MCAT Physics Equation Sheet

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EQUATIONS IN MOTION

Average speed
t
d
v =

d = distance, t = time
Average velocity
t
x
v
A
A
=

x = displacement, t = elapsed time
Average acceleration
t
v
a
A
A
=

v = change in velocity, t = elapsed
time
Linear motion kinematics 1-D
(constant acceleration a)

) 0 ( 2
) ( 2
0
2
0
2
2
2
1
0 0
0
velocity from fall Free gh v
x x a v v
at t v x x
at v v
=
+ =
+ + =
+ =



To apply in two dimensions, the easiest
way is to choose an x-y coordinate
system so that the direction of the
acceleration is entirely along either the x
or the y direction. This greatly simplifies
things as the acceleration in the other
coordinate direction will have a
component of 0 and the motion in that
other direction will have constant
velocity. The components of motion in
the x and y directions are analyzed
separately.
Vector components
u cos v v
x
=
,
2 2
y x
v v v + =

u sin v v
y
=
,
x
y
v
v
= u tan

For a vector of magnitude v making an
angle u with the x-axis
Centripetal acceleration
R
v
a
R
2
=

Centripetal acceleration a
R
is toward the
center of the circle of radius r for an
object traveling with constant speed v

FORCES AND TORQUE

Newtons first law of
motion (Equilibrium)
ckwise counterclo clockwise
F
t t =
= 0
&

At equilibrium, every body continues in its state
of rest or of uniform speed as long as no net
force and no net torque act on it.

Newtons second law of
motion (Dynamics)
ma F =
The acceleration a of an object is directly
proportional to the net force acting on it and is
inversely proportional to its mass. The direction
of the acceleration is in the direction of the net
force action the object.
Newtons third law of
motion
Whenever one object exerts a force on a
second object, the second exerts an equal and
opposite force on the first.
Force of static friction
N s fr
F F s
Opposes any impending relative motion
between two surfaces, where the magnitude
can assume any value up to a maximum of
s
F
N

where
s
is the coefficient of static friction and
F
N
is the magnitude of the normal force.
Force of kinetic friction
N k fr
F F =

Force between two surfaces sliding against one
another that opposes the relative motion of the
two surfaces, where
k
is the coefficient of
kinetic friction.
Force of gravity between
any two objects
The force F
G
between two objects of masses m
1

and m
2
and separated by a distance r. The
value of the universal gravitation constant is:
2
2 1
r
m m
G F
G
=

G = 6.6710
-11
Nm
2
/kg
2

Inclined Planes
u
u
cos
sin
mg F
mg F
normal
incline
=
=


u is the angle between the inclined plane and
the horizontal surface
Hookes Law
x k F A =

The further a spring is stretched, the more force
it pulls back with.
Torque
Fl = t
Torque, which can be roughly thought of as a
twisting force, is proportional to the force
applied and the lever arm length.


WORK AND ENERGY

Work done by a constant
force
u cos Fd W =
Work W done by a constant force of
magnitude F on an object as it is displaced by
a distance d. The angle between the directions
of F and d is u .

Work is positive if the object is displaced in the
direction of the force and negative if it is
displaced against the force. The work is zero if
the displacement is perpendicular to the
direction of the force.
Kinetic energy
2
2
1
mv K =
Kinetic energy K for a mass m traveling at a
speed v.
Gravitational potential
energy
) (
) (
general
r
GMm
U
local mgh U
=
=

Potential energy U is the energy that an object
of mass m has by virtue of its position relative
to the surface of the earth. That position is
measured by the height h of the object relative
to an arbitrary zero level.
Conservative forces
- Gravitational force
- Elastic spring
force
- Electric force
Non-conservative forces
- Frictional forces
- Air resistance
- Tension
- Normal force
- Propulsion of a
motor
A force is conservative if either:
- The work done by the force on an
object moving from one point to
another depends only on the initial
and final positions and is
independent of the particular path
taken.
- The net work done by the force on
an object moving around any
closed path is zero
Conservation of
Mechanical Energy (Only
holds true if non-conservative
forces are ignored)
1 2
E E =
1 1 2 2
U K U K + = +
The total mechanical energy of a system,
remains constant as the object moves,
provided that the net work done by external
non-conservative forces (such as friction and
air resistance) is zero.
Work-energy Theorem
i nc
E U K W A + A + A =
The work due to non-conservative forces W
nc

is equal to the change in kinetic energy AK
plus the change in gravitational potential
energy AU plus any changes in internal energy
due to friction.
Rest Mass Energy
2
mc E =
The energy inherent to a particle by nature of it
having a mass.
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Power
Fv
t
W
P = =

Power P is defined as the rate at which work is
done. It can also be expressed in terms of the
force F being applied to the object traveling at
a speed v. It is more correct to express this
version of the relationship as
u cos Fv P =
where u is the angle between F and v.

