Solutions to Example

Problems in Engineering
Noise Control, 2
nd
Edn.
A companion to
"Engineering Noise Control", 3
rd
Edn
Colin H. Hansen
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Adelaide
South Australia 5005
AUSTRALIA
FAX: +61-8-8303-4367
e-mail:chansen@mecheng.adelaide.edu.au
Published by Colin H Hansen, Adelaide, South Australia
Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or
criticism or review, as permitted under the Australian copyright Act, 1968,
this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form, or
by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the author.
The author makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the
accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal
responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. A
catalogue record for this book is available from the Australian National
Library.
2003 Colin H Hansen
Published by Colin H Hansen
ISBN 0-9751704-0-6
This version updated August 4, 2006
Contents
All page, equation and table references are to the third edition of the textbook,
Engineering Noise Control by DA Bies and CH Hansen
1. Solutions to problems in fundamentals 1
2. Solutions to problems relating to the human ear 65
3. Solutions to problems relating to noise measurement and
instrumentation 71
4. Solutions to problems relating to criteria 83
5. Solutions to problems related to sound sources and outdoor sound
propagation 99
6. Solutions to problems related to sound power, its use and
measurement 130
7. Solutions to problems related to sound in enclosed spaces 143
8. Solutions to problems related to sound transmission loss, acoustic
enclosures and barriers 199
9. Solutions to problems related to muffling devices 259
10. Solutions to problems in vibration isolation 298
11. Solutions to problems in active noise control 312
12. Errata in Third Edition of Engineering Noise Control 314
Preface
This book provides detailed and instructive solutions to the book of problems
on acoustics and noise control which is intended as a companion to the 3
rd
edition of the book "Engineering Noise Control" by David A. Bies and Colin
H. Hansen. The problems and solutions cover chapters 1 to 10 and 12 in that
text. Some of the problems and solutions are formulated to illustrate the
physics underlying the acoustical concepts and others are based on actual
practical problems. Many of the solutions extend the discussion in the text
and illustrate the more difficult concepts by example, thus acting as a valuable
source and understanding for the consultant and student alike.
Although most of the problems and solutions have been tested on students,
it is highly likely that there exist errors of which I am unaware. I would dearly
like to hear from any readers who may discover any errors, no matter how
minor.
C.H.H., September, 2003
e-mail:chansen@mecheng.adelaide.edu.au
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank the many people (too numerous to mention)
who were responsible for providing ideas for problems. The author would also
like to thank his undergraduate and graduate students who provided an
excellent opportunity for fine tuning the solutions to the problems in this
book.
Finally, the author would like to express his deep appreciation to his
family, particularly his wife Susan and daughters Kristy and Laura for their
patience and support during the many nights and weekends needed to
assemble the problems and solutions in a form suitable for publication.
This book is dedicated
to Susan,
to Kristy
and to Laura.
c
air
c
He
'
M
He

He

air
M
air
1/2
'
4
5/3
1/2
1.4
29
1/2
' 0.34
1
Solutions to problems
in Fundamentals
Unless otherwise stated an air temperature of 20EC corresponding to an
air density of 1.206kg/m
3
and a speed of sound of 343m/s has been
assumed.
Problem 1.1
undertake an assessment of the current environment where there appears
to be a problem, including the preparation of noise level contours where
required;
establish the noise control objectives or criteria to be met;
identify noise transmission paths and generation mechanisms;
rank order noise sources contributing to any excessive levels;
formulate a noise control program and implementation schedule;
carry out the program; and
verify the achievement of the objectives of the program.
See pages 8-10 in the third edition of the text for more details.
Problem 1.2
(a) Speed of sound given by equation 1.4 in text. The only variables which
are different for the two gases are and M. Thus:
(b) The wavelength of sound emitted from ones mouth is a function of the
vocal cord properties which remain unchanged by the presence of helium.
As f = c and is fixed and c is faster in helium, the sound emanating
from your mouth will be higher in pitch.
Solutions to problems 2
h '
4240
101.410
3

95
100
' 0.0397
c
dry
' RT/ M ' 1.48.314303.2/ 0.029 ' 348.8m/s
c
wet
' 348.8(1 % 0.03970.16) ' 351.0m/s
0
PV '
0 m
M
RT
0
V '
250,000
24 3,600
' 2.894m
3
/s
0 m '
P
0
VM
RT
'
101,400 0.029 2.8935
8.314 288.2
' 3.550kg/s
Problem 1.3
Using the relation for h given in the question and knowing that atmospheric
pressure is 101.4kPa, we can write:
The speed of sound in dry air at 30EC is given by:
The speed of sound in wet air is then:
Problem 1.4
Gas volume flow rate = 250,000 m
3
per day at STP
Gas Law also applies to a moving fluid, so:
P and T are the static pressure and temperature respectively and
(a) The mass flow rate is given by:
(b) Density of gas in pipe is:
'
0 m
0
V
'
PM
RT
'
8 10
6
0.029
8.314 393.2
' 71.0kg/m
3
Fundamentals 3
U '
4
d
2
0
V '
4
d
2
0 m

'
4
0.01

3.551
71.0
' 6.37m/s
c '
P

1/2
' 1.4 8 10
6
/ 71.0 ' 397m/s
PV '
m
M
RT or
R
M
'
PV
mT
c '
1.35 101400 1273
1.4 273
1/2
' 675 m/ s
dP
dV
'
m
M
R
V
dT
dV
&
m
M
RT
V
2
or
dp
dV
'
P
T
dT
dV
&
P
V
(c) Gas flow speed in discharge pipe is:
Speed of sound (relative to fluid) is:
(d) Speed of sound relative to the pipe is thus: 397.2 + 6.4 = 404 m/s.
Problem 1.5
The speed of sound is given by: and for any gas, (R/M) is fixed. c ' RT/ M
We can find (R/M) by using the properties at 0EC and the expression:
As (m/V) = 1.4 kg/m
3
, and thus:
R
M
'
101400
1.4 273
Problem 1.6
The Universal gas law may be written as . PV '
m
M
RT or P '
m
M
RT
V
Differentiating gives:
which may be rewritten as:
Solutions to problems 4
dP
P
%
dV
V
'
dT
T
dV
V
' &
1

dP
P
dP
P
1 &
1

'
dT
T
I '
p
2
2c
' I
ref
10
L
I
/ 10
and p ' pressure amplitude
p
P
1 &
1

'

T
'
1.617(1 & 1/ 1.4)
101400
298 ' 1.4 10
&3
EC
c '
P
RT/ M
'
1.4 101400
1.4 8.314 313.2/ 0.029
' 400.4
Thus, p ' [ 2 1.205 343 10
&12
10
9.5
]
1/2
' 1.62 Pa
Another gas property associated with the adiabatic expansion and contraction
of a sound wave is , which leads to: PV

' const
Combining the above two equations gives:
The acoustic pressure associated with a sound wave of intensity 95dB is
calculated as follows:
Thus,
We can write the results of the preceding analysis as:
Substituting in given values and rearranging the equation to give , we obtain:
which is the amplitude of the temperature fluctuations.
Problem 1.7
Using equations 1.4a and b in the text, it can be shown that:
Fundamentals 5
' c/ f ' 789/ 40 ' 19.7 m
f ' 250 ' c/ 2L ' c/ 2.4. Thus, c ' 600 m/ s
c '
RT
M
'
1.4 8.314 T
0.035
'
P
c
2
'
1.4 101.4 10
3
600
2
' 0.39 kg/ m
3
c '
RT
M
'
1.4 8.314 1873
0.035
' 789 m/ s
'
P
c
2
'
1.4 101.4 10
3
789
2
' 0.23 kg/ m
3
T '
600
2
0.035
1.4 8.314
' 1083EK ' 810EC
Problem 1.8
f = c/4L = 343/(44) = 21.4Hz
Problem 1.9
(a) Assume that the tail pipe is effectively open at each end as it follows a
muffler.
Thus:
(b)
Assumption is that the gas in the pipe is at atmospheric pressure at sea level.
Problem 1.10
(a)
(b)
(c)
Solutions to problems 6
D ' &V
MV
Mp
&1

dV
g
V
g
%
dP
P
' 0
L
w
' L
p
& 10log
10
4(1 & )
S
&10log
10
c
400
' 120 & 10log
10
4 0.98
149 0.02
& 10log
10
789 0.23
400
' 122.3 dB
W ' 10
&12
10
122.3/ 10
' 1.7 W
If we treat the furnace like a closed end tube, , so f ' Nc/ 2L
L ' c/ 2f ' 789/80 ' 9.9 m
So we can expect one dimension of the furnace to be 9.9 m.
(d) Surface area, S = dL + 2r
2
= 4 9.86 + 2 4 = 149 m
2
(e) Second burner has twice the sound power level, so increase in sound
pressure level will be 10 log
10
(3) or an increase of 4.8 dB. So the new
SPL = 124.8 dB.
Problem 1.11
(a) The bulk modulus of the fluid is given by equation 1.2 in the text as:
Consider a unit volume of fluid (V = 1), let the proportion (and volume
V
g
) of gas be x and the proportion (and volume V
L
) of liquid is then (1 -
x). Assume a pressure increment of p, and a corresponding volume
increment V.
From the above equation, we can write, V
L
= -p(1 - x)/D
Assuming adiabatic compression of gas,
. Differentiating P with respect to V PV

' const or P ' const V

&
and rearranging gives:
Fundamentals 7
V
g
' &
xP
P
V ' &
1 & x
D
&
x
P
P
D
eff
' &
V
P
&1
' &
1 & x
D
&
x
P
&1

eff
' (1 & x)
L
% x
g
c '
1
1 & x
D
%
x
P
(1 & x)
L
% x
g
Substituting x for V
g
and rearranging gives:
Thus, the total volume change for a change p in pressure =
V
L
+ V
g
= V. Thus:
Thus the effective bulk modulus of the fluid is given by:
The effective density of the fluid is equal to the total mass for unit
volume of fluid and is given by:
The speed of sound is given by . Substituting in the effective c ' D/
values calculated for D and above we obtain:
where x is the proportion of gas in the fluid.
(b) As x approaches 0, using the result of (a) above gives:
= which is the speed of sound in the liquid. c '
1
(1/ D)
L
D/
L
As x approaches 1, using the result of (a) above gives:
which is the speed of sound in the gas. c '
1
(1/ P)
g
'
P

g
Solutions to problems 8
'
A
r
e
j(t & kr)
p
u
'
j
1/r % jk
p
u
' c
jkr(1 & jkr)
1 % k
2
r
2
'
ckr(j % kr)
1 % k
2
r
2
'
ckr
1 % k
2
r
2

j % kr
1 % k
2
r
2
p
u
' ccos(jsin % cos) ' ccose
j
u '
p
ccos
e
&j
Problem 1.12
Equation 1.40c in the text is the harmonic solution to the spherical wave
equation. That is:
For spherical waves, equation 1.6 may be written as and thus the u ' &
M
Mr
particle velocity may be written as in equation 1.42. Using equations 1.7 and
1.40, the acoustic pressure may be written as in equation 1.41b. Using
equations 1.41b and 1.42, we may write:
Using = kc and multiplying the numerator and denominator of the above
equation by r gives equation 1.43 in the text.
Multiplying the numerator and denominator of equation 1.43 by (1 - jkr)
gives:
Defining the phase = tan
-1
(1/kr) as the phase by which the pressure leads the
particle velocity, the preceding equation may be written as:
which is the same as equation 1.72.
Harmonic intensity is defined as I = 0.5Re{ } where the bar denotes the p u
(
complex amplitude. Using equation 1.72, we may write:
Thus, , which is the plane wave 0.5 Re{ p u} ' 0.5
p
2
cos
ccos
'
p
2

c
expression.
Fundamentals 9
u ' &
M
Mr
'
Ak
r
e
j(t & kr)
%
A
jr
2

e
j(t & kr)
U '
A
r
0

e
j(t & kr
0
)
k %
1
jr
0
W ' 2
2
r
4
0
U
2
0
/ c
' 2(2 100)
2
0.05
4
1.205 2
2
/ 344 ' 0.22W
Problem 1.13
(a) At any location, . The velocity potential p '
A
r
e
j(t & r/ c)
'
A
r
e
j(t & kr)
is then and the particle velocity is '
1

m
pdt '
A
jr
e
j(t & kr)
(b) When r = r
0
, u = U and the particle velocity may be written as:
But U = U
0
e
jt
, so . U
0
'
A
r
0

k %
1
jr
0
e
&jkr
0
Thus, A '
r
0
U
0
k %
1
jr
0
e
jkr
0
However, e
jkr
0
' coskr
0
% jsinkr
0
. 1 % jkr
0
for small kr
0
Thus, A '
r
0
U
0
k %
1
jr
0
1 % jkr
0
' jr
2
0
U
0
(c) = 200, = 1.206, U
0
= 2, r
0
= 0.05
Power, W = IS = (p
2
/c)4r
2
= and
*p*
2
2c
4r
2
'
*A*
2
2cr
2
4r
2
. Thus: *A*
2
'
2
r
4
0

2
U
2
0
Solutions to problems 10
p '
A
r
e
j(t & kr)
'
A
jr
e
j(t & kr)
u ' &
M
Mr
'
jkA
jr
e
j(t & kr)
%
A
jr
2

e
j(t & kr)
'
A
rc
e
j(t & kr)
1 &
j
kr
'
p
c
1 &
j
kr
*u* '
*p*
c
*1 &
j
kr
*
Problem 1.14
Spherical wave solution to the wave equation is:
Using equation 1.7 in the text, the velocity potential is:
c
Using the one dimensional form of equation 1.6 in the text, the particle
velocity is:
Thus:
Amplitude is twice when or . *p*/ c *1 & j / kr* ' 2 1 % (kr)
&2
' 4
Thus kr ' 1/ 3 ' 0.58
Problem 1.15
(a) Plane wave: p = cu = 1.206 343 0.2
L
p
' 20log
10
1.206 343 0.2
2 10
&5
' 132dB
(b) L
p
' 20log
10
988 1486 0.2
10
&6
' 229dB
Non-linear effects are definitely important as the level in air is above 130dB
Fundamentals 11
L
p
' 20log
10
p
rms
10
&6
' 20log
10
106.07 10
3
10
&6
' 220.5dB
*u* '
*p*
c
*1 &
j
kr
* '
150 10
3
988 1481
1 %
1481
2 1000 1
2
' 105mm/s
and the level in water is also very high.
Cavitation in water would occur if the sound pressure amplitude exceeds the
mean pressure which would happen if the water were less than a certain depth.
The depth is calculated by calculating the weight of a column of water, 1 m
2
in cross section. Weight = 988 9.81 = 9692.3 N, so the water pressure is
9692.3 Pa per meter depth. The acoustic pressure amplitude is 1.41 988
1486 0.2 = 0.414 MPa. So the depth of water this corresponds to (allowing
for atmospheric pressure) is:
h = (0.414 10
6
- 101400)/9692.3 = 32.2m deep.
Problem 1.16
(a) The instantaneous total pressure will become negative if the acoustic
pressure amplitude exceeds the mean pressure. This corresponds to an
r.m.s. acoustic pressure of 150//2 = 106.07 kPa. The sound pressure
level is then:
(b) The particle velocity is given by . Thus the amplitude of the u ' p/ c
particle velocity is u = 150 10
3
/(988 1481) = 103 mm/s
(c) Using the analysis of problem 1.14, we can show that for a spherical
wave, the particle velocity amplitude is:
Solutions to problems 12
p '
A
r
e
j(t & kr)
'
A
jr
e
j(t & kr)
u ' &
M
Mr
'
jkA
jr
e
j(t & kr)
%
A
jr
2

e
j(t & kr)
'
A
rc
e
j(t & kr)
1 &
j
kr
'
p
c
1 &
j
kr
*u* '
*p*
c
*1 &
j
kr
*
*p* ' 2 p
ref
10
L
p
/ 20
' 2 2 10
&5
10
110/ 20
' 8.94 Pa
*u* '
8.94
413.6
1 % 0.546
2
' 25 mm/ s
Problem 1.17
(a) The sound pressure level at 10m will be 20log
10
(10/1) less than at 1m,
which translates to 90dB.
(b) Spherical wave solution to the wave equation is:
Using equation 1.7 in the text, the velocity potential is:
Using the one dimensional form of equation 1.6 in the text, the particle
velocity is:
Thus:
c = 1.206 343 = 413.7; k = 2f/c = 2 100/343 = 1.832
At 1m, 1/kr = 0.546; at 10m, 1/kr = 0.0546. The acoustic pressure
amplitude at 1m is:
Thus at 1m, the particle velocity amplitude is:
The acoustic pressure amplitude at 10m is:
Fundamentals 13
*p* ' 2 p
ref
10
L
p
/ 20
' 2 2 10
&5
10
90/ 20
' 0.894 Pa
*u* '
0.894
413.6
1 % 0.0546
2
' 2.2 mm/s
p '
A
r
e
j(t & kr)
'
A
jr
e
j(t & kr)
u ' &
M
Mr
'
jkA
jr
e
j(t & kr)
%
A
jr
2

e
j(t & kr)
'
A
rc
e
j(t & kr)
1 &
j
kr
'
p
c
1 &
j
kr
Z ' c 1 &
j
kr
&1
*Z* ' ckr
1 % k
2
r
2
1 % k
2
r
2
'
ckr
1 % k
2
r
2
' c/ 2
4k
2
r
2
' 1 % k
2
r
2
or k
2
r
2
' 0.3333
And at 10m, the particle velocity amplitude is:
Problem 1.18
(a) Spherical wave solution to the wave equation is:
Using equation 1.7 in the text, the velocity potential is:
Using the one dimensional form of equation 1.6 in the text, the particle
velocity is:
(b) Specific acoustic impedance, Z = p/u. Thus:
(c) The modulus of the impedance of the spherical wave is half that of a
plane wave (c) when
Thus:
Solutions to problems 14
Thus, r ' (/ 2) 0.3333 ' 0.092
Problem 1.19
(a) r.m.s. sound pressure
p
rms
' Ic '
Wc
4r
2
'
1 1.206 343
4 0.3
2
' 19.12Pa
(b) SPL = 20log
10
19.1
2 10
&5
' 119.6dB
(c) r.m.s. particle velocity (see equation 1.43 in text):
*u
r
* '
*p
r
* 1 % k
2
r
2
krc
'
19.025 1 % k
2
r
2
1/2
413.6kr
kr '
2 1000
343
0.3 ' 5.50
Thus, u '
19.125[1 % 5.50
2
]
1/2
413.7 5.50
' 0.047m/s
(d) Phase between pressure and particle velocity given by equation 1.73 as:
, and the acoustic pressure ' tan
&1
[1/(kr)] ' tan
&1
(1/5.50) ' 10.3E
leads the particle velocity.
(e) As shown on p35 in the text, spherical wave intensity is . p
2
rms
/ (c)
Substituting in the value for p
rms
calculated in (a) above gives:
I ' 19.125
2
/ (1.205 343) ' 0.885 W/m
2
(f) From equation 1.74 in the text, the amplitude of the reactive intensity is:
I
r
'
p
2
rms
ckr
'
19.125
2
1.205 343 5.50
' 0.161 W/ m
2
Fundamentals 15
L
oct
' 10log
10
10
7.8
% 10
7.3
% 10
8
' 80.8dB
p
2
rms
'
1.206 343
4
10
100
%
20
200
%
15
100
' 11.52Pa
2
tan '
0.1A(1 % 1/ 2)
0.1A(1.5 % 1/ 2
' 0.7734
A
B
C D
10 m
10 m
(g) The sound intensity level is:
L
I
' 10log
10
0.885 % 120 ' 119.5dB
(h) 1500Hz is a different frequency to 1000Hz so the mean square pressures
add.
Thus, . p
rms
' 2 19.125 ' 27.0Pa
Problem 1.20
Problem 1.21
(a) For a spherical source:
. p
2
rms
' cI ' cW/ S ' cW/ 4r
2
As the sources are uncorrelated we may
add p
2
for each. For source A, r = 10.
For source B, r = 10/2.
For source C, r = 10.
Thus the total p
2
at location D is:
Thus, the sound pressure level is:
L
p
= 10log
10
11.52
(2 10
&5
)
2
' 104.6 dB
(b) Intensity, I % p
2
. Thus, I % W/r
2
= AW/r
2
. The resultant intensity can thus
be calculated using the figure on the next page.
Solutions to problems 16
45
o
45
o
45
o
0.1A
0.1A
0.1A
0.1A
0.15A
2
2
u
u
Thus the direction of the
intensity vector is 37.7E
below the horizontal.
(c) Sound intensity is a
measure of the net flow of
energy in an acoustic
disturbance. For a single
frequency field the sound
intensity is the product of
the acoustic pressure with
the in-phase component of
the particle velocity. For a
broadband field it is the time average product of the acoustic pressure
and particle velocity. Thus its measurement requires a knowledge of the
acoustic pressure and particle velocity. Equations 1.6 and 1.7 in the text
indicate that the particle velocity is proportional to the pressure gradient
which can be approximated by subtracting the measurements from two
microphones and dividing the result by the separation distance. In the far
field of the source, the pressure and particle velocity are in phase and
related by p = cu. Thus, in the far field, only one microphone is
necessary as the pressure gradient need not be calculated.
(d) For the determination of sound power, sound intensity measurements can
still give accurate results in the presence of reflecting surfaces or other
nearby noisy equipment, whereas results obtained using sound pressure
measurements are likely to be seriously in error.
Problem 1.22
(a) Specific acoustic impedance is the ratio of acoustic pressure to particle
velocity at any location in the medium containing the acoustic
disturbance. It is a function of the type of disturbance as well as of the
acoustic medium.
(b) Characteristic impedance is a material or acoustic medium property, is
equal to c and is the specific acoustic impedance of a plane wave in an
infinitely extending medium.
Fundamentals 17
10log
10
10
98/ 10
& 10
95/ 10
' 95.0dB
10log
10
10
102/ 10
& 10
98/ 10
' 99.8dB
10log
10
10
96/ 10
& 10
94/ 10
' 91.7dB
(c) Interference describes the interaction between two or more sound waves
of the same frequency such that regions of reinforcement (increased
sound pressure) and regions of cancellation (reduced sound pressure) are
formed.
(d) Phase speed is the speed at which a single frequency sound wave
propagates and is proportional to the rate of change of phase experienced
by a stationary observer as the sound wave propagates past.
(e) Sound power is a measure of the total rate of energy emission by an
acoustic source and has the units of watts.
(f) Particle velocity describe the oscillatory motion of particles in an acoustic
medium during propagation of an acoustic disturbance.
Problem 1.23
A flat spectrum level implies equal energy in each 1Hz wide frequency band.
As the bandwidth of an octave band doubles from one band to the next, the
energy level will increase by 3dB each time the octave band centre frequency
is doubled.
Similarly, the level will increase by 1dB for one third octave bands, each time
the band centre frequency is stepped up.
Problem 1.24
(a) The noise levels due to the machine only at each of the three locations
are:
The L
eq
at 500Hz is:
10log
10
10
95/ 10
% 10
99.8/ 10
% 10
91.7/ 10
' 101.5dB
Solutions to problems 18
p
2
1
' p
2
2
' p
2
ref
10
L
p
/10
and p
2
t
' 4 p
2
1
p
1
' p
2
' p
ref
10
85/20
p
2
t
' p
2
ref
10
8.5
% 10
8.5
% 210
8.5
cos30
L
p
t
' 10log
10
p
2
t
p
2
ref
' 90.7dB
dB reduction ' &10log
10
1
3
10
&1.5
% 10
&2
% 10
&2.3
' 18.1 dB
(b)
Problem 1.25
Use equation 1.90 in text, 3
rd
edn. as the two signals will be coherent.
If the two speakers operate together, the phase difference between the two
signals is zero as the speakers are identical and driven by the same amplifier.
Thus cos = 1.
Thus, L
p
t
' L
p
1
% 10log
10
4 ' 85 % 6 ' 91dB
If a 45E phase shift were introduced, then cos = 0.707 and
. p
2
t
' (2 % 2 0.707)p
2
1
' 3.414p
2
1
Thus: . L
p
t
' L
p
1
% 10log
10
3.414 ' 85 % 5.3 ' 90.3dB
Problem 1.26
Use equation 1.90 in text, as the signals to be added are coherent.
For signals 180E out of phase, cos180E = -1 and thus p
t
2
= 0 which means that
L
pt
= - 4. In practice the measured level would be greater than this due to
electronic instrumentation noise.
Fundamentals 19
p
rms
' A
2
/ 2 % A
2
/ 2 % A
2
cos ' A (1 % cos)
L ' 10log
10
p
rms
p
)
rms
2
' 10log
10
(2 % 2cos) ' 4.8dB

2
&
1
'
2f
c
c

c
2f
c
'
p
2
t
' p
2
1
% p
2
2
& 2 p
1
p
2
' ( p
1
& p
2
)
2
, p
1
> p
2
Problem 1.27
(a) Each signal has an amplitude of A, an r.m.s. value of A//2 and the
relative phase between them is radians.
(b) As the signals are at the same frequency and are shifted in phase by a
constant amount, they are coherent, so equation 1.90 in the text is used
to add them together. Therefore the r.m.s. value of the combined signal
is given by:
With just a single source, . The difference in dB between p
)
rms
' A/ 2
the two is thus:
Thus for a value of = 60E, L = 4.8dB
Problem 1.28
(a) As the waves are from the same source, one may be described by
and the other by , where x
1
and x
2
are p
1
' P
1
e
j (t & kx
1
)
p
2
' P
2
e
j (t & kx
2
)
the path lengths of the two waves. The phase difference is thus
, where f
c
is the centre frequency of
2
&
1
' k(x
1
& x
2
) '
2f
c
c
(x
1
& x
2
)
the band of noise.
(b) If (x
1
- x
2
) = /2 = c/2f
c
, the phase difference is:
Substituting this result into equation 1.90 in the text gives:
Solutions to problems 20

2
&
1
'
2f
c
c

c
f
c
' 2
p
2
t
' p
2
1
% p
2
2
% 2 p
1
p
2
' ( p
1
% p
2
)
2

p
2
t
' p
2
1
% p
2
2
% 2 p
1
p
2

1
2
m
2
0
cos d
' p
2
1
% p
2
2
% 2 p
1
p
2

1
2
sin
2
0
' p
2
1
% p
2
2

p
2
t
' p
2
1
% p
2
2
% 2 p
1
p
2
cos(
1
&
2
)
p
2
t
' p
2
1
% p
2
2
% 2 p
1
p
2

If (x
1
- x
2
) = = c/f
c
, the phase difference is:
Substituting this result into equation 1.90 in the text gives:
(c) If all phases are present the total pressure is given by equation 1.90
averaged over all phases. Thus:
which is the result for the incoherent case.
Problem 1.29
Following example 1.4 on p49 in the text, the level due to the "first" signal
alone is given by . 10log
10
10
7.5
& 10
6.9
' 73.7dB
Problem 1.30
(a) The phenomenon is the superposition of acoustic waves of the same
frequency and fixed phase. Thus the total pressure, , is given by: p
2
t

If the phase difference between the two waves is zero, then:
Fundamentals 21
p
2
t
' p
2
1
% p
2
2
& 2 p
1
p
2

20log
10
2p
1
2 10
&5
' 60
20log
10
p
1
2 10
&5
' 60 & 6 ' 54dB
10log
10
10
9.7
& 10
9.4
. 94dB
If p
1
= p
2
, then p
2
t
' 4 p
2
1

When the two waves are 180E out of phase:
If p
1
= p
2
, then p
2
t
' 0
The noise level could be reduced substantially by using a control system
which ensured that when one pump was turned on, the other was turned
on at such a time that it was 180E out of phase with the first pump.
(b) When the problem is noticed, the sound pressure level at the house is
60dB. This would occur when the two pumps are in phase. Thus:
If one pump only were operating, then the level should be:
If the level which is measured with one pump operating is closer to 54dB
than 57dB, then the theory of in-phase addition of sound waves would be
verified. However if the level with one pump operating were closer to
57dB, then incoherent addition would be suggested and the problem
would need further investigation.
Problem 1.31
Following example 1.4 in the text, the level due to the machine alone is equal
to:
Thus the machine is in compliance with specifications.
Solutions to problems 22
10log
10
10
9.5
& 10
9.1
. 92.8dB
NR ' 10log
10
[10
0/10
% 10
&5/10
]
& 10log
10
[10
&8/10
% 10
&13/10
% 10
&13/10
% 10
&8/10
% 2( 10
&18/10
% 10
&12/10
)]
' 1.2 & (&2.4) ' 3.6dB
Problem 1.32
Following example 1.4 in the text, the level due to the machine alone is equal
to:
Problem 1.33
See pages 49 and 50 in text, "combining level reductions". The difference
level with the barrier removed can be calculated by adding the barrier noise
reduction to 60dB(A). The noise reduction is calculated using equation 1.97
and is:
Thus the level with the barrier removed is 60 + 3.6 = 63.6dB.
Problem 1.34
(a) Level at the receiver due to both waves = 75dB.
Reflected signal has suffered a 5dB loss.
Let the signal due to the direct wave = xdB. Then:
75 ' 10log
10
10
x/ 10
% 10
(x & 5) / 10
or 75 ' 10log
10
10
x/ 10
% 10log
10
1 % 10
(& 5/ 10)
Thus, x = 75 - 1.2 = 73.8dB
(b) Contributions to the total level from various paths are:
Path A: 73.8 - 4 - 7 = 62.8
Path B: 73.8 - 5 - 5 = 63.8
Path C: 73.8 - 4 = 69.8
Sound pressure level at receiver =
10log
10
10
6.28
% 10
6.38
% 10
6.98
' 71.4dB
(c) The answer can be found by calculating what the direct field contribution
Fundamentals 23
u
tot
' &
1

M
Mx
m
p dt ' &
A
j
M
Mx
e
jt
e
&jkx
% 0.25e
jkx
'
kA

e
jt
e
&jkx
& 0.25e
jkx
I '
1
2
Re{ p u
(
} '
1
2
Re A e
&jkx
% 0.25e
jkx
kA

e
jkx
& 0.25e
&jkx
I '
1
2
Re
kA
2

1.0 & 0.25

2
% 0.25e
2jkx
& 0.25e
&2jkx
' 0.47
kA
2

is, using the level with the barrier in place (note incoherent addition with
the barrier in place). Let the direct sound field = xdB. The total level
with the barrier in place is 70dB. Thus:
70 ' 10log
10
10
(x & 11) / 10
% 10
(x & 10))10
% 10
(x & 4) / 10
or
70 ' 10log
10
10
x/ 10
% 10log
10
10
&11/ 10
% 10
&10/ 10
% 10
&4/ 10
Thus, x = 70.0 + 2.4 = 72.4dB
Reduction due to destructive interference = 72.4 - 65 = 7.4dB
Problem 1.35
The positive going wave may be represented as and the p
i
' Ae
j(t & kx)
negative going wave as . At x = 0, the phase between the two (A/4) e
j(t % kx % )
waves is 0. Thus, = 0. The total pressure field may then be written as:
p
tot
' Ae
j(t & kx)
% (A/4)e
j(t % kx)
' Ae
jt
e
&jkx
% 0.25e
jkx
.
Combining equations 1.6 and 1.7 in the text gives for the particle velocity:
The active acoustic intensity is then:
The preceding equation may be rearranged to give:
Alternatively, the intensity of each of the two waves could have been
calculated separately and combined vectorially. That is, for the positive going
Solutions to problems 24
I
i
'
p
2
i

c
'
A
2
2c
I
i
'
p
2
r

c
'
A
2
4
2
2c
I
tot
' I
i
& I
r
'
A
2
2c
&
A
2
32c
' 0.47
A
2
c
' 0.47
kA
2

plane wave:
and for the negative going plane wave:
The total intensity is then:
If the two waves had the same amplitude it is clear from the preceding
equations that the active intensity would be zero.
Problem 1.36
(a) Higher order mode cut-on frequency is: f
co
= 0.586c/d, where d is the tube
diameter (see p456 in text).
Thus f
co
= 0.586 343/0.05 = 4020Hz
Frequency range for plane waves = 0 to 4020Hz.
(b) For plane waves, the acoustic power is:
, where S is the duct cross sectional area. W ' I S '
S p
2

c
' cS u
2

u
2
'
2

2
0
/ 2
' (2 500 0.0001)
2
/ 2 ' 0.04935(m/s)
2
c = 1.206 343 = 413.7, S = (/4) 0.05
2
Thus, W ' 413.7 1.964 10
&3
0.04935 ' 0.04watts
(c) As power is proportional to the square of the cone velocity, the cone
velocity squared should be kept constant which means that the
displacement squared of the speaker cone should vary inversely with
frequency. That is, the displacement should vary inversely with the
square root of the frequency.
Fundamentals 25
u(x, t) ' &
1
j
Mp(x, t)
Mx
'
p(x, t)
c
(x, t) '
1
c
5
500
e
j(500t & k
1
x & / 2)
%
3
200
e
j(200t & k
2
x & / 2)
'
1
3431.206
5
500
e
j(500t & 2500/ 343 & / 2)
%
3
200
e
j(200t & 1000/343 & / 2)
'
1
413.7
1
100
e
j(500t & 7.29 & / 2)
%
3
200
e
j(200t & 2.91 & / 2)
Problem 1.37
(a) The acoustic pressure is given by:
p(x, t) ' 5e
j(500t & k
1
x)
% 3e
j(200t & k
2
x)
The particle velocity can be obtained using equation 1.7 and the one
dimensional form of equation 1.6 as follows:
Using the above expression for acoustic pressure and k
1
= 500/343 k
2
=
200/343 and x = 5, the acoustic particle velocity can be written as:
u(x, t) '
1
c
5e
j(500t & k
1
x)
% 3e
j(200t & k
2
x)
'
1
3431.206
5e
j(500t & 2500/ 343)
% 3e
j(200t & 1000/343)
'
1
413.7
5e
j(500t & 7.29)
% 3e
j(200t & 2.92)
The displacement is given by . Thus: (x, t) '
m
u dt
Solutions to problems 26
u(x, t) ' &
1
j
M(p
R
(x, t) & p
L
(x, t))
Mx
'
p
R
(x, t) & p
L
(x, t)
c
(b) r.m.s. values are:
u
rms
'
1
2

1
413.6
5
2
% 3
2
1/2
' 0.010m/ s

rms
'
1
2

1
413.6
1/ 100
2
% 3/ 200
2
1/2
' 3.1 10
&5
m
(c) Active intensity. As we have a plane wave propagating in only one
direction, the sound intensity is given by equation 1.70 in the text. Also
note that the mean square pressures for two different frequencies add.
Thus:
I
a
'
p
2
rms
c
' 0.5
5
2
% 3
2
413.7
' 0.041 W/ m
2
(d) Reactive intensity. This is undefined as we have more than one
frequency component in the wave.
(e) The acoustic pressure for each wave is given by:
p
R
(x, t) ' 5e
j(500t & k
1
x)
% 3e
j(200t & k
2
x)
p
L
(x, t) ' 4e
j(500t % k
1
x)
% 2e
j(200t % k
2
x)
Total acoustic pressure, p = p
R
+ p
L
. Thus:
p = + 5e
j(500t & k
1
x)
% 3e
j(200t & k
2
x)
4e
j(500t % k
1
x)
% 2e
j(200t % k
2
x)
The total acoustic particle velocity is then:
Thus:
u(x, t) '
1
1.206 343
5e
j(500t & k
1
x)
% 3e
j(200t & k
2
x)
& 4e
j(500t % k
1
x)
& 2e
j(200t % k
2
x)
Fundamentals 27
I '
0.5
1.206 343
Re 5e
&jk
1
x
% 4e
jk
1
x
5e
jk
1
x
& 4e
&jk
1
x
%
0.5
1.206 343
Re 3e
&jk
2
x
% 2e
jk
2
x
3e
jk
2
x
& 2e
&jk
2
x
Z '
p(x, t)
u(x, t)
' c
Ae
j(t & kx)
Ae
j(t & kx)
' c
x
0
Z = p u
T T
/
-L
The active intensity is given by I = 0.5Re{ } where the bar denotes p u
(
the complex amplitude. The amplitude of the reactive component is not
defined as there is more than one frequency present. The active intensity
is calculated at each frequency and the results added together as follows:
Thus, I = 1.20 10
-3
(9 + 5) = 0.017 W/m
2

Problem 1.38
(a) The acoustic pressure may be written as . Using p(x, t) ' Ae
j(t & kx)
equations 1.6 and 1.7 in the text, the acoustic particle velocity may be
written as: . u(x, t) '
kA

e
j(t & kx)
'
A
c
e
j(t & kx)
(b) Particle velocity is the magnitude of the motion of the particles disturbed
during the passage of an acoustic wave, whereas the speed of sound
refers to the speed at which the disturbance propagates. Acoustic particle
velocity is a function of the loudness of the noise, whereas the speed of
sound is independent of loudness.
(c) The specific acoustic impedance is the ratio of acoustic pressure to
particle velocity. Using the preceding equations we obtain:
(d)
Solutions to problems 28
p
T
' A e
j(t & kx)
% e
j(t % kx)
u
T
'
A
c
e
j(t & kx)
& e
j(t % kx)
Z
c
'
e
&j kx
% e
j kx
e
&j kx
& e
j kx
'
cos(kx)
&j sin(kx)
' j cot(kx)
p
T
' A e
j(t & kx)
% e
j(t % kx % 2kL)
x 0
Z = -p u
T T
/
-L
rigid termination
speaker
To simplify the algebra, set the origin of the coordinate system at the rigid end
of the tube as shown in the figure. As the tube is terminated non-anechoically,
the pressure will include a contribution from the reflected wave. For a rigid
termination, the phase shift on reflection is 0E and the amplitude of the
reflected wave is equal to the amplitude of the incident wave. As the origin,
x = 0 is at the point of reflection, the phase of the two waves must be the same
when x = 0. Of course if the origin were elsewhere, this would not be true and
the following expressions would have to include an additional term (equal to
the distance from the origin to the point of reflection) in the exponent of the
reflected wave. With the origin at the point of reflection, the total acoustic
pressure and particle velocity at any point in the tube may be written as:
and
The specific acoustic impedance is then:
Problem 1.39
The coordinate system is as
shown in the figure at right.
(a) For a rigid termination,
the phase shift on
reflection is 0E and the
amplitude of the
reflected wave is equal to the amplitude of the incident wave. As the
origin, x = 0 is at the loudspeaker location, the phase of the two waves
must be the same when x = -L. Thus, the total acoustic pressure at any
point in the tube may be written as:
The velocity potential and acoustic particle velocity may be derived from
Fundamentals 29

T
'
A
j
e
j(t & kx)
% e
j(t % kx % 2kL)
u
T
'
A
c
e
j(t & kx)
& e
j(t % kx % 2kL)
p
T
'
U
0
c
1 & e
j2kL
e
j(t & kx)
% e
j(t % kx % 2kL)
u
T
'
U
0
1 & e
j2kL
e
j(t & kx)
& e
j(t % kx % 2kL)
I '
1
2
Re p
T
u
(
T
' cU
2
0
Re
e
&j kx
% e
j(kx % 2kL)
e
j kx
& e
&j(kx % 2kL)
2 1 & e
j2kL
1 & e
&j2kL
' cU
2
0
Re
e
&j kx
% e
j(kx % 2kL)
e
j kx
& e
&j(kx % 2kL)
2 2 & e
j2kL
& e
&2jkL
'
cU
2
0
2 2 & 2cos(2kL)
Re 1 & 1 % e
2jk(x % L)
& e
&2jk(x % L)
' 0
the above expression as:
(b) At x = 0, u
T
= U
0
e
jt
,
thus and so U
0
'
A
c
1 & e
j2kL
A '
U
0
c
1 & e
j2kL
(c) Rewriting the expressions of (a) in terms of U
0
, we obtain:
and
The real part of the acoustic intensity (where the bar denotes the complex
amplitude which is time independent) is:
The amplitude of the imaginary part of the acoustic intensity can be
derived in a similar way and from the last line in the above equation, it
Solutions to problems 30
I '
1
2
Im p
T
u
(
T
'
cU
2
0
2 & 2cos(2kL)
sin[2k(x % L)]
p
i
' Ae
j(t & kx)
and p
r
' Be
j(t % kx % )
p
T
' Ae
j(t & kx)
% Be
j(t % kx % )
x
speaker
1
speaker
2
0
is:
(d) The acoustic intensity is a vector quantity and as the amplitudes of the
two waves travelling in opposite directions are the same, their intensities
will vectorially add to zero.
Problem 1.40
(a) Incident wave and reflected wave pressures may be written as:
The total pressure is thus:
The maximum pressure amplitude occurs when the left and right going
waves are in-phase which is at location x, such that the phase, = -2kx,
giving a pressure amplitude of (A + B). The minimum pressure amplitude
occurs when the left and right going waves are radians out of phase, at
the location x, such that the phase = -2kx + , with a corresponding
amplitude of A - B. Thus, the ratio of maximum to minimum pressure is
Fundamentals 31
& 2kx
min
' &2kx
max
x
min
& x
max
'

2k
'

4
'
c
4f
f '
c
4(x
min
& x
max
)
'
343
4(0.09 &0.03)
' 1430 Hz
u
T
'
1
c
(p
i
& p
r
)
u
T
'
1
c
Ae
j(t & kx)
& Be
j(t % kx % )
u
T
'
1
c
A & Be
j
' &0.06k ' &0.06

2(x
min
& x
max
)
' &/ 2
* u
T
* '
1
413.7
A
2
% B
2
1/2
(A + B)/(A - B) and the standing wave ratio is 20log
10
[(A %B) / (A & B)]
The location of the minimum closest to the end where x = 0 (left end) is
0.09m. Thus = -0.18k + . As is a constant:
So:
and thus:
(b) The total particle velocity can be calculated using equations 1.6 and 1.7
in the text as:
Thus:
The complex particle velocity amplitude at x = 0 is then:
The phase angle is given by part (a) as:
Using the above 2 equations, the particle velocity amplitude can be
written as:
The standing wave ratio is given by:
Solutions to problems 32
*
A % B
A & B
* ' 10
(100 & 96.5) / 20
' 1.496
A % B ' 2 10
&5
1.414 10
100/ 20
' 2.828
Z
m
' cS
A % Be
j(2kL % )
A & Be
j(2kL % )
Z
m
' 413.7 0.001
5.032 % e
j/ 2
5.032 & e
j/ 2
' 0.4136
5.032 % j
5.032 & j
' 0.01571 (5.032 % j)
2
' 0.382 % 0.158j
Thus, A = 5.03B. However, the maximum pressure amplitude is A + B.
So:
From the preceding two equations, we have A = 2.36 and B = 0.469.
Thus the velocity amplitude at x = 0 is:
. * u
T
* '
1
413.7
2.36
2
% 0.469
2
1/2
' 5.8mm/s
Thus the volume velocity amplitude is 5.9 10
-6
m
3
/s (0.001m
2
area)
which is equivalent to an r.m.s volume velocity of
4.2 10
-6
m
3
/s.
(c) The mechanical impedance of the second loudspeaker is given by the
cross-sectional area multiplied by the ratio of the pressure and particle
velocity at the surface of the loudspeaker. Thus Z
m
= pS/u. Using the
relationships derived in parts (a) and (b), we have:
We previously found that = -/2 and k = -/0.06. Also L = 0.3 and 2kL
= (2/0.12)0.3 = 5. Thus Z
m
may be written as:
Problem 1.41
(a) It is sufficient to show that adding two waves of the same frequency but
shifted in phase will give a third wave of the same frequency but shifted
Fundamentals 33
p
1
' A
1
e
jt
and p
2
' A
2
e
jt %
p
1
' A
1
cost and p
2
' A
2
cos( % )t
u
et
|
p
2
p
3
p
1
Im
Re
in phase. Assuming plane wave propagation, let the two waves to be
added be described as:
and the third wave as . To find A
3
and in terms of A
1
, A
2
p
3
' A
3
e
jt %
and , it is easiest to express p
1
, p
2
and p
3
as rotating vectors and use the
cosine rule as shown in the figure.
From the cosine rule:
A
2
3
' A
2
1
% A
2
2
% 2A
1
A
2
cos
which is the same as equation 1.90 in the text.
The phase angle is:
' tan
&1
A
2
sin
A
1
% A
2
cos
(b) It is sufficient to show that adding together two plane waves of slightly
different frequency with the same amplitude result in a third wave. Let
the two waves to be added be described as:
The sum of the two pressures written above may be expressed as:
Solutions to problems 34
p
1
% p
2
' A(cost % cos( % )t)
' 2A cos
t
2
( % % ) cos
t
2
( & & )
' 2Acos

2
t cos %

2
t
p
i
' Ae
j(t % kx)
and p
r
' Be
j(t & kx % )
p
T
' Ae
j(t % kx)
% Be
j(t & kx % )
x
0
Z = -p /Su
a T T
L
which is a sine wave of frequency ( + ) modulated by a frequency
/2
(c) If is small we obtain the familiar beating phenomenon (see page 46,
fig 1.9 in text which shows a beating phenomenon where the two waves
are slightly different in amplitude resulting in incomplete cancellation at
the null points).
Problem 1.42
(a)
As the origin is at the left end of the tube, the incident wave will be travelling
in the negative x direction. Assuming a phase shift between the incident and
reflected waves of at x = 0, the incident wave and reflected wave pressures
may be written as:
The total pressure is thus:
The total particle velocity can be calculated using equations 1.6 and 1.7
in the text as:
Fundamentals 35
u
T
'
1
c
(p
r
& p
i
)
u
T
'
1
c
Be
j(t & kx % )
& Ae
j(t % kx)
P
0
' A % Be
j
and cU
0
' Be
j
& A
A ' 0.5(P
0
& cU
0
) and Be
j
' 0.5(P
0
% cU
0
)
p
T
' 0.5(P
0
& cU
0
) e
j(t % kx)
% 0.5(P
0
% cU
0
) e
j(t & kx)
u
T
'
0.5
c
(P
0
% cU
0
) e
j(t & kx)
& (P
0
& cU
0
) e
j(t % kx)
Z
a
' &
p
T
Su
T
' &
c
S
(P
0
& cU
0
) e
jkx
% (P
0
% cU
0
) e
&jkx
(P
0
% cU
0
) e
&jkx
& (P
0
& cU
0
) e
jkx
Z
a
'
c
S
jcU
0
sin(kx) & P
0
cos(kx)
cU
0
cos(kx) & jP
0
sin(kx)
Thus:
At x = 0, p
T
= P
0
e
jt
and u
T
= U
0
e
jt
. Thus:

Thus:
and the total acoustic pressure and particle velocity may be written as:
and
The acoustic impedance looking towards the left in the negative x-
direction is the negative ratio of the total acoustic pressure to the product
of the duct cross-sectional area and the total acoustic particle velocity
(see the preceding figure). Thus:
As , the e
jkx
' cos(kx) % jsin(kx) and e
&jkx
' cos(kx) & jsin(kx)
impedance may be written as:
Solutions to problems 36
Z
a
'
c
S
P
0
cos(kx) & jcU
0
sin(kx)
cU
0
cos(kx) & jP
0
sin(kx)
Z
a
'
c
S
Z
0
cos(kL) % jc sin(kL)
c cos(kL) % jZ
0
sin(kL)
2m
(b)
Using a similar analysis to that outlined above, the following expression
is obtained for the acoustic impedance looking to the right in the positive
x direction:
The expressions in parts (a) and (b) for the impedance can be shown to
be equal if evaluated at the open end of the tube (x = L in part (a) and x
= -L in part (b). In addition, the quantity -P
0
/U
0
is equal to the
termination impedance Z
0
in part (a), while in part (b), the quantity P
0
/U
0
is equal to the termination impedance Z
0
. Making the appropriate
substitutions, both expressions give the following for the impedance at
the open end of the tube.
Problem 1.43
(a)
Set the origin, x = 0 at the surface of the sample. Then the entrance of the
tube is at x = -2.0. As the origin is at the surface of the sample, the incident
wave will be travelling in the positive x direction. Assuming a phase shift
between the incident and reflected waves of at x = 0, the incident wave and
Fundamentals 37
p
i
' Ae
j(t & kx)
and p
r
' Be
j(t % kx % )
p
T
' Ae
j(t & kx)
% Be
j(t % kx % )
u
T
'
1
c
Ae
j(t & kx)
& Be
j(t % kx % )
Z '
p
T
u
T
' c
Ae
&j kx
% Be
j kx % j
Ae
&j kx
& Be
j kx % j
' c
A % Be
j(2kx % )
A & Be
j(2kx % )
' c
A/ B % cos(2kx % ) % jsin(2kx % )
A/ B & cos(2kx % ) &jsin(2kx % )
R
p
' (B/ A) e
j
' 0.5 % 0.5j
reflected wave pressures may be written as:
The total pressure is thus:
The total particle velocity can be calculated using equations 1.6 and 1.7
in the text as:
The pressure reflection coefficient, R
p
, is defined as p
r
/p
i
. Thus:
The reflection coefficient amplitude is B/A and the phase is . Thus, B/A
= 0.707 and = 45E = 0.7854 radians.
Thus the specific acoustic impedance at any point in the tube may be
written as:

= 1.832 and x = -2. Thus, 2kx + = -6.542. k ' / c ' 2 100/ 343
. cos(2kx % ) ' 0.9667 and sin(2kx % ) ' &0.25587 and A/ B ' 1.414
Thus, Z = 414 (2.3807 - j0.25587)/(0.4475 + j0.25587)
= 1558(1 - j0.7237) = 1560 - j1130
(b) The absorption coefficient is defined as , so = 0.5 ' 1 & *R
p
*
2
Solutions to problems 38
p
i
' Ae
j(t % kx)
and p
r
' Be
j(t & kx % )
p
T
' Ae
j(t % kx)
% Be
j(t & kx % )
10
L
0
/ 20
'
A % B
A & B
x
0
Z = -p u
T T
/
-L
speaker
sample
Problem 1.44
(a) To simplify the algebra, assume that the tube is horizontal with the left
end at x = 0 containing the sample of material whose absorption
coefficient is to be determined, as shown in the figure. As the origin is
at the left end of the tube, the incident wave will be travelling in the
negative x direction. Assuming a phase shift between the incident and
reflected waves of at x = 0, the incident wave and reflected wave
pressures may be written as:
The total pressure is thus:
The maximum pressure will occur when = 2kx, and the minimum will
occur when = 2kx + . Thus:
and p
max
' e
jkx
A % B p
min
' e
jkx
A & B
and the ratio of maximum to minimum pressures is (A + B)/(A - B)
The standing wave ratio, L
0
, is defined as:
Thus the ratio (B/A) is:
Fundamentals 39
B
A
'
10
L
0
/20
&1
10
L
0
/20
%1
*R
p
*
2
'
10
L
0
/20
&1
10
L
0
/20
%1
2
' 1 &
10
15/ 20
& 1
10
15/ 20
% 1
2
' 0.51
u
T
'
1
c
(p
r
& p
i
)
u
T
'
1
c
Be
j(t & kx % )
& Ae
j(t % kx)
Z ' &
p
T
u
T
' &c
Ae
j kx
% Be
&j kx % j
Be
&j kx % j
& Ae
j kx
' &c
A % Be
j(&2kx % )
Be
j(&2kx % )
& A
Z
s
c
' &
p
T
cu
T
'
A % Be
j
A & Be
j
Z
s
'
A/ B % cos % j sin
A/ B & cos & j sin
'
(A/ B)
2
& 1 % (2A/ B) j sin
(A/ B)
2
% 1 & (2A/ B) cos
The amplitude of the pressure reflection coefficient squared is
which can be written in terms of L
0
(= 95 - 80) as: *R
p
*
2
' (B/ A)
2
The absorption coefficient is defined as , so: ' 1 & *R
p
*
2
(b) The total particle velocity can be calculated using the equation in part (a)
for the acoustic pressure and equations 1.6 and 1.7 in the text as:
Thus:
Thus the specific acoustic impedance at any point in the tube may be
written as:
At x = 0, the specific acoustic impedance is the normal impedance, Z
s
, of
the surface of the sample. Thus:
The above impedance equation may be expanded to give:
Solutions to problems 40
*Z
s
* '
(A/ B)
2
& 1
2
% (2A/ B)
2
sin
2

