middle) and
stainless reinforcement (bottom)
Coating on concrete
In some cases, concrete reinforcement corrodes in a slow pace. Therefore, its

cover seems physically satisfactory and has neither crack nor delamination. But,
it is then convenient to slow down this corrosion rate, even to stop it. The
methods which can be proposed are either concrete impregnation with water-
proof products (sealants) or inhibitors. Paintings and coatings of various
thicknesses can also be applied on concrete to improve its resistance to liquid
penetration. It deals, for example, with either of coatings containing epoxy resin
or polyurethane, or with mortar containing modified hydraulic binder.
Figure 25: (left to right) i) Workers painting the wall to prevent moisture entering the concrete ii)
Sometimes, paint isn’t the right choice for concrete floors. Epoxy coatings specially formulated for
concrete are both protective and decorative.
Corrosion inhibitor
The risk of corrosion of a new structure is likely to be due to chloride attack. The
latest developments in corrosion prevention are the use of corrosion inhibitors
in the concrete mix. There are a variety of generic types available, the principal
ones being calcium nitrite and amino alcohols. These materials are added to the
concrete and form a very thin chemical layer on the reinforcement, which inhibits
the corrosion activity. They are consumed and will only work up to a given
chloride level. It is important to ensure that the correct dosage level is used and
to remember that the inhibitor will have a finite service life.
Figure 26: A cut out from brochure showing the benefits of using corrosion inhibitor in concrete
Cathodic protection
Arguably, the most established system of all is cathodic protection (CP). The
principals of CP have been known since 1824 when Sir Humphrey Davey first
used sacrificial anodes to protect ships hulls. Corrosion is an electrochemical
process where the corrosion sites are anodic and passive sites are cathodic.
Cathodic protection is by introducing an anode to the concrete and making all the
steel cathodic. A small direct current is passed between the anode and the
reinforcement to cathodically protect the reinforcement. The anode is a
permanent addition to the structure and the system is computer controlled to
minimize future monitoring costs. Sacrificial anode systems are based on the
use of a galvanic anode such as zinc, which are directly connected to the
reinforcement and corrodes in favor of the steel.
The cathodic protection system is monitored by using silver/silver chloride

reference electrodes, which are buried in the concrete alongside the cathodically
protected steel reinforcement. These are cabled back to the computer control
system, which usually has a modem link to enable the CP system to be remotely
monitored. As far as the future is concerned, it will be difficult to predict the next
generation of corrosion prevention systems, simply because revolutionary new
ideas are not discussed until the patents are in place.
Figure 27: Schematic diagram showing the set-up of cathodic protection system
Figure 28: Example of an overpass in Kingston, Ontario (Canada) shows the installation on
cathodic protection system

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AUTHOR: AU YONG THEAN SENG

CRACKS IN CONCRETE: INTRODUCTION

Why Does Concrete Crack?

TYPES OF CRACK AND HOW IT OCCURS

Sulfate attack crack

PREVENT BEFORE IT’S TOO LATE!

CRACKS IN CONCRETE: INTRODUCTION

Why Does Concrete Crack?

Cracks! At the sight of a crack in concrete, most of us panic. Lots of questions

How much shrinkage is normal? A 100-foot-long regular-weight concrete slab

Typical causes of these cracks are

Sometimes such nonstructural cracks in driveways and sidewalks become more

A majority of structural cracks occur as a result of the following conditions:

What are the differences between structural and non-structural crack?

To summarize what had been discussed above on their definitions, structural

TYPES OF CRACK AND HOW IT OCCURS

Sulfate attack crack

Sulfate attack can be 'external' or 'internal'.

External sulfate attack

Sources of sulfate which can cause sulfate attack include:

Internal sulfate attack

Delayed ettringite formation

Delayed ettringite formation (DEF) is a special case of internal sulfate attack.

A loading crack is a result of the loading to which the structure is subjected.

Figure 6: Bulging on end wall when subjected to concentrated load

Figure 7: Bulging of wall when subjected to soil behind it

Plastic shrinkage crack

Figure 8: Crack due to plastic shrinkage

Drying shrinkage crack

Figure 9: Crack due to drying shrinkage

D-cracking is a form of freeze-thaw deterioration that has been observed in

Figure 10: D-cracking occurred at pavement joints.

Alkali-aggregate reaction crack

Alkali-aggregate reactivity is a type of concrete deterioration that occurs when

Figure 11: Concrete with alkali-aggregate reactivity

Loss of support beneath concrete structures, usually caused by settling or

Figure13: Effect from settling of soil on the slab above it

Figure 14: How different settlements affect the cracking mode

Steel reinforcement, in the alkaline environment provided by concrete, is in a

Figure 16: Sign of delamination in beam

Tree growth crack

PREVENT BEFORE IT’S TOO LATE!

Shrinkage is a primary cause of cracking. As concrete hardens and dries, it

Proper usage of material

Cover for reinforcement

The deterioration of reinforced concrete is mainly due to reinforcement corrosion.

When reinforced concrete structures are exposed to a very aggressive

In some cases, concrete reinforcement corrodes in a slow pace. Therefore, its

The cathodic protection system is monitored by using silver/silver chloride

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