MOMENTUM

Linear momentum:
mv p =
v m p
& &
=
Linear momentum p is the product of an
objects mass m and velocity v. Linear
momentum is a vector that points in the
same direction of the velocity.
Principle of conservation of
linear momentum:
1 2
P P
& &
=
The total linear momentum of an isolated
system remains constant.
Impulse-momentum theorem:
t F p = A
t F p p
net
A =
&
& &
1 2

An impulse produces a change in an
objects momentum. Impulse is given by
the product of average force F
&
(F) and
the time interval t (t) over which the force
is applied. Impulse is a vector that points
in the same direction as the average force.
Elastic collisions:
- Bodies do not stick
together
- Kinetic energy is
conserved
- Momentum is
conserved
Inelastic collisions:
- Bodies stick together if
completely inelastic
- Kinetic energy is not
conserved
- Momentum is
conserved
A completely inelastic collision is one in
which the bodies stick together completely
after the collision.

In inelastic collisions, kinetic energy is not
conserved as some of the initial kinetic
energy is converted into other forms of
energy such as thermal and sound energy.
Center of Mass (CM or CofM)
total
i i
n
i
cm
M
x m
x
1 =

=

For two bodies:
2 1
2 2 1 1
m m
x m x m
x
cm
+
+
=

The center of mass is a point that
represents the average location for the
total mass of the system.

In a collision, the velocity of the center of
mass of all the colliding objects remains
constant.

FLUIDS AND SOLIDS

Density
V
m
=


Density of a liquid at rest. Density can also be
measured relative to water, which is termed
specific gravity. A specific gravity > 1 means the
liquid is more dense than water, A specific gravity
< 1 means the liquid is less dense than water
Pressure
) ( definition general
A
F
P =
Hydrostatic pressure at
a fixed depth
The hydrostatic pressure on a fluid volume is
dependent on its depth, and is equal in all
directions.
gy P =
Buoyant Force
Vg F
buoyant
=
The buoyant force on an object in fluid is upward
and equal to the weight of the fluid that the object
displaces.
Continuity Equation
Av Q =
The volume flow rate of a fluid is proportional to
the cross-sectional area of the pipe and the
velocity of the fluid. Q
in
must be equal to Q
out
.
Bernoullis Equation
constan
2
1
2
= + + v gy p

One way to remember the Bernoulli equation is to
think of it as an energy conservation equation.
The three terms roughly correspond to pressure
energy, potential energy, and kinetic energy,
respectively.
Elastic modulus of a
solid
Strain
Stress
Modulus =

A high modulus material is hard and rigid.
Examples are metal and ceramic. A low modulus
material is elastic, like rubber.

WAVES AND PERIODIC MOTION

Wave Velocity
f v =
The velocity of a wave is the product of its
frequency and wavelength.
Wave Period
f
T
1
=



Sound decibels
o
I
I
log 10 = |
A difference of 10 in decibels corresponds to
sound intensity levels that differ by a factor of 10.
For example, 90dB is 10 times as loud as 80dB.
Standing Waves

Both ends fixed or free
,...) 3 , 2 , 1 (
2
= = n
n
L
n

One end fixed one end
free
,...) 5 , 3 , 1 (
4
= = n
n
L
n

When a standing wave is formed on a piece of
string, the string length is some fractional multiple
of the standing wave wavelength. Depending on
how the string is fixed, each end can be a node
or an anti-node.
Beat frequency
2 1
f f f
beat
=
When two waves of constant amplitude but
different frequencies interfere with each other,
the resulting waves amplitude is confined to an
envelope with some periodicity. The frequency of
the envelope is the beat frequency and can be
heard as distinct beats because of the amplitude
variation with time.
Doppler effect
c
v
f
f
s
=
A

c
v
s
=
A

The apparent frequency of the source is
increased as the source approaches the
observer, and is decreased as the sources
leaves the observer.