(A/ B)
2
% 1 & (2A/ B)cos
' tan
&1
2(A/ B) sin
(A/ B)
2
& 1
*Z
s
*
c
'
(1.433
2
& 1)
2
% (2.866
2
0.966
2
)
1.433
2
% 1 & 2.866 0.258
' 1.28
' tan
&1
2 1.433 (&0.966)
1.433
2
& 1
' &69.2E

st
'
8 cos

1 &
cos

log
e
(1 % 2 cos %
2
) %
cos(2)
sin
tan
&1
sin
1 % cos
The modulus of the impedance is then:
and the phase is given by:
Using the previous analysis, .
A
B
'
10
L
0
/ 20
% 1
10
L
0
/ 20
& 1
' 1.433
At the pressure minimum, = 2kx - , where k = 2/.
x = 0.2m and f = 250Hz, thus k = 2f/c = 4.58.
Thus, = 2 4.58 0.2 - = -1.31 radians
cos = 0.258 and sin = -0.966
Thus from the preceding equations:
and the phase is:
(c) The statistical absorption coefficient is given by equation C.37 in the text
as
Substituting in the modulus and phase of the impedance, we obtain
Fundamentals 41

st
'
8 cos(&69.17)
1.28
1 &
cos(&69.17)
1.28

log
e
1 % 2 1.28 cos(&69.17) % 1.28
2
%
cos(&138.4)
1.28sin(&69.17)
tan
&1
1.28 sin(&69.17)
1 % 1.28 cos(&69.17)
' 2.22(1 & 0.278 1.266 % 0.625 (&0.688)
' 2.22(1 & 0.352 & 0.430) ' 0.485
W '
S
2
Re p
T
u
(
T
'
S* u
T
*
2
2
Re Z
x
0
Z = -p /u
T T
L
Problem 1.45
(a)
Assume a horizontal tube with the left end containing the termination
impedance Z
0
at x = 0. As the origin is at the left end of the tube, the
incident wave will be travelling in the negative x direction.
The power radiated by a source at the other end of the tube is related to
the specific acoustic impedance, Z, it "sees" as follows:
where the bar represents the complex amplitude and S is the tube cross-
sectional area.
Assuming a phase shift between the incident and reflected waves of at
x = 0, the incident wave and reflected wave pressures may be written as:
Solutions to problems 42
p
i
' Ae
j(t % kx)
and p
r
' Be
j(t & kx % )
p
T
' Ae
j(t % kx)
% Be
j(t & kx % )
u
T
'
1
c
(p
r
& p
i
)
u
T
'
1
c
Be
j(t & kx % )
& Ae
j(t % kx)
Z ' &
p
T
u
T
' &c
Ae
j kx
% Be
&j kx % j
Be
&j kx % j
& Ae
j kx
' &c
A % Be
j(&2kx % )
Be
j(&2kx % )
& A
Z
0
c
' &
P
0
cU
0
' &
A % Be
j
Be
j
& A
A ' 0.5(P
0
& cU
0
) and Be
j
' 0.5(P
0
% cU
0
)
p
T
' 0.5(P
0
& cU
0
) e
j(t % kx)
% 0.5(P
0
% cU
0
) e
j(t & kx)
u
T
'
0.5
c
(P
0
% cU
0
) e
j(t & kx)
& (P
0
& cU
0
) e
j(t % kx)
The total pressure is thus:
The total particle velocity can be calculated using equations 1.6 and 1.7
in the text as:
Thus:
Thus the specific acoustic impedance at any point in the tube may be
written as:
At x = 0, Z = Z
0
. For convenience also set p
T
= P
0
e
jt
and u
T
= U
0
e
jt
Thus:
Thus:
and the total acoustic pressure and particle velocity may be written as:
and
Fundamentals 43
Z ' &c
(P
0
& cU
0
) e
jkx
% (P
0
% cU
0
) e
&jkx
(P
0
% cU
0
) e
&jkx
& (P
0
& cU
0
) e
jkx
Z ' c
jcU
0
sin(kx) & P
0
cos(kx)
cU
0
cos(kx) & jP
0
sin(kx)
Z ' c
Z
0
/ c % j tankL
1 % j(Z
0
/ c)tankL
' c
(R
0
% jX
0
) / c % j tankL
1 % j((R
0
% jX
0
) / c)tankL
Re{Z} ' c
(R
0
/ c) ( 1 % tan
2
kL)
(1 & X
0
/ c)
2
tan
2
kL % (R
0
/ c)
2
tan
2
kL
W '
ScU
2
L
2
(R
0
/ c) ( 1 % tan
2
kL)
(1 & X
0
/ c)
2
tan
2
kL % (R
0
/ c)
2
tan
2
kL
The specific acoustic impedance looking towards the left in the negative
x direction may then be written as:
As , the e
jkx
' cos(kx) % jsin(kx) and e
&jkx
' cos(kx) & jsin(kx)
impedance may be written as:
Dividing through by cU
0
cos(kx), replacing x with L and replacing
gives: &
P
0
U
0
with Z
0
Thus:
and the power is then:
(b) It can be seen from the equation derived in part (a) that when
R
0
= 0, the power will be zero.
(c) If all losses are zero, the impedance presented to the loudspeaker will be
given by the previously derived expression for Z with
R
0
= 0. In this case:
Solutions to problems 44
Z ' c
jX
0
/ c % j tankL
1 & ( X
0
/ c)tankL
' j c
X
0
/ c % tankL
1 & ( X
0
/ c)tankL
A ' 0.5(P
0
& cU
0
) and Be
j
' 0.5(P
0
% cU
0
)
R
p
'
Be
j
A
R
p
'
Be
j
A
'
(P
0
% cU
0
)
(P
0
& cU
0
)
R
p
'
&c & jX
0
% c
&c & jX
0
& c
'
j X
0
2c % jX
0
*R
p
* ' X
0
[ 4
2
c
2
% X
2
0
]
&1/2
which is imaginary. Thus there will be no real power generated; only
imaginary power which represents non-propagating energy stored in the
near field.
(d) As no real power is generated, the acoustic pressure and particle velocity
must be 90E out of phase.
(e) The pressure amplitude reflection coefficient is given by:
From part (a):
Thus:
Dividing numerator and denominator by U
0
and putting
, we obtain: Z
0
' c % jX
0
' &P
0
/ U
0
Thus:
Fundamentals 45
10
SWR/ 20
'
A % B
A & B
p
i
' Ae
j(t % kx)
and p
r
' Be
j(t & kx % )
p
T
' Ae
j(t % kx)
% Be
j(t & kx % )
p
T
' A e
j(t % kx)
% Re
j(t & kx)
x
0
Z = -p u
T T
/
L
sample
speaker
Problem 1.46
(a)
As given in the problem, the tube is assumed to be horizontal with the left
end at x = 0 containing the sample of material whose impedance is to be
determined, as shown in the figure. As the origin is at the left end of the
tube, the incident wave will be travelling in the negative x direction.
Assuming a phase shift between the incident and reflected waves of at
x = 0, the incident wave and reflected wave pressures may be written as:
The total pressure is thus:
At the surface of the sample, the pressure amplitude reflection coefficient
is thus and . Thus the total pressure at any R ' (B/ A)e
j
B ' (RA)e
&j
location, x, in the tube may be written as:
(b) Returning to the first expression for the total pressure of part (a), the
maximum pressure will occur when = 2kx, and the minimum will occur
when = 2kx + . Thus , and the p
max
' e
jkx
A % B p
min
' e
jkx
A & B
ratio of maximum to minimum pressures is (A + B)/(A - B)
(c) The standing wave ratio (SWR) which is L
0
is defined as:
Solutions to problems 46
B
A
'
10
L
0
/20
&1
10
L
0
/20
%1
*R
p
*
2
'
10
L
0
/20
&1
10
L
0
/20
%1
2
u
T
'
1
c
(p
r
& p
i
)
u
T
'
1
c
Be
j(t & kx % )
& Ae
j(t % kx)
Z ' &
p
T
u
T
' &c
Ae
j kx
% Be
&j kx % j
Be
&j kx % j
& Ae
j kx
' &c
A % Be
j(&2kx % )
Be
j(&2kx % )
& A
Z
c
' &
p
T
cu
T
'
A % Be
j
A & Be
j
'
1 % R
p
1 & R
p
Thus the ratio (B/A) is:
From part (a), the amplitude of the pressure reflection coefficient squared
is which can be written in terms of L
0
as: *R
p
*
2
' (B/ A)
2
(d) The absorption coefficient is defined as , which on ' 1 & *R
p
*
2
substituting the equation derived in part (c) for , gives the required *R
p
*
2
result.
(e) The total particle velocity can be calculated using equations 1.6 and 1.7
in the text as:
Thus:
Thus the specific acoustic impedance at any point in the tube may be
written as:
At x = 0, the specific acoustic impedance is the normal impedance, Z
s
, of
the surface of the sample. Thus:
Fundamentals 47
p
i
' Ae
j(t % kx)
and p
r
' Be
j(t & kx % )
p
T
' Ae
j(t % kx)
% Be
j(t & kx % )
u
T
'
1
c
(p
r
& p
i
)
u
T
'
1
c
Be
j(t & kx % )
& Ae
j(t % kx)
Z ' &
p
T
u
T
' &c
Ae
j kx
% Be
&j kx % j
Be
&j kx % j
& Ae
j kx
' &c
A % Be
j(&2kx % )
Be
j(&2kx % )
& A
x
0
Z = -p /u
T T
L
Problem 1.47
(a)
Assume a horizontal tube with the left end containing the termination
impedance Z
L
at x = 0. As the origin is at the left end of the tube, the
incident wave will be travelling in the negative x direction. Assuming a
phase shift between the incident and reflected waves of at x = 0, the
incident wave and reflected wave pressures may be written as:
The total pressure is thus:
The total particle velocity can be calculated using equations 1.6 and 1.7
in the text as:
Thus:
Thus the specific acoustic impedance at any point in the tube may be
written as:
Solutions to problems 48
Z
L
c
' &
P
0
cU
0
' &
A % Be
j
Be
j
& A
A ' 0.5(P
0
& cU
0
) and Be
j
' 0.5(P
0
% cU
0
)
p
T
' 0.5(P
0
& cU
0
) e
j(t % kx)
% 0.5(P
0
% cU
0
) e
j(t & kx)
u
T
'
0.5
c
(P
0
% cU
0
) e
j(t & kx)
& (P
0
& cU
0
) e
j(t % kx)
Z ' &c
(P
0
& cU
0
) e
jkx
% (P
0
% cU
0
) e
&jkx
(P
0
% cU
0
) e
&jkx
& (P
0
& cU
0
) e
jkx
Z ' c
jcU
0
sin(kx) & P
0
cos(kx)
cU
0
cos(kx) & jP
0
sin(kx)
Z ' c
Z
L
/ c % j tankL
1 % j(Z
L
/ c)tankL
At x = 0, Z = Z
L
. For convenience also set p
T
= P
0
e
jt
and
u
T
= U
0
e
jt
Thus:
Thus:
and the total acoustic pressure and particle velocity may be written as:
and:
The specific acoustic impedance looking towards the left in the negative
x direction may then be written as:
As , the e
jkx
' cos(kx) % jsin(kx) and e
&jkx
' cos(kx) & jsin(kx)
impedance may be written as:
Dividing through by cU
0
cos(kx), replacing x with L and replacing
gives: &
P
0
U
0
with Z
L
The same result can be obtained by putting the open end of the tube to
the left as shown in the figure above.
Fundamentals 49
p
T
' Ae
j(t & kx)
% Be
j(t % kx % )
u
T
'
1
c
&Be
j(t % kx % )
% Ae
j(t & kx)
Z '
p
T
u
T
' c
Ae
j kx
% Be
&j kx % j
&Be
&j kx % j
% Ae
j kx
' c
A % Be
j(&2kx % )
A & Be
j(&2kx % )
R
p
'
Be
j
A
Z
L
c
'
A % Be
j
A & Be
j
'
1 % Be
j
/ A
1 & Be
j
/ A
'
1 % R
p
1 & R
p
x
0
Z = p u
T T
/
-L
The same result can be obtained by putting the open end of the tube to
the left as shown in the figure below.
The total pressure is thus:
and the total particle velocity is thus:
The specific acoustic impedance at any point in the tube is then:
The remaining part of the analysis is the same as before.
(b) The reflection coefficient, R
p
, is defined as the ratio of the complex
amplitudes of the reflected to incident waves at x = 0. Thus, from part
(a):
At x = 0:
Thus the pressure reflection coefficient may be written as:
Solutions to problems 50
R
p
'
Z
L
/ c & 1
Z
L
/ c % 1
Z
L
' Z
H
S
T
S
H
Z
L
c
'
A % Be
j
A & Be
j
'
1 % Be
j
/ A
1 & Be
j
/ A
'
1 % R
p
1 & R
p
R
p
'
Z
L
/ c & 1
Z
L
/ c % 1
'
j(S
T
/ S
H
)tankR & 1
j(S
T
/ S
H
)tankR % 1
Z
L
' j(S
T
/ S
H
)ctan[kR(1 & M)] % R
a
which is equal to zero when Z
L
= c.
(c) Assuming continuity of acoustic pressure and volume velocity (uS, where
S is the tube cross sectional area) implies that the acoustic impedance is
continuous across the hole and thus the specific impedance in the tube at
x = 0 is related to the specific acoustic impedance, Z
H
of the hole by:
where S
H
is the cross sectional area of the hole and S
T
is the cross
sectional area of the tube.
From equation 9.14 in the text we have Z
H
= jctankR, where R is the
effective length of the hole. From part (a), we have at x = 0:
Thus the pressure reflection coefficient may be written as:
(d) Using equation 9.8 in the text and the condition of continuity of acoustic
pressure and acoustic volume velocity at the hole, the equality Z
L
/S
T
=
Z
H
/S
H
holds. Thus:
(e) For good absorption, R
p
= 0, which as we showed in part (b), means that
Z
L
= c. For this to be true, the first term in the equation derived in (d)
must be large compared to the other terms. Thus, the product kR/M must
be much less than 1. For a thin plate, the effective length of the hole is
made up of two parts, one corresponding to the side of the hole in the
tube and the other corresponding to the side looking into free space.
Fundamentals 51
Z ' c
Z
L
/ c % j tankL
1 % j(Z
L
/ c)tankL
Z ' c
4/ c % j kL
1 % j(4/ c) kL
'
c
jkL
'
&jc
kL
p

'
jp
u
'
c
kL
m

% K ' f or &
2
m % K ' f
Z ' c
0 % j kL
1 % j0kL
' jckL
Using equations 9.16 and 9.19 in the text, assuming that the hole
diameter is very small compared to the tube diameter, it can be shown
that for small M, the effective length of equation 9.7 is R = 0.73d
H
. Thus
the condition that kR/M << 1 implies that 2f/c 0.73d
H
<< M, or fd
H
<<
70M.
(f) The specific acoustic impedance looking into a tube was shown in part
(a) to be:
In the limit of small L and large (small k), tan(kL) = kL. Also for a
rigidly terminated tube, Z
L
= 4. Thus the preceding expression becomes:
The ratio of the pressure to the particle displacement is then:
which indicates that the pressure is in phase with the particle
displacement. Considering the analogy of a single degree of freedom
spring-mass system the equation of motion is:
where K is the spring stiffness and m is the mass. It can be seen from the
above equation that for a stiffness only, the exciting force will be in
phase with the displacement and for a mass only it will be 180E out of
phase with the displacement. Thus it is clear from this analogy that the
previous case of the pressure and particle displacement in-phase
represents a stiffness.
For an open ended tube the impedance, Z
L
= 0 and the impedance of the
tube becomes:
Solutions to problems 52
p

'
jp
u
' &ckL
Z
0
c
'
Z
0
/ c % j tankL
1 % j(Z
0
/ c)tankL
Z
0
c
% j
Z
0
c
2
tankL '
Z
0
c
% j tankL
The ratio of the pressure to the particle displacement is then:
which indicates that the acoustic pressure is 180E out of phase with the
particle displacement. Thus by the preceding argument, this represents
a lumped mass.
(g) Using the equation given in the question and using the hint for maximum
power we may substitute Z
0
for Z
L
and Z to give kL at maximum power.
Thus:
Rearranging gives:
For the left side to equal the right side, tan(kL) = 0. Thus kL = n, and
the optimum length is given by L = n/2, where
n = 1, 2, 3, .......
(h) The above result suggests that the frequency response will be
characterised by a number of resonant peaks and so will be very poor and
non-uniform. The frequency response could be made smoother by
adding some absorptive porous acoustic material to the tube. This would
have the effect of damping the resonances, thus reducing the difference
between the peaks and troughs in the frequency response.
(i) The resonances are less damped at low frequencies, thus resulting in
bigger differences between the peaks and troughs in the frequency
response.
Problem 1.48
Using the result derived in the answer to 1.45(a), the impedance seen by the
loudspeaker may be written as:
Fundamentals 53
Z ' c
Z
r
/ c % j tankL
1 % j(Z
r
/ c)tankL
Z
c
'
R
r
/ c % j X
r
/ c % tan(kL) 1 & (X
r
/ c)tan(kL) & j (R
r
/ c) tan(kL)
1 & (X
r
/ c)tan(kL)
2
% (R
r
/ c) tan(kL)
2
R
c
'
R
r
/ c 1 % tan
2
(kL)
1 & (X
r
/ c)tan(kL)
2
% (R
r
/ c) tan(kL)
2
R
c
'
1.04 10
&3
1 % tan
2
(kL)
1 & 0.00486tan(kL)
2
% 1.04 10
&3
tan(kL)
2
which on substituting Z
r
= R
r
+ jX
r
may be rewritten as:
The power output of the loudspeaker will vary with tube length because the
power output of a source is dependent on impedance presented to it and the
impedance it is presented is dependent on the tube length. The maximum
power output will occur when the impedance presented to the loudspeaker is
equal to the internal impedance of the loudspeaker which is infinite. Thus the
maximum power output will occur when the denominator in the above
equation is zero. Of course the real power output is only dependent on the
resistive impedance while the imaginary power output is dependent on the
reactive impedance. Thus the specific resistive impedance is:
At 250Hz, k = 2f/c = 2 250/343 = 4.58
As a = 0.075, ka = 4.58 0.075 = 0.343, a
2
= 0.0177
Thus, R
r
/c = 0.0177 0.343
2
/2 = 1.04 10
-3
and X
r
/c = 0.0177 0.343 0.8 = 0.00486
Substituting in the expression given for R/c, we obtain:
By trial and error it can be shown that the maximum value of the above
expression occurs when tan(kL) = 3.636, or kL = 1.262. Thus optimum L for
maximum power out = 1.262/4.58 = 276mm.
Problem 1.49
(a) A standing wave tube is used to determine the normal specific impedance
Solutions to problems 54
p
i
' Ae
j(t % kx)
and p
r
' Be
j(t & kx % )
p
T
' Ae
j(t % kx)
% Be
j(t & kx % )
u
T
'
1
c
(p
r
& p
i
)
u
T
'
1
c
Be
j(t & kx % )
& Ae
j(t % kx)
x
0
Z = -p /u
T T
sample
L
of a solid by placing the sample in one end of the tube which is then
rigidly closed, and then generating a pure tone sound field in the tube
with a loudspeaker placed at the other end of the tube. The ratio of
maximum to minimum acoustic pressure in the standing wave generated
in the tube is measured, as is the distance of the first minimum from the
surface of the sample.
To simplify the algebra, a horizontal tube with the left end at x = 0
containing the solid whose impedance is to be determined will be
assumed as shown in the figure. As the origin is at the left end of the
tube, the incident wave will be travelling in the negative x direction.
Assuming a phase shift between the incident and reflected waves of at
x = 0, the incident wave and reflected wave pressures may be written as:
The total pressure is thus:
The total particle velocity can be calculated using equations 1.6 and 1.7
in the text as:
Thus:
Thus the specific acoustic impedance at any point in the tube may be
written as:
Fundamentals 55
Z ' &
p
T
u
T
' &c
Ae
j kx
% Be
&j kx % j
Be
&j kx % j
& Ae
j kx
' &c
A % Be
j(&2kx % )
Be
j(&2kx % )
& A
Z
s
c
' &
p
T
cu
T
'
A % Be
j
A & Be
j
Z
s
c
'
(A/ B) % e
j
(A/ B) & e
j
10
SWR/ 20
'
A % B
A & B
At x = 0, the specific acoustic impedance is the normal impedance, Z
s
, of
the surface of the sample. Thus:
To calculate the impedance, it is necessary to evaluate the constants A
and B, and the phase angle, . Returning to the above expression for the
total acoustic pressure, it can be seen that the maximum sound pressure
in the tube will occur when = 2kx, and the amplitude will be (A + B).
The minimum pressure amplitude occurs at the location, where
= 2kx - , with a corresponding amplitude of A - B. Thus, the ratio of
maximum to minimum pressure is (A + B)/(A - B) and the standing wave
ratio is ,which is the difference in dB between 20log
10
[(A %B) / (A & B)]
the maximum and minimum sound pressure levels in the tube. The phase
angle is determined by the distance, x of the first minimum sound
pressure level from the face of the sample by using = 2kx - . This is
equivalent to the equation for , given on p623 the text, where k = 2/
= 2f/c. The first minimum is used because the effect of any losses due
to non rigid tube walls will be minimised. The minimum rather than the
maximum is used because its location is much more sharply defined.
The equation for the impedance may be rewritten as:
The standing wave ratio (SWR) which can be measured is defined as:
Thus, and the impedance may be calculated.
A
B
'
10
SWR/ 20
% 1
10
SWR/ 20
& 1
Solutions to problems 56
Z
s
c
'
A/ B % cos % j sin
A/ B & cos & j sin
'
(A/ B)
2
& 1 % (2A/ B)j sin
(A/ B)
2
% 1 & (2A/ B)cos
*Z
s
*
c
'
(A/ B)
2
& 1
2
% (2A/ B)
2
sin
2

(A/ B)
2
% 1 & (2A/ B)cos
' tan
&1
2(A/ B) sin
(A/ B)
2
& 1
*Z
s
*
c
'
(4.216
2
& 1)
2
% (8.432
2
0.951
2
)
4.216
2
% 1 % 8.432 0.309
' 0.87
' tan
&1
2 4.216 0.951
4.216
2
& 1
' 25.5E
This is done by expanding the above impedance equation to give:
The modulus of the impedance is then:
and the phase is given by:
(b) As can be seen in the above derivation, the amplitude of the pressure
reflection coefficient is . The sound power *R
p
* '
B
A
'
10
SWR/ 20
& 1
10
SWR/ 20
% 1
reflection coefficient is defined as and the absorption coefficient *R
p
*
2
is given by . ' 1 & *R
p
*
2
(i) From part (a), = .
A
B
'
10
SWR/ 20
% 1
10
SWR/ 20
& 1
10
0.21
% 1
10
0.21
& 1
' 4.216
= 2kx - , where k = 2/.
x = 0.4, thus = 4 0.4 - = 0.6
cos = -0.309 and sin = 0.951
Thus from the preceding equations:
and the phase is:
Fundamentals 57
I '
1
2
Re p
T
u
(
T
'
1
2c
Re (A % Be
j
) (Be
&j
& A)
'
1
2c
Re B
2
& A
2
& 2jABsin '
1
2c
(B
2
& A
2
)
A % B ' 2p
ref
10
L
p
/ 20
' 0.0894
(ii) The normal incidence sound power reflection coefficient is given by:
*R
p
*
2
' *
10
SWR/ 20
& 1
10
SWR/ 20
% 1
*
2
' 4.216
&2
' 0.056
(iii) The absorption coefficient is given by ' 1 & *R
p
*
2
' 0.94
(iv) The intensity is given by:
The maximum sound pressure level is 70dB. Thus:
Using A = 4.216B, we have 5.216B = 0.0894. Thus B = 0.0171 and
A = 0.0723. Thus the sound intensity is:
I = (2413.7)
-1
(0.0171
2
- 0.0723
2
) = -5.9610
-6
W/m
2
.
The negative sign indicates that the net intensity is in the negative x-
direction. The intensity will not vary along a lossless tube as the sound
intensity is a vector quantity which in this case is the vector sum of the
intensities in the left and right going waves which is independent of tube
location for a lossless tube. This can be verified by using the expressions
for p
T
and u
T
derived in part (a).
(v) Let successive minima be located at x
1
and x
2
. Then using the equation
derived in part (a) for the total pressure, setting = 2kx, and equating the
pressures at x
1
and x
2
we obtain . For this to (A % B)e
jkx
1
' (A % B)e
jkx
2
be true, . Thus , and , which e
jk(x
2
& x
1
)
' 1 k(x
2
&x
1
) ' & x
1
& x
2
' / 2
implies that the minima are separated by half a wavelength. At 200Hz,
this is equal to 343/(2 200) = 0.86m.
Problem 1.50
(a) Assuming no losses in the tube, the intensity of a single plane wave
Solutions to problems 58
I '
1
c
p
2
%
& p
2
&

u ' &
1

M
Mx
m
p dt
propagating in any one direction is , where the amplitude of p as p
2
/ c
well as its r.m.s. value is independent of axial location. Thus the
intensity of the positive going wave may be written as and the p
2
%
/ c
negative going wave as . As intensity is a vector quantity, the p
2
&
/ c
intensities of the positive and negative going waves can be combined by
adding the intensity of the positive going wave to the negative value of
the negative going wave to give:
which is independent of location.
(b) The intensity cannot be measured with a single microphone because it
cannot distinguish between the pressures associated with the two wave
components travelling in opposite directions.
(c) Two identical microphones can be used because intensity is also the time
averaged product of the acoustic pressure and particle velocity and from
equations 1.6 and 1.7 in the text we can show that the acoustic particle
velocity is related to the acoustic pressure gradient by:
where p
1
and p
2
are the pressures measured by microphones 1 and 2
respectively. The above equation may be rewritten as equation 3.21 in
the text. Equations 3.21 and 3.22 may then be used to write equation
3.23 which is an expression for the intensity as a function of the
measurements made by microphones 1 and 2. Equation 3.23 needs a
slight modification as in this case (replacement of n with 1) the intensity
is in the positive x-direction down the tube rather than in an arbitrary
direction n.
Fundamentals 59
R
p
'
Z
s
& c
Z
s
% c
' 1 & *R
2
p
* ' 1 &
*Z
s
& c*
2
*Z
s
% c*
2
'
*Z
s
% c*
2
& *Z
s
& c*
2
*Z
s
% c*
2
'
[ Re{Z
s
} % c]
2
% [ Im{Z
s
} ]
2
& [ Re{Z
s
} & c]
2
& [ Im{Z
s
} ]
2
*Z
s
% c*
2
'
[ Re{Z
s
} ]
2
% 2cRe{Z
s
} % (c)
2
& [ Re{Z
s
} ]
2
% 2cRe{Z
s
} & (c)
2
*Z
s
% c*
2
'
4cRe{Z
s
}
*Z
s
% c*
2
Problem 1.51
(a)
and
Rearranging gives:
(b) From the above expression it can be seen that the maximum value of
is 1 which would occur when Z
s
= c.
Problem 1.52
(a) The sound power reflection coefficient is simply the square of the
modulus of the pressure amplitude reflection coefficient. Referring to
equation 5.129 in the text, the required result can be obtained by allowing
= 0 (normal incidence) and substituting
2
c
2
for Z
m
and
1
c
1
for c.
Note that if = 0, then sin = 0 and from equation 5.130, cos = 1.
(b) Again, referring to equation 5.129 in the text, the required result can be
obtained by substituting
2
c
2
for Z
m
and
1
c
1
for c. The angle is
defined in equation 5.130, with the substitutions, k
1
= k and k
2
= k
m
.
Solutions to problems 60
p
T
' p
I
% p
R
' A
I
e
jt
e
&j(k
x
x & k
y
y)
& e
&j(k
x
x % k
y
y)
' A
I
e
jt
e
&jk
x
x
e
jk
y
y
& e
&jk
y
y
' 2j A
I
sinky e
jt
R
p
'

w
c
w
& c

w
c
w
% c
'

w
c
w
c
& 1

w
c
w
c
% 1
Problem 1.53
(a) As a result of the property of zero pressure at the pressure release
boundary, we have at the boundary (y = 0), p
R
= -p
I
. Thus using
equations 5.118 and 5.119 in the text and setting y = 0, we obtain A
R
= -
A
I
. As the wave is propagating along the y-axis, = 0,
k
y
= k and k
x
= 0. Thus the total pressure (adding the time dependent
term, ) is given by: e
jt
(b) For normally incident sound (and with Z
m
=
w
c
w
), equation 5.129 in the
text can be written as:
From the preceding equation it can be seen that if
w
c
w
>> c, then R
p
= 1
and the reflected wave amplitude will be equal to the incident wave
amplitude. For an air/water interface,
w
c
w
= 1026 1500 = 1.54 10
6
which is much greater than c = 413.7 thus satisfying the required
condition.
(c) Using equations 1.6.and 1.7 in the text and the result of part (a), the
acoustic particle velocity amplitude is 2A
i
/c. Using equations 1.6, 1.7
and 5.118, the acoustic particle velocity amplitude (normally incident
wave) is A
i
/c. Thus the total particle velocity amplitude is twice the
incident wave particle velocity.
Problem 1.54
(a) Referring to the analysis on pages 210 212 in the text, for normal
Fundamentals 61
R
p
'
830 & c
830 % c
'
830 & 413.6
830 % 413.6
' 0.335
P
i
' 2 10
&5
10
60/ 20
' 0.02Pa

2
c
2
cos & ccos '
2
c
2
cos % ccos
cos ' 1 &
c
2
2
c
2
sin
2

1/2

2
c
2
cos & c 1 &
c
2
2
c
2
sin
2

1/2
'
2
c
2
cos % c 1 &
c
2
2
c
2
sin
2

1/2
incidence, = 0. Thus, from equation 5.130, = 0, and equation 5.129
becomes (with Z
m
=
2
c
2
= 830):
The r.m.s. amplitude of the incident wave is given by:
Thus the amplitude of the reflected wave is:
P
r
' 0.335P
i
' 0.0067Pa
(b) When all the energy is reflected, , Thus: *R
p
* ' 1
Using Snell's Law, . Thus: sin '
c
2
sin
c
Substituting this result into the previous equation gives:
This is true only if (c
2
/c)sin = 1, or = sin
-1
(c/c
2
) which is the angle above
which all incident energy will be reflected.
Problem 1.55
(a) Referring to the analysis on pages 210 212 in the text and substituting
Solutions to problems 62
p
T
p
I
'
A
T
A
I
'
2cos/ (c)
cos
c
%
cos

w
c
w
'
2
w
c
w
cos

w
c
w
cos % ccos
'
4c
w
c
w
cos
2

(
w
c
w
cos % ccos)
2
' (1 & R
2
p
) cos/ cos
u u

w w
c
y
x
r
R
r
I
r
T
incident wave reflected wave
transmitted
wave
air
water

w
c
w
for Z
m
in equation 5.129, the required result is obtained.
(b) The transmission coefficient, , is an energy related quantity and is
defined by:
'
*p
T
*
2
*p
I
*
2
c

w
c
w
'
*A
T
*
2
*A
I
*
2
c

w
c
w
Using equation 5.121 and 5.127 in the text and substituting Z
1
= c and Z
2
=

w
c
w
, we obtain:
Thus:
(c) For air, c = 413.6 and for sea water

w
c
w
= 1.026 10
3
1500 = 1539 10
3
.
For = 10E, cos = 0.9848 and sin = 0.1736.
Using Snell's Law,
Fundamentals 63
R
p
'
1.539 10
6
0.9848 & 413.6 0.6506
1.539 10
6
0.9848 % 413.6 0.6506
' 0.99964
' (1 & R
2
p
)cos/ cos ' 0.0011

w
c
w
cos & ccos '
w
c
w
cos % ccos
cos ' 1 &
c
2
w
c
2
sin
2

1/2

w
c
w
cos & c 1 &
c
2
w
c
2
sin
2

1/2
'
w
c
w
cos % c 1 &
c
2
w
c
2
sin
2

1/2
. Thus = 49.4E and sin '
c
w
sin
c
' 1500 0.1736/ 343 ' 0.7594
cos = 0.6506.
Substituting these values into the result of part (a) gives:
(d) When all the energy is reflected, , Thus *R
p
* ' 1
Using Snell's Law, . Thus, sin '
c
w
sin
c
Substituting this result into the previous equation gives
This is true only if (c
w
/c)sin = 1, or = 13E, which is the angle above
which all incident energy will be reflected.
(e) If the sound source were a point source, the amount of sound power
entering the water would be independent of altitude (except for
atmospheric losses) as the same amount of power is contained in any
specified included angle. However, the power would be distributed over
an ever increasing area of ocean surface. A distributed sound source
Solutions to problems 64
u
I
'
A
I
c
( sin & cos) e
&jk
1x
x
u
R
'
A
R
c
( sin % cos) e
&jk
1x
x
u
R
u
I
'
A
R
A
I
( sin % cos)
( sin & cos)
p
u
' c
jkr
1 % jkr
p
u
. cjkr
p ' c
0 ukr

' 0 ur
such as a helicopter would exhibit similar behaviour.
(f) Velocity reflection coefficient.
Using equations 1.6, 1.7, 5.115, 5.116, 5.118 and 5.119 in the text, the
acoustic velocity amplitude of the incident wave at y = 0 is:
and the velocity amplitude of the reflected wave is:
The velocity amplitude reflection coefficient is the ratio of reflected to
incident velocity amplitudes. Thus:
Problem 1.56
(a) Assuming that the bubble is a spherical source, the specific acoustic
impedance is given by equation 1.43 in the text as:
At the bubble surface, kr << 1, so:
Acceleration is defined as , so: 0 u ' ju
Fundamentals 65

dV
V
%
dP
P
' 0
p
P
' &
dV
V
0 ur
P
' &
dV
V
0 u ' &
P
r
dV
V
0 u ' ju
dV '
4r
2
u
j
; V '
4
3
r
3
j u ' &
P4r
2
u
rj(4/ 3)r
3
' &
3Pu
r
2
j

2
'
3P
r
2
'
3c
2
r
2
f
res
'

2
'
c 3
2r
(b) Adiabatic compression PV

' const or P ' const V

&
Differentiating P with respect to V and rearranging gives:
dP . p, where p is the acoustic pressure. Thus:
Substituting the result for p from part (a) gives:
or
(c) Resonance frequency is the frequency at which the bubble prefers to
vibrate given the physical parameters.
Substituting for dV and V in the expression of part (b), we obtain:
Rearranging gives:
Thus:
(d) At resonance, the bubble screen should act like a Helmholtz resonator
(see Ch. 9) and remove considerable energy from the sound field.
28 10
&9
/ 9.81 ' 2.87 10
&9
m
2
Solutions to problems relating
to the Human Ear
Problem 2.1
(a) Weight of a column of water equivalent to the weight of a column of
atmosphere of cross sectional area 1m
2
is equal to 101.4kN, which is
equal to 101400/9.81 kg. Density of water = 1000kg/m
3
,
thus volume of water = 101.4/9.81 m
3
and
thus height of water column = volume/(11)= 10.34m.
Minimum audible sound = 0dB = 20 10
-6
Pa r.m.s = 28.2 10
-6
Pa
peak. This corresponds to a variation in water height of
(b) 120dB represents an increase in pressure by a factor of 10
6
over 0dB, so
variation in column height would be . 2.9mm
(c) Figure 2.9 indicates an increase of 60dB for 31.5Hz sound which
represents a factor of 10
60/20
= 1000.
(d) See p56, text. Overall mechanical advantage = 15:1 = 23.5dB sound
pressure level. Linkage mechanical advantage = 3:1 = 9.5dB.
Problem 2.2
(a) A scaling of physical dimensions by a factor of 10 would mean that the
mouse's range of hearing is 200Hz to 180kHz.

(b) Figure 3.4 and equations 3.14 and 3.16 indicate that the sensitivity is
proportional to d
4
, so the mouse's ear should be 4 orders of magnitude (or
40dB) less sensitive.
The human ear 67
(c) The mouse's transduction mechanism must be 4 orders of magnitude
more sensitive than the human mechanism.
(d) Yes, because the differences would be necessary to make the mouse
transduction mechanism more sensitive.
(e) The differences could take the form of a larger mechanical advantage in
the mouse's middle ear as well as differences in the relative physical
dimensions of the inner ear.
Referring to possible inner ear differences, a critical component of the
inner ear in regard to sensitivity is the hinge mechanism of the tectorial
membrane. The sensing of sound by the inner and outer hair cells is by
a shearing action imposed on the hair cell stereocelia caused by relative
movement between the tectorial membrane and the rods of Corti. To
increase the sensitivity, it would be necessary to increase this relative
movement which could be achieved by lengthening the rods of Corti.
Referring to the middle ear differences, a much smaller oval window and
a different arrangement of the bone linkage could account for a large
sensitivity increase.
Problem 2.3
(a) Sound introduced to the ear using ear muffs will be fairly reverberant,
having frontal as well as lateral components; thus, we would expect the
MAP to be lower than the MAF. If the earmuffs distort the pinna
sufficiently, the MAP may approach the MAF in magnitude.
(b) As the sound field within the ear muffs is similar to a diffuse field, one
would expect the MDF to be similar to the MAP and less than the MAF.
Solutions to problems 68
Problem 2.4
The first symptoms of noise induced hearing loss are difficulties with
understanding conversation in a noisy environment, in focussing on the
speaker and in localising noise sources. These symptoms are caused by the
breaking off of stereocelia on the outer hair cells leaving only the inner hair
cell stereocelia functional. The loss usually occurs first in the 4kHz range and
then extends to higher and lower frequencies. A conventional hearing aid
which amplifies all frequencies by the same amount will not be much help as
it will only amplify the "noise" experienced and not help with the symptoms
mentioned above. A frequency selective hearing aid will do a little better by
amplifying the signal at the frequencies most affected but it is difficult to see
how even this type of hearing aid will ameliorate the above mentioned
symptoms of early noise induced hearing loss.
Problem 2.5
Not necessarily. As stated in the text, repeated exposures to noise which
results in a temporary threshold shift will result in permanent damage. On the
other hand, there is evidence that damage is accumulative, so even one
exposure will contribute to the eventual permanent damage.
Problem 2.6
Pitch: Determined by location on the basilar membrane which responds most
to the noise. Also the hair cells are tuned to maximum output at frequencies
corresponding to the resonance frequencies of the parts of the basilar
membrane to which they are attached. However, at low frequencies and loud
noise, some neurons will fire for hair cells all along the basilar membrane and
a second mechanism by which neurons fire in locked phase with the acoustic
signal (at acoustic signal maxima or once per cycle) dominates the pitch
determination. As the frequency increases, the localisation of the basilar
membrane excitation (and associated resonant hair cells) becomes increasingly
important as the method for determining pitch until at 5000Hz the locked
phase phenomenon of neuron firing ceases altogether and the neurons fire
randomly.
The human ear 69
Loudness: Determined by the rate of neuron firing, which is controlled by the
motion of the hair cell stereocelia which in turn is controlled by the basilar
membrane. There is also a hair cell feedback mechanism whereby the voltage
generated by the hair cells causes them to deform, thus increasing the
movement of the tectorial membrane. This feedback mechanism effectively
increases the dynamic range of the hearing mechanism and also results in
improved pitch resolution.
Problem 2.7
(a) Two signals may have exactly the same spectral content and thus sound
the same, but they may have entirely different phase relationships
between the particular spectral components making up the signal. Thus
the time histories as seen on an oscilloscope could look quite different.
Both amplitude and relative phase of the spectral components of a signal
are necessary to reconstruct a signal uniquely. However, the ear discards
phase information.
(b) In 0.05 seconds sound will travel a distance of 17.15m. This corresponds
to a wavelength at 20Hz. Thus for a 20Hz tone, the peak sound pressures
will occur at intervals of 0.05 seconds. Below this frequency there will
be greater intervals between the peak sound pressures and the sound will
be heard as a sequence of auditory events.
(c) The dimensions of an auditorium must be such that the sound arriving at
any location after being reflected from a wall, ceiling or floor must not
arrive longer than 0.05 seconds after the direct sound. This means the
difference between direct and reflected paths should be less than 17m.
Problem 2.8
(a) A low frequency warning device would be more effective mainly because
it is not as easily masked by the 500Hz noise as higher frequencies would
be but also because it would diffract more effectively around obstacles
to create a more uniform coverage.
(b) See fig 2.10(a) in text and read off values as accurately as possible.
Solutions to problems 70
Octave
band
centre
frequency
63 125 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k
SPL
forward
40 44 49 54 56 55 45 33
SPL
side
39 43 47 51 53 49 39 27
SPL
rear
38 42 44 48 49 44 27 15
Sones
forward
0 0.6 1.7 2.8 3.8 4.3 2.8 1.6
Sones
side
0.0
5
0.5
5
1.4 2.4 3.2 3 2 1.1
Sones
rear
0.0
2
0.5 1.1 2 2.5 2.2 0.9 0.3
Phons
forward
0 33 48 55 59 61 55 46.8
Phons
side
0 33 45 53 57 55.8 50 41.4
Phons
rear
0 30 41 50 53 51.4 39 22.6
Overall Levels:
Sones Forward = 4.3 + 0.3[0.0+0.6+1.7+2.8+3.8+2.8+1.6] = 8.3
Sones Side = 3.2 + 0.3[0.05+0.55+1.4+2.4+3.0+2.0+1.1] = 6.3
Sones Rear = 2.5 + 0.3[0.02+0.5+1.1+2.0+2.2+0.9+0.3] = 4.7
Using equation 2.1,
Phons = 40 + (10log
10
S)/(log
10
2).
Thus, Phons forward = 70.5
Phons side = 66.6
Phons rear = 62.3
The human ear 71
(c) Yes, a person with no hearing loss would be able to hear, as the levels in
the bands important for speech recognition are well above the hearing
threshold level or MAF.
(d) If the distance increases to 10m from 2m, the sound pressure level in all
bands will decrease by 20log
10
(10/2) = 14dB (assuming free field
conditions). The MAF from figure 2.9 and the new sound pressure levels
are in the table below.
Octave
band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
63 125 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k
MAF 39 22 15 9 4 0 0 12
New SPL
forward
26 30 35 40 42 41 31 19
New SPL
side
25 29 33 37 39 35 25 13
New SPL
rear
24 28 30 34 35 30 13 1
Difficulty in hearing sound in the 63Hz and 8kHz bands would be
encountered but as these bands are not important for speech, it is
expected that there would be no difficulty in understanding speech for
any head orientation.
(e) Speech recognition is just possible for S = 8 Sones. A speaker speaking
twice as loudly will increase the rear level from 4 to 8 sones, making
speech recognition just possible again, so the situation will be improved.
Problem 2.9
See figure 2.9(a). Masking tone is 800Hz at 60dB. From the figure, the
threshold of detection of an 630Hz tone would be increased by 20dB. Figure
2.5 indicates that the MAF at 630Hz is approximately 5dB, so the sound level
would need to be 25dB in order to be heard.
3
Solutions to problems relating to
instrumentation and measurement
Problem 3.1
(a) Pressure response: microphone response when subjected to a uniform
pressure field which is accomplished in practice electrostatically.
Free-field response: microphone response when subjected to a sound
wave coming from a specified direction in an otherwise free field (free
of reflected sound).
Random incidence response: microphone response averaged over all
possible angles of sound wave incidence.
Microphones are designed so that the roll-off in pressure response at high
frequencies is just compensated for by the increase in free field pressure
due to diffraction of a normally incident wave (normal incidence
microphone) or by the increase in pressure due incident waves averaged
over all possible directions of incidence (random incidence microphone).
(b) Random incidence microphones are used to measure noise in reverberant
test chambers, reverberation times in auditoria and industrial noise when
the direction of origin is uncertain or there are a number of sources
located in various directions from the observer.
Free field microphones are used in anechoic test chambers and in
industrial noise measurement cases where the origin of the noise is from
a single direction or a narrow direction angle.
Instrumentation and measurement 73
L
p
' 20log
10
E & S % 94 ' &110 % 26 % 94 ' 10dB
L
p
' 10log
10
10
1.3
& 10
1.0
' 10dB
Problem 3.2
(a) Using equation 3.16, the sound level represented by the noise floor on the
instrument is:
If the sound level meter actually reads 13dB, then the contribution due
to the actual noise is:
(b) The ear can hear 0dB of frontally incident sound at 2kHz and it can
probably discern signals just above its noise floor. So the equivalent
sensitivity of the sound level meter would be approximately 10dB,
implying that the ear is 10dB more sensitive.
Problem 3.3
(a) Sensitivity = -25dB re 1V per Pa. Using equation 3.15, we have: -25 =
20log
10
[E/p] which gives a sensitivity of 10
(-25/20)
volts/Pa which = 56.2
mV/Pa.
(b) The pressure response of the microphone would have to be 4.5dB less at
10kHz than at 250Hz for the overall response to remain flat; that is, -
29.5dB re 1V per Pa.
(c) The microphone overall sensitivity for a 0E incident field at 10kHz is
-29.5 + 5 = -24.5dB.
(d) The microphone overall sensitivity for a reverberant field at 10kHz is
-29.5 + 1.5 = -28.0dB.
(e) At 250Hz, it can be seen from figure 3.3 in the text that the correction for
a 180E angle of incidence would be 0dB. Thus the overall microphone
sensitivity at 250Hz would be equal to -24.5dB, the pressure sensitivity.
At 10kHz, the overall sensitivity is: -29.5 - 0.2 = -29.7dB.
Solutions to problems 74
Problem 3.4
The MAF is the minimum audible field to frontally incident sound and would
correspond to the free field calibration of a microphone. Similarly the MDF
would correspond to the diffuse field calibration of a microphone. The
pressure calibration of a microphone would correspond to the MAP which is
the minimum pressure audible at the tympanic membrane of the ear.
Problem 3.5
The random incidence microphone is used in cases where one is not sure of
the direction from which the sound is coming or if it is coming from a number
of directions simultaneously.
To minimise measurement error, the microphone would be held vertically,
thus resulting in most sound being incident at angles close to 90E. The
difference between the microphone diffuse field response and the 90E
response is much smaller than the error resulting from pointing a free field
microphone in the wrong direction (see figure 3.3 in text). In both cases
measured sound pressure levels will be less than actual levels.
Problem 3.6
This would be similar to connecting the microphone to ground through a low
impedance and this would seriously reduce the microphone sensitivity,
resulting in large measurement errors.
Problem 3.7
The A-weighted sound pressure level is related to loudness perception of low
level environmental noise as well as to hearing damage (although not to
loudness perception of loud industrial noise), and regulations are written in
terms of this quantity due to its ease of measurement by unskilled people. It
is a reasonably valid measure of noise exposure as there is a direct
correspondence between A-weighted sound level and hearing loss suffered by
noise exposed people.
Instrumentation and measurement 75
The advantages of the A-weighted level for characterising equipment and
workplaces are its direct relationship to noise exposure and its single number
simplicity. However it does not provide the frequency content information
necessary for effective noise control measures to be specified and this is the
main disadvantage.
Problem 3.8
(a) The A-weighted levels are calculated by adding the A-weighting
corrections (most are negative) to each octave band level and then
logarithmically adding the results as described on page 48 of the text.
The overall linear level is calculated by adding the values given in the
problem together logarithmically as described on page 48 of the text.
The answers are: A-weighted = 89.4dB(A) and Linear = 98.5dB.
(b) The main source of error is a result of the assumption that all frequencies
in each octave band can be weighted by a single quantity (the weighting
corresponding to the band centre frequency) when in fact the A-
weighting is a smoothly varying function of frequency. The maximum
possible error can be estimated by comparing the results using the A-
weighting corresponding to the band centre frequency with results
obtained bu using the A-weighting corresponding to the upper and lower
band limit frequencies.
Problem 3.9
Plot out the values given in Table 3.1 on graph paper using a logarithmic
frequency scale. Join all of the points by a straight line which is as good as
a smooth curve for the present purposes. Then plot the upper and lower
octave band frequency limits from table 1.2 and read off from your graph the
A-weighting corrections at these frequencies The difference between these
values and the octave band centre frequency A-weighted values represent the
largest errors which could occur if all of the energy just happened to be at
frequencies at the edge of each octave band. To find the overall possible
variation calculate the dB(A) levels for each extreme and compare them to the
overall level calculated using band centre frequency corrections as illustrated
in the table on the next page.
Solutions to problems 76
Combining the band levels together as described on p 38 in the text gives:
Upper limit = 84.7dB(A)
Lower limit = 83.3dB(A)
Centre value = 84.1dB(A) (corresponding to A-weighted corrections at band
centre frequency.
The A-weighted levels peak at high frequencies so the noise would sound a
little "hissy".
Octave
band
centre
freq.
(Hz)
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Upper f
limit
88 176 353 707 1,414 2,825 5,650 11,300
Lower f
limit
44 88 176 353 707 1,414 2,825 5,650
Upper
dB(A)
adj.
-21 -12.2 -5.8 -1.2 1.2 1.3 1.1 0.0
Centre
dB(A)
adj.
-26.2 -16.1 -8.6 -3.2 0.0 1.2 1.0 -1.1
Lower
dB(A)
adj.
-35 -21 -12.2 -5.8 -1.2 1.1 0.0 -3.5
SPL 76 71 68 70 73 76 79 80
Upper
dB(A)
55 58.8 62.2 68.8 74.2 77.3 80.1 80.0
Centre
dB(A)
49.8 54.9 59.4 66.8 73 77.2 80 78.9
Lower
dB(A)
41 50 55.8 64.2 71.8 77.1 80.0 76.5
Instrumentation and measurement 77
Problem 3.10
First remove the background noise contribution from each octave band
measurement as described in example 1.4, p.49 in the text. Then
arithmetically add (some numbers are negative) the A-weighted corrections
to each octave band level as was done for problem 3.9. Then add the A-
weighted octave band levels together logarithmically as described on p.48 in
the text. The final answer is 89.0dB(A).
Problem 3.11
(a) A-weighted level = 86.8dB(A)
(b) It is not a good way to calculate overall weighted levels because errors
arise from the inherent assumption that the A-weighting is uniform across
any particular octave band.
Problem 3.12
To begin, assume an arbitrary level of 50dB in the 63Hz octave band,
calculate the A-weighted levels in all bands, the overall A-weighted level and
thus the amount to add to each band level to reach an overall level of
105dB(A). The calculations are summarised in the following table, where it
is noted that a constant spectrum level is reflected in octave band levels
increasing at the rate of 3dB per octave (reflecting a doubling of bandwidth
per octave).
Octave band centre
frequency (Hz)
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 total
Un-weighted
level
50 53 56 59 62 65 68 71
A-weighted
level
23.8 36.9 47.4 55.8 62 66.2 69 69.9 73.8
Adjustment
needed
31.2 31.2 31.2 31.2 31.2 31.2 31.2 31.2
Unweighted
level for
105dB(A)
81.2 84.2 87.2 90.2 93.2 96.2 99.2 102.2 105.0
Solutions to problems 78
Problem 3.13
Although the signal levels in the experiments to determine equal loudness
contours varied substantially, the A-weighted scale corresponds approximately
to the loudness contour of 60dB. As industrial noise is usually much louder
than this and equal loudness contours for high sound levels do not have the
same shape as those at 60dB, it is unlikely that the A-weighted scale will
indicate correct loudness levels for most industrial noise.
Problem 3.14
(a) If the observer is too close to the microphone when noise measurements
are being taken, then reflections from the observer can affect the noise
levels being measured. In tonal sound fields, the reflections could result
in an increase in the measured sound level of up to 5dB (and also
decreases) and in broadband sound fields, the increase measured could
be up to 2dB. The reasons for the above numbers not being 6 and 3dB
respectively is because the observer will absorb and scatter some of the
noise while reflecting it.
(b) The fast response (0.1s time constant) of the sound level meter
approximates the way the ear hears but the slow response (1.0s time
constant) is useful for determining L
Aeq
levels (average of the upper
swings of the needle on an analog meter) and L
90
levels (average of lower
meter swings). However most modern instrumentation allows direct
digital readout of these quantities. In addition, most legislation is written
in terms of measurements taken using the "slow" response as some
researchers suppose that this is more representative of the hearing
damage caused by the noise.
(c) The "frontal/diffuse" control is used for selecting the microphone
characteristic most suitable for the measurement being undertaken. Note
that the microphone remains unchanged - the electronics in the sound
level meter effectively change its characteristics to compensate for the
different diffraction effects of the microphone grid for each of the two
types of field.
Instrumentation and measurement 79
'
1
8
8
5
5
% 4 8
4
% 24 8
3
% 32 8
2
% 16 8 10
&4
' 0.4675
L
eq
' 10log
10
p
2
p
2
ref
' 10log
10
0.4675
4 10
&10
' 90.7dB
L
Aeq
' 10log
10
1
1/4 % 2 % 2 % 1/12 % 4

0.25 10
8
% 2 10
7
% 2 10
9
% (1/12) 10
9.9
% 4 10
7.5
Problem 3.15
, thus p ' (t
2
% 8t % 4) 10
&2
p
2
' (t
4
% 16t
3
% 72t
2
% 64t % 16) 10
&4
Average p
2
'
m
8
0
(t
4
% 16t
3
% 72t
2
% 64t % 16) 10
&4
dt
A-weighting at 250Hz is -8.6dB, so L
Aeq
= 82.1dB(A).
Problem 3.16
L
Aeq
is generally used to describe noise as it is an A-weighted energy average
which seems to be related to loudness perception of low level environmental
noise as well as to hearing damage (although not to loudness perception of
loud industrial noise), and regulations are written in terms of this quantity due
to its ease of measurement by unskilled people.
= 85.3dB(A).
Problem 3.17
A sound level meter on site is preferable, as a tape recorder is not sufficiently
accurate for legal disputes (see table 3.3 in the text).
Problem 3.18
Sources of measurement error:
Solutions to problems 80
1m
1m
1m
possible wind screen
configuration
shade
cloth
Microphone vibration;
SLM vibration;
background noise;
overloading input amplifier when taking octave or 1/3 octave band
measurements with an old SLM;
too cold or too hot;
moisture or dust on microphone diaphragm;
reflections from nearby surfaces; and
wind noise.
Can minimise effects of wind noise by placing a foam wind shield on the
microphone AND placing the mic in an enclosure made using shade cloth as
shown in the figure below.
Problem 3.19
(a) See text, p114 B 120.
(b) (i) At low frequencies, errors arise because the phase
difference between the two microphone signals (due to the
spacing being small compared to a wavelength) is not
sufficiently large compared to the phase accuracy of the
microphones.
(ii) At high frequencies, errors arise because the microphone
spacing becomes significant compared to a wavelength
Instrumentation and measurement 81
p
rms
' p
ref
10
L
p
/ 20
' 2 10
&5
10
95/ 20
' 1.12Pa
causing the finite difference approximation for the pressure
gradient to be inaccurate.
(iii) In very reactive sound fields, the phase between the
acoustic pressure and particle velocity is close to 90E, so
any phase errors translate to a large error in the intensity as
it is proportional to the cosine of the phase angle.
(iv) In the presence of external noise sources, sound power
measurements could exhibit significant errors if the sound
pressure level of the external noise is sufficiently high
(usually about 10dB or more above the level from the noise
source being measured). This is because the power
measurement relies on averaging normal intensity
measurements and the result of the external source will be
to create a situation where small differences between large
numbers will dominate the result.
Problem 3.20
(a) See part (a) in previous question.
(b) See part (b) in previous question.
(c) Applications include:
sound power measurement;
localisation and identification of noise sources;
sound transmission loss measurement;
determining the importance of flanking sound transmission paths in noise
control applications;
Problem 3.21
(a) Sound pressure associated with 95dB sound level is
Force on microphone diaphragm is
Solutions to problems 82
F
rms
' 1.12 (0.012)
2
/ 4 ' 1.27 10
&4
N
p
uA
' &
jc
2
V
p
rms
' 2 10
&5
10
65/ 20
' 3.557 10
&2
u
rms
'
pV
c
2
S
; ( S is the area of the microphone diaphragm)
'
3.557 10
&2
2 500 0.01 0.02
2
(/ 4)
1.206 343
2
0.012
2
(/ 4)
' 2.19 10
&5
m/ s
Vol.displ.ampl '
2u
rms
S

'
2 2.188 10
&5
0.012
2
4 2 500
' 1.11 10
&12
m
3
(b) r.m.s. velocity of the diaphragm is the same as the air particle velocity.
From equation 9.35 in the text, the ratio of the sound pressure to particle
velocity in a cavity of dimensions much smaller than a wavelength is
The sound pressure measured by the monitoring microphone is 65dB
which corresponds to an r.m.s.pressure of
Thus the particle velocity is
(c) The volume displacement in the cavity corresponding to a sound pressure
level of 65dB can be calculated using the same equation as used in part
(b). Thus the volume displacement is
(d) Mechanical input impedance, Z
m
= F/u. Thus
Instrumentation and measurement 83
Z
m
'
1.27 10
&4
2.188 10
&5
' 5.8 N&s/ m
(e) The volume displacement of the monitoring microphone will be 30dB
(95 - 65) below the displacement of the test microphone. This represents
a percentage difference of 100/10
1.5
= 3% which will not affect the sound
pressure sensed by the test microphone significantly.
(f) Upper test frequency is limited by the onset of resonant cavity modes.
As the largest dimension is the radius, cross modes will occur before
axial modes. This is explained in Chapter 7 in the text.
T
a
' 8 2
&(99 & 90) / 3
' 1 hour
T
a
' 8 2
&(99 & 90) / 5
' 2.3 hours
4
Solutions to problems
relating to criteria
Problem 4.1
(a) Using equation 4.42 in the text, the allowable exposure time using
European criteria is
(b) The allowable exposure using USA criteria is
Problem 4.2
(a) A-weighted SPL is given by:
L
pA
' 10log
10
( 10
(9.5 & 0.86)
% 10
(9.7 & 0.32)
% 10
9.9
) ' 100 dB(A)
(b) Allowed daily exposure time in Australia is:
T
a
' 8 2
&( 100 & 90) / 3
' 0.8 hours
Allowed daily exposure time in USA is: T
a
' 8 2
&( 100 & 90) / 5
' 2 hours
Problem 4.3
Fan noise = 91dB(A)
Saw idling noise = 88dB(A)
Saw cutting noise = 93dB(A)
Let required fan noise for L
Aeq,8h
= 90dB(A) be x dB(A).
Criteria 85
90 ' 10log
10
1
8
6.4 10
88/ 10
% 10
x/ 10
% 1.6 10
93/ 10
% 10
x/ 10
10
x/ 10
' 9.618 10
7
90 ' 16.667log
10
1
8
6.4 10
0.3 [ 10log
10
(10
8.8
% 10
x/ 10
) & 90] / 5
% 1.6 10
0.3 [ 10log
10
(10
9.3
% 10
x/ 10
) & 90] / 5
% 90
(a) European criteria
Using equation 4.3 or 4.39 with L
B
= 90 and L = 3:
Solving for x gives:
Thus, x = 79.8dB(A)
The required fan noise reduction is then 91 - 79.8 = 11.2dB(A)
(b) USA criteria
Using equation 4.39 with the integral replaced with a sum and with with
L
B
= 90 and L = 5, we obtain:
In solving for x, we must remember the proviso that combined fan and
saw noise levels of less than 90dB(A) at any time do not contribute to the
noise exposure results in a value of x as close to 90dB(A) as possible.
Assuming a precision of 0.1dB(A), the allowed fan noise plus saw idle
noise is 89.9dB(A). This is because if the fan noise plus saw idle noise
is greater than 90dB(A), the overall is greater than 90dB(A). Thus L
)
Aeq
the maximum allowed fan noise is
. Thus the required fan noise x ' 10log
10
10
8.99
& 10
8.8
' 85.4dB(A)
reduction is 91 - 85.4 = 5.6dB(A).
Problem 4.4
(a) L
Aeq,8h
= 10Log
10
(1/8)[2 10
95/10
+ 6 10
70/10
] = 89.0 dB(A)
(b) E
A,8
' 32 10
(89 & 100) / 10
' 2.54 Pa
2
@h
(c) We may assume that the 70 dB(A) does not contribute significantly, so we
Solutions to problems 86
HDI ' 10log
10
m
t
0
10
L
p
/ 20
dt
59.5 ' 10log
10
10
110/ 20
T ' 55 % 10log
10
T
L
Aeq,8h
' 10log
10
1
8
4.5 10
10.5
% 1.5 10
9.5
' 102.6dB(A)
L
)
Aeq,8h
' 16.667
log
10
( 1/ 8) 10
0.3 (105 & 90) / 5
4.5 % 10
0.3 (95 & 90) / 5
1.5 % 90
' 101.4dB(A) (USA criteria)
T
a
' 6 2
&(102.6 & 90) / 3
' 0.33 hours
need to find the allowed exposure to 95 dB(A). This is given by
T
a
' 8 2
&( 95 & 90) / 3
' 2.52 hours
(d) SPL due to machine only is: 10log
10
[ 10
9.5
& 10
9.1
] ' 92.8 dB(A)
Problem 4.5
In this case,
where T is the number of years to cross the hearing loss criterion.
Thus, T . 3 years, and he will be 23 years old before he joins the old folks
(assuming that he is in the 20% more sensitive part of the population).
Problem 4.6
(a) Using equation 4.3 in the text:
(European criteria)
Using equation 4.41 in the text with the integral replaced with a
summation sign:
(b) European criteria
Using equation 4.42 in the text,
Criteria 87
T
a
' 6 2
&(101.43 & 90) / 5
' 1.23 hours
HDI ' 10log
10 j
i
T
i
10
L
pi
/ 20
'10log
10
5 10
8.5/ 2
% 3 10
9/ 2
% 6 10
9.5/ 2
% 1 10
10/ 2
% 10 10
8/ 2
' 58.6
L
)
Aeq,8h
' 16.667
log
10
1
8
2 10
0.3 ( 91 & 90) / 5
% 2 10
0.3 (96 & 90) / 5
% 90
' 88.9dB
L
Aeq
' 10log
10
1
8
2.4 10
85/ 10
% 1.6 10
88/ 10
% 2 10
91/ 10
% 2 10
96/ 10
' 91.8dB(A)
USA criteria
Problem 4.7
From figure 4.4(b) in the text, there is a 22% risk of developing a 22dB
handicap.
Problem 4.8
(a) USA criteria
Using equation 4.41 with L
B
= 90 and L = 5, we obtain:
Daily noise dose = 2
(L
)
Aeq
& 90) / 5
' 0.86
No reduction in exposure time is necessary.
(b) European criteria
Using equation 4.3 or 4.39 with L
B
= 90 and L = 3,
Solutions to problems 88
T
a
'
8
2
(91.8 & 90) / 3
' 5.2hours
Daily noise dose = 2
(L
Aeq
& 90) / 3
' 1.53
Allowable exposure time:
Thus a reduction of 2.8 hours is required.
Problem 4.9
Number of impacts per day = 80 60 8 0.6 = 23,040
B-duration = 100 msec
B-duration number of impacts = BN = 2.3 10
6
Peak SPL = 125dB
Allowable level for BN = 2.3 10
6
is obtained from fig 4.5 in the text.
European criteria
L
a
= 112.5dB, and noise dose = 2
(125 - 112.5)/3
= 18
U.S.A. criteria
L
a
= 121dB, and noise dose = 2
(125 - 120.5)/5
= 1.9
Allowable BN for 125dB peak - see fig 4.5 in text.
European criteria BN = 1.40 10
5
, and noise dose = 23.04/1.4 = 16.4
U.S.A. criteria BN = 1.29 10
6
, and noise dose = 2.304/1.29 = 1.8
The small differences in results obtained using the two methods (allowable
level vs allowable BN) are due to difficulties in reading the figure any more
accurately.
The operator is overexposed according to both criteria.
Required work day decrease
European criteria
Assuming that the press accounts entirely for the exposure of the employee,
Criteria 89
then from figure 4.6, the allowed BN product is 1.4 10
5
. In terms of hours,
this is equal to: 1.4 10
5
/(80 60 100) = 0.29 hours of press operation.
Accounting for the background noise, the exposure will be controlled by this
for a minimum of 7.71 hours (8 - 0.29). This corresponds to a noise dose of
(7.71/8) 2
(85 - 90)/3
= 0.3. Thus the allowable time of press operation is 0.7
0.29 = 0.20 hours. [Iterating again does not affect the result significantly].
Thus required workday decrease = 4.8 - 0.2 = 4.6 hours of press operation.
USA criteria
Background noise of 85dB(A) does not contribute
From figure 4.6, allowable BN product = 1.2 10
6
. In terms of operating
hours, this is equal to: 1.29 10
6
/(80 60 100) = 2.69 hours of press
operation. The background noise when the press is not operating does not
contribute to the exposure according to USA criteria.
Thus required work day decrease = 4.8 - 2.7 = 2.1 hours of press operation.
Problem 4.10
Number of impacts per day = 40,000
B-duration = 60 msec
B-duration number of impacts = BN = 2.4 10
6
Peak SPL = 135dB
Allowable level for BN = 2.4 10
6
is obtained from fig 4.6 in the text.
European criteria
L
a
= 112dB, and noise dose = 2
(135 - 112)/3
= 200.
U.S.A. criteria
L
a
= 121dB, and noise dose = 2
(135 - 121)/5
= 7.
Allowable BN for 135dB peak - see fig 4.6 in text.
European criteria
BN = 1.2 10
4
and noise dose = 240/1.2 = 200
Solutions to problems 90
U.S.A. criteria
BN = 3.4 10
5
and noise dose = 240/34 = 7
Allowable number of impacts
USA criteria
The background noise of 87dB(A) contributes nothing to the daily noise dose
because it is less than 90dB(A). Thus the allowed number of impacts = 3.4
10
5
/60 = 5700.
Thus required decrease = 40,000 - 5,700 = 34,300.
European criteria
Assuming that the press accounts entirely for the exposure of the employee,
then from figure 4.6, the allowed BN product is 1.2 10
4
. The allowable
number of impacts is then 1.2 10
4
/60 = 200. However this represents such
a small part of the 8-hour day, that the 87dB(A) background can be considered
to dominate the exposure for almost 8 hours, resulting in a noise dose of 0.5
due to this alone. Thus the allowable dose due to the impact noise is 0.5,
which corresponds to 100 impacts.
Problem 4.11
Use figure 4.7 in the text.
Expected level - "very loud voice to shout"
Required level - "shout".
Problem 4.12
See figure 4.7 in text. The answers are:
No. No. No. Too Loudly.
Problem 4.13
The one third octave band levels would have to be first combined into octave
band levels by logarithmically adding together three third octave bands for
Criteria 91
L
p250
' 10log
10
10
60/ 10
% 10
65/ 10
% 10
63/ 10
' 67.9 dB
each octave band result. The three bands to add would be one with a centre
frequency the same as the octave band and one band above and one below that
one. For example, if the 200Hz, 250Hz and 315Hz one third octave band
levels were 60dB, 65dB, and 63dB respectively, then the 250Hz octave band
level would be:
Problem 4.14
A-weighted overall sound levels are inadequate for noise level specification
and control because they give no indication of the frequency content of the
noise which is necessary for assessing annoyance and determining the type of
noise control approach which may be feasible. It is preferable to have data as
octave band levels for control purposes, although often for specification
purposes, NR, NC or RC numbers are adequate as they take into account the
spectral content of the noise. However overall dB(A) numbers are adequate
for the purposes of assessing hearing damage risk and for comparing noise
(either occupational or environmental) with permitted levels according to local
regulations.
Problem 4.15
(a) A-weighted levels are calculated and tabulated below
Frequency
(Hz)
63 125 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k
L
p

(dB re 20Pa)
100 101 97 91 90 88 86 81
A-weighting -26.2 -16.1 -8.6 -3.2 0.0 1.2 1.0 -1.1
A-weighted
level
73.8 84.9 88.4 87.8 90 89.2 87 79.9
Solutions to problems 92
L
p
' 10log
10
10
7.38
% 10
8.49
% 10
8.84
% 10
8.78
% 10
9
% 10
8.92
% 10
8.7
% 10
7.99
' 96.1 dB(A)
T
a
' 8 2
&(96.1 & 90) / 3
. 1.95 hours
L ' 38 % 0.3[ 28.5 % 35.3 % 28.5 % 33 % 35.3 % 38 % 33] ' 107.5 sones
The overall A-weighted level is:
(b) Using equation 4.42 in the text, the allowable number of hours is:
(c) NR level of noise - plot levels on NR curves as shown below, where it
may be seen that NR = 91.
(d) Loudness level
Frequency
(Hz)
63 125 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k
L
p
(dB re 20Pa)
100 101 97 91 90 88 86 81
Sones 28.5 38 35.3 28.5 33 35.3 38 33
The overall level in sones is calculated using equation 2.33. Thus:
Criteria 93
P ' 40 % 10
log
10
S
log
10
2
' 107.5 phons
x ' 10log
10
10
96.1/ 10
& 10
( 96.1 & 1.5) / 10
' 90.8dB(A)
0
10
20
30
40
50
45
35
15
MAF
63 125 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k
Octave band center frequency (Hz)
O
c
t
a
v
e

b
a
n
d

s
o
u
n
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

l
e
v
e
l

(
d
B

r
e

2
0

P
a
)

25
From equation 2.32:
Note that the above equation is inaccurate for levels above 100 phons.
(e) Following example 1.4, the contribution of the machine to the overall
level is x dB(A) where x is defined as:
Problem 4.16
(a) The levels are first plotted on NC and NCB curves
The result is NC = 33 and NCB = (38 + 30 + 20 + 16)/4 = 26
Solutions to problems 94
0
10
20
30
40
50
45
35
15
10
0
63 16 125 31.5 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k
Octave band center frequency (Hz)
O
c
t
a
v
e

b
a
n
d

s
o
u
n
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

l
e
v
e
l

(
d
B

r
e

2
0

P
a
)

25
NCB
The system is sufficiently quiet for churches holding less than 250 people
(see table 4.8 in the third edition of the textbook and table 4.2 in the first
edition or look up AS2107-1987), however for larger churches, the level
should be about 5dB lower.
(b) This NCB level is exceeded by more than 3dB in 125Hz, 250Hz and
500Hz bands so it will sound rumbly. Note that RC criteria would result
in a neutral classification (not rumbly or hissy).
Best fit between 125Hz and 500Hz is NCB = 33. No levels in the octave
bands between 1000Hz and 8000Hz are above NCB = 33 so sound is not
hissy.
This conclusion can be checked by plotting on RC curves. As can be seen
from the following RC plot, the noise will be neutral (not rumbly or
hissy -see 3
rd
. Edn. text, page 159) as no levels in bands below 500 Hz
exceed the RC level by more than 5 dB. Note RC = (38+30+20)/3 = 29.
Although this conclusion is different to that drawn using NCB curves, it
can be seen that the RC classification is close to rumbly.
Criteria 95
L
A
' 10log
10
10
53/ 10
& 10
48/ 10
' 51.3dB
45
35
25
30
40
50
(RC)
16 31.5 63 125 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k
10
20
30
40
50
O
c
t
a
v
e

b
a
n
d

s
o
u
n
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
l
e
v
e
l

(
d
B

r
e

2
0

P
a
)

Octave band center frequency (Hz)

(c) Optimum spectrum levels of added masking noise would be equal to the
RC-33 levels (as this corresponds to the highest existing spectrum levels)
with the existing levels logarithmically subtracted from it. For example,
in the 63Hz band, the RC-33 value is 53dB and the desired added level
is:
Desired spectrum levels of masking noise are listed in the table below.
Octave band
centre
frequency (Hz)
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Sound pressure
level (dB)
48 48 43 38 30 20 16 12
RC-30 values 50 48 43 35 33 28 23
Desired added
levels
51.3 0 0 0 30 27 22
Solutions to problems 96
L
A
' 10log
10
10
(60 & 26.2) / 10
% 10
(55 & 16.1) / 10
% 10
(55 & 8.6) / 10
% 10
(50 & 3.2) / 10
% 10
(55 & 0) / 10
% 10
(55 % 1.2) / 10
% 10
(50 % 1.0/ 10
% 10
(45 & 1.1) / 10
' 59.9dB(A)
0
10
20
30
40
50
45
35
15
10
0
63 16 125 31.5 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k
Octave band center frequency (Hz)
O
c
t
a
v
e

b
a
n
d

s
o
u
n
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

l
e
v
e
l

(
d
B

r
e

2
0

P
a
)

25
NCB
Problem 4.17
(a) The NCB value for the noise is (37 + 33 + 33 + 32)/4 = 34
(b) The line of best fit for the NCB curve between 125 Hz and 500 Hz is 32
or 33 NCB. Three high frequency bands exceed this curve so the noise
sounds hissy. No bands below 500 Hz exceed 34 NCB so noise is not
rumbly. See following figure.
Problem 4.18
(a) A-weighted level is:
Criteria 97
45
35
25
30
40
50
(RC)
16 31.5 63 125 250 500 1k 2k 4k 8k
10
20
30
40
50
60
O
c
t
a
v
e

b
a
n
d

s
o
u
n
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
l
e
v
e
l

(
d
B

r
e

2
0

P
a
)

Octave band center frequency (Hz)

NR level from following figure (NR curves) = 58.
(b) The levels are plotted on RC curves below, where it can be seen that the
spectrum would sound hissy.
(c) The noise level is 59.9dB(A). The dB(A) adjustments to the base level
of 40dB(A), the resulting allowable noise levels and the expected public
reactions are:
Solutions to problems 98
day: +20 -2 = 58dB(A) (marginal public reaction)
evening: +20 -5 -2 = 53dB(A) (little public reaction)
night: +20 -10 -2 = 48dB(A) (medium public reaction)
See table 4.11 in the text for public reaction estimates.
(d) The noise reductions between inside and outside and the resulting inside
levels are in the table below.
Octave band centre
frequency (Hz)
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Exterior sound
pressure levels
60 55 55 50 55 55 50 45
Expected noise
reduction (dB)
5 5 8 10 14 16 20 21
Interior sound
pressure levels
55 50 47 40 41 39 30 24
The spectrum in the last line of the table is plotted in the figure below
and represents an NR value of 42.
Criteria 99
From Table 4.12 in the text, daytime base level = NR 30 and nighttime
base level = NR 25.
Daytime adjustments = +5 +10, which give an allowable NR = 45
nighttime adjustment = +10, which gives an allowable NR = 35
Thus we would expect complaints during the evening and night but not
during the day if the windows are closed.
When the windows are open, 5dB is added to levels in all octave bands
and the NR value of the interior noise becomes NR 47. This would result
in a few complaints during the day and an increase in the number of
nighttime complaints.
(e) Factory could be built provided it only operated during the day. If the
noise occurred only 25% of the time:
. L
Aeq
' 10log
10
0.25 10
59.9/ 10
' 53.9dB(A)
From the results of (c) above, it can be seen that the factory could now
operate in the evening as well, but not at night. However from the results
of (d) above, and table 4.11 in text, the NR criteria would indicate that it
should still only operate during the day.
Problem 4.19
From table 4.10 in the text, the acceptable level for nighttime operation is
L
Aeq
= 40 - 10 + 15 = 45dB(A). From table 4.11 in the text, the expected
community response would be widespread complaints.
'
A
r
e
j( t & kr)
p ' j
A
r
e
j( t & kr)
u '
A
r
2
e
j( t & kr)
%
jkA
r
e
j( t & kr)
'
A
r
e
j( t & kr)
1
r
% jk
'
p
j
1
r
% jk '
p
c
1 &
j
kr
5
Solutions to problems relating to
sound sources and outdoor sound
propagation
Problem 5.1
(a) Intensity, I = W/S = 10
-2
/(4 0.5
2
) Watts/m
2
= 3.18 mWatts/m
2
(b) and thus the p
rms
' Ic ' 3.18 1.206 343 10
&3
' 1.15Pa
pressure amplitude = p
rms
/2 = 1.62 Pa.
(c) For outwardly travelling spherical waves in free space, equation 1.40c
may be written as:
Using equations 1.6 and 1.7, the acoustic pressure and particle velocity
may be written respectively as:
and
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 101
*u* '
*p*
c
1 %
c
2f r
2
'
1.62
1.206 343
1 %
343
2 400 0.5
2
' 4.06mm/ s
Q '
4W
k
2
c
'
Wc
f
2

'
0.01 343
400
2
1.206
' 2.38 10
&3
m
3
/ s
Thus: *u* '
*p*
c
*1 &
j
kr
*
or,
(d) L
p
' 20log
10
p
rms
% 94 ' 95.2dB
(e) L
w
' 10log
10
W % 120 ' 100dB
(f) Source strength, Q, may be calculated using equation 5.12 in the text.
Thus:
Problem 5.2
(a) From equation 5.13(b) in the text, it can be seen that for a simple source
the r.m.s. pressure
2
is inversely proportional to the distance
2
from the
source. Thus the sound pressure level at 10m would be 110 -
20log
10
(10/1) = 90dB.
(b) We can use the result of 5.1(c) above. The acoustic pressure amplitude
at 1m is and the amplitude at p ' 2 10
&5
2 10
110/ 20
' 8.945 Pa
10m is
. p ' 2 10
&5
2 10
90/ 20
' 0.8945 Pa
At 1m, kr = 2f/c = 2 100/343 = 1.832. At 10m, kr = 18.32. The
Solutions to problems 102
u '
p
c
1 %
1
(kr)
2
' &tan
&1
1
kr
' &tan
&1
1
1.832
' &28.6E
' &tan
&1
1
kr
' &tan
&1
1
18.32
' &3.1E
W '
Q
2
k
2
c
4
'
6.28
2
10
&8
1.832
2
1.206 343
4
' 43.6Watts
W '
Q
2
k
2
c
4
'
6.28
2
10
&8
14.655
2
1.206 343
4
' 2.79 milli Watts
L
w
' 10log
10
W % 120 dB
result of 5.1(c) may be written as:
Thus at 1m, and the phase u '
8.945
1.206 343
1 %
1
1.832
2
' 24.6mm/ s
relative to the acoustic pressure is:
At 10m, and the phase u '
0.8945
1.206 343
1 %
1
18.32
2
' 2.2mm/ s
relative to the acoustic pressure is:
Problem 5.3
Source volume velocity = 4r
2
u
rms
= 4 0.01
2
0.5 = 6.28 10
-4
At 100Hz, k = 2 100/343 = 1.832 m
-1
and at 800Hz, k = 14.655 m
-1
.
Using equation 5.12 in the text, the acoustic power radiated at 100Hz is:
and at 800Hz, the acoustic power radiated is:
The corresponding sound power levels are calculated using:
Thus at 100Hz, L
w
= 76.4dB and at 800Hz, L
w
= 94.5dB.
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 103

Q ' 4 r
2
u ' 4 0.01
2
0.1 ' 1.257 10
&4
m
3
/ s
p '
Qkc
4r
'
1.257 10
&4
0.916 1.206 343
4 10
' 3.79 10
&4
Pa
' &tan
&1
1
kr
'
A
r
e
j( t & kr)
Problem 5.4
(a) The amplitude of the pressure fluctuations can be calculated using
equation 5.13(a) in the text. The amplitude of the volume velocity, ,

Q
is given by:
At 50Hz, k = 2f/c = 2 50/343 = 0.916, and the amplitude of the
pressure fluctuations is then:
(b) Using the equation from problem 5.2(c), the phase of the pressure minus
the phase of the particle velocity is given by:
At r = 0.5m, the above expression gives = 65.4E and at r = 10m, =
6.2E.
This indicates that close to the source the acoustic pressure field is
dominated by near field effects, whereas at 10m from the source, the near
field effects will be small and the field may be approximated as a
propagating plane wave.
Problem 5.5
The radiation impedance per unit area is equivalent to the specific acoustic
impedance, Z which is simply p/u.
For outwardly travelling spherical waves in free space, equation 1.40c may be
written as:
Solutions to problems 104
p ' j
A
r
e
j( t & kr)
u '
A
r
2
e
j(t & kr)
%
jkA
r
e
j( t & kr)
'
A
r
e
j(t & kr)
1
r
% jk
'
p
j
1
r
% jk '
p
c
1 &
j
kr
p
u
' c 1 &
j
ka
&1
' c
1 %
j
ka
1 %
1
(ka)
2
' c
(ka)
2
% jka
(ka)
2
% 1
' c

2
a
2
% jac
c
2
%
2
a
2
1
r
2
M
Mr
r
2
M
Mr
%
1
r
2
sin
M
M
sin
M
M
%
1
r
2
sin
2

M
2
M
2
&
1
c
2
M
2

Mt
2
' 0
Using equations 1.6 and 1.7, the acoustic pressure and particle velocity may
be written respectively as:
and
Thus, setting r = a,
Problem 5.6
Follow the analysis in the text described by equations 5.1 to 5.12. In equation
5.12, replace the mean square volume velocity Q
2
with the product of half the
velocity amplitude and the surface area of the pulsating sphere; that is,
. The required result is then obtained. Q
2
'
*U*
2
2
( 4a
2
)
2
Problem 5.7
The wave equation is:
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 105
' 2f
)
(ct & r) (h/ r) cos
r
2
M
Mr
' &2f
))
(ct & r) (hr) cos & 2f
)
(ct & r) hcos
1
r
2
M
Mr
r
2
M
Mr
' &2f
)))
(ct & r) (h/ r) cos & 2f
))
(ct & r) (h/ r
2
) cos
% 2f
))
(ct & r) (h/ r
2
) cos
sin
M
M
' &2f
)
(ct & r) (h/ r) sin
2

1
r
2
sin
M
M
sin
M
M
' &2f
)
(ct & r) (h/ r
3
) 2cos
1
r
2
sin
2

M
2
M
2
' 0
&
1
c
2
M
2

Mt
2
' &2f
)))
(ct & r) (h/ r) cos
&4f
)
(ct & r) (h/ r
3
) cos
p '
M
Mt
'
A cos
kr
1 &
j
(kr)
e
j(t & kr)
u
r
' &L '
A cos
krc
1 &
2
(kr)
2
&
2j
kr
e
j(t & kr)
(a) The solution given by equation 5.25 in the text is:
Substituting the solution into the various terms in the wave equation
gives:
Adding all the above terms together gives:
which must equal zero to satisfy the wave equation. This is true provided
that r is very large compared to h.
(b) Equations 5.32 and 5.33 in the text may be written as:
Solutions to problems 106
'
1

m
T
0
p dt ' &
jAcos
ck
2
r
1 &
j
kr
e
j( t & kr)
&
M
Mr
' &
jAcos
ck
2
r
2
1 &
j
kr
e
j( t & kr)
%
jAcos
ck
2
r
j
kr
2
e
j( t & kr)
%
jAcos
ck
2
r
1 &
j
kr
(&jk) e
j(t & kr)
r
2
M
Mr
'
Arcos
ck
1 &
2j
kr
&
2
(kr)
2
e
j( t & kr)
1
r
2
M
Mr
r
2
M
Mr
' &
Acos
r
2
ck
1 &
2j
kr
&
2
(kr)
2
e
j( t & kr)
&
Arcos
r
2
ck
2j
kr
2
%
4
k
2
r
3
e
j( t & kr)
&
Arcos
r
2
ck
1 &
2j
kr
&
2
(kr)
2
(&jk) e
j( t & kr)
' &
Acos
rck
&
1
r
%
2
k
2
r
3
& jk %
2j
kr
2
e
j( t & kr)
Using the first of the above equations and omitting the integration
constant:
Checking the expression for u, by evaluating -L, we obtain:
To verify that the expression obtained above for is a solution to the
wave equation we substitute it into the wave equation and calculate the
result term by term as follows:
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 107
sin
M
M
'
jAsin
2

ck
2
r
1 &
j
kr
e
j(t & kr)
1
r
2
sin
M
M
sin
M
M
'
2jAcos
ck
2
r
3
1 &
j
kr
e
j(t & kr)
1
r
2
sin
2

M
2
M
2
' 0
&
1
c
2
M
2

Mt
2
'

2
c
2
' &
j k
2
Acos
ck
2
r
1 &
j
kr
e
j( t & kr)
jAcos
cr
&
j
kr
%
2j
(kr)
3
% 1 &
2
(kr)
2
%
2
(kr)
2
&
2j
(kr)
3
& 1 %
j
kr
e
j( t & kr)
'
f (ct & r)
r
r
2
M
Mr
' &f (ct & r) & rf
)
(ct & r)
Adding all the above terms together gives:
which is equal to zero. Thus the solutions given by equations 5.32 and
5.33 satisfy the spherical wave equation exactly.
Problem 5.8
Equation 1.35 in the text is:
To verify that the expression obtained above for is a solution to the wave
equation we substitute it into the wave equation and calculate the result term
by term.
Solutions to problems 108
1
r
2
M
Mr
r
2
M
Mr
'
f
)
(ct & r)
r
2
%
f
))
(ct & r)
r
&
f
)
(ct & r)
r
2
1
r
2
sin
M
M
sin
M
M
' 0
1
r
2
sin
2

M
2
M
2
' 0
&
1
c
2
M
2

Mt
2
' &
f
))
(ct & r)
r
Q '
4W
k
2
c
'
4 0.5
4.58
2
1.206 343
' 2.69 10
&2
m
3
/ s
W
D
' c
k
4
h
2
Q
2
3
'
1.205 343 4.58
4
(0.08/ 2)
2
2.691
2
10
&4
3
' 0.0224watts
Adding all the above terms together gives 0, so equation 1.35 in the text is a
solution.
Problem 5.9
The wavenumber, k, is equal to (2f/c) = (2 250/343) = 4.58.
The source strength, Q, of the monopole may be calculated using equation
5.12 in the text. That is:
The dipole acoustic power, W
D
, may be calculated using equation 5.29 in the
text to give:
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 109
p(r) '
jqe
&jkr
4r
p(r) ' p
1
% p
2
'
j
4
q
1
r
1
e
&jkr
1
%
q
2
r
2
e
&jkr
2
r
1
. r % h cos and r
2
. r & h cos
p(r, ) '
j
4r
e
&j kr
q
1
e
&jkhcos
% q
2
e
jkhcos
' p
1
(r, ) 1 %
q
2
q
1
e
2jkhcos
u
Sound power level = 10log
10
W + 120 = 103.5dB.
Problem 5.10
For a single source:
For 2 sources separated by a distance 2h, the total pressure, p, is the sum of
the pressures p
1
and p
2
from each source. Thus:
As shown on page 179 in the text, for phase accuracy purposes, the following
approximations are adequate:
where it has been assumed that h << r.
Noting that for amplitude purposes, r
1
. r
2
. r
The above equation may be rewritten as:
When =
0
, p = 0, or
. 1 %
q
2
q
1
e
2jkhcos
0
' 0
Thus, .
q
2
q
1
' &e
&2jkhcos
0
Substituting this into the preceding equation for p gives:
Solutions to problems 110
p(r, ) ' p
1
(r, ) 1 & e
&2jkh(cos
0
& cos)
*p* ' 2*p
1
* 1 & cos(2khcos)
Q '
4W
k
2
c
'
4 0.01
9.16
2
1.206 343
' 1.903 10
&3
m
3
/ s
I
D
' c
k
4
h
2
Q
2
(2r)
2
cos
2

'
1.205 343 9.16
4
(0.005/ 2)
2
1.903
2
10
&6
(2 0.5)
2
0.707
2
' 3.34Watts/ m
2
p
2
' cI ' 1.205 343 3.33 10
&6
' 1.38 10
&3
Pa
2
If
0
= 90E, then p(r, ) ' p
1
(r, ) 1 & e
2jkhcos
Taking the modulus of the preceding equation gives:
This function contains the directivity information and is plotted in the figure
above.
Problem 5.11
The wavenumber, k, is equal to (2f/c) = (2 500/343) = 9.16.
The source strength, Q, of each monopole making up the dipole source may
be calculated using equation 5.12 in the text. That is:
(a) The dipole intensity at = 45E is given by equation 5.28 in the text and
is:
(b)
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 111
L
p
' 10log
10
p
2

p
2
ref
' 65.4dB
F
rms
'
4aA
3k 2
1 %
1
(ka)
2
A
2
'
chQk
3
2
A
2
'
1.206 343 (0.005/ 2) 1.903 10
&3
9.16
3
2
' 0.241
F
rms
'
A
2
4
3k
2
'
0.241 4
3 9.16
2
' 12.0 mN
Q
2
'
W
M
4
ck
2
u
R
h = L =0.05m
0.1m
0.1m
1W
0.5W
0.5W
20m
(c) Required driving force can be calculated by taking the mean square value
calculated using equation 5.39 in the text. Thus:
From equation 5.35 in the text:
Substituting in the previously calculated values for k and Q gives:
As ka is very small, equation 5.40 in the text may be used. Thus:
Problem 5.12
The arrangement is illustrated in the
figure.
As R is 1m off the floor, the
distance to it is
20
2
% 1
2
' 20.02m
(a) The strength of each source may be calculated using equation 5.12 in the
text:
Solutions to problems 112
Q
2
'
0.5 4
1.206 343 2.29
2
' 2.897 10
&3
p
2
'
5cW
long
cos
4

4r
2
2 ' Q
2
ck
3
hLcos
2

r
2
2
' 2.897 10
&3
1.206 343 2.29
3
0.05
2
cos
2
(30)
20.02
2
2
' 1.271 10
&4
Pa
2
L
p
' 10log
10
1.271 10
&4
4 10
&10
' 55.0dB
L
p
' 121.8 & 10log
10
(2 20.02
2
) & 10log
10
(400/ 413.66) ' 87.9dB
In this case, W
M
= 0.5W and k = 2 125/343 = 2.290. Thus:
The arrangement shown is a longitudinal quadrupole and the mean square
sound pressure at any location may be calculated using equations 5.54
and 5.55 in the text. Note that the equation for the mean square pressure
is multiplied by 2 in this case because the radiation is into half space.
Thus:
The sound pressure level is then:
(b) 125Hz random noise will make the sources act independently and the
power radiated will be the arithmetic sum of the individual sources. Thus
W = 1.5W and
. L
w
' 10log
10
(1.5/ 10
&12
) ' 121.8dB
Using equation 5.108 in the text, the sound pressure level may be
calculated using S = 2r
2
and c = 413.6. Thus:
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 113
p
2
D

p
2
M

' 4(kh)
2
cos
2
(90 & 1.145)
' 4(4.58 0.1)
2
(0.02)
2
' 3.36 10
&4
Reduction ' 10log
10
3.36 10
&4
&1
' 34.7dB
|
0.1m
hole
speaker
5m
O
0.2m
Problem 5.13
(a) T h e a r r a n g e m e n t
approximates a simple dipole
and is illustrated in the figure.
The angle = sin
-1
0.1/5 =
1.145E. The azimuthal angle
given in the problem is irrelevant.
The wavenumber, k = (2
250)/343 = 4.58.
The sound pressure levels radiated by the hole alone (monopole) and hole
+ speaker (dipole) may be calculated using equations 5.13a, 5.30b and
5.29 in the text.
Using these equations, the ratio of the mean square pressures
(dipole/monopole) may be written as:
Thus the reduction in sound pressure level due to the presence of the
speaker is:
(b) If a speaker is placed below the hole as well, a longitudinal quadrupole
is formed with L = h = 0.1. In this case, = 0, and as can be seen from
equation 5.55 in the text (where = 90 - ), the theoretical mean square
sound pressure will be zero, implying a reduction of infinity dB.
Problem 5.14
In equation 5.62, (W/b) is effectively the power per unit length of source (as
W is the power of each source separated by b) and in equation 5.70, W/D is
the same quantity. Thus the difference between the finite length and infinite
Solutions to problems 114
p
2
' c
W
2
2
r
0
D
[
u
&
l
]
L
p
' L
w
& 10log
10
(4r
0
D) % 10log
10
(
u
&
l
) % 10log
10
(c/ 400)
' 130 & 10log
10
(4 80 20) % 10log
10
(0.248) % 10log
10
(1.0342)
' 81.1dB
o
u
o
l
20m
80m
A
pipe
length source is the quantity which is the ratio of the angle (
u
&
l
) /
subtended by the source at the observer in each case. Thus, by logical
argument, equation 5.65 can be rewritten as follows for a finite coherent line
source.
Problem 5.15
The arrangement is as shown in the figure.

u
' &
l
' tan
&1
(10/ 80) ' 0.124
c
Finite length pipe, D = 20m, r
0
= 80m and L
w
= 130dB. Turbulent flow, so
assume an incoherent source. Also assume incoherent addition of the direct
and ground reflected waves. Taking logs of equation 5.70 in the text gives for
the direct wave:
The ground reflected wave level is then 81.1 - 3 = 78.1dB. Thus the total
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 115
L
p
' 10log
10
10
8.11
% 10
7.81
' 82.9dB
p
2
' [ Wc/ 4r
0
D] [
u
&
l
] 2
p
2
' [ 2 1.206 343/ ( 4 200 50) ] 0.249 2
' 3.275 10
&3
Pa
2
L
p
' 10log
10
3.275 10
&3
4 10
&10
' 69.1dB
o
u
o
l
50m
200m
A
pipe
level at the receiver is:
Problem 5.16
The situation is as shown in the figure below. Equation 5.70 in the text may
be used to calculate the sound pressure level. The equation must be multiplied
by the directivity factor (2 in this case).
Thus:
.
u
'
l
' tan
&1
25
200
' 0.124 radians
W = 2, r
0
= 200, D = 50. Thus:
Solutions to problems 116
A
g
' &10log
10
[ 1 % 10
&2/ 10
] ' &2.1dB
p
2
1
' c
W
4r
2
0
DF
p
2
2
' c
W
4br
0
DF
p
2
1

p
2
2

'
br
2
r
2
1
'
6 50

' 95.5
From table 5.3 in the text, A
a
= 19.3dB per 1000m, so for 200m, A
a
= 19.3/5
= 3.9dB. Sound intensity loss due to ground reflection is 2dB. Thus the
ground effect is given by equation 5.175b in the text as:
Thus, A
g
+ A
a
= 1.8dB and the sound pressure level at the receiver is:
L
p
= 69.1 - 1.8 = 67.3dB
Problem 5.17
The traffic may be treated as an infinite line source. At 1m r
0
< b/ and the
mean square sound pressure is related to the source sound power, W, of one
vehicle by:
where DF is the directivity factor for the source/ground combination.
At 50m, the sound pressure is related to the sound power, W, of one vehicle
by:
Thus:
The level at 50m = level at 1m - 10log
10
= 88 - 19.8 = 68.2dB(A).
p
2
1

p
2
2

Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 117
I ' ( p
2
o
/ 3cr
2
) (2 % cos)
u
r
p
2
' c
W
4br
0
'
413 2
4 7 250
' 0.118 Pa
2
L
p
' 10log
10
0.118
( 2 10
&5
)
2
' 84.7 dB
L
p
' 84.7 & 0.6 % 3.0 ' 87 dB (%6, &3 dB)
Problem 5.18
From Equation 5.62:
Concrete ground, so ground effect is A
g
= -3 dB. Assume 20EC, air
absorption ranges from 2.6 to 2.8 dB per 1000 m. For 250 m air absorption -
0.7 dB.
From table 5.3, meteorological influence is +6, -3 dB. Assume no obstacles
blocking line of sight to the road from the residence.
So the sound pressure level at the residence is:
Problem 5.19
(a) The arrangement is shown in the
figure. We are given:
The sound power is obtained by
integrating the intensity over an
imaginary hemispherical surface
centred at the centre of the speaker.
The sound power is then:
Solutions to problems 118
W '
m
S
I dS '
p
0
2
3c
m
2
0
d
m
/ 2
0
(2 % cos) r
2
sin
r
2
d
'
p
2
0
2
3c
m
/ 2
0
(2sin % cos sin) d
'
p
2
0
2
3c
.
/ 2
0
& 2cos & 0.25 cos2
'
p
2
0
2
3c
2 % 1/ 2 ' 0.0127 p
2
0
Watts
(b)& (c) As the speaker only radiates into a hemispherical space, the
presence of a baffle will have no influence on the power
radiated, regardless of whether the source is constant
volume or constant pressure.

Problem 5.20
(a) If the piston is assumed to be made up of an infinite number of point
monopole sources, all pulsating in phase, then the sound pressure at any
location can be calculated by summing the contributions from each
source. This effectively means that an expression for the sound pressure
at some distance, r, due to a monopole on the piston surface must be
integrated over the piston surface. If a baffle is present, the monopole
source must be replaced with a hemispherical source which radiates twice
the pressure.
(b) The function 2J
1
(x)/x vs x is plotted out in the figure below, where
x = ka sin.
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 119
0 5 10 15 20
0.5
1.0
2J ( )
1
x
x
x
At 500Hz, ka = 2 500 0.1/343 = 0.91. Nodes in the radiation
pattern occur when 0.91 sin = 3.8, 7, 10.1, etc. That is, there are no
nodes.
At 2,500Hz, ka = 2 2,500 0.1/343 = 4.58. Nodes in the radiation
pattern occur when 4.58 sin = 3.8, 7, 10.1, etc. That is, there is only one
node at = 60E.
At 10,000Hz, ka = 2 10,000 0.1/343 = 18.31. Nodes in the
radiation pattern occur when 18.31 sin = 3.8, 7, 10.1, 13.3, 16.4, and
19.6. That is, there are 5 nodes at = 12E, 23E, 33E, 47E and 64E.
Directivity patterns are shown for each of these cases in the figures on
the next page. The side lobes for the 10kHz case have been expanded for
clarity. For sketching purposes, the figure shown at the beginning of part
(b) (figure 5.7 in the text) may be used with the x-axis crossings
representing the nodal locations of each lobe and the peaks in the curve
representing the relative amplitude of each lobe. [Note that fig 5.6 will
only provide information for the first three lobes so it must be extended
for the 10kHz case.]
Solutions to problems 120
R
R
' ca
2
(2ka)
2
/ 8 ' c(a
2
)
2
4
2
/ (8c
2
) ' cS
2

2
/ (2c
2
)
'
R
R
cS
'
a
2

2
2c
2
' (ka)
2
/ 2
W ' R
R
a
2
cU
2
/ 2
500Hz 2.5kHz 10kHz
Problem 5.21
(a) Using equations 5.95b and 5.96 in the text, the radiation resistance for a
piston can be written as:
where it has been assumed that ka is sufficiently small that all but the
first term of equation 5.96 in the text is negligible.
(b) The radiation efficiency at low frequencies is:
which described the solid line in figure 5.9 in the text for ka < 0.8.
(c) See fig 5.9 in the text.
Problem 5.22
(a) Piston radiating from an infinite baffle. k = 2a/ = 2 and
a = 0.1m. From equation 5.98b in the text:
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 121
U '

' 2

c/ ' 2

c/ a ' 2 0.0002 343/ 0.1 ' 1.372m/ s

W ' 0.1
2
1.206 343 1.372
2
/ 2 ' 12.2W
I '
ck
2
8
2
r
2
F
2
(w)
I '
ch
2
U
2

2
a
4
8
2
r
2
'
cU
2
a
2
8r
2
'
1.206 343 1.372
2
0.01
2 2
2
' 0.97W/ m
2
L
p
' 10log
10
p
2

p
2
ref
' 10log
10
cI
4 10
&10
' 120.0dB
and from fig 5.8, for ka = 2, R
R
= 1. The piston velocity amplitude, U, is
given by:
Thus the radiated power is:
(b) From equation 5.84 in the text, the on-axis intensity is:
where w = kasin = 0. Thus, F(0) = Ua
2
.
Thus:
(c) Radiation mass loading = a
2
c[X(2ka)], where X(2ka) = 0.55 (see fig
5.8 in the text). Thus the mass loading is
0.01 1.206 343 0.55 ' 7.1 kg/ s
(d) Sound pressure level at 2m:
Problem 5.23
(a) The arrangement is shown in the figure on the next page where it can be
seen that h = L = 102.5mm.
Solutions to problems 122
W
M
' ( Q
2
H
ck
2
/ 4) 2
W
long
' [ ( 2k
3
hLQ
L
)
2
c/ 5] 2
W
long
W
M
'
4k
6
h
2
L
2
Q
2
H
c4
20Q
2
H
ck
2
'
4
5
k
4
h
2
L
2
'
4
5
(2)
4
f
4
(0.1025)
4
343
4
' 9.94 10
&12
f
4
hole
speaker speaker
200mm
205mm
(b) Power radiated by original opening (assuming a constant volume velocity
source in an infinite baffle) is (see equation 5.12 in the text and multiply
by 2 to account for radiation into half space):
The power radiated by the longitudinal quadrupole may be calculated
using equation 5.54 in the text. Again the equation in the text must be
multiplied by 2. Thus:
where Q
L
= Q
H
/2. Thus:
Frequency, Hz dB reduction
(-10log
10
(W
long
/W
m
)
63
125
250
500
38
26
14
2
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 123
p
2
long

p
2
M

'
[ 5cW
long
cos
4
/ 4r
2
] 2
[ W
M
c/ 4r
2
] 2
' 5cos
4

W
long
W
M
L
p
' &10log
10
[5cos
4
W
long
/ W
M
]
L
p
' L
w
& 10log
10
[4r
2
] ' 120 & 10log
10
[2 100] ' 92dB
(c) The ratio of the mean square pressures may be obtained using equations
5.13b and 5.55 in the text. Thus:
The reduction in sound pressure level is then:
Values of sound pressure reduction (dB re 20Pa) are tabulated below
for the required values of .
frequency
(Hz)
= 0 = /4 = /2
63
125
31
19
37
25
4
4
When the speakers are turned on, the sound field amplitude distribution
has 2 lobes with maxima at = 0, and minima at = /2, 3/2.
Problem 5.24
(a) The directivity index due to the hard floor is 3dB.
(b) The expected sound pressure level due to an omni directional source on
a hard floor is:
The actual sound pressure level is 110dB so the directivity due to the
source characteristics is -18dB.
Solutions to problems 124
p
2
'
2cW
HL
tan
&1
HL
2r H
2
% L
2
% 4r
2
'
2 1.206 343 0.01 S
S
tan
&1
0.25
2 25 0.25 % 0.25 % 4 25
2
' 2.63 10
&4
Pa
2
L
p
' 10log
10
2 2.633 10
&4
4 10
&10
' 61.2dB
hole
2m
25m
Problem 5.25
The radiated sound power
is W = IS = 0.01 S =
0.01S Watts. The
arrangement is shown in
the figure.
With no ground reflection, the on-axis sound pressure level may be calculated
using equation 5.105 in the text (as we may assume that the opening behaves
like an incoherent plane source). Here, H = L = 0.5, S = HL and r = 25. Thus:
Assuming a similar travel distance for the ground reflected wave, the total
sound pressure level at the receiver is:
Interestingly, in this case, the receiver is sufficiently far from the source for
the source to appear as a point source and the same result would have been
obtained if equation 5.106 had been used instead of equation 5.105.
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 125
f
R
1
'
1.206 2000
2.25 10
5
' 0.011

R
1
f
1/ 2
' 1.72
1
0.011
1/2
' 16.6
A
g
' &10log
10
1 % 10
&A
R
/ 10
' &2.4dB
hole
3m
150m
1.5m
|
|
x
y
R
Problem 5.26
(a) Sound power level, L
w
= 10log
10
W + 120 = 123dB.
(b) The arrangement for calculating the ground effect is shown in the figure.
From similar triangles, x = 2y. Thus x = 100 and y = 50.
tan = 3/100, so = 1.72E.
For grass covered ground, R
1
= 2.25 10
5
(middle of range). Thus:
From figure 5.20 in the text, A
R
= 1.3dB. The ground effect is then:
Thus the effect of the ground is to increase the level at the receiver by
2.4dB.
(c) Loss due to atmospheric absorption. From table 5.3 in the text,
A
a
= 15.5dB per 1000m (25% RH and 20EC). So for a distance of 150m,
A
a
= 15.5 0.15 = 2.3dB.
Solutions to problems 126
p
2
'
1.206 343 2
2 150
2
' 5.852 10
&3
Pa
2
L
p
' 10log
10
5.852 10
&3
4 10
&10
' 71.7dB
5
90
10000
10000 - x
x
r
1
r
2
r
(d) The opening should be treated as an incoherent plane source and equation
5.105 in the text used to calculate the sound pressure level. However as
we found in the previous problem, the receiver is far enough from the
source for it to appear as a point source (see figure 5.11) and we may use
equation 5.106. Thus:
The sound pressure level is then:
A
a
+ A
g
= -0.1, thus the sound pressure level at the receiver is equal to
71.8dB.
(e) Adding a second opening will add 3dB to the sound pressure levels at the
receiver as it may be assumed that the sound fields from the two sources
are incoherent. Thus the sound pressure level at the community location
of (b) above would be 74.8dB.
Problem 5.27
The arrangement is illustrated in the figure. Using similar triangles:
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 127
x
5
'
10000 & x
90
90x ' 50000 & 5x
x ' 50000/ 95 ' 526.31579m
r
1
' 5
2
% (526.315)
2
' 526.33954
r
2
' 90
2
% (10000 & 526.31579)
2
' 9474.111701
r ' 85
2
% 10000
2
' 10000.36124
r
1
% r
2
& r ' 0.0900m
f '
c

'
1500
2 0.0900
' 8.3kHz
Destructive interference will occur if /2 = 0.0900m. This occurs at a
frequency, f, given by:
Problem 5.28
We would NOT expect to measure 84dB(A) at the operator's position due to
reflected energy from the nearby wall. As the sound is predominantly in the
500Hz to 2000Hz band, the operator is not in the hydrodynamic near field of
the machine (although he/she could be in the geometric near field). Also the
machine is far enough from the wall for its sound power to be unaffected by
the wall. Assuming incoherent addition of direct and reflected waves,
assuming that geometric near field effects are negligible assuming that the
machine does not act as a barrier to the reflected sound and assuming that the
loss on reflection from the wall is negligible, the level at the operator's
position may be calculated as the logarithmic sum of the direct and reflected
waves. The reflected wave path length is 6m and the direct path length is 2m.
Thus the sound pressure level of the reflected wave is
Solutions to problems 128
L
p
' 10log
10
10
8.4
% 10
7.45
' 84.5dB(A)
R
p
'
(Z
s
/ c) & 1
(Z
s
/ c) % 1
R
p
'
(Z
s
/ c)cos & cos
(Z
s
/ c)cos % cos
*R
p
* '
*(Z
s
/ c) cos & 1*
*(Z
s
/ c) cos % 1*
. Thus the total sound pressure level expected 84 & 20log
10
(6/ 2) ' 74.5dB
at the operator's position is:
Problem 5.29
(a) Specific acoustic impedance is a complex quantity characterised by an
amplitude and a phase and is the complex ratio of acoustic pressure to
acoustic particle velocity at any point in an acoustic medium, including
the interface between two different media. Characteristic impedance is
equal to c. For an acoustic medium where the viscous and thermal
losses are small (such as air or water), it is a real quantity and is equal to
the specific acoustic impedance of a plane wave propagating in an
acoustic medium of infinite size.
(b) The absorption coefficient (assuming plane incident waves) is defined in
terms of the reflection coefficient, R
p
, as = 1 - *R
p
*
2
. Also, the normal
specific acoustic impedance of the surface of an acoustic medium of
infinite extent is the characteristic impedance of the medium, for an
infinitely thick medium. Thus equation 5.129 in the text may be used
with = 0 to give:
If is not equal to 0, then
If it is assumed that the wavenumber in the material is much larger than
that in air, cos = 1 and:
The maximum absorption coefficient will occur when the modulus
squared of the reflection coefficient is a minimum; that is, when
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 129
*R
p
*
2
'
(2cos & 1)
2
% 9cos
2

(2cos % 1)
2
% 9cos
2

'
13cos
2
& 4cos % 1
13cos
2
% 4cos % 1
' 1 & *R
p
*
2
' 1 &
13 0.0769 & 4 0.2774 % 1
13 0.0769 % 4 0.2774 % 1
' 1 & 0.286 ' 0.71
p
p
0
' e
&x
Decay rate ' 20log
10
e

' 20 0.4343ln e

' 8.686 (dB/ m)