ELECTROSTATICS AND MAGNETISM
Bolztmanns constant k and has a value of: k = 9.010
9
Nm/C
2

Coulombs law (electric
force)
2
2 1
r
Q Q
k F =


The magnitude of the force F between two
charges (Q
1
and Q
2
) in terms of the distance r
between the two charges. The direction of the
force is directed along the line between the two
forces. This force is repulsive if the two charges
are both positive or both negative, and attractive
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if the one charge is positive and the other
negative.
Electric field due to a
point charge q at a
distance r
2
r
Q
k E =

E is a vector and points away from a positive
charge and toward a negative charge.
Electric potential energy
r
Q Q
k U
2 1
=

The potential energy stored between the
interaction between two point charges.
Electric potential
r
Q
k V =

The electric potential V due to a point charge q
at a distance r away from the charge.
In constant electric fields
E q F
& &
= qEd U =
Ed V = Vq U =
Note that the force F is in the same direction as
the electric field E if the charge q is positive and
in the opposite direction if the charge is
negative.

The energy gained by some charge in a field is
simply force times the distance traveled.
Potential is the energy per unit charge.
Force on a charge moving
in a magnetic field
B v q F
&
&
&
=
u sin qvB F =
A charge q moving in a magnetic field B
&
with
a velocity v
&
experiences a force F
&
. The
magnitude of this force can also be expressed
in terms of the angle u between v
&
and B
&
.

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Ohms law
IR V =
The potential difference V across a device
is given by its resistance R and the current I
that flows through it
Resistance of a wire
A
L
R =
The resistance R of a length L of wire with a
cross-sectional area A and resistivity .
Resistivity has units Om.
Electric power
R
V
R I IV P
2
2
= = =
With help from Ohms law, electric power P
can be calculated using any combination of
two of the following quantities: resistance R,
voltage V or current I
RMS voltage and current (AC
circuits)
2
2
0
0
I
I
V
V
rms
rms
=
=

The root-mean-square values can be
calculated from the peak values (V
0
and I
0
)
and are used to calculate the average
power P in AC circuits:
R
V
R I P
rms
rms
2
2
= =
Resistances in series
2 1
R R R
eq
+ =
For more than two resistances in series:
...
4 3 2 1
+ + + + = R R R R R
eq

Resistances in parallel
2 1
1 1 1
R R R
eq
+ =
For more than two resistances in parallel:
...
1 1 1 1 1
4 3 2 1
+ + + + =
R R R R R
eq

Capacitance
V
Q
C =

A higher capacitance capacitor can store
more charge at the same voltage.



Capacitors in series C
S
and
parallel C
P

2 1
1 1 1
C C C
S
+ =

2 1
C C C
P
+ =
For more than two capacitors:

...
1 1 1 1 1
4 3 2 1
+ + + + =
C C C C C
S

...
4 3 2 1
+ + + + = C C C C C
P

Electric energy stored by a
capacitor
C
Q
QV CV U
E
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
= = =

Amount of electric energy stored in a
capacitor is given in terms of the
capacitance C and the potential difference
between the conductors V.

LIGHT AND GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

Snells law
2 2 1 1
sin sin u u n n =
The angle of incidence u
1
is with respect to
the perpendicular of the surface between the
two media (with indices of refraction n
1
and
n
2
). The angle of refraction u
2
is also with
respect to the perpendicular.
Total internal reflection
1
2
sin
n
n
c
= u
The critical angle u
c
is the angle of incidence
beyond which total internal reflection occurs.
The index of refraction for the medium in
which the incident ray is traveling is n
1

Energy of one photon
hf E =
The energy of light is dependent on its
frequency. H is the planck constant
6.626068 10
-34
m
2
kg / s
Index of refraction
v
c
n =
The higher the index of refraction is for a
medium, the slower is the speed of light in
that medium.
The lens equation
f d d
i o
1 1 1
= +
The focal length of the lens f is:
- Positive for a converging lens
- Negative for a diverging lens
The object distance d
o
is:
- Positive if it is on the side of the
lens from which the light is coming
- Negative if on the opposite side
The image distance d
i
is:
- Positive if it is on the opposite side
of the lens from which the light is
coming
- Negative if on the same side
Lateral magnification
o
i
o
i
d
d
h
h
m = =
For an upright image, the magnification m is
positive and for an inverted image m is
negative.
Power of a lens
f
P
1
=

Focal length of a spherical
mirror
r f
2
1
=

For a spherical mirror, the focal length is half
of the radius of curvature.