L
p
' L
w
& 10log
10
( 2r
2
) & A
g
& A
a
& A
m
'110 & 65.5 % 3 & 2.7 0.75 &A
m
' 45.5 dB (%8, &6 dB)
is a mimimum. Differentiating the above expression wrt cos2 using the
chain rule, and setting the result equal to zero, we obtain the minimum
value when cos = 0.2774 or = 74E. The corresponding maximum
value of the absorption coefficient is given by:
Problem 5.30
Power radiated by window = 0.1 W = 110 dB
Concrete ground, so A
g
= -3 dB
Assume 20 EC temperature, so A
a
ranges from 2.6 to 2.8. Use A
a
= 2.7.
Range due to meteorological conditions is: (+8, -6 dB) from Table 5.10.
Assume no barriers between the source and receiver.
The receiver is far enough away for the window to be treated as a point source
in a baffle. Thus:
Problem 5.31
The pressure amplitude at any location x is given by:
where is the amplitude at x = 0. The decibel decay rate per unit distance p
0
is 20log
10
of the reciprocal of the above expression when x = 1 and is thus
given by:
Important factors are air temperature and humidity.
Solutions to problems 130
A 2
600
r - 600
r
Problem 5.32
The situation is illustrated in the figure below. We need to find the radius of
curvature, r, of the wave and hence the distance, d. We may use the aircraft
as the reference frame. Thus we assume a coordinate system moving
horizontally at the speed of the aircraft and then later on calculate the distance
that the aircraft travels during the time it takes for the sound to reach the
ground (with an assumed aircraft speed). The wave which hits the ground at
grazing incidence will be the one heard first. The total sonic gradient is 1/10
= 0.1s
-1
. Using equation 5.190 in the text, the radius of curvature of the wave
is thus 343 10 = 3430m. The distance d is then:
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 131
d ' r
2
& (r & 600)
2
' 3430
2
& 2830
2
' 1940m

0
' cos
&1
3430 & 600
3430
' 34.4E
t '
m

0
0
r d
c
0
& 0.1h
'
m

0
0
d
(c
0
/ r) & 0.1 % 0.1cos
' 10
m

0
0
d
cos
' 10 log
e
[ sec % tan]
34.4E
0
' 6.4seconds
We now need to take into account the speed of the aircraft and the distance it
will travel in the time the sound wave travels to the observer.
Let the angle subtended at the centre of the circular arc shown in the previous
figure be
0
. The speed of sound as a function of (with = 0 corresponding
to ground level and =
0
corresponding to the aircraft level) is given by c

=
c
0
- 0.1h, where h = height above the ground and c
0
= 343m/s is the speed of
sound at ground level. The value of
0
is given by
Thus the time taken for the sound to travel from the aircraft to the ground is
If the aircraft travels at 400km/hour (not given in the question), then it would
travel 710m in 6.4 seconds.
Thus the aircraft emerges from ground shadow (1940m - 710m) = 1230m
from the observer.
6
Solutions to problems
relating to sound power,
its use and measurement
Problem 6.1
(a) This is discussed in detail on p246247 in the text.
(b) For a constant power source in the corner of the room, the radiated
power would be concentrated over a one eighth sphere instead of a
sphere and the sound pressure level in the direct field would thus be
increased by 9dB. However, there would be no change in the
reverberant field sound pressure level.
For a constant volume velocity source in the corner of the room, the
radiated power would be increased by a factor of 8 due to there being
3 reflecting surfaces and in addition the power would be
concentrated over a one eighth sphere instead of a sphere and the
direct field sound pressure level would thus be increased by 18dB.
However, the reverberant field sound pressure level would be
increased by only 9dB, corresponding to the power increase.
For a constant pressure source in the corner of the room, the direct
field radiated sound pressure level would be unchanged, but the
reverberant field sound pressure level would be reduced by 9dB,
corresponding to a reduction of 9dB in the radiated power.
(c) A good approximation would be a constant pressure source model
because the noise is originally generated by a fluctuating pressure,
the amplitude of which is controlled by the aerodynamics and not the
acoustics of the problem.
Sound sources and outdoor sound propagation 133
10log
10
W ' 10log
10
p
2
% 10log
10
S & 10log
10
(c)
10log
10
W
W
ref
' 10log
10
p
2

p
2
ref
% 10log
10
S % 10log
10
(400) & 10log
10
(c)
L
w
' L
p
% 10log
10
S
L
w
' L
p
% 10log
10
S ' 85 % 10log
10
(2 2
2
)
' 85 % 14 ' 99dB
Problem 6.2
(a) Sound power level is a measure of the rate of total energy radiated
by an acoustic source while sound pressure level is a measure of the
fluctuating sound pressure at a particular location. Sound power
level is a source property whereas sound pressure level depends on
the measurement location as well as the strength and size of the
source.
(b) Beginning with and taking logs of both sides gives: W ' p
2
S/ c
Dividing both sides by 10
-12
and remembering that the reference
sound power level is 10
-12
W and the reference sound pressure level
is 2 10
-5
Pa, the preceding equation may be written as:
If the quantity c is approximated as 400, then the preceding
equation becomes:
(c) Using the above equation, the sound power level would be:
Assumptions: c = 400 and the sound pressure level measurements
were made in the acoustic far field of the machine.
(d) The desirable quantity is usually sound power level as it indicates the
amount of acoustic energy which will be added to an environment
and allows the increase in sound pressure level to be calculated at
Solutions to problems 134
r > 3/ 2; r > 3R; r > 3R
2
/ 2
any location in the far field of the source as a result of the
introduction of the machine (provided the sound radiation is
omnidirectional or directivity information is also given). Sound
power is also independent of the presence of nearby reflecting
surfaces, provided that these are more that a quarter of a wavelength
from the acoustic centre of the machine or noise source.
On the other hand, the sound pressure level at a specified location is
affected by the presence of reflecting surfaces and also does not
necessarily allow the sound pressure level at other locations to be
calculated. However, if only the noise exposure of the operator of
a machine is of concern, then perhaps it is better to specify sound
pressure level at the operator's location measured in the presence of
specified reflecting surfaces than sound power level as the operator
may not be in the acoustic far field of the source.
Problem 6.3
(a) This is discussed in detail on pages 249-251 in the text.
(b) Assuming that "negligible" is a factor of 10, the frequency would be
given by (see figure 6.1 in the text). ' 10/
and therefore2r/ R ' 10/ (R ) ' 10 343/ (R f )
f ' 10 343/ (2r) ' 3430/ (2 1) . 550Hz
(c) r = R = 1, so = 2 and = 550/343 . 5. From figure 6.1, for the
far field to be dominant, = 15. Thus r = 7.5m is the distance at
which the far field would be dominant.
Problem 6.4
(a) The anechoic room should be sufficiently large that sound pressure
measurements can be made in the far field of the source. Thus the
following criteria should be satisfied (see eq. 6.5, p.250 in text).
The lowest frequency of interest is 44Hz (see table 1.2 on p43 in the
text) and the highest frequency is 11,300Hz.
Sound power use and measurement 135
2 6 (4.5 % 0.75 % 7.8/ 4) by (3.72 % 0.2 % 7.8/ 4) >
by (3.72 % 0.6 % 7.8/ 4) >
' 14.4m 11.7m 6.3m
1.3
3
' 1.3
343
63
3
' 210m
3
W '
p
2
S
c
'
p
2
2r
2
c
frequency
(Hz)
(m) 3/2 3R 3R
2
/2
R = 1.5 R = 0.4 R = 0.6
44
11,300
7.8
0.03
3.72
0.015
4.5, 1.2, 1.8 1.36
349
0.1
24.8
0.22
55.9
The last criterion in the above table for r represents the transition
from the geometric near field to the far field. Thus for high
frequencies it is not practical to take measurements in the far field;
the geometric near field will suffice. As all measurements must be
taken at least /4 from the room walls, the following minimum
interior room dimensions are needed.
As standard measurements use a hemispherical surface, the required
room dimensions are 14.4m 14.4m 7.2m high.
(b) For measurements in octave bands, the required room volume is:
Optimum dimensions are in the ratios 2:3:5. Thus 2x 3x 5x =
210, or x = 1.91m. Thus the required dimensions are 3.8m 5.7m
9.6m.
Problem 6.5
The sound power is related to the average mean square pressure by:
or in terms of sound power level, L
w
:
Solutions to problems 136
L
w
' L
p
% 10log
10
(2r
2
) % 10log
10
400/ c
' 70 % 10log
10
(8) % 10log
10
400/ 413.6
' 83.9dB
W ' 10
&12
10
L
w
/ 10
' 10
&12 % 8.39
' 0.245mW
3/ 2; 3R; and 3R
2
/ 2
p
2
'
(Qkc)
2
(4r)
2
The sound power, W, is thus:
Problem 6.6
(a) r.m.s. acoustic pressure:
p
rms
' 2 10
&5
10
L
p
/ 20
' 2 10
3.3 & 5
' 0.04Pa
(b) Source dimension, R = 0.1m; wavelength, = 1481/250 = 5.92m;
r = 2m.
The distance r must be larger than the following quantities for the
location to be in the far field:
Substituting values for and l into the preceding expressions and
evaluating gives 2.82, 0.3 and 0.008 respectively, so the location is
not in the far field but rather in the transition between the
hydrodynamic near field and the far field.
(c) Intensity:
I '
p
2
rms
c
'
0.04
2
998 1481
' 1.08nano&watts/ m
2
(d) Power, W ' I S ' 1.08 10
&9
2 2
2
' 0.027W
(e) The mean square sound pressure is related to the source volume
velocity, Q, for a spherical source by equation 5.13a in the text as:
Sound power use and measurement 137
d '
2Q
2f 4a
2
' 1.791Q/ f
d '
3.582r p
rms
f
2
d '
3.582 2 0.04
998 250
2
' 4.6 10
&9
m
L
w
' L
p
% 10log
10
V & 10log
10
T
60
% 10log
10
1 %
S
8V
& 13.9dB
In this case, the source is a hemisphere and it is radiating into
hemispherical space. Thus the same result is obtained as for a
spherical source radiating into spherical space. The volume velocity,
Q, is related to the surface displacement, d, by:
Combining the above two equations gives:
Substituting values for the variables gives:
Problem 6.7
Equation 6.13 in the text is:
From problem 6.4 the room size is 3.8m 5.7m 9.6m. The volume, V, is
207.9m
3
and the surface area, S, is 2(3.8 5.7 + 3.8 9.6 + 5.7 9.6) =
225.7m
2
.
Using the above equation, the following table may be constructed.
f L
p
10log
10
T
60
10log
10
(1+S/8V) L
w
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
85
105
100
90
95
98
90
88
9.1
8.8
7.4
6.5
5.4
4.0
3.0
1.8
5.44
2.74
1.37
0.69
0.34
0.17
0.086
0.043
2.4
1.4
0.7
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
87.6
106.9
102.6
93.2
99.1
103.4
96.4
95.5
Overall 110.3
Solutions to problems 138
L
p
(av) ' 10log
10
1
N
j
i
10
L
pi
/ 10
' 86.8dB
L
w
' L
p
% 10log
10
S &
1
&
2
Problem 6.8
Average L
p
= 10 log
10
{(1/5)[10
8.5
+ 10
8.3
+ 10
8.0
+ 10
8.7
+ 10
8.6
]} = 84.8dB
Area of measurement surface = 2(2 4 + 2 3) + 3 4 = 40m
2
.
Thus radiated power, (eq. 6.25 in text). L
w
' L
p
% 10log
10
S &
1
&
2
Ratio of area of measurement surface to machine surface = 40/8 = 5, so

2
= 0.
Assuming that the machine is in a large enclosure,
1
= 0 as well. Thus
L
w
= 84.8 + 10log
10
40 = 100.8dB.
Problem 6.9
The data may be used to construct the following table.
meas-
ured
85 88 86 90 84 85 87 88 89 90 90 88 87 88 89 85
back-
ground
80 82 80 81 80 79 81 79 80 81 83 83 82 80 80 79
machine
only
83.
3
86.7 84.7 89.4 81.8 83.7 85.7 87.4 88.4 89.4 89 86.3 85.3 87 88.4 83.7
The sound power level may be calculated using equation 6.25 in the text
which is:
where S = 40m
2
, and the factory volume V = 20 20 5 = 2000m
2
. Thus V/S
= 50 and from table 6.4, p. 266 in the text,
1
= 2.5dB. Machine surface area
is the area of a cube of dimensions 1m smaller than the test cube. Let the side
of the test cube = x. Then 5x
2
= 40 and x = 2.828m. Thus the machine size
is 0.828m 0.828m 1.828m high (as the machine is resting on the floor).
The machine surface area is then S
m
= 1.828 0.828 4 + 0.828 0.828 =
Sound power use and measurement 139
L
w
' 86.8 % 10log
10
40 & 2.5 ' 100.3dB re 10
&12
W
L
w
' 86.8 % 10log
10
40 & 3 . 100dB re 10
&12
W
4
R
'
(1/ 188) & (1/ 428) [10
2/ 10
]
10
2/ 10
& 1
' 2.763 10
&3
L
w
' L
p2
& 10 log
10
[ S
&1
1
& S
&1
2
] % 10 log
10
[ 10
( L
p1
& L
p2
) / 10
& 1]
& 10log
10
c
400
L
w
' 84 & 10log
10
188
&1
& 428
&1
% 10log
10
10
2/10
& 1 & 10log
10
413.7
400
' 84 %25.25 & 2.33 & 0.15 ' 106.8dB re 10
&12
W
6.7m
2
. Thus S/S
m
= 40/6.7 = 5.9 and from table 6.3, p266 in the text,
2
= 0.
Assuming c = 400:
Problem 6.10
Second surface average = 86.8 - 2 = 84.8dB. Area ratio (surface1 to surface2)
= 40/120 = 0.3333. From figure 6.3 or equation 6.27 in the text,
1
= 2.6dB
and from problem 6.8,
2
= 0. Thus:
Problem 6.11
Machine surface area = 2(8 3 + 4 3) + 8 4 = 104m
2
. Area of test surface
1m from machine = 2(10 4 + 6 4) + 10 6 = 188m
2
= S
1
. Area of test
surface 3m from machine = 2(14 6 + 10 6) + 14 10 = 428m
2
= S
2
. Using
equation 6.22 in the text:
Thus R = 1448 m
2
.
Sound power level, L
w
is calculated using equation 6.24 in the text which is:
Thus:
Solutions to problems 140
L
p2
' 10log
10
1
11
10
8.7
% 10
8.75
% 10
8.6
% 10
8.5
% 10
8.65
% 10
8.8
% 10
8.68
% 10
8.72
% 10
8.6
% 10
8.58
% 10
8.53
' 86.6dB
L
p1
' 10log
10
10
90/ 10
& 10
80/ 10
' 89.5dB
L
p2
' 10log
10
10
86.6/ 10
& 10
80/ 10
' 85.5dB

1
' 89.5 & 85.5 & 10log
10
[ 10
0.4
& 1] % 10log
10
[ 1 & 96/ 280]
' 0.4dB
However, this excludes the near field correction term of equation (6.25) in the
text, which for this case is -1 dB. So if we used equation 6.25 and also applied
the correction due to c not equal to400, the result would be L
w
= 105.8 dB.
Problem 6.12
(a) The average noise level measured on the larger surface is calculated
by logarithmically averaging the given values. Thus:
The background level may be subtracted from the overall averaged
levels as this will give the same result as subtracting it from the
individual levels and then averaging.
Thus the noise level on test surface 1 due only to the machine is:
and the noise on test surface 2 due only to the machine is:
(b) Reverberant field correction,
1
, use equation 6.27 in the text. First
calculate the areas of the test surfaces.
Surface 1, S
1
= 2(6 2.5 2) + 6 6 = 96m
2
.
Surface 2, S
2
= 2(10 4.5 2) + 10 10 = 280m
2
. Thus:
(c) Correction for non-normal sound propagation is
2
. Machine
surface area, S
m
= 2(5 2 2) + 5 5 = 65m
2
.
S
1
/S
m
= 96/65 = 1.48. Thus from table 6.3 in the text,
2
= 1.
Sound power use and measurement 141
L
w
' L
p
% 10log
10
S &
1
&
2
' 89.5 % 10log
10
(96) & 0.4 & 1 ' 107.9dB
L
w
' L
p
% 10log
10
(2r
2
) % 10log
10
400
c
' 75 % 17.5 & 0.1 ' 92.4dB(A)
L
p
' 10log
10
10
85/ 10
& 10
82/ 10
' 82dB(A)
L
w
' 87.4 & 10log
10
3 ' 82.6dB(A)
(d) Sound power level, L
w
is calculated using equation 6.25 in the text
which is:
Problem 6.13
(a) sound power level:
(b) Sound power level of existing machinery is 92.4 + 82 - 87 =
87.4dB(A).
(c) Maximum allowable total reverberant sound pressure level generated
by the three new machines is:
Thus the maximum allowable sound power level is 87.4dB(A).
(d) If all new machines emit the same sound power level and the total
allowed is 87.4dB(A), the upper bound on the level generated by
each machine is:
Problem 6.14
(a) Advantages of sound intensity for sound power measurement:
! reduces errors arising from presence of reflecting surfaces;
! reduces errors from near field effects resulting from measurements
taken close to the source;
! reduces errors caused by background noise generated by sources
other than the one under test;
! Allows good results to be obtained at low frequencies.
Disadvantages of sound intensity for sound power measurement:
Solutions to problems 142
'
W
Sc v
2

! Usually more time consuming;

! instrumentation is more expensive;
! When the radiated sound field is complex, sound intensity
measurements can provide too much data which is time consuming
to analyse and can be confusing.
(b) Advantages of sound intensity for transmission loss measurement:
! reduces errors arising from flanking path transmission;
! only requires a single reverberant room rather than two;
! Allows good results to be obtained at low frequencies.
Disadvantages of sound intensity for transmission loss measurement:
! Usually more time consuming;
! instrumentation is more expensive;
(c) Advantages of sound intensity for localisation and identification of noise
sources:
! more reliable than a directional microphone due to greater spatial
resolution and the ability to measure very close to a source;
! thus contamination from other nearby sources is reduced;
Disadvantages of sound intensity for localisation and identification of
noise sources:
! instrumentation is more expensive;
Problem 6.15
(a) "radiation efficiency" is a measure of the amount of sound power
radiated by a vibrating surface compared to that carried by a plane wave
having the same mean square acoustic velocity (as the vibrating surface)
and equal area. It can be expressed as:
(b) Referring to the above equation, it can be seen that the sound power
radiated by a surface of area S, mean square velocity and radiation v
2

efficiency is:
Sound power use and measurement 143
W ' Sc v
2

L
w
' 10log
10
v
2
% 10log
10
S % 10log
10
% 146 dB re 10
&12
W
To identify possible paths of sound transmission between rooms, the
radiation efficiencies of all walls ceiling and floor can be used together
with their measured mean square velocities and the above equation to
calculate the relative contributions of each surface to the overall sound
power transmitted into the room, thus allowing the flanking paths to be
identified and ranked.
(c) The radiation efficiency of a surface is close to one when the bending
wavelength of bending waves in the surface is less than or equal to the
wavelength of the radiated acoustic waves; that is, at frequencies equal
to or above (and in practice just below, for finite size surfaces) the
critical frequency of the surface. In this case there will always be some
radiation angle at which the bending waves on the surface will match the
trace acoustic wavelength in the surrounding medium with a resulting
strong coupling between the surface vibration field and the radiated
acoustic field.
Problem 6.16
(a) Equation 6.31 in the text is:
The critical frequency,
f
c
' 0.551c
2
/ (c
L
h) ' 0.551 343
2
/(5400 0.003) ' 4001 Hz
10log
10
S = 0.
Ph/S = 4 0.003/1 = 0.012.
Solutions to problems 144
L
p
' L
w
& 10log
10
(2r
2
) % 10log
10
c
400
L
p
' 10log
10
10
4.43
% 10
5.39
% 10
4.81
' 55.3dB re 20Pa
L
pA
' 10log
10
10
(4.43 & 0.86)
% 10
(5.39 & 0.3)
% 10
4.81
' 52.8dB(A)
Thus the following table may be constructed.
Octave band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
f/f
c
10log
10

10log
10
v
2

L
w
(dB re 10
-12
W)
250
500
1000
0.06
0.12
0.24
-19.8
-18.2
-16.0
-54.0
-46.0
-54.0
72.2
81.8
76.0
(b) From figure 5.11 in the text we can see that for , the panel r/ HL ' 10
will appear as a point source and the sound pressure level is given by:
The quantity 10log
10
2r
2
= 28 and 10log
10
(c/400) = 0.1.
Thus the following table can be constructed.
Octave band centre
frequency (Hz)
L
w
(dB re 10
-12
W) L
p
(dB re 20Pa)
250
500
1000
72.2
81.8
76.0
44.3
53.9
48.1
The overall sound pressure level is:
(c) The A-weighted sound pressure level is:
(d) r.m.s. acceleration levels (approximate).
Sound power use and measurement 145
a = 2fv (see following table)
f (Hz) v (mm/s) a (m/s
2
)
250
500
1000
2
5
2
3.1
15.7
12.6
M ' (20 % 25 % 30 % 32) / 177 ' 0.6
7
Solutions to problems relating
to sound in enclosed spaces
Problem 7.1
Direct field
The direct field of a sound source is defined as that part of the sound field
which has not suffered any reflection from any room surfaces or obstacles.
Reverberant field
The reverberant field of a source is defined as that part of the sound field
radiated by a source which has experienced at least one reflection from a
boundary of the room or enclosure containing the source.
Problem 7.2
250Hz octave band, bandwidth from table 1.2 on p43 in the text is
353 - 176 = 177Hz. Thus the modal overlap, M, is (from equation 7.24 in the
text) given by:
Problem 7.3
(a) If n
z
= 0, the pressure distribution in the room is uniform and the
monopole source will excite the mode. For n
z
= 1 and n
z
= 3, there will
be a node at L
z
/2 and the monopole will not excite the mode. For n
z
= 2,
there will be an antinode at L
z
/2 and the mode will be excited by a
monopole source.
(b) A dipole will be ineffective at exciting the n
z
= 0 and n
z
= 2 modes
Sound in enclosed spaces 147
f
1,1,1
'
343
2
1
10
2
%
1
5
2
%
1
2
2
' 93.9Hz
because the phase of each part of the dipole is opposite to the other and
the modal response is not. On the other hand, one would expect good
excitation of the n
z
= 3 mode because the phase on one side of a node is
180E different to that on the other side and this can be matched by the
dipole.
(c) At a rigid wall, the particle velocity is zero. The required derivation is
described on pages 278 and 279 in the text.
(d) The required shape is shown in the figure below where the nodes are
represented by lines and the relative phases of acoustic pressure are
shown by plus and minus signs.
Using equation 7.17 in the text:
Problem 7.4
(a) Cut-on frequency is the frequency at which the wavenumber, becomes
real and the mode begins to propagate down the duct without decaying
in amplitude (assuming a rigid, hard walled duct).
(b) From the equation given in the problem, for a single mode the acoustic
Solutions to problems 148

3,2
' (/ c)
2
& [ 45
2
/ L
2
z
]
' c[ 45/ L
z
]

3,2
' [5
2
/ L
2
z
] & [ 45
2
/ L
2
z
] ' j 40/ L
z
'
c
1 & 45
2
c
2
/ (
2
L
2
z
)
'
c
1 & const /
2
c
32
f
c
f
co
pressure amplitude is given by . Thus the dB decay per p ' p
0
e
&j
mn
x
unit distance is:
, where is the sound pressure ' 20log
10
p
0
p
1
' 20 0.4343 j
mn
p
1
amplitude at 1m. For m = 3, n = 2, and L
y
= L
z
/3:
Cut-on frequency is thus given by:
Thus at 1/3 of the cut-on frequency,
3,2
is given by:
Thus = 172/L
z
(dB/m).
(c) Phase speed, c
3,2
= /
3,2
=

(
2
/ c
2
) & 45
2
/ L
2
z
Sound in enclosed spaces 149
f '
c
2
1
6.2
'
343
2

1
6.2
' 27.7Hz
'
p
2

c
2
p
2
max
' ( 2 10
&5
)
2
10
80/ 10
' 0.04Pa
2
p
2
' 0.04 cos
2
x
L
The variation of c
3,2
as a function of frequency is shown in the figure.
Near the mode cut-on frequency it can be seen that the phase speed
approaches infinity and at high frequencies it approaches the speed of
sound in free space.
Problem 7.5
(a) Room dimensions are 4.6m 6.2m 3.5m. The lowest resonance
frequency is the axial mode corresponding to the longest room
dimension. Thus:
(b) Pressure distribution follows a half cosine wave in the 6.2m direction as
shown in the figure and calculated from equation 7.19 in the text. The
pressure is uniform across a given cross section defined by the 4.6m
3.5m dimensions. Energy density is given by equation 7.32 in the text as:
The sound pressure level in a room corner is 80dB and this corresponds
to the maximum sound pressure. Thus:
The sound pressure at any other location is (from equation 7.19 in the
text):
Thus the energy in the room is given by:
Solutions to problems 150
E '
m
V
dV ' 4.6 3.5
m
L
0
p
2

c
2
dL
'
4.6 3.5 0.04
1.206 343
2
m
L
0
cos
2
x
L
dx
' 4.54 10
&6
x
2
%
Lsin(2x/ L)
4
L
0
dE
E
' &
Sc
V
dt
m
E
E
0
dE
E
' &
m
t
0
Sc
V
dt
log
e
E & log
e
E
0
' &
Sct
V
E ' E
0
e
&Sc t / V
p
2
' p
2
0
e
&Sc t / V
L
p
&L
p0
' 4.343ctS/ V ' 4.343ct / L
Substituting L = 6.2 gives E = 1.4 10
-5
Joules.
(c) The analysis procedure used on p290 and 291 in the text may be used
here. Alternatively, we may start with the given equation and write:
Integrating gives:
which gives:
or
As E % +p
2
,, we can write:
Thus:
Sound in enclosed spaces 151
60 ' 4.343c T
60
/ L
'
60
4.343

L
cT
60
'
60
4.343

6.2
343 T
60
'
0.250
T
60
p
2

4c
' I
W
a
'
2 0.04
4 1.206 343
0.05 16.1 ' 38.9W
W
a
'
dE
dt
'
ESc
V
'
1.407 10
&5
343 0.05
6.2
' 38.9W
f '
343
2

0.5861
5.5
' 18.3Hz
and
Therefore:
(d) T
60
= 5 seconds, so = 0.25/5 = 0.05.
Power consumption, . and S
w
= 4.6 3.5 = 16.1 m
2
. The W
a
' 2IS
w
quantity, I, is the sound intensity in the direction of one wall. As shown
on p287 in the text, the effective intensity, I, in one direction is related to
the acoustic pressure in a diffuse field by:
Substituting 0.04Pa
2
for the maximum mean square pressure and the
above equation into the equation for W
a
gives for the absorbed power:
Alternatively, the expression given in part (c) may be used to give:
Problem 7.6
(a) Substituting L = 2.7, c = 343, a = 5.5 and the values of the characteristic
function given in the problem table into the equation for f given in the
problem gives for the lowest order resonance frequency (n = 0, m = 1 and
n
z
= 0) gives:
Solutions to problems 152
f
1,1,1
'
343
2
1
2.7
2
%
1.697
5.5
2
' 82.7Hz
(b) The lowest order mode pressure distribution
is shown in the figure at right, where the
nodal plane which runs the full length of
the cylinder is indicated. The sound field is
in opposite phase from one side of the
nodal line to the other. The sound pressure
will be at a maximum along two axial lines
at the surface of the cylinder furthest from
the nodal plane.
(c) The air particles are oscillating with a
velocity in-quadrature with the local
acoustic pressure as the mode is characterised by a standing wave
generated by the interference of two acoustic waves travelling in opposite
directions across the nodal plane.
(d) This problem may be answered by inspection of the given table and
equation. The modes are listed in the table below in order of ascending
frequency, column 1 followed by column 2 etc.
1,0
2,0
0,1
3,0
4,0
1,1
5,0
2,1
0,2
6,0
3,1
1,2
7,0
4,1
2,2
0,3
5,1
3,2
1,3
6,1
4,2
2,3
7,1
0,4
5,2
3,3
1,4
6,2
4,3
2,4
7,2
5,3
3,4
6,3
4,4
7,3
5,4
6,4
7,4
(e) f = 343/(2 2.7) = 63.5Hz.
(f) Axial modes have 2 zeroes in the subscripts n
z
, n, and m. Tangential
modes have one zero and oblique modes have none. These criteria can
be used to list any number of axial, tangential and oblique modes.
The resonance frequency of the first oblique mode is:
Modes with resonances below this with n
z
= 1 are found from the table
in the problem as those with less than the value of corresponding to
Sound in enclosed spaces 153
< 82.7 2 5.5/ 343 ' 2.651
area of circular region
area of square region
'
r
2
4r
2
'

4
r
n = 1 and m = 1. For n
z
= 0, the value of must be below that given by:
The modes with resonance frequencies below the (1,1,1) mode are listed
below in the form (n
z
, m, n).
1,0,0
1,1,0
1,2,0
1,3,0
1,4,0
1,0,1
0,1,0
0,2,0
0,3,0
0,4,0
0,5,0
0,6,0
0,0,1
0,1,1
0,2,1
0,3,1
0,0,2
That is, there are 17 modes with resonance frequencies below that of the
first oblique mode. Of these, 9 are axial and 8 are tangential modes.
Problem 7.7
(a) A 2-D space would be one where the
dimensions in 2 directions were very much
larger than in the third direction. An
example would be a large factory with a
low ceiling in the frequency range below
the first floor/ceiling axial resonance
frequency.
Following the procedure for a 3-D space
described on p285-287 in the text, a 2-D
square region enclosing a circle is considered as shown in the figure.
Time for sound to travel through the circular region (length of
encompassing square) = 2r/c. Energy in the square region of length 2r
(and unit thickness) as a result of a wave travelling normally to any of the
sides is , where I is the incident wave intensity. The energy per unit I
2r
c
perimeter in the circular region as a result of an incident wave 2r wide is:
Solutions to problems 154
E '

4
I
2r
c
E '
m
2r
E dx '
m
2
0
Er d '

2
Ir
2
c
m
2
0
d '
I r
2

2
c
'
E
S
'
I r
2

2
cr
2
'
I
c
I '
c

'
I
c
'
p
2

c
2
'
I
c
'
p
2

c
2
I '
p
2

c
1
1
A
The total energy in the circular region due to waves from all directions
is found by integrating the preceding expression over the perimeter of the
circle. Thus:
Energy density, , is given by:
Thus:
Consider a plane wave travelling unit distance. The
energy in unit area is the intensity multiplied by the
time it is present which is, E = I/c. The energy is
also equal to the energy density multiplied by unit
area. Thus = E. Thus for a plane wave:
Equation 7.32 in the text also gives the relation between sound pressure
and energy density. Thus for a diffuse 2-D field:
Rearranging gives:
(b) An example of a 1-D field would be the inside of a rigid tube closed at
both ends at frequencies below the first higher order mode cut-on
Sound in enclosed spaces 155
I '
p
2

2c
W
a
' I P '
c

P
W ' S
M
Mt
' W
0
&
c

P
X ' [ W
0
/ Pc ] &
dX
dt
' &
M
Mt
' &
1
S
W
0
&
c

P
1
X
'
P c

W
0
&
c

P
&1
L
1
A
frequency. Assuming unit cross-sectional area and
a wave travelling from left to right over a distance
of L. The time for a wave to travel a distance, L, is
L/c. The energy in the wave travelling from left to
right is IL/c. The total energy (due to left and right
travelling waves) is thus 2IL/c. The total energy in
the volume is also L. Thus, I = c/2 and =
2I/c. Using this relation and equation 7.32 in the text gives for a 1-D
field:
(c) Let S = area of 2-D room of
unit height as shown in the
figure. Rate of energy
absorbed, W
a
, around the
perimeter, of length P and
absorption coefficient is given by:
Rate of change of energy in the reverberant field = rate of supply, W
0
-
rate absorbed, W
a
. Thus:
Introducing the dummy variable:
into the preceding equation, we may write:
and
Solutions to problems 156
1
X
dX
dt
' &
P c
S
m
X
X
0
dX
X
'
m
t
0
&
Pc
S
log
e
X & log
e
X
0
' &
P ct
S
X ' X
0
e
&P ct / S
'
0
e
&P ct / S
p
2
' p
2
0
e
&P ct / S
W
a
' 2I ' 2
c
2

L
Thus:
Integrating gives:
Thus:
and
For a decaying sound field, W
0
= 0 at t = 0. Using the preceding
equation, X = X
0
when t = 0. Also the definition of the dummy variable,
X, above can be used to show that when W
0
= 0, X = X
0
= -
0
. The same
equation may be used to show that as W
0
= 0, then at any time t, X = -.
From the preceding discussion and the equation above we may write:
We know that % +p
2
,. Thus:
(d) Let L be the length of the 1-D tube of unit
cross sectional area.
Rate of energy absorbed, W
a
, at the ends
of the tube of length L and absorption
coefficient is given by:
Rate of change of energy in the reverberant field = rate of supply, W
0
-
Sound in enclosed spaces 157
W ' L
M
Mt
' W
0
& c
X ' [ W
0
/ c] &
dX
dt
' &
M
Mt
' &
1
L
W
0
& c
1
X
' c W
0
& c
&1
1
X
dX
dt
' &
c
L
m
X
X
0
dX
X
'
m
t
0
&
c
L
log
e
X & log
e
X
0
' &
ct
L
X ' X
0
e
& ct / L
rate absorbed, W
a
. Thus:
Introducing the dummy variable:
into the preceding equation, we may write:
and
Thus:
Integrating gives:
Thus:
and
For a decaying sound field, W
0
= 0 at t = 0. Using the preceding
equation, X = X
0
when t = 0. Also the definition of the dummy variable,
X, above can be used to show that when W
0
= 0, X = X
0
= -
0
. The same
equation may be used to show that as W
0
= 0, then at any time t, X = -.
From the preceding discussion and the equation above we may write:
Solutions to problems 158
'
0
e
& ct / L
p
2
' p
2
0
e
& ct / L
c
x
' ccos and c
y
' csin
N
r
'
ccos
L
x
%
csin
L
y
N
av
'
1
/ 2
m
/ 2
0
N
r
d '
2c

m
/ 2
0
cos
L
x
%
sin
L
y
'
2c

sin
L
x
&
cos
L
y
/ 2
0
'
2c

1
L
x
%
1
L
y
0
L
y
L
x
y
x
We know that % +p
2
,. Thus:
(e) Mean free path, 2-D space. Sound propagation in any direction in the 2-
D plane is equally likely (see figure). Due to symmetry, we need to
consider only one of the 4 quadrants and find an average path length
between reflections for sound propagating in these directions.
Consider a sound
wave propagating
with speed c, in an
angular direction of
from the x-axis as
shown in the figure.
Resolving into x and
y components, we
have:
The number of reflections per unit time for a wave travelling in the
direction is given by:
Averaging over all directions in one quadrant (the average for the other
three quadrants would be the same) we find that the average number of
reflections per unit time is:
Sound in enclosed spaces 159
'

2
L
x
L
y
L
x
% L
y
'
S
P
L
w
' L
p
% 10log
10
V & 10log
10
T
60
% 10log
10
(1 % S/8V) & 13.9
' 95%10log
10
(105) &10log
10
(2.5) %10log
10
1%
142 0.686
8 105
&13.9
' 95 % 20.2 & 4.0 % 0.5 & 13.9 ' 97.8dB re 10
&12
W
'
acoustic power
electrical power
'
10
&12
10
97.8/ 10
10
' 6 10
&4
' 0.06%
c sinu
c cosu
u
But N
av
= c/, where is the mean free path. Thus:
For a 1-D space (see figure),
the mean free path, which is
t he di st ance bet ween
reflections is equal to L, the
length of the space.
Problem 7.8
(a) Room size = 7m 5m 3m. Volume = 105m
3
, surface area = 2(7 5 +
7 3 + 5 3) = 142m
2
. Wavelength of sound, = 343/500 = 0.686m.
The sound power in the reverberation room is related to the sound
pressure level by equation 6.13 in the text. Thus:
Alternatively, we could assume that the correction term, (1 + S/8V) is
already included in L
p
. In this case, L
w
= 97.8 - 0.5 = 97.3dB.
Power conversion efficiency is given by:
(b) Fire box dimensions are: 10 12 20m.
Axial resonances - first mode in each direction given by:
Solutions to problems 160
f '
c
2L
'
864
2 10
,
864
2 12
,
864
2 20
' 43.2Hz, 36Hz, 21.6Hz
p ' 2p
rms
' 2 2 10
&5
10
155/ 20
' 1.59kPa
I '
p
2
i
c
'
( 1.125 10
3
)
2
( 1 % 1 & )
2
c
(i) As the frequency of instability is 36Hz, it seems likely that it is
associated with the axial mode across the width in the 12m direction.
(ii) The acoustic pressure will be largest at the two side walls normal to
the 12m dimension, because on reflection the pressure amplitude is
doubled.
(iii) Amplitude of cyclic force acting on walls.
Acoustic pressure is 155dB. Amplitude is then:
Side wall area = 10 20 = 200m
2
.
Force on each wall = 1.59 200 = 318kN.
(iv) Power absorbed by 2 side walls.
Pressure at wall is the sum of the incident and reflected pressures.
Thus, . However, . (p
i
% p
r
)
rms
' 1.125 10
3
p
r
' ( 1 & ) p
i
So, [ 1 % ( 1 & ) ] p
i
' 1.125 10
3
The absorbed power is controlled by the incident sound intensity
which is:
The absorbed power is , where A
w
= area of one wall. W
a
' 2I A
w
For a 1-D sound field, . Thus: p
2
' p
2
0
e
&ct / L
L
p0
& L
p
' 4.343ct / L
and . But T
60
'
( 60/ 4.343) L
c
Sound in enclosed spaces 161
T
60
'
2.2Q
f
n
'
2.2 30
36
' 1.833secs
'
( 60/ 4.343) 12
864 1.833
' 0.105
W
a
'
2 0.1047 ( 1.1246 10
3
)
2
200
(1 % 1 & 0.1047)
2
1.16 864
' 14kW
'
13953
800 10
3
' 1.7%
L
p0
& L
p
' 4.343ct / L
60 ' 4.343 343 0.05 T
60
/ 5
L
p0
& L
p
' 4.343P ct / (S)
60 ' 4.343 20 0.25 343 T
60
/ ( 25)
Thus:
The absorbed power is then:
(v) Power conversion efficiency is:
Problem 7.9
(a) Taking logs of the equation given in the problem for a 1-D field, we
have:
Thus:
which gives, T
60
= 4.0 seconds.
(b) Again taking logs of the equation given in the problem gives:
P = 4 5 = 20m and S = 5 5 = 25m
2
. Thus:
which gives, T
60
= 0.63 seconds.
(c) S = 2(5 5 + 5 5 + 5 5) = 150m
2
Solutions to problems 162
60 ' 1.086 150 343 0.1833 T
60
/ 125
W ' IA '
p
2

4c
A '
1.265
4 413
30 ' 0.023 W ' 103.6 dB re 10
&12
W
V = 5 5 5 = 125m
3
'
50 0.05 % 100 0.25
150
' 0.183
Using equation 7.50 in the text, we obtain:
which gives, T
60
= 0.73 seconds.
Problem 7.10
In a reverberant field the sound intensity in any particular direction is equal
to that in any other direction resulting in a net active intensity (averaged over
all directions) of zero and a large reactive intensity. Thus in the situation
under consideration here, the active intensity will only be contributed to by the
direct field of the source and the reactive intensity field will dominate the
active field by a large amount, especially at large distances from the source.
Due to the dominance by the reactive field together with limitations on the
phase accuracy between the two microphones of any measurement system,
accurate measurements of the active field will not be generally feasible in a
reverberant room.
Problem 7.11
(a) Energy density in a reverberant field is and the given SPL is 95 p
2
/ c
2
dB.
Thus, and the energy density is p
2
' (2 10
&5
)
2
10
9.5
' 1.265 Pa
2
then: Energy density = 1.265/(413 343) = 8.9 10
-6
J/m
3
(b) Sound power incident on a wall is given by:
Sound in enclosed spaces 163
T
60
'
55.25 400
343 360 0.1
' 1.8seconds
W '
360 0.1 4 10
&4
4 1.206 343 (1 & 0.1)
' 9.67W
I '
4 10
&4
4 1.206 343
' 2.42 10
&7
W/ m
2
r '
S
8( 1 & )
1/2
'
36
8 0.9
1/2
' 1.26m
Problem 7.12
(a) Room 10m 10m 4m, S = 2(10 10 + 10 4 2) = 360m
2
,
V = 10 10 4 = 400m
3
. Using equation 7.51 in the text for
reverberation time, we may write:
(b) L
p
= 60dB corresponds to +p
2
, = 4 10
-10
10
60/10
= 4 10
-4
Pa
2
. Using
equation 7.41 in the text we obtain:
Sound power level, L
w
= 10log
10
(9.67 10
-6
) + 120 = 69.9dB re 10
-12
W.
(c) Using equation 7.33 in the text:

(d) From equations 7.40 to 7.42 in the text, the reverberant field level is
equal to the direct field level when D

/(4r
2
) = 4/R = . 4( 1 & )/( S)
Assuming the acoustic centre of the source is within a quarter wavelength
from the hard floor, D

= 2 and the distance, r, at which the fields are

equal is:
Problem 7.13
(a) Room 3.05m 6.1m 15.24m,
S = 2(3.05 6.1 + 3.05 15.24 + 6.1 15.24) = 316.1m
2
,
V = 3.05 6.10 15.24 = 283.54m
3
. Using equation 7.51 in the text for
reverberation time, we may write:
Solutions to problems 164
'
55.25V
ScT
60
'
55.25 283.54
316.1 343 2
' 0.072
L
w
' L
p
% 10log
10
4(1 & )
S
% 10log
10
c
400
' 74 & 10log
10
4 0.928
316.1 0.072
& 0.15 ' 81.7dB re 10
&12
W
316.1 ' 246.1 & 246.1
T
60
'
55.25V
Sc
'
55.25 283.54
316.1 343 0.438
' 0.33seconds
c '
RT
M
'
1.4 8.314 1473
0.035
' 700 m/ s
Using equation 7.42, the sound power output may be written as:
(b) To lower the reverberant field by 10dB, we need to increase R by a factor
of 10. Old = 24.61m
2
, thus required new = S/ (1 & ) S/ (1 & )
246.1m
2
. Thus in the new situation, expanding the above equation gives:
which results in a new required value of = 0.438. The old value of
is 0.0722, so the increase in absorption needed is:
= 316.1(0.438 - 0.0722) = 115.5m
2
. S
(c) Using the value of = 0.438 obtained above and equation 7.51 in the
text, we obtain:
Problem 7.14
(a) Sound power level = 10 log
10
W + 120
= 10 log
10
3.1 + 120 = 124.9 dB re 10
-12
W
(b)
Sound in enclosed spaces 165
R
b
'
S
(1 & )
'
400 0.08
0.92
' 34.78m
2

n
'
100 0.08 % 300 0.5
400
' 0.395
L
p
' L
w
% 10log
10
4(1 & )
S
%10log
10
c
400
' 124.9 % 10log
10
4 0.95
100 0.05
% 10log
10
700 0.29
400
' 120.8 dB
'
P
c
2
'
1.4 101.4 10
3
700
2
' 0.29 kg/ m
3
Surface area, S = dL + d
2
/2 = 4 6 + 16/2 = 32 = 100 m
2
Problem 7.15
L
p
' 10log
10
( 10
9.5
% 10
9.7
% 10
9.9
) ' 102.1 dB(A)
L
p
' L
w
% 10log
10
Q
4r
2
%
4(1 & )
S
Thus, 102.1 & 110 ' 10log
10
2
4r
2
%
3.64
320 0.09
and, 10
&7.9/ 10
&
3.64
320 0.09
'
1
6.28r
2
Thus, r '
1
6.28 0.0358
' 2.1 m
Problem 7.16
Room 10m 10m 5m, S = 2(10 10 + 10 5 2) = 400m
2
,
V = 10 10 5 = 500m
3
. The room constant before treatment is
Adding sound absorbing treatment to the walls and ceiling results in a new
mean absorption coefficient calculated as follows:
Solutions to problems 166
R
n
'
S
(1 & )
'
400 0.395
0.605
' 261.2m
2
L
p
' 10log
10
D

4r
2
%
4
R
old
& 10log
10
D

4r
2
%
4
R
new
' 10log
10
2
43
2
%
4
34.78
& 10log
10
2
43
2
%
4
261.2
' 6.0dB
'
48 0.15 % 132 0.05
180
' 0.0767
p
2
R
'
4 25 10
&3
1.206 343 (1 & 0.0767)
180 0.0767
' 2.766 Pa
2
L
pR
' 10log
10
(2.766) % 94 ' 98.4dB
Thus the new room constant after treatment is:
Using equation 7.42 in the text allows the difference in sound pressure level
(assuming that the sound power is constant) to be calculated as follows
(assuming the acoustic centre of the machine is within a quarter wavelength
of the hard floor):
Problem 7.17
(a) Room 8m 6m 3m, S = 2(8 6 + 8 3 + 6 3) = 180m
2
.
The mean Sabine absorption coefficient may be calculated using equation
7.78 in the text to give:
Using equation 7.41, we can write:

The reverberant field sound pressure level is then:
(b) Direct and reverberant fields equal (see equation 7.42 in the text) when
Sound in enclosed spaces 167
r '
S
16(1 & )
1/2
'
180 0.0767
16 (1 & 0.0767)
1/2
' 0.55m
10log
10
p
2
' 10log
10
Wc
a
2
& 8
L
p(reverb)
' L
w
% 10log
10
c
400
& 10log
10
( a
2
) & 8
' 130 % 0.14 & 18.95 & 8 ' 103.2 dB
L
p(direct)
' L
w
% 10log
10
c
400
& 10log
10
( 4r
2
)
' 130 % 0.14 & 24.97 ' 105.2 dB
. Assuming that the acoustic centre of the source is well D

/ 4r
2
' 4/ R
above the floor, D

= 1 and the distance, r, at which the two fields are

equal is:
Problem 7.18
(a) This is a flat room as on pages 314-319 in the text. Pressure reflection
coefficient amplitude = 0.7, = 0.7
2
and ' 1 & 0.7
2
' 0.51
Room height, a = 5 m and distance r = 5 m. Thus r/a = 1. From the
figure, the reverberant field sound pressure is given by:
Thus the reverberant field sound pressure level is:
The direct field sound pressure level is:
(b) Sabine room, area, and volume, S ' 2[10 10 % 10 5 2] ' 400 m
2
V ' 10 10 5 ' 500 m
2
The total sound pressure level (direct plus reverberant) in the room is:
Solutions to problems 168
L
p
' L
w
% 10log
10
Q
4r
2
%
4(1 & )
S
% 0.15
C ' 10log
10
0.3 %
S
E
( 1 & )
S
i

' 10log
10
0.3 %
300 0.49
400 0.51
' 0.1 dB
L
p
' 87.4 & 24.9 ' 62.5 dB
L
p
' L
w
% 10log
10
D
4r
2
%
4( 1 & )
S
' 130 % 10log
10
1
4 25
%
4 0.49
400 0.51
' 111 dB
r '
DS
4 4( 1 & )
'
400 0.51
16 0.49
' 2.9 m
T
60
'
55.25V
Sc
'
55.25 500
400 343 0.51
' 0.39 seconds
L
p
' L
w
% 0.14 & 10log
10
2r
2
' 130 % 0.14 & 42.8 ' 87.4 dB
(c) Direct and reverberant fields equal when . D/ 4r
2
' 4(1 & ) / S
Thus:
(d)
(e) Treat the room like an enclosure. Thus, the sound level at the receiver
without the enclosure at a distance of 50 + 5 m is:
The enclosure noise reduction is given by NR = TL - C, where
Thus the noise reduction = 24.9 dB and the SPL at 50 m is:
Problem 7.19
Q = 2, r = 1, = 0.08, L
w
= 95dB, S = 400. Thus:
Sound in enclosed spaces 169
L
p
' 95 % 10log
10
2
4
%
4(1&0.08)
400 0.08
% 0.15 ' 89.5dB
L
w
' L
p
% 20log
10
r % 10log
10
(4) & 3 % 10log
10
400
c
' 80 % 9.54 % 11.00 & 3.01 & 0.15 ' 97.4dB
L
p
' L
w
% 10log
10
(4/ R) % 0.15
10log
10
R ' 97.38 & 85 % 0.15 % 6.02 ' 18.55
328
(1 & )
' 71.62
Problem 7.20
(a) Reference source on hard asphalt (DI = 3), L
p
= 80dB at 3m. Sound
power level is:
(b) Assuming a negligible direct field, the room constant may be calculated
using equation 7.42 in the text (with a 0.15dB correction for c different
from 400). Thus:
Substituting in values for the parameters gives:
Thus, R = 71.6.
(c) Room 14m 6m 4m, S = 2(14 6 + 14 4 + 6 4) = 328m
2
.
Using equation 7.43 in the text gives:
Thus, = 0.18.
(d) Existing L
p
= 75dB and the allowable total = 80dB. Thus the allowable
contribution from the three new line printers is
. The allowable contribution from each 10log
10
(10
8
& 10
7.5
) ' 78.3dB
line printer is then . The allowable sound 10log
10
10
7.83
3
' 73.5dB
power level is the obtained using equation 7.42 in the text (using only the
reverberant field part) as follows:
Solutions to problems 170
L
w
' 73.6 & 10log
10
4
71.6
& 0.15 ' 86.0dB
R '
328 0.261
(1 & 0.261)
' 116m
2
L
p
' 10log
10
116
71.6
' 2.1dB
L
w
' 74.29 & 10log
10
4
116
& 0.15 ' 88.8dB
(e) Area of ceiling = 14 6 = 84m
2
, corresponding = 0.5.
Area of floor and walls = 328 - 84 = 244m
2
,
corresponding = 0.179.
Average . Thus: '
0.5 84 % 0.179 244
328
' 0.261
Using equation 7.120 in the text, the reduction in sound pressure level is
thus:
Thus the level in the room before addition of the new printers will now
be 75 - 2.1 = 72.9dB. The allowable sound pressure level of the three
new line printers together is now . The 10log
10
(10
8
& 10
7.29
) ' 79.1dB
allowable contribution from each line printer is then
. The allowable sound power level is the 10log
10
10
7.91
3
' 74.3dB
obtained using equation 7.42 in the text (using only the reverberant field
part) as follows:
Problem 7.21
(a) Considering only the reverberant field of the machine we may use
equation 7.41 in the text. The surface area of the factory is
S = 2(10 10 3) = 600m
2
. An L
p
of 83dB corresponds to a +p
2
, of
. Using equation 7.41, the required 4 10
&10
10
83/ 10
' 7.98 10
&2
Pa
2
mean absorption coefficient is given by:
Sound in enclosed spaces 171

(1 & )
'
4 0.01 1.206 343
7.981 10
&2
600
' 0.346
600 0.257 ' 100 0.01 % 500x
90 ' 100 % 10log
10
2
4r
2
%
4
208
Thus . However this would be the required absorption ' 0.257
coefficient if the floor were lined as well. If we assume that the concrete
floor has an absorption coefficient of 0.01, and we let the required
absorption coefficient of the walls and ceiling be x, then we can use
equation 7.78 in the text to write:
which gives x = 0.306. Thus the required absorption coefficient for the
walls and ceiling is 0.31.
(b) The room constant, R, is from part (a) 0.346 600 = 208m
2
.
The sound power level, L
w
= 10log
10
(0.01) + 120 = 100dB.
For a total L
p
of 90dB we may write (assuming a directivity factor, D

=
2 as the source is assumed close to a hard floor and other surfaces are
more absorptive):
Solving the above gives r = 1.40m as the radius around the machine
within which the sound pressure level will exceed 90dB.
Problem 7.22
(a) From Table 4.10 in the text, the allowable community noise level to
ensure minimal risk of complaints is 40 + 15 - 10 = 45dB(A). If the only
noise is in the 500Hz octave band then the -3.2dB A-weighting at this
frequency, results in an allowable level of 48.2dB in that band. The
existing level is 44dB so the allowed increase is 4.2dB. A reverberant
field sound pressure level corresponds to a sound power level (see
equation 7.42 in the text) of:
Solutions to problems 172
L
w
' 88 & 10log
10
4(1 & )
S
& 0.15 dB
'
55.25 2500
343 2.1 1450
' 0.132
L
w
' 88 & 10log
10
4(1 & 0.132)
1450 0.132
& 0.15 ' 105.3dB
L
w
' 10log
10
10
109.5/ 10
& 10
105.3/ 10
' 107.4dB
S ' 500 0.5 % 950 0.132 ' 375.4m
2
Room 25m 20m 5m,
S = 2(25 20 + 25 5 + 20 5) = 1450m
2
.
V = 25 20 5 = 2500m
3
T
60
= 2.1 secs. From equation 7.51 in the text:
Thus:
This is the sound power level of the existing equipment. Thus the
allowable total sound power of existing + new equipment is 105.3 + 4.2
= 109.5dB. Thus the allowed power level for the new equipment is:
As there are 5 new machines, the allowed power level for each is
L
w
= 107.4 - 10log
10
(5) = 100.4dB
Assumptions
! Only absorption is due to floor, walls and ceiling
! Air temperature of 20EC.
! The relative contribution of direct and reverberant sound energy to
the community noise levels will be the same for the new machines
as for the old machines.
(b) If ceiling tile with = 0.5 were added then the new is: S
corresponding to = 0.259
Old R = and (1450 0.132) / (1 & 0.132) ' 220.5m
2
new R = . (1450 0.259) / (1 & 0.259) ' 506.8m
2
Thus the allowed increase in sound power level for the same reverberant
Sound in enclosed spaces 173
L
w
' 10log
10
(506.8) & 10log
10
(220.5) ' 3.6dB
W
a
' cS / 4 ' 0.282 343 0.144 0.1/ 4 ' 0.35W
L
p
' L
w
% 10log
10
4(1 & )
S
%10log
10
c
400
L
p
' 84 % 10log
10
4 0.85
216 0.15
% 0.15 ' 74.4dB
D

4r
2
'
1
4 1.5
2
' 0.035
field sound pressure level is:
Assuming that the reverberant field dominates the direct field, the new
allowed power level of each machine is 100.4 + 3.6 = 104dB.
Problem 7.23
(a) Energy density, = p
2
/ c
2
Thus = (2 10
&5
)
2
10
140/ 10
/ (1.205 343
2
) ' 0.28J / m
3
(b) Enclosure surface area,
S = 2(0.2 0.15 + 0.2 0.12 + 0.15 0.12) = 0.144m
2
.
Power flow into walls (equation 7.39a) is given by
(c) The power generated is equal to the power absorbed by the walls. Thus
the power required to drive the source is 0.348/0.2 = 1.7W.
Problem 7.24
(a) Reverberant field L
p
from taking logs of equation 7.41 in the text.
S = 2(10 6 + 10 3 + 6 3) = 216m
2
, = 0.15, so:
(b) Compare As the acoustic centre of the source is
D

4r
2
with
4(1 & )
S
well above the hard floor, D

= 1; so:
Solutions to problems 174
4(1 & )
S
'
4 0.85
216 0.15
' 0.105
L
p
' 84 % 10log
10
0.0354 %
4 0.85
216 0.15
% 0.15 ' 75.6dB(A)
L
p
' 84 % 10log
10
0.0354 %
4 0.5
216 0.5
% 0.15 ' 71.5dB(A)
r '
216 0.15
4 4 0.85
' 0.87m
L
p
' 90.2 % 10log
10
4 0.85
216 0.15
% 0.15 ' 80.6dB(A)
L
p
' 80.6 ' 84 & 10log
10
(4r
2
) % 0.15
Thus the reverberant field dominates.
(c) Using equation 7.42 in the text (and allowing for c not equal to 400) the
sound pressure level corresponding to = 0.15 is:
and the sound pressure level corresponding to = 0.5 is:
This corresponds to a reduction of 4.1dB.
(d) From equation 7.42 in the text, when each machine is running separately,
the fields are equal when . Thus for each machine:
D

4r
2
'
4(1 & )
S
When the machines are running together, the reverberant field
contribution will be the sum of the two reverberant fields originating
from each machine. The total sound power output is
. The reverberant field sound pressure 10log
10
10
8.9
% 10
8.4
' 90.2dB
level is then:
Thus the required distance is that at which the direct field L
p
is equal to
80.6dB(A). For the original machine:

Sound in enclosed spaces 175
r '
216 0.5
4 4 0.5
' 2.07m
L
p
' 90.2 % 10log
10
4 0.5
216 0.5
% 0.15 ' 73.0dB(A)
L
p
' 73.0 ' 84 & 10log
10
(4r
2
) % 0.15
L
p
' 73.0 ' 89 & 10log
10
(4r
2
) % 0.15
Thus r = 0.42m (distance from original machine at which original
machine direct field = reverberant field with both machines running).
For the new machine,
L
p
' 80.6 ' 89 & 10log
10
(4r
2
) % 0.15
Thus r = 0.75m (distance from new machine at which new machine direct
field = reverberant field with both machines running).
(e) Increase to 0.5. From equation 7.42 in the text, when each machine is
running separately, the fields are equal when
. Thus for each machine,
D

4r
2
'
4(1 & )
S
The reverberant field sound pressure level when both machines are
running is,
Thus the required distance is that at which the direct field L
p
is equal to
73.0dB(A). For the original machine,
Thus r = 1.02m (distance from original machine at which original
machine direct field = reverberant field with both machines running).
For the new machine,
Thus r = 1.81m (distance from new machine at which new machine direct
field = reverberant field with both machines running).
(f) Assumptions:
! Each machine is radiating omni-directional sound.
! Both machines exhibit similar frequency spectra.
! The frequency averaged absorption coefficient is obtained using a
sound source with a frequency spectrum similar to that of the
machines under test.
Solutions to problems 176
T
60
'
55.25 900
600 343 0.1
' 2.4secs
R '
600 0.1
1 & 0.1
' 66.67m
2
L
p
' L
w
% 10log
10
(4/ R) % 10log
10
4 % 0.15
' 94 % 10log
10
(4/ 66.7) % 10log
10
(4) % 0.15
' 94 & 12.22 % 6.02 % 0.15 ' 88.0dB
(87.95)
L
p
' 10log
10
10
7.5
% 10
8.80
' 88.2dB (88.16)
L
p
' 10log
10
10
7.5
% 10
7.795
' 79.7dB
L
p
' 88.16 & 85 ' 3.16dB ' 10log
10
R
f
/ R
i
Problem 7.25
(a) Room 10m 15m 6m,
S = 2(10 15 + 10 6 + 15 6) = 600m
2
.
V = 10 15 6 = 900m
3
. The room reverberation time can be calculated
using equation 7.51 in the text. Thus:
(b) Room constant from equation 7.43 in the text:
(c) For each machine, L
w
= 94dB. Thus for 4 new machines,
L
w
= 94 + 10log
10
4. Thus the reverberant field sound pressure level due
to the 4 new machines is:
The existing reverberant field level is 75dB prior to installation of the
new machines. Thus the total level after installation is:
(d) When quiet machines are installed, the sound power and the sound
pressure level contribution due to the new machines is reduced by 10dB
to 94 and 78.0 respectively. Thus the total reverberant field level after
installation of quiet machines is:
(e) The design goal is 85dB. Thus the required reduction due to ceiling tile
if untreated machines are used is:
Sound in enclosed spaces 177
0.187 '
0.1(600 & x) % 0.6x
600
D
4r
2
'
4( 1 & )
S
or r '
DS
16( 1 & )
'
(1450 & 500) 0.1 % 500 0.5
1450
' 0.238
Thus . The initial room constant is 66.67m
2
. R
f
/ R
i
' 10
3.16/ 10
' 2.07
Thus the new requirement is R = 138m
2
. The required average
absorption coefficient is then given by
. Thus . To achieve this, let x 600 ' 138 & 138 ' 0.187
square metres of room surface be covered by tile. Then:
which gives x = 105m
2
. Area of ceiling = 10 15 = 150m
2
. So covering
the ceiling with ceiling tile would be adequate. This would cost $50 + 3
150 = $500 which is much less than the machine noise control and is
thus the preferred option.
Problem 7.26
(a) Distance at which direct and reverberant fields are equal is given by:
The room surface area, S, is given by
S ' 2( 20 25 % 20 5 % 25 5) ' 1450m
2
So r '
2 1450 0.1
16 0.9
' 2.5m
(b) In this case, D=4 instead of 2 and r = 2.53 2
1/2
= 3.6m
(c) If the ceiling were covered with ceiling tiles, the new sabine absorption
coefficient would be:
So r '
2 1450 0.238
16 0.762
' 4.2m
Solutions to problems 178
L
w
' L
p
& 10log
10
(4/ R) & 0.15
L
p1
& L
p2
' 10log
10
D
4r
2
%
4(1 &
1
)
S
1
& 10log
10
D
4r
2
%
4(1 &
2
)
S
2
' 10log
10
2
4 0.5
2
%
4 0.9
1450 0.1
& 10log
10
2
4 0.5
2
%
4 0.762
1450 0.238
' &1.795 % 1.901 ' 0.1dB
(d) The operator is only 0.5m from the machine so he/she is in the direct
field. The reverberant field contribution at this distance is small so the
ceiling tiles will have only a very small effect. Could calculate this (but
not necessary).
Problem 7.27
(a) Room 5m 5.5m 3m,
S = 2(5 5.5 + 5 3 + 5.5 3) = 118m
2
.
V = 5 5.5 3 = 82.5m
3
. Perimeter, L = 4(5.5 + 5 + 3) = 54m.
Assuming that measurements of L
p
are made far enough from the
machine that the direct field is negligible compared to the reverberant
field, the sound power level is given by:
This allows the following table to be constructed.
Octave band
centre
frequency (Hz)
L
p
R L
w
63
250
1000
4000
75
85
84
70
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
1.192
2.408
2.408
3.649
69.6
82.6
81.6
69.5
Overall 85.4
(b) The reverberation time may be calculated using equation 7.51 in the text
and the modal density may be calculated using equation 7.21. Equations
Sound in enclosed spaces 179
2.569 10
&5
f
2
% 1.575 10
&3
f % 0.0197 ' 7.673
f ' &
1.575 10
&3
2 2.569 10
&5
%
( 1.575 10
&3
)
2
% 4 2.569 10
&5
7.673
2 2.569 10
&5
' &31 % 547 ' 516Hz
d '
5.5
2
2
%
5
2
2
%
3
2
2
' 4.01m
7.23 and 7.24 are then used to calculate the modal overlap. The
following table may be constructed.
Octave band
centre
frequency (Hz)
T
60
f
dN
df
M
63
250
1000
4000
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
11.26
5.63
5.63
3.75
0.195
0.391
0.391
0.590
0.22
2.0
27.3
417.4
0.04
0.79
10.6
246.3
The reverberation time may be assumed constant between 250 and
1000Hz, so we need to calculate the frequency where
dN/df = 3/0.391 = 7.67. That is:
Thus:
Thus the modal overlap is greater than 3 for frequencies above 520Hz.
(c) The effect of acoustic tile may be calculated using equation 7.42. The
quantity L
w
will remain the same in each case so we need to calculate the
change in the second term in the equation.
Distance from room corner to centre is given by:
Assuming that the acoustic centre of the source is within a quarter of a
wavelength from the hard corner, D

= 8 and so
Solutions to problems 180
10log
10
10
7.5
% 10
8.5
% 10
8.4
% 10
7
& 10log
10
10
(7.5 & 0.39)
% 10
(8.5 & 0.38)
% 10
(8.4 & 0.46)
& 10
(7 & 0.41)
' 87.8 & 83.7 ' 4.1dB
. The following two tables (one with no
D

4r
2
'
8
4 4.01
2
' 0.0396
tile and the other with 25m
2
of acoustic tile) may be constructed.
Octave band
centre
frequency
(Hz)

(no tile)
R
D

4r
2
%
4
R
10log
10
D

4r
2
%
4
R
63
250
1000
4000
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
1.192
2.408
2.408
3.649
3.4
1.7
1.7
1.14
5.3
2.3
2.3
0.6
In the following table (which includes the effects of acoustic tile, the
overall absorption coefficient is calculated using equation 7.78 in the
text.
Octave
band
centre
frequency
(Hz)

(wall)

(tile)

(overall)
R
D

4r
2
%
4
R
10log
10
D

4r
2
%
4
R
Improve-
ment
(dB)
63
250
1000
4000
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.08
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.025
0.048
0.058
0.077
3.0
5.95
7.27
9.84
1.37
0.72
0.59
0.45
1.4
-1.5
-2.3
-3.5
3.9
3.7
4.6
4.1
The noise reductions in each octave band are given by the last column in
the above table.
(d) Assuming that the overall space average level will be reduced by the
same amount as the level at the centre of the room, the difference
between new and old overall levels is:
Sound in enclosed spaces 181
L
w
' 95 & 8.3 % 22.5 % 0.2 & 13.9 ' 95.5dB re 10
&12
W
L
p
' 95.5 % 10log
10
2
4 0.5
2
%
4(1 & 0.022)
193.2 0.022
% 0.15
' 97.6dB re 20Pa
T
60
'
55.25V
Sc
'
55.25 179.7
193.2 343
'
0.150

Problem 7.28
(a) Using equation 6.13 in the text and substituting in the appropriate values
gives:
(b) Using equation 7.42 in the text, (and allowing for c 400) we can write:
Problem 7.29
(a) Room 6.84m 5.565m 4.72m,
S = 2(6.84 5.565 + 6.84 4.72 + 5.565 4.72) = 193.2m
2
.
V = 6.84 5.565 4.72 = 179.7m
3
. The room reverberation time can be
calculated using equation 7.51 in the text. Thus:
The results for each third octave band are given in the following table.
Solutions to problems 182
' 179.7/ 4.6
1/ 3
' 3.393m
' 179.7/ 1.3
1/ 3
' 5.171m
One third octave band
centre frequency (Hz)
T
60
63
80
100
125
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1000
1250
1600
2000
2500
3150
4000
5000
6300
8000
0.010
0.010
0.011
0.011
0.013
0.015
0.017
0.017
0.018
0.018
0.019
0.020
0.022
0.025
0.028
0.031
0.034
0.037
0.040
0.044
0.047
0.050
15.0
15.0
13.6
13.6
11.5
10.0
8.8
8.8
8.3
8.3
7.9
7.5
6.8
6.0
5.4
4.8
4.4
4.0
3.7
3.4
3.2
3.0
(b) Lowest 1/3 octave band given by V = 4.6
3
(see p259 in text). Thus:
This corresponds to a frequency, f = 343/3.393 = 101Hz. Thus the room
is suitable for measurements down to and including the 100Hz 1/3 octave
band.
(c) Lowest octave band given by V = 1.3
3
(see p259 in text). Thus:
This corresponds to a frequency, f = 343/5.171 = 66Hz. Thus the room
may just be suitable for measurements down to and including the 63Hz
Sound in enclosed spaces 183
L
w
' L
p
& 10log
10
(4/ R) % 10log
10
(400/ c)
92.5 ' 87 & 10log
10
(4/ R) & 0.15
(4/ R) ' 10
(87 & 92.5 & 0.15) / 10
' 0.272
octave band.
(d) For pure tone noise, the lowest acceptable frequency is given by
(see p259 in text). We need to solve for the frequency by f ' T
60
/ V
1/ 2
trial and error as illustrated in the table below.
One third octave band
centre frequency (Hz)
T
60
corresponding
lowest acceptable
frequency
63
80
100
125
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
15.0
15.0
13.6
13.6
11.5
10.0
8.8
8.8
8.3
8.3
7.9
578
578
550
550
506
472
443
443
430
430
419
From the table, it can be seen that the lowest acceptable frequency for
tonal noise is 430Hz.
Problem 7.30
(a) L
w
= 92.5dB, L
pr
= 87dB for reference source. The room constant is
calculated using only the reverberant part of equation 7.42 in the text and
allowing for c = 413.6. Thus:
and so R = 14.7m
2
.
Solutions to problems 184
L
p
' 10log
10
10
8.5
& 10
8.1
& 10log
10
(4)
' 76.8dB(A) re 20Pa
L
w
' 76.77 & 10log
10
(4/ 14.7) & 0.15
' 82.3dB(A) re 10
&12
W
L
w
' 76.77 & 10log
10
(4/ 29.4) & 0.15 ' 85.3dB(A) re 10
&12
W
10log
10
D

4r
2
%
4(1 &
1
)
S
1
& 10log
10
D

4r
2
%
4(1 &
2
)
S
2
(b) Existing L
p
is 81dB(A). Allowed total L
p
= 85dB(A). 4 new machines,
so allowed L
p
from each new machine is:
The corresponding allowed sound power level of each machine is then:
Assumptions:
! Direct field small compared to reverberant field at measurement
locations.
! c = 413.6
! Spectral content of noise from new machines is similar to that
of existing noise. If not, then calculations should be done in
octave bands.
(c) Doubling room constant gives the allowed sound power level of
Same assumptions as for part (b).
Problem 7.31
Room 15m 15m 5m,
S = 2(15 5 2 + 15 15) = 750m
2
.
Using equations 7.42 and 7.43, the noise reduction is given by:

The mean absorption coefficient before treatment is calculated using
equation 7.78 and is:
Sound in enclosed spaces 185

1
'
15 15 0.01 % 525 0.1
750
' 0.073

2
'
15 15 0.01 % 525 0.7
750
' 0.493
L
p
' 10log
10
2
4 16
%
4(1 & 0.073)
750 0.073
& 10log
10
2
4 16
%
4(1 & 0.493)
750 0.493
' &11.1 % 18.1 ' 7.0dB
and after treatment it is:
Assuming that the acoustic centre of the machine is within a quarter of
a wavelength of the floor, D

= 2; thus the noise reduction at the specified

location is:
Problem 7.32
Room: L
w
= 105dB, V = 100m
3
, S = 130m
2
, T
60
= 1.5secs.
Office: L
w
= 85dB, V = 80m
3
, S = 100m
2
, T
60
= 0.75secs.
Partition area: 15m
2
.
For the room and the office, the quantity is calculated using equation 7.51 S
in the text and the reverberant sound pressure level existing in each space is
calculated by combining equations 7.42 and 7.43 with the direct field term of
equation 7.42 omitted. Thus the following table may be constructed.
Room Office
S 10.739 17.182
0.0826 0.1718
L
p
' L
w
% 10log
10
4(1 & )
S
% 0.15
100.5dB 78.0dB
Solutions to problems 186
L
p
' 10log
10
10
7.9
& 10
7.8
' 72.1dB
p
2
' 4 10
&10
10
116/ 10
' 159.2Pa
2
1 &

'
159.2 50
4 1.206 343 1
' 4.812
T
60
'
55.25 30
343 50 0.172
' 0.56secs
'
10 0.8 % 40 0.172
50
' 0.298
p
2
'
4 1 1.206 343 (1 & 0.298)
50 0.298
' 77.96Pa
2
Allowable level in office = 78 + 1 = 79dB. Allowable level due to new
machine is:
The level in the room is 100.5dB, so the noise reduction required of the wall
is 100.5 - 72.1 = 28.4dB which should be rounded up to 30dB for
specification purposes.
Problem 7.33
(a) Room volume V = 30m
3
, surface area, S = 50m
2
Reverberant field mean square pressure is:
Using equation 7.41 in the text we obtain:
Thus = 0.172
(b) Using equation 7.51 in the text:
Thus, T
10
= 0.56/6 = 0.094secs.
(c) New is given by:
Using equation 7.41, we obtain for the new mean square sound pressure:
Sound in enclosed spaces 187
L
p
' 94 % 10log
10
(77.96) ' 112.9dB
The corresponding sound pressure level is then:
which corresponds to a reduction of 116 - 112.9 = 3.1dB.
(d) Adding 3 more sources increases the existing number by a factor of 4.
Providing all sources produce the same sound pressure level, the increase
in total sound pressure level over that corresponding to one source would
be . L
p
' 10log
10
(4) ' 6dB
Problem 7.34
porous acoustic fibrous material (fibreglass, rockwool, ceramic fibre, steel
wool):
Absorption
mechanisms: viscous friction losses due to difference in
velocities of air particles adjacent to fibres and
those in the centre of the gap between fibres.
Absorption
characteristics: good at mid to high frequencies but at low
frequencies need a large thickness of material to
be effective.
Applications: air handling duct mufflers, pipe lagging,
reverberant space absorption.
Avantages: Inexpensive, high absorption coefficient in mid to
high frequency range.
Disadvantages: fibre loss can be a health hazard so care has to be
taken to properly contain the material; susceptible
to powdering in the presence of vibration; not oil,
water or chemical resistant.
Porous plastic and rubber (polyurethane foam etc.):
Absorption
mechanisms: viscous friction losses due to difference in
velocities of air particles adjacent to capillary
walls and those in the centre of the capillaries.
Absorption
Solutions to problems 188
characteristics: good at mid to high frequencies but at low
frequencies need a large thickness of material to
be effective.
Applications: vehicle cabins, pipe lagging, reverberant space
absorption.
Avantages: High absorption coefficient in mid to high
frequency range; no health risk due to fibres.
Disadvantages: not oil, water or chemical resistant; expensive, fire
and smoke hazard; will not tolerate high
temperatures.
Helmholtz resonators:
Absorption
mechanisms: viscous friction losses around neck of resonator
associated with large air particle motion in the
centre of the neck and zero motion at the walls of
the neck at resonance.
Absorption
characteristics: good in a narrow band of frequencies around the
design frequency.
Applications: electrical transformer enclosures, vehicle mufflers,
mufflers for tonal noise generated by large
industrial fans.
Avantages: can be made to be immune to moisture, oil and
chemicals. Can withstand high temperatures; no
health risk.
Disadvantages: Narrow frequency range of effective absorption.
Resonant panels
Absorption
mechanisms: panel and backing cavity damping losses.
Absorption
characteristics: good in a narrow band of frequencies around the
design frequency.
Applications: electrical transformer enclosures, auditoria,
concert halls, reverberant spaces.
Avantages: can be made to be immune to moisture, oil and
chemicals. Can withstand high temperatures; no
health risk.
Disadvantages: Narrow frequency range of effective absorption.
Sound in enclosed spaces 189
'
j
S
i

i
j
S
i
'
2 6.84 5.565 0.02 % 2 5.565 4.72 0.05
%2 6.84 4.72 0.06
2 6.84 5.565 % 2 5.565 4.72 % 2 6.84 4.72
' 8.023/ 193.2 ' 0.042
Problem 7.35
We require = 0.8 at 125Hz. Referring to figure 7.8 in the text (p.307) it is
clear that we need to use curve "D" which implies the use of sound absorbing
material behind the panel. From figure 7.9, it can be seen that the 125Hz line
crosses curve "D" when the cavity depth is 110mm and the panel mass is
2kg/m
2
. Thus this is the required design. Note that the guide notes in the
caption of figure 7.8 should also be included as design specifications.
Problem 7.36
Following equation 7.78 in the text:

Problem 7.37
Room volume = 7
2
2.5 = 384.85m
3
. The optimum reverberation times
are calculated using equation 7.121 in the text with K = 5. The calculated
values are listed in the following table.
Octave band
centre frequency (Hz)
T
60
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
1.45
1.06
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
Solutions to problems 190
(b) Using equation 7.51 in the text, the recommended is 65m
2
at 500Hz S
and above, 59m
2
at 250Hz and 43m
2
at 125Hz.
(c) Area ceiling = 49 = 154m
2
. At 125Hz, the Sabine absorption
coefficient of tile is 0.2. Thus if all the ceiling were covered the
maximum would be 154 0.2 = 30.8m
2
(assuming that the floor and S
walls contributed a negligible amount). Alternatively, if it is assumed
that the floor and walls are of concrete with = 0.01, then the total
= 30.8 + 0.01 (154 + 2 7 2.5) = 33.4m
2
. The recommended S
at 125Hz is 43m
2
(from part (b)), so the ceiling tile would NOT be
adequate.
(d) A compromise would be to use sufficient tiles to achieve as closely as
possible the required absorption over the range 500 to 1000Hz and then
design a panel absorber with a maximum absorption at 125Hz and no
absorption at 500Hz. The required absorption in the range 500 to
4000Hz is 65m
2
. Thus the optimum amount of tile is 65/0.8 = 81m
2
,
which will be OK at 500 and 2000Hz, a bit much at 1000Hz and a bit
little at 4000Hz, but nevertheless a good compromise. We are then left
with an area of ceiling of 154 - 81 = 73m
2
for panel absorbers. The
amount of absorption needed at 125Hz is 43 - 3 - 81 0.2 = 24m
2
. So
the panel absorber must have an absorption coefficient of 24/73 = 0.33
at 125Hz and nothing at 500Hz.
Choosing curve H from figure 7.8 in the text and allowing for the fact
that the 125Hz band includes the peak, the average for the 125Hz band
is approximately 0.35. The absorption coefficient of the panel at 500 and
above is likely to be 0.08 and at 250Hz it will be 0.12. To optimise the
required absorption coefficients, we can vary the relative areas. The area
of floor and walls is 264m
2
. Thus the amount of absorption due to the
floor and walls is 2.6m
2
in the 125, 250 and 500Hz bands and 5.3m
2
in
the 1000, 2000 and 4000Hz octave bands. Including this and with an
area of 70m
2
of tile and 65m
2
of panel, the amount of absorption in the
octave bands from 125Hz to 4000Hz is 41, 53, 64, 70, 67, and 63m
2
which is a little low at 125Hz and 250Hz (optimum is 43 and 59
respectively) and a little high in the other bands (optimum at 500Hz and
higher frequencies is 62m
2
). Choosing the area of panel = 75m
2
and the
area of tile = 65m
2
, gives the following amounts of absorption: 42, 51,
61, 67, 63, 60m
2
which is close enough. Note that there are many other
adequate solutions to this problem.
Sound in enclosed spaces 191
L
w
' L
p
% 10log
10
(2r
2
) & 0.15 ' L
p
% 21.85
dN
df
'
4 125
2
30
343
3
%
125 62
2 343
2
%
40
8 343
' 0.264
Problem 7.38
(a) sound power of the source is given by:
Thus the following table may be constructed.
Octave band centre
frequency (Hz)
63 125 250 500 1k 2k
L
p
(dB re 20Pa) 90 85 78 73 70 65
L
w
(dB re 10
-12
W) 112 107 100 95 92 87
(b) Room dimensions 5m 3m 2m. Using equation 7.17 in the text, we
have:
f
1,0,0
'
343
2

1
5
' 34.3Hz
f
0,1,0
'
343
2

1
3
' 57.2Hz
f
0,0,1
'
343
2

1
2
' 85.8Hz
f
2,0,0
'
343
2

2
5
' 68.6Hz
f
1,1,0
'
343
2
(1/ 5)
2
% (1/ 3)
2
' 66.7Hz
Thus the 3 lowest order modes are in the 31.5Hz and 63Hz third octave
bands.
Room volume, V = 5 3 2 = 30m
2
Area, S = 2(5 3 + 5 2 + 3 2) = 62m
2
.
Perimeter, L = 4(5 + 2 + 3) = 40
The modal density is given by equation 7.21 in the text. Thus:
Solutions to problems 192
N '
4 141
3
30
3 343
3
%
141
2
62
4 343
2
%
40 141
8 343
' 19modes
N '
4 113
3
30
3 343
3
%
113
2
62
4 343
2
%
40 113
8 343
' 11.4modes
From table 1.2 on p43 in the text, the 125Hz third octave bandwidth is
141 - 113 = 28Hz, so the number of modes in the band is
28 0.264 = 7 to 8 modes.
Alternatively equation 7.20 could be used to calculate the number of
modes occurring below 141Hz and 113Hz and then take the difference.
The number of modes below 141Hz is:
The number of modes below 113Hz is:
Thus the number in the 125Hz octave band is between 7 and 8 modes.
(c) Equations 7.51, 7.43 and 7.42 (with a correction for c = 413.6) in the
text, and the knowledge that S = 62m
2
, may be used to construct the
following table.
Octave band
centre
frequency (Hz)
63 125 250 500 1k 2k Overall
L
w
(dB re 10
-12
W)
112 107 100 95 92 87
T
60
5.5 5 4 3 2 1.5
S
0.877 0.964 1.206 1.608 2.411 3.215

0.0141 0.015
6
0.019
4
0.025
9
0.038
9
0.0519
R '
S
1 &
0.890 0.979 1.230 1.650 2.509 3.391
L
p
(reverb) 118.7 113.3 105.3 99.0 94.2 87.9
A-weighting -26.2 -16.1 -8.6 -3.2 0.0 1.2
L
p
(dB(A)) 92.5 97.2 96.7 95.8 94.2 89.1 102.8
Sound in enclosed spaces 193
Assumptions:
! A-weighting assumed uniform across each octave band when in
fact it varies continuously with frequency.
! Direct field contribution assumed negligible.
! Reflections from and absorption of surfaces other than room
boundaries is excluded.
(d) If 2 more generators were added, the sound pressure level would increase
by . 10log
10
(2 % 1) ' 4.8dB(A)
(e) Ceiling tiles added with area = 15m
2
. Remaining room surface area = 62
- 15 = 47m
2
= S
floor, walls
. The following table may be constructed, where:
.
overall
'
new
'
S
floor walls
% S
ceiling
S
floor walls
% S
ceiling
Octave band
centre
frequency (Hz)
63 125 250 500 1k 2k Over-
all
L
w
(dB re 10
-12
W)
112 107 100 95 92 87
S
floor walls
0.66 0.73 0.91 1.22 1.83 2.44

ceiling
0.15 0.25 0.55 0.85 1.0 1.0
S
ceiling
2.25 3.75 8.25 12.75 15 15

overall
'
new
0.0469 0.0722 0.1477 0.2253 0.2715 0.2813
R
new
'
S
new
1 &
new
3.05 4.83 10.75 18.03 23.10 24.27
L
p
(reverb) 113.3 106.3 95.9 88.6 84.5 79.3 114.2
A-weighting -26.2 -16.1 -8.6 -3.2 0.0 1.2
L
p
(dB(A)) 87.1 90.2 87.3 85.4 84.5 80.5 94.5
Similar assumptions as made in part (c).
Solutions to problems 194

st
' 1 & e
&55.25V/ ScT
60
Problem 7.39
Room 20m 15 4m,
S = 2(20 15 + 20 4 + 15 4) = 880m
2
.
V = 20 15 4 = 1200m
3
.
The desired reverberation times are calculated using equation 7.121 on p. 329
in the text, with 10% increase at 250Hz, 50% increase at 125Hz and 100%
increase at 63Hz. The existing mean statistical absorption coefficient may be
calculated using equation 7.56 in the text rearranged to give:
Thus the following table may be constructed.
Octave
band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
Existing
T
60
Existing
mean
st
Desired
T
60
Desired
mean

st
Required
increase in

st
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
3.0
2.6
2.3
2.1
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.8
0.0706
0.0810
0.0911
0.0993
0.1040
0.1040
0.1040
0.1149
1.86
1.40
1.02
0.93
0.93
0.93
0.93
0.93
0.111
0.145
0.194
0.211
0.211
0.211
0.211
0.211
0.040
0.064
0.103
0.112
0.107
0.107
0.107
0.096
There are many possible solutions to achieve the desired mean absorption
coefficients. One alternative is to look for the frequency at which the
additional absorption required is the largest and choose a material which has
a maximum absorption coefficient at this frequency. In this case, the
maximum increase in absorption is needed at 500Hz, so a material thickness
of 25mm should be chosen. The amount of material required is then
calculated on the basis of achieving the optimum reverberation time in the
octave bands most important for speech; namely, 500Hz to 2000Hz. In this
case, it would seem that the required increase in mean absorption coefficient
is 0.107 which would satisfy the requirements at and above 1000Hz, with a
compromise of a little less than desired at 500Hz. let x be the fraction of room
surface area to be covered with absorbing material. Using equation 7.58, we
Sound in enclosed spaces 195
(1 & 0.211) ' (1 & 0.85)
x
(1 & 0.104)
(1 & x)
log
10
(0.79) ' xlog
10
(0.15) % (1 & x)log
10
(0.896)
W '
p
2
i
S
4c
W '
p
2
i
S
4c
p
2
i
' 4 10
&10
10
88/ 10
' 0.252Pa
2
W '
1.995 10
&3
0.252 1.5
4 1.206 343
' 0.457W
p
2
'
1.206 343 4.565 10
&7
2 60
2
' 8.349 10
&9
Pa
2
have:
Taking logs of both sides, we obtain:
which gives x = 0.0711. So the required area of 25mm thick acoustic material
is 63m
2
.
Problem 7.40
Assume that the house is approximately in a direction along the normal axis
from the window. The power incident on the window is the intensity in the
direction of the window multiplied by the area of the window. Thus
The power radiated through the window is then
where = . T he reverberant sound pressure ' 10
&TL/ 10
10
&2.7
' 1.995 10
&3
level is 88dB. Thus
The power radiated through the window is then
For an incoherent plane source, the on-axis sound pressure at the receiver is
given by equation 5.106. The quantity . Thus from r/ HL ' 60/1.5 ' 40
figure 5.11, it is clear that we can treat it as a hemispherically radiating point
source producing a sound pressure described by equation 5.106 in the text.
Thus:
Solutions to problems 196
L
p
' 10log
10
(8.349 10
&9
) % 94 ' 13.2dB re 20Pa
q ' 1000
0.002
2
4 0.07
' 6.7mm
q ' 1000
0.002
2
2 0.07 2 3
' 5.1mm
This corresponds to a sound pressure level of :
As the ground is hard asphalt, we may add 3dB to the level to account for the
effect of ground reflection. Thus the expected level at the house is 16dB.
Problem 7.41
(a) First calculate distance between holes. Could assume parallel or
staggered holes as shown in the two figures to follow.
Let q be the distance between holes as shown in the figures. Choosing a
segment of plate as shown in the figure we can calculate the ratio of holes to
total area of the segment and set this equal to 0.07. This gives a hole spacing
for the parallel holes of:
and for the staggered holes,
For the purposes of this problem we will use q = 6.7mm. Using equation
E.7 in the 2
nd
. edn. of the text on p528, we have:
Sound in enclosed spaces 197
f
max
2 0.1
343
tan f
max

2 0.1
343
'
7 0.1/ 100
0.003 % 0.85 0.002 (1 & 0.22 0.002/ 0.0067)
0.00183 f
max
tan f
max
0.00183 ' 1.5256
a(X) '
3.1696(1.63259 & 3.1696) 0.0659
2
& 0.1663
2
1.63259
2
3.1696
2
0.0659
2
% 0.1663
2
1.63259
2
' &0.80849
Rewriting gives:
Can solve by trial and error, choosing values of f
max
until the LHS =
1.5256 as illustrated in the table below.
f
max
(Hz) LHS
100
500
600
550
540
543
542.9
0.0339
1.1892
2.1467
1.5902
1.5000
1.5263
1.5254
Thus the frequency of maximum absorption is 543Hz.
If we used Equation 7.77 in the 3
rd
edn. we would get 691 Hz, but the
error is greater than 15% because the condition, fL/c < 0.1 is not satisfied.
(b) Specific normal impedance is given by equation C.43. To evaluate this
equation we need to use equation C.41 and to evaluate that we need
equations C.3 and C.4. Referring to equation C.15, X = 1.206
543/10000 = 0.0655. Thus, T
1
= 1.63259, T
2
= 0.06590, T
3
= 3.1696, T
4
= 0.1663. Referring to equation C.9:
and
Solutions to problems 198
b(X) '
1.63259
2
0.0659 0.1663
3.1696
2
0.0659
2
% 0.1663
2
1.63259
2
' 0.24893
a(X
1
) '
3.0785(1.5415 & 3.07850) 0.05636
2
& 0.16526
2
1.5415
2
3.0785
2
0.05636
2
% 0.16526
2
1.5415
2
' &0.84133
b(X
1
) '
1.5415
2
0.05636 0.16526
3.0785
2
0.05636
2
% 0.16526
2
1.5415
2
' 0.23297
' ( 1 & 0.4 (&0.49807 % j0.23297))
&1
' ( 1.19923 % j0.093188)
&1

m
' ( 1 & 0.8085 % j0.2489)
&1
' ( 0.1915 % j0.24893)
&1
Z
m
c
'
m

'
1
(0.1915 % j0.24893) (1.19923 & j0.093188)
'
1
0.25285 % j0.28068
' 1.7717 & j1.9667 ' 2.6471e
&j0.8375
' 1.6270e
&j0.4188
' 1.4864 & j0.6616
X
1
= 0.856 1.206 543/10000 = 0.05605. Thus,
T
1
= 1.54150, T
2
= 0.05636, T
3
= 3.07850, T
4
= 0.16526. Referring to
equation C.9:
and
Thus = -0.841330.592 + j0.23297 and = -0.80849 + j0.24893. The
quantities and
m
may be calculated using equations C.5 and C.6 as
follows:
and
Using equations C.3 , we obtain:
Sound in enclosed spaces 199
k
m
'
2f
max
c

m

'
2 543
343
1.19923 & j093188
0.1915 % j0.24893
' 9.9468
(1.19923 & j0.093188) (0.1915 & j0.24893)
0.098638
' 9.9468 2.09319 & j3.2074 ' 9.9468 3.8300e
&j0.99259
' 19.4663e
&j0.49629
' 17.1178 & j9.2692
j tan(k
m
R) '
e
0.9269
cos(1.7118) % jsin(1.7118
& e
&0.9269
cos(1.7118 & jsin(1.7118)
e
0.9269
cos(1.7118) % jsin(1.7118)
% e
&0.9269
cos(1.7118) & jsin(1.7118)
'
&0.2995 % j2.8934
&0.4107 % j2.1097
' 1.3480 & j0.1205
tan(k
m
R) ' &0.1205 & j 1.3480
Z
N
c
'
(0.6616 % j1.4864)
0.1205 % j1.3480
'
2.0834 & j0.7127
1.8316
' 1.1375 & j0.3891
and using equation C.4b we obtain:
Before continuing, it will be useful to evaluate the quantity, tan(k
m
R).
Using the previous result for k
m
, and setting R = 0.1, we can write:
Thus:
Using the previous results and equation C.41 (assuming a rigid backing
for the porous material), we can write:
To calculate the overall impedance, we use equation C.43, but first we
need to evaluate R and tan(kR).
From equation 9.25 in the text, the effective length of the holes in the
perforated sheet is:
Solutions to problems 200
R ' 0.003 %
16 0.001
3
1 & 0.43 0.001/ 0.0067 ' 0.004588
tan(kR) ' tan(2 543 0.004588/ 343) ' 0.04567
t '
2 1.8 10
&5
1.206 2 543
' 9.3538 10
&5
Thus:
We also need to calculate the acoustic resistance of the holes using
equation 9.29 in the text. To evaluate this equation we need the following
quantities:
, k ' (2 543) / 343 ' 9.9467
; A ' 0.002
2
/ 4 ' 3.1416 10
&6
m
2
D ' 0.002 ' 0.006283
= 1.0 as radiation from a baffle.
The quantity, h, is the largest of the half plate thickness or t. Thus:
h = w/2 = 0.0015m.
The above quantities may be inserted into equation 9.29 to give:
Sound in enclosed spaces 201
Z
P
c
'
(100/ 7) (0.04567j % 4.1256 10
&3
)
1 %
100 1.206 343
2 543 21.762 7
0.04567 & 4.1256j 10
&3
'
0.05894 % 0.6524j
1.00363 & 3.2836j 10
&4
' 0.05894 % 0.6548j
Z
N
c
%
Z
P
c
' 1.1375 & 0.3891j % 0.05894 % 0.6548j
' 1.1964 % 0.2657j ' 1.2255 e
0.21854j
R
a
A
c
'
9.9467 9.3538 10
&5
6.283 10
&3
0.003
2 3.1416 10
&6
1 % (1.4 & 1)
5
3 1.4
% 0.288 9.9467 9.3538 10
&5
log
10
4 3.1416 10
&6
0.0015
2
%
3.1416 10
&6
9.9467
2
2
' 4.00923 10
&3
% 6.69555 10
&5
% 4.9468 10
&5
' 4.1256 10
&3
We can now use equation C.43 to evaluate the overall impedance. The second
term on the right is the impedance due to the perforated sheet and is:
Thus the total impedance is:
cos = 0.9762; cos2 = 0.9060; sin = 0.2168 and = 1.2255.
Using the above data, the statistical absorption coefficient may be
calculated using equation C.37 in the text as follows:
Solutions to problems 202

st
'
8 0.9762
1.2255
1 &
0.9762
1.2255
log
e
( 1 % 2 1.2255 0.9762 % 1.2255
2
)
%
0.9060
1.2255 ( 0.2168)
tan
&1
1.2255 (0.2168)
1 % 1.2255 0.9762
' 6.373 (1 & 0.7966 1.5881 % 3.410 tan
&1
[0.12097])
' 6.373 (1 & 1.2651 % 0.4105) ' 0.93
NRC '

250
%
500
%
1000
%
2000
4
'
0.6 % 0.8 % 1.0 % 1.0
4
' 0.85
Problem 7.42
The NRC is given by:
So the material is adequate for the purpose.
Problem 7.43
Truck emits 110 dB. This is equal to: . W ' 10
&12
10
110/ 10
' 0.1 watts
r/a = 60/6 = 10.
From Fig 7.14, reverberant field pressure squared is:
10log
10
p
2
R
& 10log
10
Wc
a
2
' &4 dB
Thus, 10log
10
p
2
R
' 10log
10
0.1 413.6
36
& 4 ' &18.4 dB
so reverberant field pressure is, L
pR
' &18.4 % 94 ' 75.6 dB
Direct field pressure: 10log
10
p
2
D
' 10log
10
0.1 413.6
4 60
2
' &30.4 dB
Sound in enclosed spaces 203
So direct field pressure is, L
pD
' &30.4 % 94 ' 63.6 dB
Total pressure, L
p
' 10log
10
10
75.4/ 10
% 10
63.6/ 10
' 75.7 dB
Assumptions:
Effective acoustic source location is in the centre of the cross section
Specularly reflecting surfaces
Ambient temperature of 20 EC
TL ' &10log
10

8
Solutions to problems relating to
sound transmission loss, acoustic
enclosures and barriers
Problem 8.1
(a) The Transmission Loss of a partition is an inverse decibel measure
(bigger TL means a smaller amount of transmitted energy) of the amount
of incident energy which is transmitted to the space on the side opposite
that on which the energy is incident. It is defined in terms of the
transmission coefficient, , which is the fraction of transmitted to incident
energy, as follows:
It may be measured using two reverberant rooms with the panel to be
measured acting as a partition between the two rooms with the space
around the panel of high transmission loss construction so that all of the
significant acoustic energy transmitted between the two rooms passes
through the panel under test. The test is conducted by exciting the one
of the reverberant rooms with 1/3 octave band noise and then measuring
the difference in the space averaged sound pressure level in the two
rooms. The appropriate mathematical analysis is embodied in equations
8.13 to 8.16 in the text (page 342).
(b) Measurements often do not agree with theoretical calculations because
the latter do not take into account the size of the panel exactly. Also the
experimental determination of space average sound pressure level is often
characterised by errors, especially at low frequencies when the sound
fields in the two rooms are not sufficiently diffuse. Sometimes, energy
is transmitted from one room to the next by way of paths not through the
panel (called "flanking"), resulting in Transmission Loss measurements
which are too small.
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 205
TL ' 10log
10
1 %
fm
c
2
& 5.5 (dB)
4 ' 10log
10
1 %
f 7800 0.01
988 1481
2
& 5.5
f '
10
0.95
& 1
2.8046 10
&8
' 16,800Hz
45
o
45
o
75 25
25
30
75
75
All dimensions in mm
z
0
z
n
Problem 8.2
Mass Law Transmission Loss is obtained by combining equations 8.34 (with
= 0E) and equation 8.35b, which gives:
Substituting in values for the variables gives:
Rearranging gives:
The Transmission Loss in air at this frequency is much greater because the
impedance of the panel compared to the characteristic impedance in the
propagating medium is much larger for air than water.
Problem 8.3
(a) First find location of neutral axis by taking moments about an axis
through the centre of the angled section and shown as z
0
in the figure. In
the following equations b
i
is the length of the ith section. If the neutral
axis is denoted as z
n
where z is the vertical coordinate on the figure, then:
Solutions to problems 206
z
0
& z
n
'
j
i
b
i
z
i0
j
i
b
i
'
75 15 % 2 25 2.5 & 25 10 % 75 15 & 75 15
75 % 3 25 % 75 % 2 2 30 %75
'
1000
384.9
' 2.6mm
B '
Eh
(1 &
2
)R
j
n
b
n
z
2
n
%
h
2
% b
2
n
24
%
h
2
& b
2
n
24
cos2
n
B
1
'
207 10
9
0.0012
0.91 0.31
0.15 0.0124
2
%
0.0012
2
12
% 0.05 0.0001
2
%
0.025
2
12
% 0.025 0.0126
2
%
0.0012
2
12
% 0.075 0.0176
2
%
0.0012
2
12
% 0.06 2 0.0026
2
%
0.0012
2
% 2 0.03
2
24
' 8.805 10
8
( 2.3082 10
&5
% 2.6046 10
&6
% 3.9720 10
&6
% 2.3241 10
&5
% 6.9427 10
&6
)
' 5.27 10
4
kg m
2
s
&2
Thus the neutral axis is 12.4mm from the centre of the top of the section.
The section thickness, h = 1.2mm and the horizontal length, R, before
repeating itself is 250 + 60mm = 0.31m.
The bending stiffness in the direction along the ribs may be calculated
with E = 207GPa and = 0.3 using equation 8.10 in the text, which is
incorrect in the first printing of the text and should be:
Thus:
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 207
B
2
'
207 10
9
0.0012
3
12 0.91

0.385
0.31
' 40.7kgm
2
s
&2
c
B1
'
5.27 10
4
4
2
10
6
11.62
1/ 4
' 650m/ s
c
B2
'
40.7 4
2
10
6
11.62
1/ 4
' 108m/ s
f
c1
'
343
2
2
11.62
5.27 10
4
1/ 2
' 278Hz
f
c2
'
343
2
2
11.62
40.7
1/ 2
' 10,000Hz
B
ab
' 0.5 5.27 10
4
0.3 % 40.7 0.3 %
207 10
9
0.0012
3
3 2.6
' 7934
The stiffness in the direction across the ribs may be calculated using
equation 8.5 as follows:
(b) The bending wavespeed is calculated using equation 8.1 in the text. The
surface mass of the panel is m = 7800 0.0012 0.385/0.31 = 11.62kg
m
-2
and the frequency is 1000Hz. Thus the lower and upper bending
wavespeeds corresponding to waves propagating parallel and
perpendicular to the ribs respectively are:
(c) The lower and upper critical frequencies for the panel may be calculated
using equation 8.3 in the text. Thus:
(d) Assuming that the enclosure wall edge condition is simply supported (a
good approximation in practice for most enclosures), the first resonance
frequency of the panel may be calculated using equation 8.22 in the text
with i = n = 1. Thus:
and:
Solutions to problems 208
f
1,1
'

2 11.62
5.27 10
4
2
4
%
40.7
2
4
%
7934
2
4
1/ 2
' 28.4Hz
TL
A
' 20log
10
(278 11.62) & 54 ' 16.2dB
TL
B
' 20log
10
(278) % 10log
10
(11.62) & 10log
10
(278)
& 20log
10
[ log
e
(4)] & 13.2
' 19.1dB
TL
C
' 20log
10
(5000) % 10log
10
(11.62) & 10log
10
(278)
& 20log
10
[ log
e
(20000/278)] & 13.2
' 34.4dB
TL
D
' 10log
10
(11.62) % 15log
10
(10000) & 5log
10
(278) & 17
' 41.4dB
TL
oct
' &10Log
10
6 (1/3) [10
&TL
1
/10
% 10
&TL
2
/10
% 10
&TL
3
/10
] >
(e) The sound transmission loss of the panel may be calculated using figure
8.8b in the text. Point A is at 139Hz and the corresponding TL is given
by:
At point B (278Hz), the TL is:
At point C (5,000Hz), the TL is:
At point D (20,000Hz), the TL is:
These points are plotted on the following graph and interpolation is used
to find the octave band TL values. Strictly speaking, the curve should
only be used to find 1/3 octave values and the octave band levels must
then be calculated from the following equation:
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 209
f
c1
0.5f
c1
0.5f
c2
B
C
A
However, for most practical purposes, the results obtained that way are
little different to the results obtained by reading the octave band levels
directly from the figure. However, in the case of isotropic panels, care
should be taken to avoid errors near the dip in the curve corresponding
to the critical frequency. Following the figure, the octave band results
are summarised in a table.
Octave band centre
frequency (Hz)
Transmission
Loss (dB)
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
9
15
19
21
25
29
33
37
Problem 8.4
(a) Only one half of the sine wave section needs to be considered.
y
1
= 20 sin(15/40) = 18.48mm.
Solutions to problems 210
B
1
'
207 10
9
0.0016
0.91 0.04 10
9
23.8 2 (18.48/ 2)
2
%
1.6
2
% 23.8
2
24
%
1.6
2
& 23.8
2
24
cos(101.8E) % 10 18.48
2
%
1.6
2
12
' 8.04 10
4
kg m
2
s
&2
B
2
'
207 10
9
1.6
3
10
&9
12 0.91
57.6
40
' 111.8kg m
2
s
&2
f
c1
'
343
2
2
18
8.04 10
4
1/ 2
' 280Hz
f
c2
'
343
2
2
18
111.8
1/ 2
' 7,500Hz
u
1
y
1
15 10 15
b
1
= 23.8mm,
1
= 50.9E
b
2
= 10mm,
2
= 0
b
3
= 23.8mm,
3
= 50.9E
l = 40, E = 207GPa
= 0.3
Using the corrected form
of equation 8.10 in the
text, we can write the
following for the bending
stiffness for waves travelling parallel to the corrugations:
The bending stiffness for waves travelling perpendicular to the
corrugations can be calculated using equation 8.11 in the text as:
The surface mass is m = 7800 0.0016 (23.8 + 23.8 + 10)/40 =
18.0kg/m
2
.
The lower and upper critical frequencies are calculated using equation
8.3 as:
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 211
f
1,1
'

2 18
8.04 10
4
3
4
%
111.8
3
4
% 0.5
8.04 10
4
0.3
3
4
%
111.8 0.3
3
4
%
207 10
9
0.0016
3
3
4
3 2.6
1/ 2
' 12.5Hz
TL
A
' 20log
10
(280 18.0) & 54 ' 20.0dB
TL
B
' 20log
10
(280) % 10log
10
(18.0) & 10log
10
(280)
& 20log
10
[ log
e
(4)] & 13.2
' 21.0dB
TL
C
' 20log
10
(3750) % 10log
10
(18.0) & 10log
10
(280)
& 20log
10
[ log
e
(15000/280)] & 13.2
' 34.4dB
TL
D
' 10log
10
(18.0) % 15log
10
(7500) & 5log
10
(280) & 17 ' 41.4dB
Assuming that the enclosure wall edge condition is simply supported, the
first resonance frequency may be calculated using equation 8.22 in the
text. Thus:
(b) The sound transmission loss of the panel may be calculated using figure
8.8b in the text. Point A is at 140Hz and the corresponding TL is given
by:
At point B (280Hz), the TL is:
At point C (3,750Hz), the TL is:
At point D (15,000Hz), the TL is:
These points are plotted on the graph below and interpolation is used to
find the octave band TL values. Strictly speaking, the curve should only
Solutions to problems 212
TL
oct
' &10log
10
6 (1/3) [10
&TL
1
/10
% 10
&TL
2
/10
% 10
&TL
3
/10
] >
f
c1
0.5f
c1
0.5f
c2
B
C
A
be used to find 1/3 octave values and the octave band levels must then be
calculated from the following equation:
However, for most practical purposes, the results obtained that way are
little different to the results obtained by reading the octave band levels
directly from the figure. However, in the case of isotropic panels, care
should be taken to avoid errors near the dip in the curve corresponding
to the critical frequency. Following the figure, the octave band results
are summarised in a table.
Octave band centre
frequency (Hz)
Transmission
Loss (dB)
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
13
19
21
23
26
30
35
38
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 213
f
c
'
343
2
2
36
111.8
1/ 2
' 10,600Hz
TL
A
' 20log
10
(10,600 36) & 54 ' 57.6dB
TL ' 20log
10
(10,600 36) % 10log
10
(0.1) & 45 ' 56.6dB
0.5f
c
A
(c) With viscoelastic damping the panel may be treated as isotropic with the
surface mass, m, now equal to 2 18 = 36kg/m
2
. The critical frequency
is:
On the isotropic panel curve, point A is at 5,300Hz (10,600/2) and the TL
is:
At point B, the frequency is 10,600Hz and the TL is:
The results are plotted on the graph below from which can be read TL
values as a function of 1/3 octave band centre frequency.
(d) Second panel, . The 1 f
c1
' 0.55 343
2
/ (2000 0.013) ' 2500Hz
subscript is used because this critical frequency is smaller than that for
the other panel.
Surface mass, m = 0.013 1000 = 13kg/m
2
.
Solutions to problems 214
f
0
' 80
36 % 13
36 13 0.1
' 82Hz
TL
A
' 20log
10
(36 % 13) % 20log
10
(81.86) & 48 ' 24dB
TL
B1
' 24 % 20log
10
(2500/ 82) & 6 ' 47.7dB
TL
B2
' 20log
10
(13 0.6) % 40log
10
(10600) & 99 ' 80dB
TL
C
' 80 % 6 % 10log
10
(0.01) ' 66dB
Cavity resonance frequency is:
and the corresponding TL is:
At point B the frequency is 5300 Hz and the TL is:
and as there are rubber spacers, one panel may be considered to be point
supported. Note that the panel with the higher critical frequency (the
damped corrugated panel in this case) must be the one which is point
supported to obtain the high TL predicted. The value of TL
B2
for line-
point support is:
Assuming that there is sound absorbing material in the cavity,
TL
B
= 80dB.
At point C, the frequency is 10,600Hz and the TL is:
At point D, the frequency is f
1
= 55/0.1 = 550Hz.
The TL data are plotted in the following figure from which the 1/3 octave
values can be read directly.
Problem 8.5
A double wall partition may perform more poorly than a single partition of the
same weight at resonance frequencies corresponding to acoustic modes in the
cavity and also at the critical frequencies of the individual panels (if they are
lightly damped).
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 215
f
0
' 80.4
1000 0.012 % 7800 0.0016
0.1 1000 0.012 7800 0.0016
' 103.2Hz
TL
A
' 20log
10
(12 % 12.48) % 20log
10
(103.2) & 48 ' 20.0dB
f
c1
'
0.55 343
2
2100 0.012
' 2570Hz and 0.5f
c1
' 1280Hz
f
c2
'
0.55 343
2
5400 0.0016
' 7490Hz
f
0
f
R
0.5f
c2
A
B
D
C
Problem 8.6
Following the procedure on page 360 in the text, we have at point A:
and the corresponding Transmission Loss is:
The critical frequencies are:
Solutions to problems 216
TL
B1
' 20 % 20log
10
(2568/ 102.2) & 6 ' 42dB
TL
B2
' 20log
10
(12) % 10log
10
(0.6) % 30log
10
(7490)
% 20log
10
1 %
12.48 2570
12 7490
& 78
' 61.7dB
TL
C
' 61.7 % 6 % 10log
10
(0.01) ' 47.7dB
f
0
f
R
0.5f
c2
f
c2
A
B
D
C
The Transmission Loss at point B is the larger of:
and:
At point C:
The frequency f
R
= 55/0.1 = 550Hz.
The Transmission Loss may thus be plotted as shown in the following figure
and 1/3 octave (but not octave) values may be read directly from the figure.
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 217
0.001 '

w
(18 & 0.25 & 2) % 0.25 10
&28/ 10
% 2 10
&25/ 10
18
'
0.25 10
&28/ 10
% 2 10
&25/ 10
18
' 3.73 10
&4
'
7.16 10
&4
15.75 % 0.025 1 1 % 0.25 10
&2.8
% 1.975 10
&2.5
18
' 0.00238
TL ' &10log
10
(2.38 10
&3
) ' 26.2dB
Problem 8.7
(a) TL
overall
= 30dB, so = 10
-30/10
= 0.001. If we let the required transmission
coefficient of the wall be
w
, then we can write:
From which
w
= 7.161 10
-4
. Thus the required wall Transmission Loss
is, TL
w
= -10log
10
(7.161 10
-4
) = 31.5dB.
(b) Maximum TL possible corresponds to
w
= 0. Thus:
which corresponds to TL = 10log
10
(3.73 10
-4
) = 34.3dB
(c) 25mm crack under the door. Effective crack height is 50mm due to
reflection in the floor, and
crack
= 1.0. Thus the overall transmission
coefficient is:
which corresponds to a Transmission Loss of:
Problem 8.8
When designing an enclosure, always (if possible) include sound absorptive
material on the ceiling and walls, thus resulting in an "average" enclosure with
the coefficients, C, as listed in the table below (along with the required noise
reduction and corresponding wall TL given by TL = NR + C).
Solutions to problems 218
f
c
(steel) '
0.55 343
2
5400 0.003
. 4000Hz ' f
c2
f
c
(plaster) '
0.55 343
2
1600 0.025
. 1600Hz ' f
c1
m
1
' 760 0.025 ' 19kg/ m
2
and m
2
' 7800 0.003 ' 23.4kg/ m
2
f
0
' 80
19 % 23.4
0.1 19 23.4
' 78Hz
TL
A
' 20log
10
(19 % 23.4) % 20log
10
(78) & 48 ' 22dB at 78Hz
TL
63
' TL
A
% 60log
10
(63/ f
0
) ' 27
20log
10
(m
1
% m
2
) % 20log
10
f
0
% 60log
10
63 & 60log
10
f
0
' 27 % 48
Octave
band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Required
NR
14 18 25 35 50 40 40 40
C 13 11 9 7 5 4 3 3
required
wall TL
27 29 34 42 55 44 43 43
100mm studs implies gap, d = 0.1m. Assume that the door and window have
the same TL as the walls.
To begin, try 3mm steel and 25mm plasterboard.
This is insufficient as we need 27dB at 63Hz. It seems that we need to lower
f
0
below 63Hz, to put this point on the 18dB/octave slope.
That is:
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 219
20log
10
(m
1
% m
2
) & 40log
10
f
0
' &33
(1)
40log
10
f
0
' 40log
10
80 % 20log
10
(m
1
% m
2
) & 20log
10
(m
1
m
2
) % 20
' 96 % 20log
10
(m
1
% m
2
) & 20log
10
(m
1
m
2
)
20log
10
(m
1
m
2
) ' 63dB or m
1
m
2
' 1410
f
c1
'
0.55 343
2
1600 0.05
. 810Hz
f
c2
'
0.55 343
2
5400 0.005
. 2400Hz
m
1
' 760 0.05 ' 38kg/ m
2
and m
2
' 7800 0.005 ' 39.0kg/ m
2
f
0
' 80
38 % 39
0.1 38 39
' 58Hz
TL
A
' 20log
10
(38 % 39) % 20log
10
(58) & 48 ' 25dB at 58Hz
TL
B1
' 24.9 % 20log
10
(810/ 57.7) & 6 ' 41.8dB
or
Using the equation for f
0
on page 357 in the text and taking logs gives:
Substituting the above expression into equation (1) above gives:
Try 50mm plasterboard (same as gypsum board), m = 760 0.05 = 38kg/m
2
.
Required steel weight = 1410/38 = 37kg/m
2
, which is 4.7mm thick. That is,
use 50mm thick plasterboard and 5mm thick steel plate.
Assume a stud spacing of 0.6m and line-line support. Thus:
Solutions to problems 220
TL
B2
' 20log
10
(38) % 10log
10
(0.6) % 30log
10
(2400)
% 20log
10
1 %
39 810
1/ 2
38 2400
1/ 2
& 78 ' 57dB
TL
C
' 57 % 6 % 10log
10
(0.005) ' 40dB
f
0
f
c2
f
c2
f
R
0.5f
c2
0.5f
c2
A
B
B
C
C
As the cavity is filled with sound absorbing material, TL
B
= 57dB. Assume
a loss factor for the steel of 0.005 (see table on p.609 in text). Then:
The frequency at point D is f
R
= 55/0.1 = 550Hz.
The TL for this construction is plotted on the following figure (where the
dashed line is the required Transmission Loss and the solid line is the
predicted Transmission Loss, calculated using Figure 8.9 in the text), where
it can be seen that the design is deficient between 1000Hz and 2500Hz. It is
clear that the first critical frequency must be increased or the quantity TL
B
(and hence TL
C
) must be increased. An easy solution to the problem is to use
point supports for the steel panel but this may not be practical. Thus try
75mm thick plaster board (m = 760 0.075 = 57kg/m
2
. The required
thickness of steel panel is such that steel weight = 1410/57 = 25kg/m
2
, which
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 221
f
c1
'
0.55 343
2
1600 0.088
. 460Hz
f
c2
'
0.55 343
2
5400 0.003
. 4000Hz
m
1
' 760 0.088 ' 66.9kg/ m
2
and m
2
' 7800 0.003 ' 23.4kg/ m
2
f
0
' 80
66.9 % 23.4
0.1 66.9 23.4
' 61Hz
TL
A
' 20log
10
(66.9 % 23.4) % 20log
10
(61) & 48 ' 27dB at 61Hz
TL
B1
' 26.8 % 20log
10
(460/ 61) & 6 ' 38.3dB
TL
B2
' 20log
10
(66.9) % 10log
10
(0.6) % 30log
10
(4000)
% 20log
10
1 %
23.4 460
1/ 2
66.9 4000
1/ 2
& 78 ' 65dB
TL
C
' 65 % 6 % 10log
10
(0.005) ' 48dB
is 3.2mm thick. This is an odd thickness, so try 88mm thick plasterboard (3
25 + 13) m = 760 0.088 = 66.9kg/m
2
. Required steel weight = 1410/66.9
= 21kg/m
2
, which is 2.7mm thick. That is, use 88mm thick plasterboard and
3mm thick steel plate.
Assume a stud spacing of 0.6m and line-line support. Thus:
As the cavity is filled with sound absorbing material, TL
B
= 65dB. Assume
a loss factor for the steel of 0.005. Then:
The frequency at point D is f
R
= 55/0.1 = 550Hz.
The TL for this construction is plotted on the previous figure as the grey line,
where it can be seen that the proposed construction easily meets the noise
reduction requirements and is even a little too good.
Solutions to problems 222
Problem 8.9
There is a 5mm air gap under door. For the purpose of calculating the
transmission coefficient, the reflection in the floor effectively doubles the
width of the gap. However, once the transmission coefficient has been
determined using figure 8.11 in the text, the area of gap in subsequent
calculations is determined without doubling the width.
Area of walls and ceiling = 2(4 2.5 + 3 2.5) + 4 3 = 47m
2
. Area under
door = 0.005 1 = 0.005m
2
. Effective gap under door = 0.01m.
gap
is
calculated using figure 8.11 in the text. We can construct the following table
using equations 8.12, 8.65 and 8.66 in the text.
Octave band
centre
frequency (Hz)
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
TL
wall
27 45 51 56.5 60.5 52 49 63
S
wall

wall
0.0938 0.00149 3.73
10
-4
1.05
10
-4
4.19
10
-5
2.97
10
-4
5.92
10
-4
2.36
10
-5
S
gap

gap
0.005 0.005 0.003 0.0016 0.001 5.5
10
-4
2.5
10
-4
1.3
10
-4

2.10
10
-3
1.38
10
-4
7.18
10
-5
3.63
10
-5
2.22
10
-5
1.80
10
-5
1.79
10
-5
3.26
10
-6

L
27 39 41 44 47 47 47 55
From the table it can be seen that the effect of the gap under the door is to
significantly reduce the effective wall TL and on comparing the results in the
above table with the table of problem 8.8, it can be seen that the required
enclosure noise reduction will no longer be achieved in the 1000Hz octave
band.
Problem 8.10
The required air flow may be calculated using equation 8.84 in the text, in
which = 1.206kg/m
2
, C
p
= 1010m
2
s
-2
C
-1
, T = 3EC and H = 0.05 10
4
W.
Thus:
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 223
V '
0.05 10
4
3 1010 1.206
' 0.14m
3
/ s
The required Insertion Loss specifications for the silencer would be the same
as the TL of the walls (not the noise reduction required of the enclosure as this
excludes reverberant build-up in the enclosure) and this is found in problem
8.8.
Problem 8.11
The following steps would need to be taken.
1. Check local noise regulations for allowable levels in the residential area.
Measure existing levels in dB(A) on the perimeter of the supermarket
property at the closest location to the proposed compressor location over
an extended period (about a week with a statistical noise analyser, or if
this is impractical use a sound level meter).
2. Choose as the design criterion for the compressor noise in the community
the smallest of the regulation level and the lowest measured existing level
plus 5dB(A). If existing levels were determined using spot checks with
a sound level meter, then the criterion may be more conservative, such as
the existing level plus 2dB(A).
3. Use table 4.8 to convert the allowable dB(A) level in the community to
an NR level and then use the corresponding NR curve (figure 4.8) to
specify the allowable community noise levels in octave bands.
4. Calculate the noise reduction from the compressor site to the nearest
community location due to atmospheric absorption, turbulence, ground
effects and meteorological influences, or place a loudspeaker at the
proposed compressor location and measure the noise reduction as a
function of distance from it.
5. Use the sound power data for the compressor and the excess attenuation
data together with equation 5.158 in the text to calculate the noise levels
due to the compressor at the nearest community location in octave bands.
6. Thus calculate the required enclosure noise reduction and following that,
Solutions to problems 224
L
p
' L
w
& 10log
10
(2r
2
) ' 105 & 10log
10
(2 80
2
) ' 59dB
TL ' 10log
10
1 %
fm
c
2
& 4
' 10log
10
1 %
500 7800 h
1.206 343
2
& 4 dB
the corresponding required wall transmission loss.
7. Check compressor cooling requirements and if necessary design lined
inlet and outlet ducts (with forced air ventilation) with the same Insertion
Loss as the Transmission Loss of the enclosure walls.
Problem 8.12
(a) Compressor is 80m from perimeter. The sound level at the receiver with
no enclosure (assuming hard ground, zero reflection loss) may be
calculated using equation 5.158 in the text with DI
M
= A
E
= 0, so that:
The required noise level = 38dB, so reduction required = 21dB at 500Hz.
Smallest panel of enclosure = 0.6m 0.6m (stud spacing), so 500Hz is
well above the first panel resonance frequency (you can calculate this
using equation 8.21 to be sure).
Critical frequency is:
. So f
c
' 0.55 343
2
/ (5400 h) ' 12/ h Hz, where h is in metres
500Hz is in the mass law range for all choices of panel.
From equation 8.79 in the text, the required panel TL = NR + C, and for
an enclosure lined on the inside, C = 7 (see table 8.4, p376 in the text).
Thus the required enclosure TL = 21 + 7 = 28dB at 500Hz.
(b) The wall TL may be calculated in the mass law range by using equation
8.36 in the text (with the assumption NOT made that fm/c > 1), with a
constant of 4 instead of 5.5 to account for octave band calculations.
Thus:
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 225
f
0
' 80 2/ (0.1 9.88) ' 114Hz
f
c1
' f
c2
'
0.55 343
2
1600 0.013
' 3100Hz
TL
A
' 20log
10
(9.88 2) % 20log
10
(113.8) & 48 ' 19.0dB
TL
B1
' 19 % 20log
10
(3100/ 114) & 6 ' 42dB
When h = 0.001m, TL = 25.4dB which is too low. As we are in mass law
range a doubling of panel thickness will increase the TL by 6dB which
is a bit high. Trying h = 0.0016m, gives TL = 29.5dB which is OK, so
choose a wall thickness of 1.6mm.
(c) Should consider the effect of a door and the design of appropriate door
seals, the need for cooling air, the introduction of the inlet air, the pipe
penetration (to be isolated from the enclosure wall) for the compressed
air and the need for vibration isolation of the enclosure from the
compressor.
Problem 8.13
Equation 8.79 in the text gives TL = NR + C. From Table 8.3, C = 5dB for an
enclosure with surfaces lined with sound absorbing material. Thus,
TL = 15 + 5 = 20dB
Problem 8.14
(a) The performance of a machinery noise enclosure should not be expressed
as a single number dB(A) rating because the dB(A) performance will be
dependent on the spectrum shape of the noise generated by the enclosed
source.
(b) We may use equation 8.79 in the text to relate TL and noise reduction and
thus define the minimum required TL. The TL due to the panel may be
calculated using the procedure on p360 in the text.
d = 0.1m, m
1
= m
2
= 760 0.013 = 9.88kg/m
2
.
Solutions to problems 226
TL
B2
' 20log
10
(9.88) % 10log
10
(0.6) % 30log
10
(3100)
% 20log
10
(2) & 78 ' 50dB
TL
C
' 50.4 % 6 % 15log
10
(0.02) ' 31dB
f
R
' 55/ 0.1 ' 550Hz
TL
oct
' &10log
10
6 (1/3) [10
&TL
1
/10
% 10
&TL
2
/10
% 10
&TL
3
/10
] >
f
0
f
R
0.5f
c2
f
c2
A
B
D
C
For line-line support:
Assuming that there is sound absorbing material in the wall cavity, TL
B
= 50dB.
The corresponding TL curve is plotted in the figure below and the octave
band data are listed in the following table, where octave band results are
obtained by using 1/3 octave values read from the graph and calculated
using:
where TL
1
, TL
2
, and TL
3
, are the (1/3) octave band data read from the
figure.
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 227
V '
H
C
p
T
'
0.02 50000
1.206 1010 5
' 0.164m
3
/ s
L
w
' L
p1
% TL % 10log
10
S
E
& C ' L
p1
% NR % 10log
10
S
E
Octave
Band
Centre
Frequency
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
TL
(from plot)
14 21 35 41 47 43 36 52
C 13 11 9 7 5 4 3 3
NR 1 10 26 34 42 39 33 49
Required
NR
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 13
It can be seen that the enclosure is deficient in the 63Hz, 125Hz, and
4000Hz octave bands, so it is not adequate.
(c) ! Use double, staggered stud wall.
! Use point-line or point-point support by placing rubber grommets
between the panel and stud at attachment points.
! Use thicker panels.
! Fix additional 13mm thick panels to existing panels with patches of
silicone sealant.
! Use panels of different thickness.
(d) From equation 8.84 in the text:
(e) The sound power level is given by equation 8.70 in the text. Thus:
where S
E
= 2(5 2.5 + 4 2.5) + 4 5 = 65m
2
and 10log
10
S
E
= 18dB.
The power level calculations may be summarised in the following table.
Solutions to problems 228
L
pd
' L
w
& 10log
10
S ' L
w
& 16dB
p
2
' p
2
d
% p
2
R

Octave
Band
Centre
Frequency
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
L
p1
80 83 78 73 70 60 60 60
NR 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 20
L
w
108 116 116 116 118 113 118 98
(f) Test surface 1m from machine of dimensions 2m 1m 1m, so
measurement surface is 4m 3m 2m (machine assumed to be resting
on the ground), having an area of S = 2(4 2 + 3 2) + 4 3 = 40m
2
(4
sides and 1 top). Machine surface area S
m
= 2(2 1 + 1 1) + 2 1 =
8m
2
. The sound pressure is related to the sound power by equation 6.25
in the text with
1
= 0 because the measurements are made outdoors. The
ratio, S/S
m
= 5, so the near field correction
2
= 0 and the sound pressure
level 1m from the machine surface is given by:
The results are tabulated in the following table:
Octave
Band
Centre
Frequency
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
L
w
108 116 116 116 118 113 118 98
L
pd
92 100 100 100 102 97 102 82
(g) With the enclosure in place, the mean square sound pressure is equal to
the sum of the direct and reverberant field contributions. Sound pressure
levels are converted to mean square sound pressures using equation 1.78
in the text and sound powers are converted to sound power levels and
vice versa using equation 1.80 in the text. Thus the mean square sound
pressure in the enclosure is:
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 229
p
2
R
'
4Wc
R
4
R
'
4
3.33
10
C/ 10
0.3 S
E
&
1
S
E
The reverberant mean square pressure is:
where R is the room constant and W is the source sound power. The
enclosure constant C is given in terms of R by equation 8.82 in the text
which can be rearranged (with the aid of equation 7.43) to give:
The results are summarised in the following table, where for
convenience, c = 400.
Octave
Band
Centre
Frequency
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
C 13 11 9 7 5 4 3 3
L
w
108 116 116 116 118 113 118 98
W 6.3
10
-2
0.40 0.40 0.40 0.63 0.20 0.63 6.3
10
-3
4/R 1.21 0.76 0.47 0.29 0.18 0.14 0.10 0.10
L
pd
92 100 100 100 102 97 102 82
p
2
d

0.63 4.0 4.0 4.0 6.3 2.5 6.3 0.063
p
2
R

30.5 122 75.2 46.4 45.4 11.2 25.2 0.25
p
2
d
% p
2
R

31 126 79 50 52 14 32 0.31
L
pT
109 115 113 111 111 105 109 89
dB(A)
correct.
-26 -16 -9 -3 0 1 1 -1
dB(A)
sound
pressure
levels
92 100 100 100 102 97 103 88
Solutions to problems 230
L
p2
' 60 % 10log
10
(65) % 10log
10
2
4 200
2
& A
E
' 24 & A
E
(dB)
(h) In the 2000Hz band, L
p1
= 60dB and the sound pressure level at distance
r from the enclosure is given by equation 8.72 in the text (with D

= 2
due to the hard ground surface) as:
A
E
is the excess attenuation given by equation 5.165 in the text.
A
g
is included in D

above as the asphalt is hard resulting in essentially

hemispherical spreading.
A
a
= 10.8/5 = 2dB (see table 5.3 on page 225 in the text).
A
m
= +5, -4dB (see table 5.10)
Thus the range of variability is 18 to 27dB.
Problem 8.15
Noise level inside enclosure = 101dB at 1000Hz.
Noise level on surface, 1m from enclosure = 91dB.
Noise level at 50m distance = 70dB.
(a) Sound power level radiated by enclosure may be calculated using
equation 6.25 in the text.
Test surface 1 m from enclosure of dimensions 3m 3m 3m, so
measurement surface is 5m 5m 4m (assuming that the enclosure is
resting on the ground), having an area of
S = 2(5 4 2) + 5 5 = 105m
2
(4 sides and 1 top). Machine surface
area, S
m
= 2(3 3 2) + 3 3 = 45m
2
. The sound pressure is related to
the sound power by equation 6.25 in the text with
1
= 0 because the
measurements are made outdoors. The ratio, S/S
m
= 105/45 = 2.3, so the
near field correction
2
= 1 and the sound power level of the enclosure
is given by:
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 231
L
w
' 91 % 10log
10
(105) & 1 ' 110dB
L
p
' 110 & 20log
10
(50) & 10log
10
(2) ' 68dB
(b) We may use equations 5.158 and 5.161 with r = 50m and DI
M
= A
E
= 0
so that:
(c) As the measured noise level is 70dB, the excess attenuation due to
atmospheric absorption and meteorological influences is 68 - 70 = -2dB.
The excess attenuation due to the ground effect is -3dB, so the total
excess attenuation is -5dB.
(d) The machine is probably not well vibration isolated from the enclosure,
causing the enclosure wall to vibrate and radiate noise. Vibration could
be transmitted by way of the floor or by direct connection of parts of the
machine (or attached pipework) to parts of the enclosure. Also, pipework
or other equipment not included in the enclosure but attached to the noisy
machine could radiate noise which was not apparent prior to installation
of the enclosure.
Problem 8.16
Adequate internal absorption is necessary to prevent the build-up of
reverberant energy which will compromise the predicted acoustic
performance.
Problem 8.17
(a) The enclosure should be vibration isolated to prevent the walls from
being excited to vibrate and thus radiate sound which in turn will
compromise the enclosure performance.
(b) One possible disadvantage associated with vibration isolation from the
floor is increased difficulty in producing an adequate acoustic seal
around the base of the enclosure.
(c) Other factors which could degrade the enclosure performance are
! poor seals around doors and windows
Solutions to problems 232
! inadequate TL performance of doors and windows
! inadequate internal absorption
! pipe penetrations in the enclosure walls not vibration isolated from
the walls or poorly sealed acoustically.
! pipework or other equipment not included in the enclosure but
attached to the noisy machine could radiate noise which was not
apparent prior to installation of the enclosure.
Problem 8.18
! acoustic absorbing material left out of wall cavity or too rigid and
touching both walls
! poor seals around windows and doors
! glass in double glazing too thin
! doors of insufficient acoustic performance
! floor vibration transmitted to enclosure walls because of inadequate
vibration isolation
! wall stud spacing incorrect
! incorrect wall thickness or wall materials
! poor seal at base of enclosure
! poor bricklaying (if brick walls) leading to gaps in the mortar
! change from original noise sources
! tonal noise from the machine corresponding to a structural resonance or
an acoustic resonance (wall cavity or enclosure space).
! pipework or other equipment not included in the enclosure but attached
to the noisy machine could radiate noise which was not apparent prior to
installation of the enclosure.
A test to determine whether the problem was airborne or structure-borne
would be to turn the machines off and use loudspeakers in the enclosure to
generate the same noise levels inside the enclosure. If the exterior noise levels
are then the same with the loudspeakers operating as they were with the
machine, then the problem is airborne flanking. If the noise external to the
enclosure with the loudspeakers operating is lower, then the problem is likely
to be structure-borne vibration or radiation from equipment attached to the
noisy machine but not included in the enclosure.
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 233
L
pA
' 10log
10
10
(6.3 & 2.62)
% 10
(6.7 & 1.61)
% 10
(6.2 & 0.86)
% 10
(5.5 & 0.32)
% 10
5.2
% 10
(5 % 0.12)
% 10
(4.5 % 0.1)
% 10
(4.2 & 0.11)
' 59.2dB(A)
Problem 8.19
(a) The Noise Rating (NR) is obtained by plotting the un-weighted octave
band data on a set of NR curves (see fig 4.7, p118 in text) as illustrated
in the following figure. The NR value is 52.5.
A-weighted sound level is given by:
(b) The acceptable noise level is obtained using table 4.10, p167 in the text
and is L
p
= 40 + 20 - 10 = 50dB(A). The actual level is over 9dB(A)
above the allowable level, a situation which is not acceptable and
according to table 4.11, it will generate widespread complaints from the
community. If the noise only occurs during the hours of 7am and 6pm,
then the allowable level is L
p
= 40 + 20 = 60dB(A) and the existing level
is thus acceptable.
Solutions to problems 234
0.5
d
1
'
1.5
40 & d
1
; d
1
' 10m
' tan
&1
0.5
10
' 2.862E
f
R
1
'
1.206 500
2 10
5
' 0.003
|
0.5m
S
R
1.5m
40 - d
1
d
1
(c) The octave band levels essentially follow the shape of the NR curve
(except at 63Hz, where the level is much lower), so the noise will sound
neutral.
(d) With no barrier, there are two propagation paths; the direct path and the
ground reflected path.
With a barrier, there are 8 paths as listed below:
! over the top with no ground reflections
! over the top with a ground reflection on the source side
! over the top with a ground reflection on the receiver side
! over the top with ground reflections on both sides
! around each end with no ground reflections
! around each end with a ground reflection
(e) Attenuation of ground reflected wave (see figure)
Using similar triangles:
From table 5.2 on p209, R
1
= 2 10
-5
; = 1.206. Thus at 500Hz:
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 235

R
1
f
1/ 2
' 52E
d
1
0.5
'
20 & d
1
3
; d
1
' 2.857m
' tan
&1
0.5
2.857
' 9.93E ;
R
1
f
1/ 2
' 181E
0.5m
S
|
20m
20m
1.5m
3m
d
1
R
S
0.5m
|
R
1.5m
3m
20m 20m
d
2
From figure 5.20, the reflection loss on ground reflection is thus 3.9dB.
(f) Attenuation due to barrier. First calculate the reflection loss for each
path which involves a ground reflection.
! Over the top, source side reflection
Using similar triangles:
and from figure 5.20, p231 in the text, A
R
= 7.9dB
! over the top, receiver side reflection
Using similar triangles:
Solutions to problems 236
d
2
1.5
'
20 & d
2
3
; d
2
' 6.667
' tan
&1
1.5
6.667
' 12.7E ;
R
1
f
1/ 2
' 231E
d
3
0.5
'
40 & d
3
1.5
; d
3
' 10m
0.5m
3m
1.5m
R
20m
20m
d
3
S
S
/
A
A
A
0.5m
20m 20m
d
1
1.5m
3m
| |
B
B
B
S
R
and from figure 5.20, p231 in the text, A
R
= 7.0dB
! around each end of the barrier
Using similar triangles:
which is the same as if there were no barrier, so A
R
= 3.9dB
Now calculate Fresnel numbers for all paths over and around the barrier.
! Over the top (see figure)
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 237
A
)
' [ 0.5
2
% 2.857
2
]
1/ 2
' 2.9004m; A
))
' [ 3
2
% 17.143
2
]
1/ 2
' 17.404m
B
)
' [ 1.5
2
% 6.667
2
]
1/ 2
' 6.834m; B
))
' [ 3
2
% 13.333
2
]
1/ 2
' 13.663m
d
)
' [ 2
2
% 40
2
]
1/ 2
' 40.05m
A ' [ 20
2
% 2.5
2
]
1/ 2
' 20.156m; B ' [ 20
2
% 1.5
2
]
1/ 2
' 20.056m
d ' [ 40
2
% 1
2
]
1/ 2
' 40.01m
N
1
' (20.156 % 20.056 & 40.01) 2.92 ' 0.58
N
2
' (2.900 % 17.404 % 20.056 & 40.05) 2.92 ' 0.91
N
3
' (20.156 % 6.834 % 13.663 & 40.05) 2.92 ' 1.76
N
4
' (2.900 % 17.404 % 6.834 % 13.663 & 40.01) 2.92 ' 2.31

b1
' 11.5 ;
b2
' 12.8 ;
b3
' 15.8 ;
b4
' 17.0dB
Top view
d
B
R
A
S
The distance d, between source and receiver depends on the path which is
being considered. For example, for waves reflected from the ground on the
source side of the barrier only, the value of d (denoted d') below, is that from
the image source to the receiver, etc.
From figure 8.14, p389 in the text:
It can be shown that in this case, the corrections of equation 8.88 are:
A
b1
= 11.5 + 0.0 = 11.5; A
b2
= 12.8 + 0.1 = 12.9;
A
b3
= 15.8 + 0.1 = 15.9; A
b4
= 17.0 + 0.2 = 17.2.
! Around the ends (see figure)
Solutions to problems 238
A ' B ' [ 20
2
% 5
2
% (1.5 & 0.5)
2
/ 4]
1/ 2
' 20.622m; d ' 40.01m.
N
5,6
' (20.622 2 & 40.01) 2.92 ' 3.6 ;
b5, 6
' 18.7dB
A
)
' A
))
' [ 10
2
% 0.5
2
% 2.5
2
]
1/ 2
' 10.32m
B
)
' [ 20
2
% 1
2
% 5
2
] ' 20.64m; d
)
' [ 40
2
% 2
2
]
1/ 2
' 40.05m
N
7, 8
' (10.32 2 % 20.64 & 40.05) 2.92' 3.6 ;
b7, 8
' 18.7dB
NR ' 10log
10
10
&0/ 10
% 10
&3.9/ 10
& 10log
10
10
&1.15
% 10
&(1.29 % 0.79)
% 10
&(1.59 % 0.70)
% 10
&(1.72 % 1.49)
% 2 10
&1.9
% 2 10
&(1.90 % 0.39)
' 1.5 % 9.2 ' 10.7dB
A
A
0.5m
0.5m
20m 20m
1.5m
|
B
S
S
R
10m
3m
Direct waves, no reflection (one each side):
From figure 8.14 in the text:
Thus A
b5,6
' 18.7 % 0.3 ' 19.0dB
Reflected waves (one each side)
From figure 8.14 in the text:
Thus A
b7,8
' 18.7 % 0.3 ' 19.0dB
NR due to barrier is then calculated using equation 1.97 in the text as:
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 239
A
1.5m
B
d
48m
1.5m
2m
??
Problem 8.20
NR-50 octave band values may be read from figure 4.8, p155 in the text and
the following table may be generated.
Octave
band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
63 125 250 500 100
0
200
0
400
0
8000
Existing
noise
68 77 65 67 63 58 45 40
NR-50 76 67 60 54 50 48 46 44
Required
reduction 0 10 5 13 13 10 0 0
Noise reduction is a function of Fresnel number which is directly proportional
to frequency. The important frequency is then 125Hz. If this is satisfied, the
reduction at 500Hz will be OK. It is left to the reader to verify this.
Total of 8 paths (4 over top and 4 around sides) to consider to get an overall
reduction of 10dB at 125Hz. Consider first the paths around the barrier edges
as the attenuation around these paths is independent of barrier height.
Solutions to problems 240
Around edge (elevation)
S
h
g
j
e
f
c
1.5m
2m 23m
25m
1.5m
??
Plan
2m 23m 25m
b
5m
S
R
As the source and receiver are at the same height, the location of the ground
reflection will be mid-way (in a horizontal direction only) between the source
and receiver.
Path with no ground reflection
Path h = (2
2
+ 5
2
)
1/2
= 5.385m
Path j = (48
2
+ 5
2
)
1/2
= 48.260m
A % B & d ' 5.385 % 48.260 & 50 ' 3.64m
At 125Hz, = 343/125 = 2.744m and N = (2/ ) 3.64 = 2.65. From figure
8.14 on p389 in the text,
b
= 17.0dB. The correction term given by equation
8.88 in the text (assuming an omnidirectional source) is
, so . 20log
10
(53.64/ 50) ' 0.6dB A
b
' 17.0 % 0.6 ' 17.6dB
Path with ground reflection
From the figure, and using similar triangles, b/5 = 25/48; b = 2.6m
Path e = ( 25
2
% 1.5
2
% 2.604
2
)
1/ 2
' 25.180m
By similar triangles, f/1.5 = 23/25; f = 1.38m
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 241
A , A
1 3
B , B
1 2
h-1.5
d
2m
48m
B , B
3 4
1.5m
1.5m 1.5m
h
h
A , A
2 4
1.5m
2m 48m
Path g = ( 23
2
% 1.38
2
% 2.396
2
)
1/ 2
' 23.166m
Path c = ( 0.12
2
% 2
2
% 5
2
)
1/ 2
' 5.387m
A % B & d ' 5.387 % 23.166 % 25.180 & [ 50
2
% 3
2
]
1/ 2
' 3.64m
Thus, N = (2/ ) 3.64 = 2.65. from figure 8.14 on p389 in the text,

b
= 17.0dB. The correction term given by equation 8.88 in the text
(assuming an omnidirectional source) is , so 20log
10
(53.74/ 50.09) ' 0.6dB
. Losses due to ground reflection are zero. A
b
' 17.0 % 0.6 ' 17.6dB
The required barrier height can be found by trial and error. The results are
summarised in the following table, where the subscript "1" refers to waves
travelling over the barrier with no reflections, the subscript "2" implies a
reflection on the source side, the subscript "3" implies a reflection on the
receiver side and the subscript "4" implies a reflection on both sides. The
distances "A" refer to the source side of the barrier (source to barrier top along
the particular path specified by the associated subscript) and the distances "B"
refer to distances on the receiver side. We will begin the trial with a barrier
height of 3.0m. The correction term given by equation 8.88 in the text
(assuming an omnidirectional source) is added to the barrier attenuation
b
to
give A
b
.
Solutions to problems 242
NR ' 10log
10
10
0
% 10
0
& 10log
10
4 10
&1.76
% 10
&A
b1
/ 10
% 10
&A
b2
/ 10
% 10
&A
b3
/ 10
% 10
&A
b4
/ 10
The barrier overall noise reduction is given by equation 1.97 in the text which
can be expanded to give:
Barrier height 3.0m 3.5m 4.0m
A
1
(m)
A
2
(m)
A
3
(m)
A
4
(m)
B
1
(m)
B
2
(m)
B
3
(m)
B
4
(m)
N
1
N
2
N
3
N
4

b1

b2

b3

b4
A
b1
(dB)
A
b2
(dB)
A
b3
(dB)
A
b4
(dB)
2.50
4.92
2.50
4.92
48.02
48.02
48.21
48.21
0.38
2.07
0.45
2.28
10.1
16.1
10.5
17
10.2
16.6
10.6
17.5
2.828
5.385
2.828
5.385
48.042
48.042
48.260
48.260
0.63
2.43
0.73
2.66
11.9
17
12.0
17.1
12.0
17.5
12.2
17.6
3.202
5.852
3.202
5.852
48.065
48.065
48.314
48.314
0.923
2.79
1.04
3.036
12.6
17.3
13.1
18
12.8
17.9
13.3
18.7
NR (dB) 8.3 9.4 10.0
Thus the wall height should be about 4.0m.
Problem 8.21
The layout is illustrated in the following figure.
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 243
A
)
' 20
2
% 2
2
' 20.0998m
A
))
' 30
2
% 3
2
' 30.1496m
B
)
' 6.667
2
% 3
2
' 7.3109m
B
))
' 3.333
2
% 1.5
2
' 3.6550m
A ' 50
2
% 1
2
' 50.0100m
B ' 10
2
% 1.5
2
' 10.1119m
N
1
'
2
0.686
50.0100 % 10.1119 & (60
2
% 0.5
2
)
1/ 2
' 0.35
N
2
'
2
0.686
20.0998 % 30.1496 % 10.1119 & (60
2
% 3.5
2
)
1/ 2
' 0.76
2m
d
1
50m 10m
d
2
1.5m
3m
|
1
|
2
A
A'
A''
B'
B''
B
From similar triangles, ; so d
1
= 20.0m
d
1
50 & d
1
'
2
3
; so d
2
= 3.333m
d
2
10 & d
2
'
1.5
3
= 343/500 = 0.686m
There are 4 paths which will contribute to the sound level at the receiver so
we need to calculate the Fresnel Number corresponding to each.
Path 1, A Y B
Path 2, A' Y A'' Y B
Solutions to problems 244
N
3
'
2
0.686
50.0100 % 7.3106 % 3.6553 & (60
2
% 3.5
2
)
1/ 2
' 2.5
N
4
'
2
0.686
20.0998 % 30.1496 % 7.3106 % 3.6553 & (60
2
% 0.5
2
)
1/ 2
' 3.5
NR ' 10log
10
10
&0/ 10
% 10
&3/ 10
& 10log
10
10
&9.9/ 10
% 10
&15/ 10
% 10
&20/ 10
% 10
&24.5/ 10
' 1.76 % 8.31 ' 10.1dB
Path 3, A Y B' Y B''
Path 4, A' Y A'' Y B` Y B''
As the wall completely surrounds the factory, no sound is diffracted around
its edges. The correction term given by equation 8.88 in the text is greatest for
path 4 and is equal to 0.09dB which is negligible, so the correction will be
ignored.
From figure 8.14, the attenuations corresponding to N
1
to N
4
are

N1
= 9.9,
N2
= 12,
N3
= 17,
N4
= 18.5. Adding 3dB to all ground
reflections results in the following noise reductions corresponding to the 4
paths: Path 1, 9.9dB; Path 2, 15dB; Path 3, 20dB; Path 4, 24.5dB. From
equation 1.97 in the text, the noise reduction due to the enclosure is:
Problem 8.22
Referring to the following figures, we have for the reflection angles:
over top, source side,
tan
1
'
4
25 & x
'
0.5
x
; x ' 2.78m,
1
' 10.2E
over top, receiver side,
tan
2
'
4
25 & y
'
1.5
y
; y ' 6.82m,
2
' 12.4E
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 245
Over top (elevation)
Plan
R
S
|
1
|
2
x
25m 25m
y
25m 25m
7.5m
7.5m
0.5m
4m
1.5m
Around edge (elevation)
Plan
7.5m
25m
R
S
S
S
R
h
1
1m
|
3
25m
25m
7.5m
25m
1.5m
4m
z
0.5m
Solutions to problems 246
around edge, tan
3
'
1.5
50 & z
'
0.5
z
; z ' 12.5m,
3
' 2.3E
Flow resistivity of ground = R
1
= 3 10
7
MKS rayls/m and = 1.206kg/m
3
.
With no barrier,
4
=
3
= 2.3E. The reflection loss, A
R
is calculated using
figure 5.20 in the text and the results are tabulated in the table below.
Octave band
centre
frequency (Hz)
f
R
1
R
1
f
1/ 2
A
R1
A
R2
A
R3
and A
R4
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
2.510
-6
5.010
-6
1.010
-5
2.010
-5
4.010
-5
8.010
-5
1.610
-4
3.210
-4
630
447
316
223
158
112
79
56
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.5
2.3
3.0
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.5
2.3
3.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.5
5.0
6.0
7.0
6.5
Path 1 - over top of barrier with no ground reflections
d = 50.010m, A = 25.244, B = 25.125 and A + B - d = 0.359m
Path 2 - over top of barrier with ground reflection on the source side
d = 50.040m, B = 25.125
A = (2.78
2
+ 0.5
2
)
1/2
+ (4
2
+ 22.22
2
)
1/2
= 25.402m and
A + B - d = 0.487m
Path 3 - over top of barrier with ground reflection on the receiver side
d = 50.010m, A = 25.244
B = (6.82
2
+ 1.5
2
)
1/2
+ (4
2
+ 18.18
2
)
1/2
= 25.598m and
A + B - d = 0.802m
Path 4 - over top of barrier with ground reflection on both sides
d = 50.010m, A = 25.402, B = 25.598 and A + B - d = 0.990m
Paths 5&6 - around edges with no reflection
B = A = (0.5
2
+ 25
2
+ 7.5
2
)
1/2
= 26.106m and A + B - d = 2.201m
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 247
Paths 7&8 - around edges with reflection in ground
Intersection height of diffracted wave with barrier edge
= 1.5 12.5/37.5 = 0.5m.
A = 2(0.5
2
+ 12.5
2
+ (7.5/2)
2
)
1/2
= 26.120m
B = 2(1
2
+ 25
2
+ 7.5
2
)
1/2
= 26.120m and
A + B - d = 2.20m
Fresnel Number, . Values of N for each path are N '
2f
343
(A % B & d)
tabulated below.
Octave band
centre
frequency (Hz)
N
1
N
2
N
3
N
4
N
5&6
N
7&8
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
0.13
0.26
0.52
1.05
2.09
4.19
8.37
16.7
0.18
0.36
0.71
1.42
2.84
5.68
11.4
22.7
0.30
0.59
1.17
2.34
4.68
9.35
18.7
37.4
0.36
0.72
1.44
2.89
5.77
11.5
23.1
46.2
0.80
1.60
3.21
6.42
12.8
25.7
51.3
103
0.80
1.61
3.21
6.4
12.8
26
51
103
The noise reductions (NR or
b
) corresponding to the above Fresnel Numbers
are calculated using figure 8.14, p389 in the text and are tabulated below.
The correction term given by equation 8.88 in the text (assuming an
omnidirectional source) will be less than 0.1dB overall and will be ignored
here. The numbers in brackets indicate the sum of the ground reflection losses
and barrier diffraction loss. All quantities are in dB.
Solutions to problems 248
Octave band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
NR
1
NR
2
NR
3
NR
4
NR
5&6
NR
7&8
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
8.2
9.5
10.8
13.0
16.1
19.2
22.3
24
8.9 (9.1)
10.1 (10.4)
12.0 (12.5)
14.8 (15.5)
17.9 (18.9)
20.9 (22.4)
23.9 (26.1)
24 (27)
9.9 (10.1)
11.8 (12.1)
13.8 (14.3)
17.0 (17.7)
19.8 (20.8)
23.0 (24.5)
24 (26.3)
24 (27)
10.0 (10.4)
12.0 (12.6)
14.5 (15.5)
17.7 (19.1)
20.7 (22.7)
23.8 (26.8)
24 (28.6)
24 (30)
12.3
15.0
18.1
21.2
24
24
24
24
12.3 (13.8)
15.0 (17.0)
18.1 (20.6)
21.2 (24.7)
24 (29)
24 (30)
24 (31)
24 (30.5)
The barrier noise reduction is given by equation 1.97 in the text and the results
of the calculations are summarised in the table below. The subscript "A"
refers to the condition with no barrier and the subscript "B" refers to the
condition with barrier. All quantities are in dB.
Octave
band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
10log
10 j
10
&NR
Ai
/ 10
&10log
10
j
10
&NR
Bi
/ 10
NR SPL at
receiver
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.6
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.9
1.8
3.7
6.0
8.9
12.1
14.8
16.7
17.3
4.1
5.8
7.9
10.5
13.3
15.8
17.5
18.2
65.9
69.2
64.1
49.5
44.7
40.2
32.5
33.8
The overall A-weighted level is calculated using the octave band levels as
described on pages 101 and 102 in the text. The A-weighted level with the
barrier is calculated using the numbers in the last column of the preceding
table and is 58.2dB(A). The A-weighted level without the barrier is calculated
using the octave band levels given in the problem and is 67dB(A). Thus the
noise reduction due to the barrier is 9dB(A).
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 249
C ' Klog
10
( 2f b/ 343)
Problem 8.23
If the barrier were a building, the additional noise reduction may be calculated
using equation 8.98, p394 of the text which may be rewritten as:
The values of K are calculated using figure 8.17 in the text and trigonometry
is used to calculate the angles, . The results are summarised in the and
two following tables. Values for C are in dB and the subscript on C refers
to the path number.
Path
1
Path
2
Path
3
Path
4
Paths
5&6
Paths
7&8
(degrees) 98 100 98 100 117 117
(degrees) 96 96 102 102 117 117
K 1.2 1.5 2.3 2.7 5.6 5.6
Octave band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
C
1
C
2
C
3
C
4
C
5,6,7&8
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
0.8
1.2
1.5
1.9
2.2
2.6
3.0
3.3
1.0
1.4
1.9
2.3
2.8
3.2
3.7
4.2
1.5
2.2
2.9
3.6
4.3
5.0
5.7
6.4
1.8
2.6
3.4
4.2
5.0
5.8
6.7
7.4
3.7
5.4
7.1
8.8
10.4
12.1
13.8
15.5
The noise reductions are calculated as before with the attenuation due to the
barrier thickness added to each path. The results (in dB) are summarised in
the table below.
Solutions to problems 250
Octave band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
NR
1
NR
2
NR
3
NR
4
NR
5&6
NR
7&8
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
9.0
10.7
12.3
14.9
18.3
21.8
25.3
27.3
10.1
11.8
14.4
17.8
21.7
25.6
29.8
31.2
11.6
14.3
17.2
21.5
25.2
29.5
33.0
33.4
12.2
15.2
18.9
23.3
27.7
32.6
35.4
37.4
16.0
19.4
25.2
30.0
34.4
36.1
37.8
39.5
17.5
22.4
27.8
33.5
39.4
42.1
44.8
46.0
The barrier noise reduction is given by equation 1.97 in the text and the results
of the calculations are summarised in the table below. The subscript "A"
refers to the condition with no barrier and the subscript "B" refers to the
condition with barrier.
Octave band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
10log
10 j
10
&NR
Ai
/ 10
&10log
10
j
10
&NR
Bi
/ 10
NR SPL at
receiver
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.6
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.9
3.6
6.0
8.6
12.0
15.7
19.3
22.9
24.5
5.9
8.1
10.5
13.6
16.9
20.3
23.7
25.4
64.1
66.9
61.5
46.4
41.1
35.7
26.3
26.6
The overall A-weighted level is calculated using the octave band levels as
described on pages 101 and 102 in the text. The A-weighted level with the
thick building as the barrier is calculated using the numbers in the last column
of the preceding table and is 55.6(A) which is 2.6dB(A) less than for the thin
barrier. Thus the effect of thickening the barrier is to increase the noise
reduction by 2.6dB(A) to a total of approximately 11dB(A).
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 251
IL ' 10log
10
D

4r
2
%
4
S
0

0
& 10log
10
D

F
4r
2
%
4K
1
K
2
S(1 & K
1
K
2
)
' term1 & term2
S
A
d
B
R
3m
1.5m
25m 25m
0.5m
Problem 8.24
If the barrier is moved closer to the refrigeration unit, the noise reduction will
increase because the Fresnel numbers will increase due to the increased path
length from source to receiver over the top of the barrier and around the
edges.
Problem 8.25
An elevation view of the situation is shown in the figure. As the barrier is
indoors, equation 8.109 on p402 in the text is appropriate. Thus:
Source and receiver are each 25m from barrier. For an omnidirectional source
on a hard floor D

= 2; and .
D

4r
2
' 6.366 10
&5
r ' d ' [ 50
2
% 1
2
]
1/2
' 50.01m
A ' (25
2
% 2.5
2
)
1/ 2
' 25.125m B ' (25
2
% 1.5
2
)
1/ 2
' 25.045m
A + B - d = 0.160m; S = 2 50 = 100m
2
= area of gap between barrier and
ceiling.
S
0
= 2(100 5 + 50 5 + 100 50) = 11,500m
2
; = 0.08.
0
Thus, 4/ S
0

0
' 4.348 10
&3
Solutions to problems 252

1
'
2
'
5750 0.08 % 150 0.15
5900
' 0.082
S
1

1
' S
2

2
' 482.5m
2
and K
1
' K
2
'
100
100 % 482.5
' 0.172
term1 ' 10log
10
6.366 10
&5
% 4.348 10
&3
' &23.6dB
term2 ' 10log
10
6.366 10
&5
F %
4 0.172
2
100(1 & 0.172
2
)
' 10log
10
6.366 10
&5
F % 1.29 10
&3
S
1
= S
2
= S
0
/2 + 3 50 = 5,900m
2
.
Thus:
Referring to the first equation:

There is only one path over the top of the barrier, so F = (3 + 10N)
-1
, where
N is the Fresnel number for the path, calculated using equation 8.85 and figure
8.13 on page 388 in the text. Thus term 2 can be written as:
The calculations which are a function of frequency are summarised in the
following table, where the barrier IL is given by IL = term 1 - term 2.
Octave
band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
N =
2

(A % B & d)
F
D

F
4r
2
term 2 IL
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
0.059
0.117
0.233
0.466
0.933
1.865
3.732
7.46
0.28
0.240
0.188
0.131
0.081
0.046
0.025
0.013
1.7810
-5
1.5310
-5
1.1210
-5
8.3410
-6
5.1610
-6
2.9310
-6
1.5910
-6
8.2010
-7
-29
-29
-29.1
-29.1
-29.1
-29.1
-29.1
-29.1
5.4
5.4
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 253
L
pd
' L
w
& 10log
10
(4 16) ' L
w
& 23dB
&10log
10
(1 &
f
) % 10log
10
(1 % 1.2)
2
% 4
2
4
2
' &10log
10
(1 &
f
) % 1.1
&10log
10
(1 &
c
) % 10log
10
(2 % 1.8)
2
% 4
2
4
2
' &10log
10
(1 &
c
) % 2.8
S R
C
Problem 8.26
(a) The most dominant
five paths from
source to receiver are
shown in the figure.
We are to ignore any
paths contributing
less than 0.2dB to the
total. That is, we will ignore paths which contribute 10dB or more lower
than the direct path. Of course, the correct way to do this problem is to
use equation 7.110 in the text for a flat room with a diffusely reflecting
floor (as there is furniture present) and specularly reflecting ceiling.
However, here we are happy with an approximate solution. The direct
path contribution is given by equations 5.158 and 5.160 in the text with
DI
M
and A
E
= 0. Thus:
The second path (reflection from the floor) will be attenuated by:
The third path (reflection from the ceiling) will be attenuated by:
The fourth path (reflection from the floor then ceiling) will be attenuated
by:
Solutions to problems 254
&10log
10
(1 &
f
) (1 &
c
) % 10log
10
(1 % 3 % 1.8)
2
% 4
2
4
2
' &10log
10
(1 &
f
) (1 &
c
) % 4.9
&10log
10
(1 &
f
) (1 &
c
) % 10log
10
(1.2 % 3 % 2)
2
% 4
2
4
2
' &10log
10
(1 &
f
) (1 &
c
) % 5.3
The fifth path (reflection from the ceiling then floor) will be attenuated
by:
The contributions of each path to the final sound pressure level is
obtained by subtracting the attenuations from the direct wave sound
pressure level (arithmetically). The total sound pressure level is then
obtained by logarithmically combining the contributions from each path
(assuming incoherent combination).
The results are tabulated in the table below. Note that paths involving
more reflections will result in a contribution of less than 0.2dB to the
total and are thus not included. Perhaps you could prove this by trial and
error.
frequency
(Hz)
500 1000 2000
L
w
70 77 75
L
pd
47 54 52
L
p2
42.2 47.8 45.5
L
p3
38.2 38.2 29.2
L
p4
32.4 31 21.7
L
p5
31.9 30.5 21.2
L
pt
48.8 55.1 52.9
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 255
N '
2 f
c
1.2
2
% 2
2
% 1
2
% 2
2
& 4 ' 3.31 10
&3
f
A
b
'
b
% 20log
10
2.282 % 2.282
4
'
b
% 1.2
L
pb
' L
pd
& A
b
(b) When the barrier is present, the only contributions to the sound level on
the other side will be the wave reflected from the ceiling (L
p3
) and the
wave diffracted over the top, as all other paths are blocked by the barrier
(do a sketch of the arrangement to prove this to yourself). For the wave
diffracted over the top, we can write the following for the Fresnel
number:
The attenuation,
b
is read from figure 8.14 in the text (point source) and
corrected using equation 8.88 to give:
The contribution, L
pb
of the wave diffracted over the top of the barrier to
the sound field at the receiver is calculated using:
The results are summarised in the following table.
frequency
(Hz)
500 1000 2000
L
pd
47 54 52
L
p3
39.9 33.9 24.4
N 1.65 3.3 6.6
A
b
16 19 22
L
pb
31 35 30
L
pt
39.0 39.9 33.3
reduction
due to
barrier
10 15 20
Solutions to problems 256
IL ' 10log
10
D

4r
2
%
4
S
0

0
& 10log
10
D

F
4r
2
%
4K
1
K
2
S(1 & K
1
K
2
)
' term1 & term2
A B
S
R
3 m
1.5m
2m 3m
5m
10m
5m
2m
20m
a
b
R
S
50m
5m 5m
1m
d
Assumptions:
! The barrier is sufficiently wide that the contribution at the receiver
position due to refraction around the edges is negligible.
! All waves at the receiver combine together incoherently.
! The directivity of the source is uniform in all directions.
(c) The noise reduction could be increased by moving the barrier sufficiently
close to either the noise source or receiver that the wave reflected from
the ceiling will also be blocked. In addition the barrier Fresnel number
will be increased, further reducing the energy diffracted over the top of
the barrier.
Problem 8.27
(a) The situation is illustrated in the figure. As the barrier is indoors,
equation 8.109 on p402 in the text is appropriate. Thus:
First we calculate the Fresnel Numbers for diffraction over the top and
around the edges using equation 8.85 and figure 8.13 on page 388 in the
text.
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 257
S ' 2 5 3 % 20 2 ' 70m
2
S
1
' S
2
' 30 % 1350 ' 1380m
2

1
'
2
' (216/ 2 % 30
b
) / (1350 % 30)
Diffraction over the top
X
R
= X
S
= 5m; Z
R
= 1.5m; Z
S
= 1m; Y = 2m; h = 3m
Y
R
= 2 5/ (5 % 5) ' 1
d ' [ ( 5 % 5)
2
% (1 % 1)
2
% (1.5 & 1)
2
]
1/ 2
' 10.210m
A ' [ 5
2
% 1
2
% (3 & 1)
2
]
1/ 2
' 5.477m
B ' [ 5
2
% 1
2
% (3 & 1.5)
2
]
1/ 2
' 5.315m
Fresnel Number, N = (2f/343)(A + B - d) = 3.393 10
-3
f
Diffraction around edge "a"
X
R
= X
S
= 5m; Z
R
- Z
S
= 2m; Y = 0.5m; h - Z
S
= 5m;
h - Z
R
= 3m
Y
R
= 0.5 5/ (5 % 5) ' 0.25
d ' [ ( 5 % 5)
2
% 4 0.25
2
% 4]
1/ 2
' 10.210m
A ' [ 5
2
% 0.25
2
% 5
2
]
1/ 2
' 7.075m
B ' [ 5
2
% 0.25
2
% 3
2
]
1/ 2
' 5.836m
Fresnel Number, N
a
= (2f/343)(A + B - d) = 1.575 10
-2
f
Diffraction around edge "b"
X
R
= X
S
= 5m; Z
R
- Z
S
= 2m; Y = 0.5m; h - Z
S
= 5m;
h - Z
R
= 7m
Y
R
= 0.5 5/ (5 % 5) ' 0.25
d ' [ ( 5 % 5)
2
% 4 0.25
2
% 4]
1/ 2
' 10.210m
A ' [ 5
2
% 0.25
2
% 5
2
]
1/ 2
' 7.075m
B ' [ 5
2
% 0.25
2
% 7
2
]
1/ 2
' 8.606m
Fresnel Number, N
b
= (2f/343)(A + B - d) = 3.190 10
-2
f
S
0

0
' 2(5 20 % 5 50 % 20 50) 0.08 ' 216.0m
2
r = d = 10.210m; DI = 5, thus D

= 3.16 and
D

/4r
2
= 2.51 10
-3
Solutions to problems 258
term1 ' 10log
10
D

4r
2
%
4
S
0

0
' &16.8dB
and F '
j
a, b, c
1
3 % 10N
i
D

F
4r
2
%
4K
1
K
2
S(1 & K
1
K
2
)
The quantities K
1
and K
2
are calculated using equation 8.111 in the text.
They are frequency dependent quantities, but all other variables needed
for their calculation have been evaluated above. We now proceed to
evaluate the second term of equation 8.109 as a function of octave band
centre frequency. Results for the second term as well as the overall
Insertion Loss of the barrier are tabulated in the following table.
Octave band
centre
frequency (Hz) 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
N (Top) 0.21 0.42 0.85 1.70 3.39 6.79 13.57
N
a
0.99 1.97 3.94 7.88 15.75 31.5 63.0
N
b
2.01 3.99 7.98 15.95 31.9 63.8 127.6
F 0.315 0.205 0.123 0.068 0.036 0.019 0.010

b
(table 7.1)
0.08 0.25 0.83 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

1
,
2
0.08 0.08 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
K
1
, K
2
0.388 0.377 0.345 0.337 0.337 0.337 0.337
1.09
10
-2
9.98
10
-3
8.02
10
-3
7.46
10
-3
7.39
10
-3
7.34
10
-3
7.32
10
-3
Insertion
Loss (dB)
2.8 3.2 4.2 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.6
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 259
f
r
'
c
L
d
'
5476
0.4022
' 4,334Hz
f
c
'
0.55c
2
c
L
h
'
0.55 343
2
5476 0.00222
' 5,323Hz
pipe
0.20m
0.40m
Jacket
c
L
' E/ [
m
( 1 &
2
) ] ' 71.6/ [2700( 1 & 0.34
2
) ] ' 5476 m/s
(b) Moving the barrier closer to the source will increase the value of N which
will reduce the value of F and thus the direct field contribution. The
value of K
1
will be reduced and the term involving K
1
K
2
will be reduced
slightly. Thus we can expect an increase in the barrier insertion loss.
This effect is expected to be only 1 or 2dB but calculations as were done
in part (a) are necessary to verify this.
(c) Extending the barrier length will increase the barrier Insertion Loss
because it will remove the contribution from waves diffracted around the
barrier ends and will also reduce the reverberant field contribution
because of a smaller gap area and also because of an increase in the
effective room absorption. This effect should be slightly larger than the
effect in part (b) above but would still be restricted to a few dB. The cost
effectiveness of this action can only be assessed by completing the
calculations as was done in part (a) of the problem and fully evaluating
the benefit of the increased noise reduction vs the inconvenience of
restricted passage.
Problem 8.28
This is a pipe lagging problem so we
follow the procedure on pages 404
and 405 in the text with the errata
corrected in equations 8.116, 8.117
and 8.119. The thickness of the
jacket is h = 6/2700 = 2.22mm and
the diameter of the jacket, d = 0.2 +
2 0.1 + 0.0022 = 0.4022m. The
quantity, 1000(m/d)
1/2
= 3862. The longitudinal wavespeed is:
The ring frequency is:
The critical frequency is obtained using the equation on p337 as:
Solutions to problems 260
IL '
40
1 % 0.12/ 0.2
log
10
f 6 0.1
132
' 25log
10
( f 0.00587)
For the Insertion Loss calculations, we use equation 8.112 on p404 for octave
bands of 4000Hz and below and equation 8.115 for the 8000Hz octave band.
The results of the calculations are summarised in the table below at octave
band centre frequencies. Of course, if three 1/3 octave bands are averaged,
then the result would be slightly different. In addition, equation 8.120 has
also been used to generate an alternative set of Insertion Loss predictions.
With equation 8.120, the Insertion Loss is given by:
which is valid for frequencies defined by . f $ 120/ 6 0.1 ' 155Hz
Octave
band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
f/f
r
or
f/f
c
C
r
or C
c
X
r
or X
c
Insertion
Loss
eqns.
8.112 - 8.119
Insertion
Loss
eqn.8.120
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
0.0145
0.0288
0.0577
0.115
0.231
0.461
0.923
1.503
0.1090
0.2163
0.4326
0.8653
1.7305
3.4610
6.9220
15.849
789.5
1307
1731
2120
2479
2717
1991
4289
-18.8
7.6
17.9
25.5
29.4
19.4
22.6
15.9
-
-
4.2
11.7
19.2
26.7
34.3
41.8
The Insertion Loss results are somewhat different between the two methods
of calculation and as we shall see in the next problem, neither prediction
scheme is particularly good. However, it is supposed that the true results lie
somewhere between the two.
Problem 8.29
(a) The jacket cross section is shown schematically in the following figure.
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 261
x 10
&3
2700 % (1 & x) 10
&3
11300 ' 6
m
eff
'
1
h
1
%
2
h
2
' 6.00kg/ m
2
y '
(h
Pb
% h
Al
/ 2)E
Al
% E
Pb
h
Pb
/ 2
E
Al
% E
Pb
'
(0.384 % 0.616/ 2) 71.6 % 16.5 0.384/ 2
71.6 % 16.5
' 0.598mm
B
eff
'
E
Al
h
Al
12
h
2
Al
% (h
Pb
% h
Al
/ 2 & y)
2
1 &
2
Al
%
E
Pb
h
pb
12
h
2
Pb
% (y & h
Pb
/ 2)
2
1 &
2
Pb
'
71.6 0.616
12
0.616
2
% 12 (0.384 % 0.308 & 0.598)
2
1 & 0.34
2
%
16.5 0.384
12
0.384
2
% 12 (0.598 & 0.192)
2
1 & 0.44
2
' 2.017 % 1.392 ' 3.41kgm
2
s
&2
h
Pb
1mm
h
Al
Lead
Aluminum
y
neutral
axis
Let x mm be the thickness of the aluminium part of the jacket. Then:
Thus x = 0.616mm = thickness of Aluminium.
Thickness of lead = 1 - 0.616 = 0.384mm
Effective surface mass is given by:
The neutral axis location is given by:
The bending stiffness is given by:
Solutions to problems 262
c
L
'
12
h
B
eff
m
eff
'
12
0.001

3.409
6
' 2611m/ s
f
c
'
c
2
2
m
B
'
343
2
2
6
3.409
' 24.84kHz
f
r
'
c
L
d
'
2611
0.251
' 3311Hz
Assume that the effective Poisson's ratio is that of Aluminium and equal
to 0.34. Thus the longitudinal wave speed is:
The critical frequency is given by equation 8.3 in the text as:
and the ring frequency is given on p404 in the text as:
The jacket insertion loss may be calculated using either equation 8.120
or equations 8.112 to 8.119 in the text. We will use both methods here
as a comparison. The quantities used in the equations are m = 6kg/m
2
,
R = 0.05m, d = 0.15 + 2 0.05 = 0.25m and D = 0.15m. The results of
the calculations at the 1/3 octave band centre frequencies are summarised
in the following table. Note that the calculations using equation 8.120
are only valid for frequencies defined by . f $ 120/ 6 0.05 ' 220Hz
Sound transmission loss, acoustic enclosures and barriers 263
Octave band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
X
r
or X
m
C
r
or C
c
Insertion Loss (dB)
Eqs. 8.112 - 8.119 Eq. 8.120
63
80
100
125
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1000
1250
1600
2000
2500
3150
4000
5000
6300
8000
10000
1279
1500
1690
1869
2056
2220
2380
2543
2708
2859
3010
3157
3280
3378
3435
3403
3193
2258
2714
3356
4134
5038
5893
0.1137
0.1444
0.1805
0.2256
0.2888
0.3610
0.4512
0.5685
0.7219
0.9024
1.1370
1.4439
1.8048
2.2560
2.8877
3.6096
4.5120
5.6852
1.868
2.335
2.942
3.736
4.670
-2.4
4.1
8.5
12.1
15.7
18.6
21.3
23.9
26.3
28.4
30.2
31.5
31.7
30.1
21.1
24.9
31.4
24.1
30.0
29.5
20.7
30.4
37.0
-
-
-
-
-
0.35
2.6
4.9
7.0
9.3
11.6
13.7
15.9
18.3
20.4
22.6
24.8
27.1
29.3
31.5
33.8
36.0
The data in the table are plotted in the following figure where the solid
black line represents the theory embodied in equations 8.112-8.119 and
the dashed black line represents the theory embodied in equation 8.120.
In addition, some experimental data (solid grey line) from the text book
(figure 8.18, second edition) are shown for comparison. It can be seen
that neither theory provides a very good prediction of the measured data.
Unfortunately there are no better theories available at present.
Solutions to problems 264
(b) It is clear from the equations used for either calculation method that
increasing the mass of the liner will increase the low frequency Insertion
Loss. For the first prediction scheme, reducing c
L
will also result in
increased values for the low frequency Insertion Loss.
(c) One advantage of porous acoustic foam over rockwool is that the porous
foam will support the weight of the jacket indefinitely whereas rockwool
will gradually compress and in a high vibration environment, it will turn
to powder.
A disadvantage of foam is that it is not fireproof and if ignited it emits
toxic gas. Another disadvantage is that the foam is much more expensive
than rockwool.
R
V
L
t
B
B
N holes
9
Solutions to problems relating
to muffling devices
Problem 9.1
Referring to the figure, we can imagine that each hole in the perforated sheet
represents a neck of a Helmholtz resonator with the volume associated with
each neck being equal to the total volume behind the perforated sheet divided
by the number of holes. Let L be the depth of the backing cavity and lets
consider a section of sheet of dimensions B B with a number of holes, N.
The total backing volume is then LB
2
and the volume associated with one hole
is LB
2
/N. The percent open area is
given by:
. P '
100N
B
2
d
2
4
Thus the effective resonator volume is:
, V '
100L
P
d
2
4
'
100LA
P
where A is the neck cross-sectional area.
Solutions to problems 266
f
0
'
c
2
A
LV
'
c
2
P
100LR
2R
0
' 0.85d(1 & 0.22d/ a)
p
i
' Ae
j ( t & kx)
; p
r
' Be
j ( t % kx % )
p
T
' Ae
j ( t & kx)
% Be
j ( t % kx % )
u
T
'
1
c
Ae
j ( t & kx)
& Be
j ( t % kx % )
Z '
p
T
u
T
' c
Ae
&j kx
% Be
j ( kx % )
Ae
&jkx
& Be
j ( kx % )
' c
A % Be
j ( 2kx % )
A & Be
j ( 2kx % )
' c
A/ B % e
j ( 2kx % )
A/ B & e
j ( 2kx % )
A
B
'
10
8/ 20
% 1
10
8/ 20
& 1
'
3.5119
1.5119
' 2.323
From equation 9.38 in the text:
where R = 2R
0
+ t is the effective length of the neck and 2R
0
is the total effective
end correction for the hole. Comparing the above equation with equation 7.77
in the text gives the effective end correction of the perforate as:
The Helmholtz model is appropriate because the system is effectively a small
mass of air vibrating against a stiffness represented by the backing volume.
Problem 9.2
(a) Diameter, 0.4m, so higher order mode cut on frequency is
. Thus at 200 Hz only plane waves propagate. f ' 0.586c/ 0.4 ' 500 Hz
Minimum pressure occurs when ' &2kx % ; x ' 1.8 m
At 200 Hz, ; k ' 2f / c ' 2 200/ 343 ' 3.664
= -10.048
c
. ' &2 3.664 1.8 %
Adding 4, gives = 2.518
c
= 144.2E
At x = 2, 2kx = 14.656 and 2kx + = 4.608
c
= 264 degrees. Thus:
Muffling devices 267
R
0
' 0.610.05%
8 0.05
3
1&(1.250.25) (1&0.639)
2
' 0.0078 m
Z ' 413
2.323 % cos(4.608) % jsin(4.608)
2.323 & cos(4.608) & jsin(4.608)
' 413
2.219 % j(&0.995)
2.427 & j(&0.995)
Z ' 413
2.219 & j0.995
2.427 % j0.995
' 413
(2.219 & j0.995) (2.427 & j0.995)
(2.427 % j0.995) (2.427 & j0.995)
' 413
4.395 & j4.623
6.88
M ' Re{Z}/ c '
263.8
413
' 0.64
Multiplying numerator and denominator by complex conjugate of the
denominator gives:
Thus, Z = 264 - j278
(b) The hole impedance is in parallel with the rigid Re{Z
A
} ' Re {Z/ A
orifice
}
plate containing it. If the rigid plate impedance is effectively infinity, the
combined specific acoustic impedance is that of the hole and this is what
is measured by the standing wave. The acoustic impedance of the hole is
the specific acoustic impedance divided by the area of the hole only. If
cross flow dominates resistance, M ' Re{Z
A
}A
orifice
/ c
Thus,
(c) End correction = no flow correction (1 - M)
2
. Hole radius = 0.05 m
Thus total end correction is:
Problem 9.3
A quarter wave tuning stub works by changing the wall impedance of a duct
on which it is mounted so that downstream propagating waves are reflected
back upstream. The viscous losses at the entrance to the stub also account for
some of the energy loss, because of the large particle motions near the edges
of the entrance. The stub can also act by changing the radiation impedance
(and thus the amount of power radiated) of the source producing the noise.
Solutions to problems 268
0.2
g
f
e
d
c
b
a
Z
1
Z
b
Z
d
Z
f
Z
a
Z
1
Z
2
Z
c
Z
3
Z
e
Z
g
Problem 9.4
(a) The impedance looking into the stub must be zero as we are ignoring the
resistive component.
The equivalent electrical circuit is shown in the figure below:
Impedance looking in at location 3 = Z
3
'
Z
e
(Z
f
% Z
g
)
Z
e
% Z
f
% Z
g
Impedance looking in at location 2 = Z
2
'
Z
c
(Z
d
% Z
3
)
Z
c
% Z
d
% Z
3
Impedance looking in at location 1 = Z
1
'
Z
a
(Z
b
% Z
2
)
Z
a
% Z
b
% Z
2
If we neglect resistive impedance, then Z
1
= 0 and
Muffling devices 269
. If we now substitute the expression for Z
3
Z
b
' &Z
2
' &
Z
c
(Z
d
% Z
3
)
Z
c
% Z
d
% Z
3
into the preceding equation, we obtain:
(1) Z
b
Z
c
% Z
d
%
Z
e
(Z
f
% Z
g
)
Z
e
% Z
f
% Z
g
% Z
c
Z
d
%
Z
e
(Z
f
% Z
g
)
Z
e
% Z
f
% Z
g
' 0
We now need to substitute in physical dimensions in place of the
impedances. and the effective length of the hole Z
b
' Z
d
' Z
f
' j
R
A
is given by:
. R ' 2R
0
'
8d
3
1 & 1.25
d
0.2
The density, = 1.206, A = d
2
/4 and = 200.
The volumes between the orifices are given by:
and V
e
' V
c
'
D
2
4
L
3
' 0.01047L
. V
a
' V
g
' 0.5V
e
' 0.005236L
Required length, L = 0.5 /4 = c/8f = 343/800 = 0.429m.
Using equation 9.35, we obtain:
. Z
c
' Z
e
' &j
1.206 343
2
0.01047 0.4288 2 100
' &j 5.03 10
4
Z
a
= Z
g
= 2Z
c
= -j1.01 10
5
.
Equation (1) can now be solved by computer for d. The result is
d = 44mm.
(b) The device with baffles would have a much larger resistive impedance
than the one without baffles because of all the cross-sectional changes at
which there will be viscous losses. The larger resistive impedance will
lower the quality factor and thus the peak attenuation, although the
bandwidth of significant attenuation will increase.
Solutions to problems 270
R
s
'
414
0.00152
0.288 1.832 2.180 10
&4
log
10
4 0.00152
(2.180 10
&4
)
2
' 146MKS Rayls
IL ' 20log
10
1 %
Z
d
R
s
Problem 9.5
(a) To calculate the resistive impedance, equation 9.29 on p417 in the text
may be used. First we will evaluate the variables used in the equation.
c = 343 1.206 = 414, A = 0.044
2
/4 = 0.00152 m
2
,
k = 2 100/343 = 1.832,
t = h = , 2 1.8 10
&5
/ ( 1.206 2 100) ' 2.180 10
&4
w = 0, and M = 0. Substituting these values into equation 9.29, ' 0
we obtain:
(b) At the design frequency (100Hz), the Insertion Loss is found by
substituting R
s
for Z
s
in equation 9.46 in the text to give:
If the side branch is mounted an odd number of quarter wavelengths from
the end of the duct, the reactive part of the impedance Z
d
will
theoretically be infinite (based on equation 9.14) and the side branch
Insertion Loss will also be infinite as indicated by the above equation.
However, in practice, the quarter wave tube is of finite cross section and
Z
d
cannot therefore be too large. This results in the Insertion Loss being
finite and usually limited to 25 to 30dB.
Problem 9.6
(a) Closed end side branches have less viscous losses than open ended tubes
because of one less cross-sectional change and corresponding edge.
Thus the quality factor and therefore the peak attenuation for open ended
tubes will be smaller, although the bandwidth of significant attenuation
will increase.
(b) Equation 9.46 in the text may be used here. The downstream duct
impedance for an infinite duct is simply c/A. Thus the ratio Z
d
/Z
s
in
equation 9.46 is given by:
Muffling devices 271
Z
d
Z
s
'
1
j( & 10
4
/ & j 10
&4
)

2
' 10
4
and ' 100rad/ s
IL ' 20log
10
*1 %
Z
d
Z
s
* ' 20log
10
*1 %
10
4

* ' 40dB
end correction ' 0.61 0.03 %
8 0.03
3
( 1 & 1.25 0.3) ' 0.0342m

0
' c A/ RV ' 343
2.83 10
&3
0.0742 6.28 10
&3
1/ 2
' 844.6rad/ sec
K
M
C
When the Insertion Loss is at its peak, the side branch reactive
impedance, Z
s
is zero. Thus:
The Insertion Loss is then:
Problem 9.7
The equation is simply a differential equation of the vibration of a mass acting
against a spring. The quantity, M, represents the
vibrating mass of air in the resonator neck, the
quantity, C, represents the viscous damping losses
at the entrance and exit of the neck caused by
motion of the air particles relative to the edges of
the neck and the quantity, K, represents the
stiffness of the volume of air in the cavity of the
resonator as shown in the figure.
Problem 9.8
(a) Helmholtz resonator - cylindrical cavity, 100mm radius, 200mm high.
Neck 40mm long with a radius of 30mm.
Volume of cylinder, V = (0.1)
2
0.2 = 6.28 10
-3
m
3
Area of neck, A = (0.03)
2
= 2.83 10
-3
m
2
.
Length of neck, R = 0.04m + end corrections.
so R = 0.0742m.
From equation 9.38 in the text:
Solutions to problems 272
Q '
c
R
s
R / AV '
413.66
1000
0.0742
2.83 6.28 10
&6
1/ 2
' 26.7
p
2
' 4 10
&10
10
8
' 0.04Pa
2
Thus, f
0
= 844.6/2 = 134Hz.
(b) The quality factor may be calculated using equation 9.40 in the text.
Thus:
(c) If we define effectiveness as the frequency range within 3dB of the
maximum, then the bandwidth of effectiveness is obtained using equation
7.22 in the text as . Thus we can expect f ' f / Q ' 135/ 26.7 ' 5.0Hz
the device to be effective between 132 and 137Hz.
(d) Incident plane wave of 80dB L
p
and 135Hz.
Power dissipated = = at resonance.
p
2

*Z
s
*
p
2

R
s
The mean square sound pressure is:
Thus the power dissipated =
0.04
1000
' 40Watts
(e) Power in a plane wave = IA =
p
2
A
c
' 40 10
&6
Thus area of plane wave, A = 413.6 40 10
&6
/ 0.04 ' 0.4136m
2
(f) The sabine absorption of the resonator, = 0.414m
2
S
Cross-sectional area of resonator = . Thus the cross- 0.1
2
' 0.031m
2
sectional area of the resonator volume is 13 times smaller than its Sabine
absorption area. Thus to make the wall look anechoic, we would need
1/0.414 = 2.4 resonators per square metre.
(g) From equation 1.4 in the text, an ambient temperature variation from -
5EC to 45EC corresponds to a speed of sound change from
to , which is a range 1.4 8.314 268/ 0.029 1.4 8.314 318/ 0.029
from 328 to 357m/s. From equation 9.38, it can be seen that the
resonance frequency of the resonator will vary from 808 to 880 rad/sec
which corresponds to a range from 129 to 140Hz which is outside the
3dB range discussed in part (c). The problem could be overcome by
Muffling devices 273
p
t
' p
i
% p
r
' A
i
e
j(t % kx)
% A
r
e
j(t & kx)
u
t
' u
i
% u
r
'
1
c
A
i
e
j(t % kx)
& A
r
e
j(t & kx)
c
S
A
i
% A
r
A
i
& A
r
' Z
L
' Z
c
A
i
% A
r
A
i
& A
r
p
t
Su
t
' Z
i
' Z
c
A
i
e
jkL
% A
r
e
&jkL
A
i
e
jkL
& A
r
e
&jkL
Z
L
L
x 0
Z
i
using two additional types of resonator with resonance frequencies of
131.5 and 137.5Hz respectively at 20EC.
Problem 9.9
(a) The total acoustic pressure
anywhere along the tube is
the sum of the incident
and end r ef l ect ed
pressures and may be
written in terms of two
complex constants, A
i
and
A
r
, representing the complex amplitudes of the incident and reflected
(from x = 0) waves respectively. Thus:
Using equations 1.6, and 1.7, the acoustic particle velocity may be
written as:
At x = 0, . Thus:
p
t
Su
t
' Z
L
At x = L:
Expanding the exponents gives:
Solutions to problems 274
Z
i
' Z
c
A
i
cos(kL) % jA
i
sin(kL) % A
r
cos(kL) & jA
r
sin(kL)
A
i
cos(kL) % jA
i
sin(kL) & A
r
cos(kL) % jA
r
sin(kL)
' Z
c
A
i
% jA
i
tan(kL) % A
r
& jA
r
tan(kL)
A
i
% jA
i
tan(kL) & A
r
% jA
r
tan(kL)
' Z
c
A
i
% A
r
% jtan(kL)(A
i
& A
r
)
A
i
& A
r
% jtan(kL)(A
i
% A
r
)
Z
i
'
A
i
% A
r
A
i
& A
r
% jtan(kL)
1 %
A
i
% A
r
A
i
& A
r
jtan(kL)
' Z
c
Z
L
Z
c
% jtan(kL)
1 %
Z
L
Z
c
jtan(kL)
Z
i
' Z
c
Z
L
% jZ
c
tan(kl)
Z
c
% jZ
L
tan(kl)
Rearranging gives:
Rearranging gives:
(b) (i) Z
c
'
c
S
'
414
0.2 0.2
' 10,400 MKS Rayls
(ii) At x = 0, p
r
/p
i
= 0.5; thus A
r
/A
i
= 0.5 and
A
i
% A
r
A
i
& A
r
'
1 % 0.5
1 & 0.5
' 3
Thus, Z
L
= 3Z
c
= 31,000 MKS Rayls
(iii) Z
i
' 10350
31050 % j 10350tan(200 10.29/ 343)
10350 % j 31050tan(200 10.29/ 343)
' 10350
31050
10350
' 31000MKS Rayls
Muffling devices 275

2
n
' (/c)
2
& [(n
x
/L
x
)
2
% (n
y
/ L
y
)
2
]
(/c)
2
' [ (n
x
/L
x
)
2
% (n
y
/ L
y
)
2
]
c
n
'

2

c
2
&
n
x

L
x
2
&
n
y

L
y
2
1/ 2

2,2
' 343
4
L
y
2
%
2
L
y
2
1/ 2
'
343
L
y
16
2
% 4
2
1/ 2
'
4819
L
y
c
n
c
0
f
nx,ny
f
Problem 9.10
(a) The wavenumber is:
(i) Cut-on when = 0. That is when:
2
(ii) Phase speed is defined as . Thus: c
n
' /
n
This equation is shown sketched in the figure below, where =
2f.
(b) Drop in L
p
over a distance of L
y
/4 for 2,2 mode.
Cut-on frequency is given by:
Excitation frequency = 0.75
2,2
= 3614/L
y
rad/sec. The wavenumber is
then:
Solutions to problems 276

2
n
'
3614
343L
y
2
&
16
2
% 4
2
L
2
y
L
p
' 20log
10
1
e
&j
2,2
L
y
/ 4
' 20log
10
1
e
&9.294/ 4
' 20.2dB
W
t
' 0.5Re{p
2
v
(
2
} ' 0.5Re{Z
c
v
2
v
(
2
} ' 0.5Re{Z
c
}*v
2
*
2
'
W
t
W
i
'
0.5Re{Z
c
}*v
2
*
2
0.5Re{Z
c
}*v*
2
' *
v
2
v
*
2
R % jX '
Z
s
Z
c
v
Z
c
Z
s
v
1
Z
c
v
2
Thus, at the excitation frequency. The acoustic pressure
2,2
' j
9.293
L
y
is related to the distance along the duct as . Thus p(x) % e
&j
n
x
. Setting x
1
= 0 and x
2
= L
y
/4, we can write the following
p(x
1
)
p(x
2
)
'
e
&j
2,2
x
1
e
&j
2,2
x
2
for the reduction in sound pressure level as the wave travels from x
1
to x
2
.
Problem 9.11
(a) The transmitted power is given by:
A similar expression can be derived for the incident power. Thus the
transmission coefficient is given by:
The characteristic impedance is defined as Z
c
= c/A. Thus:
The circuit equations are v ' v
1
% v
2
and v
1
Z
s
' v
2
Z
c
from which:
Muffling devices 277
v ' v
2
1 %
Z
c
Z
s
and *
v
2
v
*
2
'
1
*1 %
1
R
s
% jX
s
*
2
' *
v
2
v
*
2
'
1
*1 %
1
R
s
% jX
s
*
2
'
*R
s
% jX
s
*
2
*R
s
% jX
s
% 1*
2
'
R
2
s
% X
2
s
(R
s
% 1)
2
% X
2
s
*R
p
*
2
' 1 &
R
2
s
% X
2
s
( R
s
% 1)
2
% X
2
s
'
(R
s
% 1)
2
% X
2
s
& R
2
s
& X
2
s
(R
s
% 1)
2
% X
2
s
*R
p
*
2
'
2R
s
% 1
(R
s
% 1)
2
% X
2
s
The transmission coefficient can then be written as:
(b) The power reflection coefficient, , is related to the transmission *R
p
*
2
coefficient, , by . Thus: *R
p
*
2
' 1 &
Rearranging gives:
Problem 9.12
(a) The Insertion Loss is calculated using equation 9.54 as it is a constant
volume velocity source. Assuming that the damping term of Equation
(7.33) is negligible, the resonance frequency of the muffler is defined by:
. IL ' 10log
10
1 &
2 20

0
2
2
' 10
Thus
0
= 61.6rad/sec. To be a little conservative, use
0
= 60rad/sec.
The required chamber volume is then found using equation 9.38 in the
Solutions to problems 278
V '
343
2
0.01767
0.3 65
2
' 1.92m
3
0
PV '
0 m
M
RT
0 m '
MP
0
V
RT
'
0.029 101.4 10
3
2.894
8.314 288
' 3.55kg/ s
0
V '
0 mRT
MP
'
3.55 8.314 623
0.029 12 10
6
' 0.0529m
3
/ s
U '
0.0529 4
0.1
2
' 6.735m/ s
'
0 m
0
V
'
3.54
0.0529
' 66.9kg/ m
3
text. The cross-sectional area of the inlet pipe is
. Thus the required chamber volume is: A ' 0.15
2
/ 4 ' 0.01767m
2
(b) The attenuating device could be made smaller by using a low pass filter
as described on pp.433-438 in the text.
Problem 9.13
Low pass acoustic filter (see figure 9.11 in text). Head loss 4 velocity .
heads due to tube inlets and exits, so total pressure drop, p = 2U
2
. We now
must calculate the flow speed, U. Assume that the choke tube diameter is the
same as the inlet and exit pipes and equal to 0.1m. Flow rate at STP =
250,000m
3
/day = 2.894m
3
/sec. The mass flow rate can be calculated from the
Universal Gas Law. Thus:
and:
At operating conditions, T = 623EK and P = 12 10
6
Pa. Thus:
The velocity is thus:
The gas density is:
Thus the pressure drop, p is:
Muffling devices 279
p ' 2 67.2 6.735
2
' 6.1kPa
c
g
' RT/ M ' (1.3 8.314 623/ 0.029)
1/ 2
' 482m/ s
f
0
'
c
g
2
A
c
R
c
1
V
1
%
1
V
2
1/ 2
'
482
2
0.1
2
4 1.8
1 % 1
1/ 2
' 7.2Hz
which is much less than 0.5% of 12MPa, so it is OK.
Speed of sound in the gas is:
Following the design procedure on pages 437 and 438 of the text, we have
1. f
0
= 0.6 10 = 6Hz
2. Try V
1
= V
2
= 1m
3
4. Choke tube diameter = 0.1m and length = 1.8m (assuming the chambers
are cylinders 1m long and 0.64m diameter).
7. Resonance frequency is:
which is close enough to 6Hz for now.
Choke tube x-sectional area = 0.01/4 = 0.007854m
2
Equation 9.71 in the text may be used to calculate the Insertion Loss for the
muffler. Substituting the values into this equation gives IL = 30dB which is
too much. Thus try changing the volumes to 0.75m
3
and the choke tube length
to 1.6m. This gives an Insertion Loss of 17.6dB which is too small. Try
changing the volumes to 0.9m
3
and the choke tube length to 1.7m. This gives
an Insertion Loss of 25.9dB which is too large. Try changing the choke tube
length to 1.4m. This gives an Insertion Loss of 20.8dB which is OK.
Thus, the final design is for 2 volumes, each of 0.9m
3
with a 0.1m diameter
choke tube, 1.4m long connecting them.
In practice, conservatism would usually dictate sticking with the 30dB design
if it is practical.
Solutions to problems 280
26 '
343
2
0.05
2
3 4 R
c
(0.03
&1
% 0.03
&1
)
1/ 2
compressor
1
2
4
3
L
Problem 9.14
As the tubes are short, they
may be treated as lumped
elements and the design
procedure outlined on
pages 437 and 438 in the
text may be used. The
impedance of the three
tubes is three times that for
a single tube.
The design frequency is 40Hz. Thus the required resonance is 0.65 40 =
26Hz. To simplify matters, use the largest allowable chamber volumes and
smallest allowable choke tube diameter. Using equation 9.80, we obtain:
Thus and R
c
= 192mm. 26R
1/ 2
c
' 11.403
The filter thus consists of 2 volumes, each 0.03m
3
, connected by three 0.05m
diameter tubes which are approximately 0.2m long.
Problem 9.15
Muffling devices 281
v ' v
2
% v
3
% v
L
v
2
Z
2
' v
3
(Z
3
% Z
4
) ' V
L
Z
L
v
3
' v
L
Z
L
Z
3
% Z
4
v
2
' v
L
Z
L
Z
2
v ' v
L
1 %
Z
L
Z
3
% Z
4
%
Z
L
Z
2
IL ' 20log
10
*1 %
Z
L
Z
3
% Z
4
%
Z
L
Z
2
*
Z
L
'
c
A
'
413.6 4
0.02
2
' 1.317 10
6
Z
2
' Z
4
' &j
c
2
V
' &j
1.206 343
2
0.2 2 10
' &j 1.129 10
4
Z
1
Z
2
v
2
v
3
v
L
Z
L
Z
4
Z
3
v
(a) The equivalent acoustical circuit is shown above.
(b) The Insertion Loss of the muffler is given by equation 9.64 in the text.
The circuit equations are:
Thus the Insertion Loss is given by:
(c) For no reflections from the pipe exit:

The volume impedances are:
Solutions to problems 282
Z
1
' Z
3
' j
c
A
tan
2L

' j
413.6 4
0.02
2
tan
6
343
' j7.24 10
4
IL ' 20log
10
*1 %
1.317 10
6
j(7.24 10
4
& 1.129 10
4
)
%
1.317 10
6
&j1.129 10
4
*
' 20log
10
*1 & j21.54 % j116.7*
. 39.6dB
v ' v
1
% v
2
% v
3
% v
4
v
1
Z
a
' (v
2
% v
3
% v
4
) (Z
b
/ 2) % (v
3
% v
4
) (Z
b
/ 2) % v
4
Z
g
v
2
(Z
c
% Z
d
) ' (v
3
% v
4
) (Z
b
/ 2) % v
4
Z
g
v
3
Z
e
' v
4
Z
g
c
d
b
e a
f
g
v
Z
f
Z
b
/2 Z
b
/2
v
2
v
3
Z
c
Z
d
Z
a
v
1
Z
e
Z
g
v4
and the tube impedances are:
The Insertion Loss is then:
Problem 9.16
(a) Equivalent circuit diagram.
(b) System equations:
Muffling devices 283
Z
i
' Z
3
%
1
(1/ Z
2
) % (1/ Z
1
)
' Z
3
%
Z
1
Z
2
Z
1
% Z
2
'
Z
3
Z
1
% Z
3
Z
2
% Z
1
Z
2
Z
1
% Z
2
Z
3
'
4jc
d
2
3
tan(kL
3
); Z
2
' &
4jc
2
d
2
2
L
2

0.5m 0.5m 0.5m

0.4m
10mm
10mm
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3
Z
i
Z
i
Z
3
Z
2
Z
1
(c) Inductive (with resistive part) impedances are Z
b
, Z
c
, Z
f
and Z
g
.
Capacitative impedances are Z
a
, Z
d
and Z
e
.
Problem 9.17
(a) Impedance looking into the tube is:
(b)
Solutions to problems 284
Z
1
' &
4jc
d
2
1
cot(kL
1
)
Z
i
'
&
(4jc)
2

2
d
2
1
d
2
3
cot(kL
1
)tan(kL
3
) &
(4jc)
2
c

2
d
2
2
d
2
3
L
2

tan(kL
3
)
%
(4jc)
2
c

2
d
2
1
d
2
2
L
2

cot(kL
1
)
&
4jc

cot(kL
1
)
d
2
1
%
c
d
2
2
L
2

&
cot(kL
1
) tan(kL
3
)
d
2
1
d
2
3
&
ctan(kL
3
)
d
2
2
d
2
3
L
2

%
ccot(kL
1
)
d
2
1
d
2
2
L
2

' 0
& 8 10
&2
cot(/ 686) tan(/ 686)
& 343 10
&4
tan(/ 686) % 343 10
&4
cot(/ 686) ' 0
& % 0.429(&tan(/ 686) % cot(/ 686)) ' 0
and:
Thus:
(c) Resonance occurs when inductive impedance = capacitative impedance,
or Z
i
= 0.
Eliminating (4jc/)
2
from previous expression for Z
i
and setting the
result = 0, we obtain:
Substituting for k = /343, L
1
= L
2
= L
3
= 0.5, d
1
= d
3
= 0.01 and d
2
= 0.4,
we obtain:
Simplifying gives:
Solving by trial and error:
Muffling devices 285
reciprocating
compressor
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3
Z
L
Z
4
Z
5
Z
4
Z
3
Z
1
Z
5
Z
2
Z
L
reciprocating
compressor
v
v
1
v
2
v
3
Value of
expression
Value of
expression
1
10
20
18
293
19.4
-5.3
-1.6
17
17.3
17.15
17.1586
0.3
-0.28
0.017
-0.000045
Thus the resonance frequency = 17.1586/2 = 2.7Hz.
(d) At resonance, there will be a pressure maximum at the closed end and a
maximum particle velocity at the open end.
Problem 9.18
(a)
(b) Constant volume velocity source. Thus . The Insertion v ' v
1
% v
2
% v
3
Loss is given by:
Solutions to problems 286
IL ' 20log
10
*
v
v
3
*
Z
2
v
1
' Z
3
(v
2
% v
3
) % v
2
(Z
4
% Z
5
)
v
1
'
Z
3
v
2
Z
2
%
Z
3
v
3
Z
2
%
Z
4
v
2
Z
2
%
Z
5
v
2
Z
2
v
2
(Z
4
% Z
5
) ' v
3
Z
L
; thus v
2
'
v
3
Z
L
Z
4
% Z
5
v
1
' v
3
Z
3
Z
L
Z
2
(Z
4
% Z
5
)
%
Z
3
Z
2
%
Z
4
Z
L
Z
2
(Z
4
% Z
5
)
%
Z
5
Z
L
Z
2
(Z
4
% Z
5
)
IL ' 20log
10
*
(v
1
% v
2
% v
3
)
v
3
*
' 20log
10
/
0
0
0
0
1 %
Z
L
Z
4
% Z
5
%
Z
3
Z
L
Z
2
(Z
4
% Z
5
)
%
Z
3
Z
2
/
0
0
0
0
%
Z
4
Z
L
Z
2
(Z
4
% Z
5
)
%
Z
5
Z
L
Z
2
(Z
4
% Z
5
)
Examining pressure drops, we may write:
Thus:
Also:
Substituting for v
2
in the expression for v
1
gives:
The Insertion Loss is then:
(c) The result of (b) is no longer valid if the dimensions of the chambers
represented by impedances Z
2
and Z
5
exceed one quarter of a wavelength
of sound.
Muffling devices 287
1
Z
s
'
1
Z
v
%
1
Z
a
Z
v
' &j
c
2
V
and Z
a
' j
R
A
1
Z
s
' j
V
c
2
& j
a
2
R
' j
V
c
2
& j
3
2
a
8 2 & 2.5a

4V
1/ 3
Z
a
Z
v
cross-sectional
area, , of hole A
Volume, V
v
Z
v
Z
a
Problem 9.19
(a) Load seen by speaker (ignoring external air load), Z
s
given by:
where:
and R is the effective length of the orifice. From equation 9.16, the end
correction for the side of the hole in free space is 8a/3. If we assume
that the enclosure is cylindrical of diameter D, then the end correction for
the side of the hole in the enclosure is and the total R
0
'
8a
3
(1 & 2.5a/ D)
effective length of the hole is then . If the cylinder R '
8a
3
(2 & 2.5a/ D)
diameter is equal to its length, then and D ' (4V/ )
1/ 3
. R '
8a
3
2 & 2.5a

4V
1/ 3
Thus:
Solutions to problems 288
Z
s
' &j
16c
2
(1 & 1.153aV
&1/ 3
)
16V
2
(1 & 1.153aV
&1/ 3
) & 3
2
ac
2
16V
2
(1 & 1.153aV
&1/ 3
) ' 3
2
ac
2

0
'
3
2
ac
2
16V(1 & 1.153aV
&1/ 3
)
Thus:
(b) At low frequencies, the second term in the denominator will be larger
than the first and so the phase of the impedance will be +j which means
that the acoustic pressure leads the acoustic particle velocity by 90E. As
the particle displacement also leads the velocity by 90E, the particle
displacement at the orifice and the acoustic pressure will be in phase. As
the box is small compared to a wavelength, the acoustic pressure will be
in phase with the displacement of the cone; thus the out flow from the
orifice will be in the same direction as the cone motion.
At higher frequencies, the second term in the denominator will become
smaller than the first and the phase of the impedance will be -j, a 180E
shift from the lower
frequency case. Thus in
this case the out flow from
the orifice will be in the
opposite direction to the
cone motion and will thus
reinforce the out flow at
the cone as shown in the
figure.
The crossover frequency is thus when the two terms in the denominator
are equal, which is when:
or:
(c) We need to solve the above equation for V, given that
0
= 2 100.
Rearranging the above equation and substituting values for variables, we
obtain:
Muffling devices 289
V '
3
2
ac
2
16
2
0
(1 & 1.153aV
&1/ 3
)
'
3
2
(0.01/ )
1/ 2
343
2
16 4
2
10
4
(1 & 1.153 (0.01/ )
1/ 2
V
&1/ 3
)
'
0.0311
1 & 0.0651V
&1/ 3
a
b
1m
3
d
1.5m
3
f
2m
3
0.2m
L
0.2m dia
0.1m long
0.2m dia
0.1m long
0.2m dia
10m long
c
e
Equivalent acoustical circuit
Z
a
Z
c
Z
e
Z
L
Z
f
Z
d
Z
b
p
v
b
v
d
v
f
v
L
Solving by trial and error gives V = 0.039m
3
.
Problem 9.20
Referring to the figures above and using equation 9.55 in the text for a
constant pressure source, we may write the following Insertion Loss and
acoustical circuit equations:
Solutions to problems 290
IL ' 20log
10
*
p
v
L
Z
L
*
(1)
p ' (v
b
% v
d
% v
f
% v
L
)Z
a
% v
b
Z
b
(2)
v
b
Z
b
' v
d
Z
d
% Z
c
(v
d
% v
f
% v
L
)
(3)
v
d
Z
d
' v
f
Z
f
% Z
e
(v
f
% v
L
)
(4)
v
f
Z
f
' v
L
Z
L
(5)
v
d
' v
f
Z
f
Z
d
%
Z
e
Z
d
%
v
L
Z
e
Z
d
(6)
v
d
' v
L
Z
L
Z
d
%
Z
e
Z
L
Z
d
Z
f
%
Z
e
Z
d
(7)
v
b
' v
d
Z
d
Z
b
%
Z
c
Z
b
% v
f
Z
c
Z
b
% v
L
Z
c
Z
b
(8)
v
b
' v
L
Z
d
Z
b
%
Z
c
Z
b
Z
L
Z
d
%
Z
e
Z
L
Z
d
Z
f
%
Z
e
Z
d
%
Z
c
Z
L
Z
b
Z
f
%
Z
c
Z
b
(9)
p
Z
L
v
L
'
Z
a
% Z
b
Z
L
Z
d
Z
b
%
Z
c
Z
b
Z
L
Z
d
%
Z
e
Z
L
Z
d
Z
f
%
Z
e
Z
d
%
Z
c
Z
L
Z
b
Z
f
%
Z
c
Z
b
% Z
a
Z
L
Z
d
%
Z
e
Z
L
Z
d
Z
f
%
Z
e
Z
d
%
Z
L
Z
f
% 1
Using eq. (4), we can write:
Using eqs. (5) and (6), we can write:
Using eq. (3):
Using eqs. (5), (7) and (8):
Using eqs. (2), (5), (7) and (9):
The Insertion Loss is then:
Muffling devices 291
IL ' 20log
10
/
0
0
0
0
Z
a
% Z
b
Z
L
Z
d
Z
b
%
Z
c
Z
b
Z
L
Z
d
%
Z
e
Z
L
Z
d
Z
f
%
Z
e
Z
d
%
Z
c
Z
L
Z
b
Z
f
%
Z
c
Z
b
/
0
0
0
0
% Z
a
Z
L
Z
d
%
Z
e
Z
L
Z
d
Z
f
%
Z
e
Z
d
%
Z
L
Z
f
% 1
Z
a
'
jc
A
a
tan(k R
a
) % R
a
; Z
b
' &j
c
2
V
b

; Z
d
' &j
c
2
V
d

Z
c
' j
c
A
c
tan(k R
c
) % R
c
; Z
e
' j
c
A
e
tan(k R
e
) % R
e
; Z
L
'
c
A
L
R
a
'
c
A
a

c
tD
a
w
a
2A
a
1 % ( & 1)
5
3
% 0.288

c
d log
10
4A
a
h
2
a
%

2
c
2
A
a
2
% M
t ' 2/ () ' 0.00550/ ; ( ' 1.8 10
&5
kgm
&1
s
&1
)
where the impedances are defined as:
From equation 9.29, p.417:
R
c
and R
e
are defined similarly to R
a
, except that subscripts c and e are
substituted for subscript a respectively.
c = 1.206 343 = 414; A
e
= A
c
= A
a
= 0.2
2
/4 = 0.00314m
2
.
Pipe end corrections, R
0
= (8 0.1)(1 - 1.25 0.2/1)/(3 ) = 0.064m
h
c
= h
e
= largest of t or 0.05; h
a
= largest of t or tube inlet radius.
w
a
= 10m, w
e
= w
c
= 0.1m, = 1.4, V
b
= 1, V
d
= 1.5, V
f
= 2m
3
Assume that M is small enough to neglect.

a
'
c
'
e
' 0
Solutions to problems 292
1
2
Re p
Z
0
v
(
1
'
1
2
Re Z
0
v
1
v
(
1
'
*v
1
*
2
2
Re Z
0
v
1
(Z
1
% Z
0
) ' v
2
Z
2
' p
v
1
'
p
Z
1
% Z
0
W
0
'
*v
1
*
2
2
Re6 Z
0
> '
* p*
2
2
Re6 Z
0
>
*Z
1
% Z
0
*
2
Ap
Ap
Z
1
Z
1
Z
2
Z
2
Z
0
Z
0
v
2
v
1
v
2
v
1
Problem 9.21
(a) Fan and plenum equivalent circuit diagram is shown in the figure below.
Power flow through Z
0
is the radiated sound power and is equal to:

v
1
is an rms quantity and is the pressure drop across Z
0
. Equating p
Z
0
circuit pressure drops gives:
At low frequencies, Re{Z
0
} = 0, and so W
0
= 0
(b) For Z
2
, use the analysis leading up to equation 9.35 in the text. For Z
1
use
the analysis leading to equation 9.14 for the imaginary part and equation
9.29 for the real part.
The expressions are valid over the frequency range from zero up to where
the neck diameter or plenum dimensions approach 0.2 of a wavelength.
(c) The resistive component consists of viscous friction losses due to air
particles vibrating back and forth against the edge of the inlet.
(d) Varying the fan position along the duct will have the effect of adding an
inductive impedance between the fan and plenum and will also change
impedance, Z
1
. Thus the radiated sound power will vary.
Muffling devices 293
c
g
'
RT
M
'
1.3 8.314 (273 % 900)
0.03
1/ 2
' 650m/ s
25 ' 10log
10
1 & ( /
0
)
2
2
;
Thus,
0
'

18.78
'
2 50
18.78
' 72.5rad/ s
1
1.3
&
18 0.1
314.2V
&
2 0.01
A
2
650
2
72.5
2
A
1.5
V
10 8 10
&3
0.01
> 1
0.77 &
5.73 10
&3
V
&
4.734 10
&8
A
2
3.707 10
6
A
1.5
V > 1
A
min
'
3 4.734 10
&8
0.77
1/ 2
' 4.3 10
&4
m
2
V
min
'
3 5.73 10
&3
0.77
' 0.022m
3
[ 0.769 & 0.143 & 0.051] 4.41 ' 2.53 , which is a bit large
Problem 9.22
The speed of flow, U
0
= 0.1m/s. The speed of sound in the gas is:
Following the design procedure on p.432 in the text, the desired resonance
frequency is given by:
Using equation 9.60 in the text, the design equation is:
Rewriting gives:
To begin, set each term in brackets = (0.77/3). Thus:
However, this will not satisfy the minimum requirement for A
1.5
V. Thus
increase A and V by a factor of 2. Thus try V = 0.04m
3
and
A = 9.6 10
-4
m
2
(d = 35mm).
Design equation becomes:
Solutions to problems 294
[ 0.769 & 0.143 & 0.095] 2.78 ' 1.48 , which is OK
R '
7.06 10
&4
0.04
650
72.5
2
' 1.42m
0.3m 0.6m
Try reducing d to 30mm; A = 7.06 10
-4
and the design equation is
The required tail pipe length, R, is:
Design summary (to achieve 25dB at 50Hz)
Volume = 40litres
Tail pipe diameter = 30mm
tail pipe length = 1.42m
Could use a smaller tail pipe length and larger tail pipe diameter if a larger
volume were chosen.
Problem 9.23
Use maximum allowable
OD = 0.6m.
Inside diameter
= 0.3m = 2h
Liner thickness,
R = 0.15m
Thus R/h = 1.0
M = -17/343 = -0.05
At 500Hz,
2h

'
0.3 500
343
' 0.437
From Figure 9.15 in the text, for M = 0, R/h = 1.0 and 2h/ = 0.437, the figure
with the highest attenuation is the top right figure corresponding to R
1
R/c =
2. For a square duct lined on 4 sides (equivalent to a circular duct), the
attenuation would be 6.3dB per length of lined duct equal to the duct radius.
From Figure 9.17, top right figure, the attenuation for M = -0.1, is7.1 dB per
length of duct equal to the duct radius. As M = -0.05, use an attenuation rate
of 0.5(6.3 +7.1) = 6.7dB per length of duct equal to the duct radius.
From figure 9.22 in the text, (expansion ratio = (0.6/0.3)
2
= 4), the required
liner attenuation for an overall attenuation of 15dB is 10.8dB.
Thus the required length of liner = 0.15 10.8/6.7 = 0.24m
Muffling devices 295
S

'
0.3
2
4
1/ 2

500
343
' 0.39
450mm
300mm
75mm
Additional noise reduction if direction of sound is distributed equally in all
directions at the duct inlet (for example, if the duct were venting a machine
enclosure) can be found from figure 9.21, p.459 in the text, where:
From the figure, the additional attenuation is 7dB.
Problem 9.24
The total attenuation is made up of
! entrance losses (figure 9.21, p.459)
! exit losses (table 9.5, p.464, numbers in brackets)
! liner attenuation (figure 9.15, p.449)
Mach no., M = 0.0. Area of open duct = 75 300 10
-6
= 0.0225, = 0. To
maximise the attenuation choose the curve corresponding to R/h = 4 and R
1
R/c
= 4 in figure 9.15 which corresponds to M = 0.0. For the large dimension, 2h
= 0.3 and duct length is equal to 3h, and for the small dimension, 2h = 0.075
and the duct length is equal to 12h. The following table may now be
generated.
Octave band centre
frequency (Hz)
2h
1
/
short
2h
2
/
long
attenuation (dB) - lining only
short sides long sides all sides
500
1000
2000
4000
0.437
0.875
1.749
3.499
0.109
0.219
0.437
0.875
7.5
4.6
2.4
0.9
19.1
24.2
29.5
24.0
26.6
30.2
31.9
24.9
The total loss may now be calculated with the aid of the following table.
Solutions to problems 296
Octave band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
S/
(S=0.30.075)
Entrance
loss
(dB)
Exit loss (dB)
D '
4A

' 0.169
lining
loss
(dB)
total
loss
(dB)
500
1000
2000
4000
0.219
0.437
0.875
1.749
3.1
7.3
9.6
10.0
4.2
1.6
0.6
0
26.6
30.2
31.9
24.9
33.9
39.1
42.1
34.9
(a) It is clearly possible to achieve 30dB or more in each of the octave bands,
1 2 & 4kHz. In fact a thinner liner would most likely be adequate.
(b) The best attenuation possible at 500Hz is 34dB.
Problem 9.25
Dissipative muffler - 3 attenuations: inlet, outlet and lined section (no
expansion loss as it is mounted on an enclosure). Try beginning with the
smallest allowed cross section of duct. Thus, S = 0.25 m
2
and and S/ ' f S/ c ' 1.458 10
&3
f 2h/ ' 0.5f / c ' 1.458 10
&3
f
frequency
(Hz)
inlet
S

'
2h

loss
outlet
loss
total
atten.
needed
Liner
atten
needed
125 0.18 2 5.5 9 1.5
1000 1.46 10 0 15 5
2000 2.91 10 0 15 5
If we use the largest outer cross section allowed, the ratio of liner thickness
to half airway width is 1.0. Using curve 3 in Figure 9.16, assuming a flow
speed of M=0.1, and using R
1
R/c = 8, we obtain the following attenuations
for 0.25 m length of duct lined on all 4 sides.
125 Hz 1.2 dB
1000Hz 3.4 dB
2000 Hz 1.0 dB
It is clear that the critical frequency is 2000 Hz and to satisfy the requirement
of 5 dB at this frequency, we need a length of duct equal to 5 0.25/1.0 =
Muffling devices 297
45
o
100mm
200mm
300mm
a
b
a
b
1.25 m. Note that many other solutions would be acceptable as well.
Problem 9.26
(a) From the figure to the right, using
similar triangles, it can be seen that
the ratio, R/h is 100/200 = 0.5 (as
one side only of the airway is
lined). It may also be assumed that
the flow speed is small enough to
ignore.
(b) For the ratio R/h = 0.5, an
acceptable value of R
1
R/c is 2.
Thus the required flow resistance of
the liner is R
1
= 2 413.6/0.0707 =
11,700 MKS Rayls.
(c) h = 2R = 200//2 = 141.4mm. Duct
cross-sectional area = (0.2//2)
0.4 = 0.0566m
2
. The effective duct
length, L = 300/2 = 424mm = 3h.
Wavelength, = 343/f. The exit
loss is obtained from Table 9.5 in
the text and the inlet loss is from
figure 9.21 in the text (assuming diffuse field input). The lined duct loss
is from figure 9.15 in the text (curve 2, top right figure). The results are
summarised in the following table.
Solutions to problems 298
r
t
Octave
band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
2h/
lined
duct
loss
(dB)
length, 3h
/S/
Inlet
Loss
(dB)
Exit
Loss
(dB)
Total
Atten.
(dB)
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
0.052
0.103
0.206
0.412
0.825
1.65
3.30
6.60
0.1
0.6
2.1
6.6
8.2
3.0
0.9
0.3
0.044
0.087
0.17
0.35
0.69
1.39
2.78
5.55
0
0
2
6.1
8.8
10
10
10
12.3
8.2
4.2
1.2
0.1
0
0
0
14
9
9
14
18
13
11
10
Problem 9.27
(a) Insertion Loss is the difference in sound level at the end of the duct with
and without the silencer in place. Transmission Loss is the difference in
sound pressure level measured at the inlet and outlet of the silencer.
(b)
Power transmitted down duct with no muffler = 1.
Power transmitted with muffler = .
Thus IL = -10log
10

Power incident on muffler = 1.

Power transmitted by muffler =
Thus Transmission Loss, TL = -10log
10
= IL
(c) Dissipative attenuators absorb energy and contain surfaces lined with
sound absorbing material. They are cost effective for high frequency
noise.
Reactive mufflers change the radiation impedance "seen" by the sound
Muffling devices 299
TL ' &10log
10
A
R
%
Acos
r
2
R '
S
(1 & )
' 2(3.32 2.82 % 3.32 2.95 % 2.82 2.95) 0.1/ 0.9
' 6.106m
2
3.32m
2.82m
source (tonal noise or system resonances) and reflect energy back to the
source. They can also dissipate energy through viscous losses at
entrances and exits of small air passage ways. Reactive mufflers are cost
effective for low frequency broadband noise. They can also be tuned to
attenuate tonal noise at one or more frequencies.
Active mufflers act in a similar way to reactive mufflers but the
impedance change, sound reflection or absorption is provided by a sound
source such as a loudspeaker. These mufflers are cost effective for low
frequency tonal noise problems and in many cases they are preferred to
reactive mufflers because of their relatively small size and installation
convenience. They are also preferred in dirty environments where
reactive mufflers can become clogged.
Problem 9.28
(a) Room 3.32m long, 2.82m wide and 2.95m high. Doors at each end are
2.06m high, 0.79m wide. Can treat it like a plenum chamber.
and the sound power attenuation or transmission loss is: ' 0.1
A = 2.06 0.79 = 1.627m
2
, r = 3.32m
Thus:
Solutions to problems 300
TL ' &10log
10
1.627
6.106
%
1.627
3.32
2
' 5.0dB
R ' 6.106
0.9
0.1

0.5
0.5
' 54.95m
2
TL ' &10log
10
1.627
54.95
%
1.627
3.32
2
' 11.2dB
TL ' &10log
10
1.627
6.106
' 5.7dB
TL ' &10log
10
1.627
54.95
' 15.3dB
W '
p
2

4c
A '
4 10
&10
10
8.5
1.627
4 413.6
' 1.244 10
&4
W
(b) Increasing to 0.5 gives:
Thus,
That is, a 6dB improvement.
(c) If the direct line of sight were prevented, then the direct field term
contribution will be zero. Thus for case (a) above:
and for case (b) above,
That is, there is little difference in the first case where the reverberant
field contribution dominates.
(d) Sound power leaving the doorway of the first room is given by the sound
intensity directed towards the door multiplied by the door opening area.
Using equations 7.33 and 1.75 in the text, we obtain:
The sound power level is:
L
w
' 10log
10
W% 120 ' 81.0dB re 10
&12
W
Thus the sound power incident on the second doorway is:
81.0 - 5.0 = 76.0dB.
Assuming no reflection from the doorway, this corresponds to a sound
pressure level in the doorway given by equation 6.2 in the text as (where
Muffling devices 301
L
p
' L
w
& 10log
10
A % 0.15
' 76.0 & 10log
10
(1.627) % 0.15 ' 74.0dB
N
s
' fd/ c ' 500 1/ 343 ' 1.458
L
p
' L
w
& K %DI
M
& A
E
(dB re 20Pa)
100m
90
o
R
2m
1
2
the correction for c 400 has been included):
Problem 9.29
At a distance of 50m, the angular orientation from the stack axis of the line
joining the stack to the observer is approximately 90E. The directivity index
may be obtained using figure 9.27 in the text. The Strouhal number is:
Thus from figure 9.27 in the text, DI
M
= -9.6dB.
The sound pressure level at the receiver is related to the sound power radiated
by the stack using equation 5.158 in the text which may be written as:
L
w
= 135dB
K = 10log
10
(2r
2
) = 10log
10
(2 100
2
) = 48dB (equation 5.161 in text)
A
E
= A
a
+ A
g
+ A
m
+ A
b
+ A
f
(equation 5.165 in text)
A
a
= 0.2 - 0.3dB (table 5.3, p. 225 in text)
A
g
= -3dB (attenuation of ground reflected wave = attenuation of direct
wave)
A
m
= (+3, -1)dB (table 5.10, p.243 in text)
A
b
= A
f
= 0
Solutions to problems 302
L
p
' 135 & 48 & 9.6 & 0.2 % 3 & (%3, &1) ' 77 & 81dB re 20Pa
Thus:
If meteorological influences are ignored, L
p
= 80dB re 20Pa.
10
Solutions to problems in
vibration isolation
Problem 10.1
(a) The difference in levels between the plant room and apartment for the
two cases of the plant operating and the test source operation are
obtained by subtracting appropriate rows in the table given in the
problem and are given in the table below
Octave band centre
frequency (Hz)
63 125 250 500
Equipment operating 25 36 38 40
Test source operating 34 37 38 39
Inspection of the above table indicates that in the 63Hz band, the problem
is dominated by structure-borne noise whereas at higher frequencies, air-
borne noise dominates. Thus improved vibration isolation will only help
the low frequency noise problem and after allowing for the A-weighting
correction of table 3.1, it can be seen that reducing the 63Hz problem will
not significantly reduce the A-weighted noise level in the apartment.
Problem 10.2
The single degree of freedom model gives inaccurate estimations of vibration
transmission in the audio frequency range because it treats the spring and
supported mass as lumped elements and does not include the effects of wave
transmission along the spring. The wave transmission effects are negligible
at sub-audio frequencies but are often important mechanisms of vibration
transmission in the audio frequency range.
Solutions to problems 304
T
s
'
m
L
0
1
2
S
y
L
0 x
2
dy '
1
2
S
L
2
0 x
2
L
3
3
'
1
2
( SL)
0 x
2
3
'
1
2
m
s
0 x
2
T
tot
' T
s
% T
m
'
1
2
m
3
0 x
2
%
1
2
m 0 x
2
'
1
2
m %
m
s
3
0 x
2
T
max
'
1
2
m %
m
s
3
(A)
2
V '
1
2
kx
2
max
'
1
2
kA
2
1
2
m %
m
s
3
(A)
2
'
1
2
kA
2
m
y
dy
L
k, m
s
0
x
Problem 10.3
(a) Assuming that the displacement
of the end of the spring attached
to the mass is described by x(t).
An intermediate point on the
spring, a distance of y from the
fixed base will have a
displacement of (y/L)x(t). The
total kinetic energy of the spring
is:

The total kinetic energy of the spring and mass is:
If x(t) = Asin(t), then and: 0 x(t) ' Asin( t )
The maximum potential energy stored in the spring is:
where k is the spring stiffness.
Equating T
max
with V
max
gives:
Vibration isolation 305

n
'
k
m %
m
s
3
f
0
'

n
2
'
1
2
k
m % m
s
/ 3
E '
force/ area
spring extension/ spring length
'
kx/ S
x/ L
'
kL
S
c
L
'
E

'
kL
S
' f
s

s
' 4f
s
L
f
s
'
1
4
k
SL
' 0.25
k
m
s
M
2

Mx
2
'
1
c
2
L
M
2

Mt
2
' Ae
j (t & ( / c
L
) x)
% Be
j (t % ( / c
L
) x % )
Thus:
and the resonance frequency f
0
is thus:
(b) Effective Young's modulus, E, is given by:
Longitudinal wave speed is thus given by:
Thus the surge frequency is given by:
(c) The wave motion in the spring satisfies the one dimensional wave
equation given by:
where is the spring longitudinal displacement as a function of axial
location x.
The solution for this equation is the same as for the acoustic case. That
is:
Solutions to problems 306
' A e
j (t & ( / c
L
) x)
& e
j (t % ( / c
L
) x)
m
M
2

Mx
2
' &kL
M
Mx
&m
2
e
j (t & ( / c
L
) L)
& e
j (t % ( / c
L
) L)
' jkL

c
L
e
j (t & ( / c
L
) L)
% e
j (t % ( / c
L
) L)
m
2
e
j ( / c
L
) L)
& e
&j ( / c
L
) L)
' jkL

c
L
e
&j ( / c
L
) L)
% e
j ( / c
L
) L)
L
c
L
tan
L
c
L
'
SL
m
'
m
s
m
'
1
N
One boundary condition is that at x = 0, = 0. Substituting this into the
solution to the wave equation gives . Thus the wave equation Be
j
' &A
solution becomes:
The second boundary condition is that the inertia force of the mass at x
= L is equal to the spring force. That is:
where k is the spring stiffness.
Substituting the wave equation solution into this gives:
which can be rewritten as:
As shown in part (b), kL = c
L
2
S. Using this relation and rearranging the
above equation gives:
The surge frequency is 2 , where is the solution of the above
transcendental equation. As stated in the problem, the upper frequency
bound will be 0.9 this value.
Vibration isolation 307
k
e
'
k
1
k
2
k
1
% k
2

1
'
k
1
k
2
(k
1
%k
2
)m

2
'
k
1
m

2
'
k
2
k
1
% k
2
'
1
1 % k
1
/ k
2
m
k
1
k
2
0
x
M
m
M
m
M
i
M
f
M
f
f
m
f
m
f
f
f
f
f
in
f
in
without isolator
with isolator
Problem 10.4
As shown in the figure, let the frame
stiffness be represented by k
2
and the
isolator stiffness by k
1
. The effective
stiffness, k
e
is then given by:
Thus the resonance frequency is given by:
With a rigid frame, the resonance frequency is given by:
The ratio of the two (which is plotted in figure 10.7) is:
Problem 10.5
(a) The equivalent mobility electrical circuits are shown in the two figures
below.
Solutions to problems 308
f
m
M
m
' f
f
M
f
f
in
' f
m
% f
f
' f
f
1 %
M
f
M
m
' f
f
M
m
%M
f
M
m
T
1
'
f
f
f
in
'
M
m
M
m
% M
f
f
m
' f
f
M
i
% M
f
M
m
f
in
' f
m
% f
f
' f
f
1 %
M
i
% M
f
M
m
' f
f
M
m
% M
i
% M
f
M
m
T
2
'
f
f
f
in
'
M
m
M
m
% M
f
% M
i
T
F
'
T
2
T
1
'
M
m
% M
f
M
m
% M
f
% M
i
(b) For the circuit without the isolator:
and:
The force transmissibility is the ratio of f
f
/f
in
, which is:
For the circuit with the isolator:
and:
The force transmissibility is the ratio of f
f
/f
in
, which is:
The force transmissibility with the isolator compared to that without the
isolator is then T
2
/T
1
and is:
which is the same as equation 10.31.
Vibration isolation 309
Problem 10.6
2b = 0.7 m; machine width = 0.9m
2e = 1.0 m; machine depth =1.2m
2h = 0.2 m
a = 0.5 - h = 0.4 m; machine height = 2(0.4-h) = 0.6m
vertical dimension of mass, 2d = 2(a - h) = 0.6m
k = 4000 N/m
Radius of gyration about vertical y-axis (eq. 10.18 in text):

y
' [ (0.9/2)
2
% (1.2/2)
2
] / 3 ' 0.4330 m
Radius of gyration about horizontal x-axis (eq. 10.18 in text):
m
x
' [ (0.6/2)
2
% (1.2/2)
2
] / 3 ' 0.3873
Radius of gyration about horizontal z-axis (eq. 10.18 in text):
m
z
' [ (0.6/2)
2
% (0.9/2)
2
] / 3 ' 0.3122
f
0
'
1
2
k
m
'
1
2
4000 4
50
' 2.847Hz
Now the rocking modes will be calculated, first in the x-y plane (about the z-
axis) and then in the z-y plane (about the x-axis):
W
x
' (
z
/ b) k
x
/ k
y
'
0.3122
0.35
1/ 4 ' 0.446
M
x
' a/
z
' 0.4/0.3122 ' 1.281
From figure 10.5 in the text,
a
= 0.38 and
b
= 1.19. Thus:
and f
a
' 0.38 2.847 0.35/ 0.3122 ' 1.21Hz
f
b
' 1.19 2.847 0.35/ 0.3122 ' 3.80Hz
W
z
' (
x
/ e) k
z
/ k
y
'
0.3873
0.5
1/ 4 ' 0.3873
M
z
' a/
x
' 0.4/0.3873 ' 1.033
From figure 10.5 in the text,
a
= 0.33 and
b
= 1.09. Thus:
Solutions to problems 310
T
F
'
M
m
% M
f
M
m
% M
f
% M
i
T
F
'
0.1 % 0.2
0.1 % 0.2 % 1
' 0.231
k
2
k
1
'
m
1
m
2
( m
1
% m
2
)
2
2f
2
'
k
2
m
2

2
'
3( m
2
/ m
1
)
8( 1 % m
2
/ m
1
)
3
and f
c
' 0.33 2.847 0.5/ 0.3873 ' 1.21Hz
f
d
' 1.09 2.847 0.5/ 0.3873 ' 4.01Hz
The resonance frequency of the rotational mode is calculated using equation
10.17 in the text and is:
f
y
'
1

0.35
2
4000 % 0.5
2
4000
50 0.433
2
' 4.01Hz
Problem 10.7
From equation 10.31, the increase in force transmission is:
From the question, M
f
= 0.2M
i
= 2M
m
. Thus:
which corresponds to a reduction in force transmission by a factor of 4.3.
Problem 10.8
Referring to figure 10.11 in the text and the discussion on pages 496, the
optimal absorber is characterised by:
The excitation frequency is 3000/60 = 50Hz and this should be equal to the
Vibration isolation 311
9.87 10
4
m
2
10
7
'
1000m
2
(1000 % m
2
)
2
k
2
' (100)
2
m
2
' 19.7MN/ m
'
3 200/ 1000
8( 1 % 200/ 1000)
3
' 0.21
resonance frequency of the absorber mass and spring system.
Thus or (100)
2
' k
2
/ m
2
k
2
' 9.87 10
4
m
2
Using the first equation and substituting the above for k
2
, and the given values
for k
1
and m
1
, we obtain:
which results in a negative mass m
2
. The text indicates that the damping mass
should be as large as possible; thus it seems impractical to try to satisfy the
second of the above three design equations. Thus let the design mass m
2
=20% of m
1
= 200kg. Thus the required stiffness is given by:
The required damping may be obtained from equation 10.47 as:
Problem 10.9
Damping a vibrating surface will only reduce the resonant response. Thus
damping will only result in a reduction in sound radiation if the resonant
modes are contribution most to the radiated sound field. This is generally the
case when the surface is excited mechanically. However, if the surface is
excited by an acoustic wave on the side opposite that which is causing the
radiation problem, then it is likely that the sound radiation will be dominated
by vibration modes which are being forced to vibrate at frequencies well
above their resonances. In this case damping the surface will not reduce the
sound radiation directly but may reduce it a little because adding mass to the
vibrating structure will decrease its mobility for excitation by the incoming
sound field. See pages 504-506 in the text.
Problem 10.10
(a) 100dB below 1 volt corresponds to a voltage of 1 10
-100/20
Volts =
Solutions to problems 312
u '
p
c
'
2 10
&5
10
80/ 20
413.6
' 4.836 10
&4
m/ s
0 u
rms
' 2f u ' 2 1000 4.836 10
&4
' 3.04m/ s
2
d
rms
'
u
2f
'
4.836 10
&4
2 1000
' 0.078m
10Volts.
Accelerometer mass, m (grams), is approximately equal to sensitivity in
mV/g. Smallest detectable acceleration (in g) is the smallest detected
voltage in milli-volts divided by m. Thus smallest detectable acceleration
is 10
-2
/m "g" which in metres/sec is 0.01 divided by the accelerometer
weight in grams.
(b) The required relation can be determined by considering the mass loading
effect of the accelerometer. To obtain results within 3dB of the correct
level, the accelerometer mass must satisfy the requirement that
. m < 3.7 10
&4
(c
L
h
2
/ f )
For steel, = 7800 and c
L
= 5150/0.954. Thus the condition
must be satisfied. mf
u
< 15,580 h
2
(c) From part (a), if the smallest acceleration to be detected is 0.01g, then the
lightest accelerometer which can be used is 1 gram. Substituting m = 1
and h = 1 in the relation of (b) above gives f
u
= 15.58kHz.
Problem 10.11
(a) For a large plate vibrating as a piston, sound will be radiated as plane
waves with no near field. Thus at any point the pressure and acoustic
particle velocity are related by p = cu. As the acoustic particle velocity
adjacent to the plate is equal to the plate velocity, the velocity of the plate
is given by:
The r.m.s. acceleration is thus given by:
(b) The r.m.s. displacement is given by:
Vibration isolation 313
(c) At high frequencies accelerations are generally large compared to
displacements, whereas the opposite is true at very low frequencies. An
accelerometer is thus the best means of measuring the acceleration at
1kHz, provided that the accelerometer did not significantly mass load the
plate (see equation 10.53 in the text). For thin plates at high frequencies,
a measurement of the sound pressure close to the plate may be the best
way of determining the plate response.
Problem 10.12
(a) Adding damping will reduce the sound radiated by a vibrating surface if
the surface vibration modes which are excited are resonant as is usually
the case if the structure or surface is excited mechanically (but not
acoustically). A full discussion of this concept may be found on pages
504-506 of the text.
(b) Adding stiffness to a vibrating surface will only decrease its sound
radiation or increase its transmission loss at frequencies below the first
resonance frequency of the surface. If the surface is excited at resonance
by a tonal excitation source, then adding stiffness will increase its
resonance frequencies and if the carefully done will result in a reduction
in radiated sound.
(c) Adding mass to a vibrating surface will reduce the sound radiation and
increase the panel transmission loss at frequencies above the first
resonance frequency of the surface and below the surface critical
frequency.
Problem 10.13
Vibration velocities measured in octave bands on a diesel engine are listed in
the following table.
Solutions to problems 314
Octave band
centre
frequency
(Hz)
63 125 250 500 1k
rms vibration velocity
(mm/s) 5 10 5 2 0.5
rms acceleration
estimate (v2f) (m/s
2
)
1.98 7.85 7.85 6.28 3.14
rms displacement
estimate (v/2f) (m)
12.6 12.7 3.18 0.64 0.08
(a) Overall rms velocity = (5
2
+ 10
2
+ 5
2
+ 2
2
+ 0.5
2
)
1/2
= 12.4 mm/s
(b) Overall velocity in dB re 10
-6
mm/s = 20 log
10
(12.4/10
-6
) = 142dB re 10
-6
mm/s
(c) Estimate of the overall acceleration level in dB re 10
-6
m/s
2
= 20
log
10
(13.29/10
-6
) = 142dB re 10
-6
m/s
2
(d) Estimate of the overall displacement level in dB re 10
-6
m = 20
log
10
(18.22/10
-6
) = 145dB re 10
-6
m
Problem 10.14
(a) I would mount the accelerometer so that its axis was normal to the beam
surface and thus parallel to the beam displacement.
(b) Longitudinal waves would cause the accelerometer to vibrate normal to
its axis and the cross-axis sensitivity of the accelerometer will result in
a signal due to the longitudinal wave. For a properly selected and aligned
accelerometer the effect can be very small but for any other
accelerometer the effect could be significant depending on the relative
levels of the bending and longitudinal displacements and the actual cross
axis sensitivity of the accelerometer.
Problem 10.15
(a) Using the relation, , we obtain f
0
= 11.1Hz f
0
'
1
2
g
d
Vibration isolation 315
T
F
'
1 % (20.054.49)
2
(1 & 4.49
2
)
2
% (2 0.05 4.49)
2
' 0.057
M
i
'
j 2 50
4.905e%6
' j6.405 10
&5
m/s/N
T
F
'
/
0
0
0
/
0
0
0
&3.183 10
&6
& 2 10
&5
&3.183 10
&6
& 2 10
&5
% 6.405 10
&5
' 0.567
4
1 &
2
' 0.5
(b) We may use equation (10.14) in the text. The value of X is
3000/(6011.1) = 4.49. Thus:
Thus the reduction in transmitted vertical force is -20 log
10
(0.057) =
25dB
(c) We may use equation (10.31) in the text. First we must calculate the
isolator mobility. The overall spring stiffness is found by setting
equations (10.2) and (10.3) in the text, equal. The result is
k = 10009.81/0.002 = 4.905MN/m. The isolator mobility is then
calculated using to give: M
i
'
j
k
i
The mobility of the supported mass is calculated using M
m
= 1/j2fm =
-j3.183 10
-6
m/s/N.
Using equation (10.31), we obtain:
Thus the reduction in transmitted vertical force is now -20 log
10
(0.567)
= 5dB; thus there is an increase of 20dB.
Problem 10.16
The critical damping ratio is given by:
Solutions to problems 316
'
0.25
16
2
% 0.25
' 0.04
Thus:
and = 0.02.
This loss factor is about 10 to 20 times greater than would be expected from
a sheet of steel, so one might conclude that the product would be effective.
One application would be for lining of parts bins.
11
Solutions to problems in
active noise control
Problem 11.1
Acoustic mechanisms associated with active noise control include:
1. Suppression of the primary source by changing its input impedance with
a control source
2. Reflection of energy as a result of causing an impedance mismatch at the
control source
3. Absorption of energy by the control source
4. Local cancellation at the expense of increased levels elsewhere
Applications:
(a) Feasible, reference sensor would be tacho signal, control source should
be downstream of primary source and remote from turbulence generating
parts of the duct system, and error sensor should be downstream of
control source (out of source near field). Mechanism involved is
suppression of primary source by changing its radiation impedance.
(b) Not feasible if the source of noise is the grille. This is because it would
be difficult to obtain a causal reference signal. If the source of noise is
upstream of the grille, then active control may be feasible. A reference
signal could be obtained from a microphone (with a turbulence filter)
placed upstream. The control source would be placed at least 1.2m
downstream of the reference sensor (depending on the controller time
delay) and the error sensor would be placed 0.5 to 1m downstream of the
control source, and it may even work better if placed on the room side of
the grille. Mechanism would be reflection and absorption of primary
energy.
(c) Not feasible if global control is needed. Possible to establish zones of
local noise reduction.
Active noise control 318
(d) Not feasible due to difficulty in obtaining a causal reference signal.
(e) Feasible, reference sensor would be tacho signal on rotating shaft related
to noise producing machine, control sources should be in factory corner
if room is small, otherwise they should be near the locations where noise
reduction is needed. Mechanism involved is suppression of primary
source by changing its radiation impedance for small room and local
cancellation for large room.
(f) Feasible, reference sensor would be tacho signal from aircraft engine,
control sources would be placed in cabin ceiling or in seat headrests, and
error sensors should be as close as possible to the passengers.
Mechanism involved is suppression of primary source by changing its
radiation impedance, although local cancellation may dominate in some
cases
(g) Not generally feasible due to complexity of radiated sound field.
(h) Feasible. Feedback system is needed. Control sources could be actuators
on the fuselage skin or loudspeakers in the passenger headrests.
Microphones would be best located in passenger head rests.
(i) Feasible. Reference signal would be derived from electricity mains
signal, control sources could be shakers on the tank or loudspeakers
surrounding the transformer and very close to it. Error sensors would
need to surround the transformer and be located further away than the
control sources. Mechanism is suppression of primary noise by changing
the radiation impedance of the transformer tank.
'
f (k( ct r))
r
12
Errata in the 3rd edition of
Engineering Noise Control
p xi, Change Noise Reduction Index (NRI) to Noise Reduction
Coefficient (NRC)
p xv, change FWHA to FHWA
p xviii In line 19, change Noise Reduction Index to Noise Reduction
Coefficient
p16, In line 3, change the equation to (1/ hf) E/ > 2
p16, line 10, change D
P
= 1.346E to D
P
= 1.099E
p16, Change Eq. (1.3) to
p18, In Eq. (1.5), change "332" to "331"
p27, Change Eq. 1.40a to
p29, 3 lines above Eq, (1.50), change "1.36" to "1.41"
p34, Change the reference just above Eq. (1.69) to "Fahy, 1995"

p35, First line under Eq. (1.67), change "1.65" to "1.64"
p41, 4 lines above Section 1.10., replace "pet" with "per"
p45, 2 lines under Eq. (1.89) and in Eq. (1.90), remove the subscript, " t "
from p
t
.
D
C
'
D
F
1 %
D
F
E
W
2R
t
%

2
Errata for third edition text book 320
DND ' 2
(L
)
Aeq,8h
& 90) /L
T
a
' 82
&(91.2 & 90.0) / 3
' 8/ 2
0.39
' 6.1 hours
p51, Table 1.3, line 3, replace "U " with "u"
p51, Table 1.3, line 5, replace "Z
d
" with "Z
A
"
p51, Heading 1.12.2, replace "Z " with "Z
s
"
p72, line immediately below the figure, add "is the" after the word,
"ordinate"
p76, Line 13, change "sound" to "sounds"
p87, 2 lines above Example 2.1, the text should read, "Figure 2.10(b) is an
alternative representation of Figure 2.10(a)"
p111, line 4, change "1252" to "61252".
p134, 3
rd
line, replace H with H
)
p142, The number "3" and "0.3" should be replaced by "3.01" and "0.301"
respectively in Equations (4.37) to (4.41) inclusive
p143, Replace equation 4.43 and the 2 lines preceding it with:
The daily noise dose (DND), or "noise exposure", is defined as equal
to 8 hours divided by the allowed exposure time, T
a
with L
B
set equal
to 90. That is:
p143, Replace the sentence following equation (4.42) with: "If the number
of hours of exposure is different to 8, then to find the actual allowed
exposure time to the given noise environment, the "8" in Equation
(4.42) is replaced by the actual number of hours of exposure."
p144, 3
rd
equation down should be:
p147, Replace Figure 4.6 with the more accurate figure below.
Errata for third edition text book 321
impact and steady state (equal energy)
5 dB / doubling
steady state
impulse
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
0.1 1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
8-hour dB(A)
equivalent
B-duration x number of impulses (ms)
P
e
a
k

s
o
u
n
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

l
e
v
e
l

(
d
B

r
e

2
0

P
a
)

p147, 4 lines under Figure 4.6, change "1414" to "1474".

p149, 5
th
and 6
th
lines from the top, change "645" to "60645" in four places.
p150, 13 lines from the bottom, change Figure 4.6 to Figure 4.7.
p153, First line after the headings in Table 4.6, change "0.06" to "0.6".
p157, Fig 4.9 caption, add "MAF" = minimum audible field.
p160, On y-axis, change label from "dB re 20 mPa" to "dB re 20 Pa"
p165, First paragraph in section 4.9, replace "1995" with "1995, 1999".
p176, Line above Eq. (5.6), change "r" to "r = a"
p176, In Eq (5.6), change "r" to "a"
p177, In Eq. (5.7), change "r" to "a"
p179, 2 lines under figure 5.2, replace "(x,y)" with "O" and label the observer
as O in Figure 5.2
p192, 2 lines above Eq. (5.71), add "each of which has a radius of a
i
"
immediately after "sources"
Errata for third edition text book 322
p192, 2 lines above Eq. (5.72), change "a" to "a
i
"
p192, Line above Eq. (5.72), change "ka" to "ka
i
"
p192, In Eq. (5.72), change "a" to "a
i
" in 5 places
p192 Eq. 5.71 and below, change Q to in 4 places

Q
p192 last line add "amplitude" immediately after "velocity"
p193 Eq 5.73 and below change Q to in 2 places

Q
p225, In Table 5.3 caption, change "Sutherland et al., 1974" to "Sutherland
and Bass, 1979"
p226, 13 lines above Eq. (5.171), change "2613" to "9613".
p226, Paragraph beginning "Note that ISO" only applies to overall A-
Weighted calculations and should be deleted here. The paragraph
following this one should also be deleted as the meteorological effects
should not be taken into account in two separate places - either they
should be included in the barrier calculations or calculated separately
but not both.
p229, Interchange the 63 Hz and 2000 Hz labels on the curves in Fig. 5.19.
p232, Eq. 5.181, change "-0.09" to "-0.9"
p236, In Eq. (5.188) change "10.3" to "10.0"
p241, Table 5.9, -3.0<<<+0.5 should be replaced with -3.0<<<-0.5
p244, ISO 9613-2 procedures for calculating ground effects and shielding
effects are based on an assumption of downwind propagation from the
sound source to the receiver. Thus the only correction term (Equation
(5.193)) that is offered by ISO for meteorological effects is a term to
reduce the A-weighted calculated sound pressure level for long time
averages of several months to a year. Thus section 5.11.12.4.should be
deleted and replaced with the paragraph above.
p251, In Figure 6.1, in the centre on the right hand side replace
' 1/ with '
Errata for third edition text book 323
p253, 2 lines above section 6.6, change "1989" to "1995".
p259, The equation numbered "6.12" should be numbered "6.11"
p264, The equation numbered "6.25" should be numbered "6.24"
p264, 2 lines below Eq. 6.20, replace S
1
with 1/S
1
p264, 3 lines below Eq. 6.20, replace S
2
with 1/S
2
p267, The first equation should be numbered "6.26"
p267, In Fig 6.3, there are two curves labelled "4". The lower curve should
be labelled "5"
p292, 3 lines above Eq. 7.52, change to and add "at time t=0" p
2
k
(t) p
2
k
(0)
after "mode k"
p292, 2 lines above Eq. 7.52, change to p
2
k
(t) p
2
k
(0)
p292, In Eq. 7.52, change to p
2
k
(t) p
2
k
(0)
p293, 3 lines above Eq. 7.55, change p
k
to p
k
(0)
p293 6 lines from the bottom, there should be a minus sign before log
e
p294, 5 lines from the bottom, change (2000) to (2001)
p294, Eq. (7.59), replace
0.16V
S
with
0.16V
S
2
p295, Eq. (7.64), multiply each of the three terms in brackets by -1
p295, 2 lines beneath Eq. (7.62), add "energy" before "reflection"
p295, 2 lines above Equation (7.64), change "2001" to "2000"
p296, lines 2 and 3, change "S
x
, S
x
and S
x
" to , "S
x
, S
y
and S
z
"
p301, In each of the top two lines of the table, add "(m
2
)" after S
p303, Section 7.7.2, change "NRI" to "NRC" in three places and change
"Noise Reduction Index" to "Noise Reduction Coefficient" in two
places. Also change Eq. 7.76 to:
Errata for third edition text book 324
NRC '

250
%
500
%
1000
%
2000
4
(7.76)
p303, 2 lines from bottom, change "20 mm" to "20 m"
p304, Caption of Figure 7.6, line 1, change "porous surface" to "rigidly
backed porous material" and in the last line, change "L" to R
p310, Immediately following Equation (7.88), add the following: "Note that
for square, clamped-edge panels, the fundamental resonance frequency
is 1.83 times that calculated using Equation (8.21). For panels with
aspect ratios of 1.5, 2, 3, 6, 8 and 10 the factors are 1.89, 1.99, 2.11,
2.23, 2.25 and 2.26 respectively."
p310, Equation 7.85 should be:
c
'
f
f
c
1/ 2
p311, End of second full paragraph, change "Elbert" to "Elfert"
p329, Eq. (7.122), replace T
60u
with
1
T
60u
p330, 10
th
line, change "2000" to "2001"
p339, 12
th
line from the bottom, change "1973" to "1988"
p343, 5 lines above the figure, change "ASTM E90-66T" to "ASTM E413-
87"
p347, replace the line immediately above section 8.2.4 and the last word in
the line above that with "contour value at 2000 Hz is increased by 1
dB." and add "Note that IIC, R
w
and STC values are all reported as
integers."
p352, 3 lines under Equation (8.36), change "below" to "above".
p353, change x-axis label to f (Hz) (log scale)"
p354, 2
nd
and 3
rd
lines from the bottom, replace "8.37" with "8.38"
p355, 2
nd
line after Eq. 8.44, replace f
c2
/2 with f
c1
/2
Errata for third edition text book 325
20 % 20log
10
(2500/100) & 6 ' 42.0 dB
h ' 1 &
f
f
c1
2
2
1 &
f
f
c2
2
2
D '
2
h
if f < 0.9 f
c1
f
c1
8f
1

2
f
c2
f
if f > 0.9 f
c1
p355, 3
rd
line, replace "8.37" with "8.38"
p359, In Eq. 8.50, replace 10 log
10
m
1
with 20 log
10
m
1
p360, change x-axis label to "frequency (Hz) (log scale)"
p360, on the x-axis of the figure, change "0.5 f
c2
" to "0.5 f
c1
"
p360, first line of item (b) in the caption, change to "LineBpoint support ( f
c2
is the critical frequency of the point supported panel)"
p360, Under "Point B", item (a), replace "30log
10
f
c2
" with "20log
10
f
c1
+
10log
10
f
c2
"
p360, Under "Point B", items (b) and (c), replace "40log
10
f
c2
" with "20log
10
f
c1
+ 20log
10
f
c2
"
p360, Eq (a) under "Point C", add the term, "20 log
10
(f
c2
/ f
c1
)" to the RHS of
the equation
p360, last Eqn., change f
l
to f
R
p361, replace Eq. 8.55 with:
p363, 6 lines from the bottom of the page, change the equation to:
p363, 4 lines from the bottom of the page, change "77" to "78" and "61" to
"60" in 2 places
p363, last line, change "61" to "60" and "52" to "51"
Errata for third edition text book 326
p365, Section 8.2.6.2, 5 lines down, replace the sentence beginning with
"Alternatively" with the following: "This mechanism can be considered
to approximately double the loss factor of the base panels.
Alternatively, the panels could be connected together with a layer of
visco-elastic material to give a loss factor of about 0.2."
p365, Section 8.2.6.2, 9 lines down, after the words "(0.3 to 0.6 m)", add the
words, "or connected with a layer of visco-elastic material or even
nailed together".
p371, In the 500 Hz column, 7
th
number from the bottom, replace S1" with
"51"
p379, 2 lines above "Example 8.4", change "Example 8.7" to "Example 8.8"
p380, replace the example table with the following table.
Octave band centre frequency (Hz)
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
TL from Table 8.2 30 36 37 40 46 54 57 59
from Table 7.1 0.013 0.013 0.015 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
w
from Table 7.1 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03
f
S
i
(m) 0.463 0.463 0.525 0.68 1.05 1.36 1.67 2.04
67 67 59 45.6 29.5 22.8 18.6 15.2 S
E
/ S
i

i
10log
10
( ) 18 18 18 17 15 14 13 12 S
E
/ S
i

i
NR (dB) 12 18 19 23 31 40 44 47
p381, 3
rd
line down, Equation (8.75) should be (8.65), 6 lines down
Equation (8.76) should be (8.66) and 8 lines down, Equation (8.6),
should be (8.65).
p381, 4
th
Eq. in section 3, "30.5/30" should be "30.5/31"
p391, At the end of the paragraph above the figure, add the following
sentences. "When paths involving the ground reflected wave on the
source side are considered, the straight line distance, d, used in
Equation (8.85) is the distance between the image source and the
receiver. The same reasoning applies to paths involving ground
reflections on the receiver side."
p394, 3 lines following Eq. 8.98, replace "barier" with "barrier".
p395, replace the four equations for A
b
with the following in the same
order
Errata for third edition text book 327
A
b
' 15.8 % 20log
10
[5.8/4.5] ' 18.0 dB; A
R
' 1.3 dB; A
b
% A
R
' 19.3 dB
A
b
' 19.8 % 20log
10
[7.2/ 4] ' 24.9 dB; A
R
' 2.6 dB; A
b
% A
R
' 27.5 dB
A
b
' 19.5 % 20log
10
[7.5/4.5] ' 23.9 dB; A
R
' 5 dB; A
b
% A
R
' 28.9 dB
A
b
' 12.0 % 20log
10
[4.5/4] ' 13.0 dB
A
b
' 19.8 % 20log
10
[7.2/4] ' 24.9 dB
A
b
% A
R
' 19.3 dB
p395, 6 lines from the bottom, replace "4.6" with "4.7"
p395, Solution, item 1, last line, change "5.18" to "5.20".
p396, replace the two equations for A
b
with the following in the same
order.
p396, Item 3, lines 2 and 3, change the numbers to 19.3 dB, 19.3 dB, 27.5
dB, 28.9 dB, 28.9 dB, 13 dB, 24.9 dB and 24.9 dB
p396, Item 3, line 4, change "5.18" to "5.20".
p396, Item 3, line 4, change "10 dB" to "12 dB"
p399, Figure 8.19, replace r with R
Errata for third edition text book 328
R
)
s
' R cos
h
)
s
' H
b
& R sin
'
1
2
( & ) &
' cos
&1
(H
b
/ A)
' cos
&1
[1 & (A
2
/ 2R
2
) ], *R* > A/ 2
N '
2

X
2
S
% (h
b
& Z
S
)
2
1/ 2
% X
2
R
% (h
b
& Z
R
)
2
1/ 2
% b
2
% Y
2
1/ 2
& d
Octave band centre frequency (Hz)
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
0
10
20
30
40
50
O
c
t
a
v
e

b
a
n
d

i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s
Figure 8.21 Typical pipe lagging insertion loss for 50 mm glass-
fibre, density 70-90 kg/m
3
, covered with a lead / aluminium jacket of
surface density, 6 kg/m
2
. The I symbols represent variations in
measured values for three pipe diameters (75 mm, 150 mm and 360
mm).
p399, Replace Eq. (8.100) with:
p400, 1
st
paragraph, change "Figure 8.12" to "Figure 8.14"
p401, Eq. (8.107) should be:
p404, Figure 8.21 is missing (see following figure)
Errata for third edition text book 329
C
c
' 0.232
c
R / h
(8.117)
X
c
' [41.6( m/ h)
1/2

c
( 1 & 1/
c
)
&1/4
] & [258h/ R
c
)]
(8.116)
X
m
' [ 226(m/ h)
1/ 2

c
(1 &
2
c
) ] & [258h/ (R
c
)] (8.119)
curve
no
1
2
3
4
0.01
0.1
0.5
1
o
h
p405, Replace Equations (8.116), (8.117) and (8.119) with the following:
p415, lines 6 and 7 under Eq 9.16, replace with, "the end correction. In this
case, > = 0. For a"
p417, replace the text between Eqs. (9.25) and (9.26) with:
"An alternative expression for the effective length, which may give
slightly better results than Equation (9.25), for grazing flow across the
holes, and which only applies for flow speeds such that
, is (Dickey and Selamet, 2001)" u

/ (d ) > 0.03
p429, Move Equation (9.52) up one line.
p432, Item 5, line 1, Replace "Equation (8.48)" with "Equation (9.52)"
p439, line following Equation (9.81), replace with f
m
p444, In Table 9.2, "19" should be "-19"
p453, 454, Replace the legend in the figures with
p459, Figure 9.21, x-axis label, change "S" to "A" and in the caption add
"open" immediately before "duct".
p461, In the equation in the centre of the page, change "6" to "5"
p461, 4 lines below the equation in the middle of the page, change "5.5" to
"7"
Errata for third edition text book 330
p461, 8 lines below the equation in the middle of the page, change "12.5"
to "13"
p462, line 1, change "1.2" to "1.0"
p462, Figure 9.23 caption, last line, change "1992" to "1987"
p464, Replace Table 9.5 with the following:
Octave band centre frequency (Hz)
Duct
diameter (mm) 63 125 250 500 1000 2000
150 18(20) 13(14) 8(9) 4(5) 1(2) 0(1)
200 16(18) 11(12) 6(7) 2(3) 1(1) 0(0)
250 14(16) 9(11) 5(6) 2(2) 1(1) 0(0)
300 13(14) 8(9) 4(5) 1(2) 0(1) 0(0)
400 10(12) 6(7) 2(3) 1(1) 0(0) 0(0)
510 9(10) 5(6) 2(2) 1(1) 0(0) 0(0)
610 8(9) 4(5) 1(2) 0(1) 0(0) 0(0)
710 7(8) 3(4) 1(1) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0)
810 6(7) 2(3) 1(1) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0)
910 5(6) 2(3) 1(1) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0)
1220 4(5) 1(2) 0(1) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0)
1830 2(3) 1(1) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0) 0(0)
p470, Figure 9.27, caption, and Eq. (9.115), replace "D" with "d"
p471, Eq. (9.116) and (9.117) and 2 lines below Fig. 9.28, replace "D"
with "d"
p476, 3
rd
and 6
th
line of the first paragraph, change "1979" to "1978"
p478, line above Equation (10.14), change "1979" to "1978"
p479, Figure 10.2, replace the lowest y-axis label (currently 0) with 0.02
p483, In Equation (10.18) and 2 lines above it, replace "e" with "q" to
avoid confusion with the distance, e, between spring supports.
p484, In Figure 10.6, the force should be shown as acting on mass m
2
, not
Errata for third edition text book 331
mass m
1
.
p485 In Eqs. (10.25a,b), the left hand side should be squared.
p487, line above Equation (10.31), change "1986" to "1988"
p495, Equation (10.42), remove the symbol "d" from the right hand side.
P496, Equation (10.48), replace "d" with |F|/ k
1
p496, Equation (10.47), the numerator on the RHS should be 3(m
2
/m
1
)
3
p498, 8 lines from the top of the page, change "1979" to "1978"
p513, Table 11.2, 3
rd
line in 2000 Hz column should be "25"
p513, Table 11.2, the 8000 Hz column should be replaced with 13, 15, 18,
27, 35, 35, 26, 32, 32, 34, 42 and 44 respectively and the BFI column
for the two tubeaxial entries should be " 7 "
p513, Remove the paragraph containing Equation (11.2) and remove
"(11.2)" in the second to bottom line.
p514, last Equation, label (11.2)
p515, Example 11.1 table, replace "30" with "36"
p517, Equation (11.10), change to:
L
w
' 72 % 13.5log
10
kW (dB re 10
&12
W)
p526, last line, change "8.8" to "8.3"
p528, replace the values in the table with the following.
0 72 77 80 81 80 76 69 63
60 74 79 82 83 82 78 71 65
120 61 66 69 70 69 65 58 52
180 55 60 63 64 63 59 52 46
Errata for third edition text book 332
p535, 4 lines above Eq.(11.33), and 2 lines after Eq. (11.34), change "534"
to "60534".
p536, 4 lines from the bottom, change "534" to "60534".
p541, Following Eq. 11.64, insert the statement, "If the second term in
brackets of Equation (11.64) exceeds 0.3, it is set equal to 0.3".
p542, line 3, change "534" to "60534".
p542, Immediately before Equation (11.67), add the following: "Note that
the final spectrum levels must all be adjusted by adding or
subtracting a constant decibel number so that when A-weighted and
added together, the result is identical to the A-weighted overall levels
form Equations (11.65) and (11.66)."
p543, 1 line and 4 lines above Eq. (11.70), change "534" to "60534".
p544, Equation 11.73, second term on the right should have the "log
10
"
removed and "17.27" replaced with "17.37", so it reads "-
17.37(...........)"
p544, Replace the last paragraph with, "The octave band external sound
pressure levels may be calculated using Equations (11.73) and
(11.76) with octave band sound power levels used in Equation
(11.76) instead of overall sound power levels."
p552, The constant in Equation (11.89) should be "55", not "53".
p558, Replace the paragraph following Table 11.29 with the following:
"The road surface or condition correction is taken as zero for either
sealed roads at speeds above 75 km/hr or gravel roads. For speeds
below 75 km/hr on impervious sealed roads, the correction is -1 dB.
For pervious road surfaces, the correction is -3.5 dB. For concrete
roads with deep random grooves greater than 5 mm in width, the
correction is, C
cond
= 4 - 0.03P where P is the percentage of heavy
vehicles."
p559, Replace the nine lines following Eq. 11.102 with the following:
"Low barriers such as twin beam metal crash barriers can have less
Errata for third edition text book 333
SEL
ref
' SEL
v
% 10 log
10
N % C
2
effect than soft ground. So if these are used with any proportion, P
d
, of soft ground, their effect should be calculated by looking at the
lower noise level (or the most negative correction) resulting from the
following two calculations:
$ Soft ground correction (0 < P
d
< 1.0), excluding the barrier
correction; and
$ hard-ground correction (P
d
= 0) plus the barrier correction.
p560, Remove the sentence beginning 12 lines from the bottom of the page,
"Note that the two values for $ must add up to 180E "
p561, In the heading and first line, change "FWHA" to "FHWA"
p561, 6 lines from the bottom, add "Menge, et al.," before "1998".
p562, 4 lines under Equation (11.108), add "Menge, et al.," before "1998".
p563, 5
th
line in first paragraph, and 3 lines under Equation (11.109),
replace "1995" with "U.K. DOT, 1995a".
p563, 3 lines under Equation (11.111), replace "1995" with "U.K. DOT,
1995a,b".
p563, p564, Replace the last two lines of page 563 and the top three lines of
page 564 with the following:
"Note that different vehicle types must be considered as separate
trains. For any specific train type consisting of N identical units,
the quantity SEL
ref
is calculated by adding 10log
10
N to SEL
v
. In
addition the track correction, C
2
from Table 11.32 must also be
added so that:
p564, The second entry of "Freight vehicles, tread braked, 2 axles" should
actually be "Freight vehicles, disc braked, 4 axles"
p565, Lines 1 and 3, change SEL to SEL
ref
.
Errata for third edition text book 334
p565, table 11.32, add ,C
2
, after "Correction" in the column 2 label.
p567, In Equation (11.121), remove the minus sign
p568, Add equation numbers, 11.122 and 11.123 to the equations at the top
of the page.
p580, 10 lines above Equation (12.1), change "1985" to "1986".
p609, line 2 in the table for fresh water, change "988" to "998".
p609, line in the table for iron, Youngs Modulus = 206, density =7,600,
= 4910, E/
0 = 0.0005 and < = 0.27.
p609, line in the table for Nylon, move the "6.6" next to "nylon" and
Youngs Modulus = 2, density =1,140, = 1,320. E/
p609, line in table for lead, loss factor = 0.015
p609, line in table for concrete, loss factor = 0.005 - 0.02
p610, the last column of numbers is the density and the 2
nd
last column is
Youngs modulus.
p617, In figure captions, change "C.6" to "C.5" and "C.5" to "C.6".
p621, Change number of Eq. 1.36 to C.24.
p622, In Equation (C.29), replace Z
N
with Z
N
/Dc
p623, In Equation (C.30), replace 2 with $ in three places.
p645, Missing references.
Allard, J.F. and Champoux, Y. (1989). In situ two-microphone
technique for the measurement of acoustic surface impedance of
materials. Noise Control Engineering Journal , 32, 15-23.
Barron, M. (1993). Auditorium acoustics and architectural design.
E&FN Spon: London.
Errata for third edition text book 335
p646, Missing references.
Beranek, L. L. (ed.) (1988). Noise and Vibration Control. Revised
edition. Washington D.C: Institute of Noise Control Engineering.
Beranek, L.L. (1996). Concert and Opera Halls. How They Sound.
Acoustical Society of America: New York.
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T. and Schwela, D.H. (1995). Community
Noise. Stockholm: Stockholm University and Karolinska Institute.
Berglund, B., Lindvall, T. and Schwela, D.H. Eds. (1999).
Guidelines for Community Noise. Geneva: World Health
Organization.
p647, Missing references.
Bragg, S.L. (1963). Combustion noise. Journal of the Institute of
Fuel, Jan., 12B16.
Broner, N. and Leventhall, H.G. (1983). A criterion for predicting
the annoyance due to lower level low frequency noise. Journal of
Low Frequency Noise and Vibration, 2, 160B168.
p648, Missing references.
Cazzolato, B.S. (1999). Sensing systems for active control of sound
transmission into cavities. PhD thesis, Adelaide University, South
Australia.
Cazzolato, B.S. and Hansen, C.H. (1999). Structural radiation mode
sensing for active control of sound radiation into enclosed spaces.
Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 106, 3732B3735.
Chapkis, R.L. (1980). Impact of technical differences between
methods of INM and NOISEMAP. In Proceedings of Internoise '80,
pp. 831B834.
Chapkis, R.L., Blankenship, G.L. and Marsh, A.H. (1981).
Comparison of aircraft noise-contour prediction programs. Journal
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p649, Missing references.
Davy, J.L. (1993). The sound transmission of cavity walls due to
studs. In Proceedings of Internoise '93, pp. 975B978.
Davy, J.L. (1998). Problems in the theoretical prediction of sound
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Errata for third edition text book 336
Davy, J.L. (2000). The regulation of sound insulation in Australia.
In Proceedings of Acoustics 2000. Australian Acoustical Society
Conference, Western Australia, November 15-17, pp. 155-160.
Delaney, M.E., Harland, D.G., Hood, R.A. and Scholes, W.E.
(1976). The prediction of noise levels L
10
due to road traffic. Journal
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p650, Missing references.
Dutilleaux, G., Vigran, T.E. and Kristiansen, U.R. (2001). An in situ
transfer function technique for the assessment of acoustic absorption
of materials in buildings. Applied Acoustics, 62, 555-572.
Edge, P.M. Jr. and Cawthorn, J.M. (1976). Selected methods for
quantification of community exposure to aircraft noise , NASA TN
D-7977.
Fahy, F.J. (2001). Foundations of Engineering Acoustics. London:
Academic Press.
Fahy, F.J. and Walker, J.G. (1998). Fundamentals of Noise and
Vibration. London: E&FN Spon.
FHWA (1995). Highway Traffic Noise Analysis and Abatement
Guide. U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, D.C.
Fitzroy, D. (1959). Reverberation formula which seems to be more
accurate with nonuniform distribution of absorption. Journal of the
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Fleming, G.G., Burstein, J., Rapoza, A.S., Senzig, D.A. and Gulding,
J.M. (2000). Ground effects in FAA's integrated noise model. Noise
Control Engineering Journal, 48, 16B24.
p652, Missing references.
Hidaka, T., Nishihara, N. and Beranek, L.L. (2001). Relation of
acoustical parameters with and without audiences in concert halls
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Acoustical Society of America,109, 1028B1041.
Add Wosal, E-M. to the authors of the Hodgson (2002) paper.
Howard, C.Q., Cazzolato, B.S. and Hansen, C.H. (2000). Exhaust
stack silencer design using finite element analysis. Noise Control
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Errata for third edition text book 337
p653, Missing reference
Jean, Ph., Rondeau, J.-F. and van Maercke, D. (2001). Numerical
models for noise prediction near airports. In Proceedings of the 8
th
International Congress on Sound and Vibration, Hong Kong, 2-6
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p654, the reference, "Landau, L.D. and Lifsltitz, E.W." should be "Landau,
L.D. and Lifshitz, E.W."
p654, Missing references.
Kuo, S.M. and Morgan, D.R. (1996). Active noise control systems.
New York: John Wiley.
Kurze, U.J. and Anderson, G.S. (1971). Sound attenuation by
barriers. Applied Acoustics, 4, 35B53.
Larson, K.M.S. (1994). The present and future of aircraft noise
models: a user's perspective. In Proceedings of Noise-Con '94, pp969
B 974.
Lee, J-W., Hansen, C.H., Cazzolato, B. and Li, X. (2001). Active
vibration control to reduce the low frequency vibration transmission
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th
International Congress on Sound and Vibration, Hong Kong, 2-6
July.
Li, K.M. (1993). On the validity of the heuristic rayBtraceBbased
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Li, K.M., Taherzadeh, S. and Attenborough, K. (1998). An improved
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Journal of the Acoustical Society of America,104, 2077B2083.
p655, Missing references.
Maidanik, G. (1962). Response of ribbed panels to reverberant
acoustic fields. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 34,
809B826.
Errata for third edition text book 338
Menge, C.W., Rossano, C.F., Anderson, G.S. and Bajdek, C.J.
(1998). FHWA Traffic Noise Model, Version 1.0, Technical Manual.
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p656, Missing references.
Neubauer, R.O. (2000). Estimation of reverberation times in non-
rectangular rooms with non-uniformly distributed absorption using
a modified Fitzroy equation. 7
th
International Congress on Sound
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1709B1716.
Neubauer, R.O. (2001). Existing reverberation time formulae - a
comparison with computer simulated reverberation times. In
Proceedings of the 8
th
International Congress on Sound and
Vibration, Hong Kong, July, 805-812.
Nilsson, A. (2001). Wave propagation and sound transmission in
sandwich composite plates. In Proceedings of the Eighth
International Congress on Sound and Vibration, Hong Kong, July,
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p657, Missing references.
Parkins, J.W. (1998). Active minimization of energy density in a
threeBdimensional enclosure. PhD thesis, Pennsylvania State
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Passchier-Vermeer, W. (1968). Hearing Loss Due to Exposure to
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Passchier-Vermeer, W. (1977). Hearing Levels of Non-Noise
Exposed Subjects and of Subjects Exposed to Constant Noise During
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Hygiene, The Netherlands.
Plovsing, B. (1999). Outdoor sound propagation over complex
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p658, Missing references.
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