Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fluid and Electrolyte Imbalances
Fluid and Electrolyte Imbalances
Body fluid is composed primarily of water and electrolytes. The body is equipped with homeostatic mechanisms to
keep the composition and volume of body fluids within narrow limits. Organs involved in this mechanism include the
kidneys, lungs, heart, blood vessels, adrenal glands, parathyroid glands, and pituitary gland. Body fluid is divided into
two types: intracellular (within the cells) and extracellular (interstitial or tissue fluid, intravascular or plasma, and
transcellular, such as cerebrospinal or synovial fluids).
RELATED CONCERNS
All plans of care specific to underlying health condition causing imbalance, e.g., DM, HF, upper GI bleeding, renal
failure/dialysis.
Metabolic acidosis (primary base bicarbonate deficit)
Metabolic alkalosis (primary base bicarbonate excess)
Respiratory acidosis (primary carbonic acid excess)
Respiratory alkalosis (primary carbonic acid deficit)
NURSING PRIORITIES
1. Restore homeostasis.
2. Prevent/minimize complications.
3. Provide information about condition/prognosis and treatment needs as appropriate.
DISCHARGE GOALS
1. Homeostasis restored.
2. Free of complications.
3. Condition/prognosis and treatment needs understood.
4. Plan in place to meet needs after discharge.
Note: Because fluid and electrolyte imbalances usually occur in conjunction with other medical conditions, the
following information is offered as a reference. The interventions are presented in a general format for inclusion in the
primary plan of care.
FLUID BALANCE
Total body water, essential for metabolism, declines with age and also varies with body fat content and gender. It
constitutes about 80% of an infant’s body weight, 60% of an adult’s, and as little as 40% of an older person’s weight.
CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Hypertension, elevated central venous pressure (CVP)
Pulse full/bounding; tachycardia usually present; bradycardia (late sign of cardiac
decompensation)
Extra heart sounds (S3)
Edema variable from dependent to generalized
Neck and peripheral vein distension
ELIMINATION
May report: Decreased urinary output, polyuria if renal function is normal
Diarrhea
FOOD/FLUID
May report: Anorexia, nausea/vomiting
Thirst (may be absent, especially in elderly)
May exhibit: Abdominal girth increased with visible fluid wave on palpation (ascites)
Sudden weight gain, often in excess of 5% of total body weight
Edema initially dependent, pitting may progress to facial/periorbital, general/anasarca
NEUROSENSORY
May exhibit: Changes in level of consciousness, from lethargy, disorientation, confusion to coma;
aphasia
Muscle twitching, tremors, seizure activity
Hyperreflexia, rigid paralysis (severe hypernatremia)
PAIN/DISCOMFORT
May report: Headache
Abdominal cramps
RESPIRATION
May report: Shortness of breath
May exhibit: Tachypnea with/without dyspnea, orthopnea; productive cough
Crackles
SAFETY
May exhibit: Fever
Skin changes in color, temperature, turgor, e.g., taut and cool where edematous
TEACHING/LEARNING
Refer to predisposing/contributing factors
Discharge plan DRG projected mean length of inpatient stay: depends on underlying condition
considerations: May require assistance with changes in therapeutic regimen, dietary management
Refer to plan of care concerning underlying medical/surgical condition for possible
postdischarge considerations.
DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES
Hematocrit: Elevated in dehydration, decreased in fluid overload.
Serum sodium: May be high, low, or normal (between 135 and 145 mEq/L).
Serum potassium and BUN: Normal, or decreased in fluid overload unless renal damage present.
Total protein: Plasma proteins/albumin may be decreased.
Serum osmolality: Usually unchanged, although hypo-osmolality may occur.
Urine sodium: May be low because of sodium retention.
Urine specific gravity: Decreased.
Chest x-ray: May reveal signs of congestion.
NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Fluid Volume excess
May be related to
Excess fluid or sodium intake
Compromised regulatory mechanism
Possibly evidenced by
Signs/symptoms noted in database
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION CRITERIA—PATIENT WILL:
Fluid Balance (NOC)
Demonstrate stabilized fluid volume as evidenced by balanced I&O, vital signs within patient’s normal range,
stable weight, and absence of signs of edema.
Knowledge: Treatment Regimen (NOC)
Verbalize understanding of individual dietary/fluid restrictions.
Demonstrate behaviors to monitor fluid status and prevent/limit recurrence.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Hypervolemia Management (NIC)
Independent
Monitor vital signs, also CVP if available. Tachycardia and hypertension are common
manifestations. Tachypnea usually present with/without
dyspnea. Elevated CVP may be noted before dyspnea and
adventitious breath sounds occur. Hypertension may be a
primary disorder or occur secondary to other associated
conditions, e.g., HF.
Auscultate lungs and heart sounds. Adventitious sounds (crackles) and extra heart sounds
(S3) are indicative of fluid excess. Pulmonary edema may
develop rapidly.
Assess for presence/location of edema formation. Edema can be either a cause or a result of various
pathological conditions reflecting four competing
forces—blood hydrostatic and osmotic pressures, and
interstitial fluid hydrostatic and osmotic pressures. The
dynamic interaction of these four forces allows fluid to
shift from one body compartment to another. Edema may
be generalized or localized in dependent areas. Elderly
patients may develop dependent edema with relatively
little excess fluid. Note: Patients in a supine position can
have an increase of 4–8 L of fluid before edema is readily
detected.
Note presence of neck and peripheral vein distension, Signs of cardiac decompensation/HF.
along with pitting edema, dyspnea.
Maintain accurate I&O. Note decreased urinary output, Decreased renal perfusion, cardiac insufficiency, and
positive fluid balance (intake higher than output) on 24-hr fluid shifts may cause decreased urinary output and
calculations. edema formation.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Hypervolemia Management (NIC)
Independent
Weigh as indicated. Be alert for acute or sudden weight One liter of fluid retention equals a weight gain of 2.2 lb.
gain.
Give oral fluids with caution. If fluids are restricted, set Fluid restrictions, as well as extracellular shifts, can
up a 24-hr schedule for fluid intake. aggravate drying of mucous membranes, and patient may
desire more fluids than are prudent.
Monitor infusion rate of parenteral fluids closely; Sudden fluid bolus/prolonged excessive administration
administer via control device/pump as necessary. potentiates volume overload/risk of cardiac
decompensation.
Maintain semi-Fowler’s position if dyspnea or ascites is Gravity improves lung expansion by lowering diaphragm
present. and shifting fluid to lower abdominal cavity.
Turn, reposition, and provide skin care at regular Reduces pressure and friction on edematous tissue, which
intervals. is more prone to breakdown than normal tissue.
Encourage bedrest. Schedule care to provide frequent rest Limited cardiac reserves result in fatigue/activity
periods. intolerance. In addition, lying down favors diuresis and
reduction of edema.
Provide safety precautions as indicated, e.g., use of side Fluid shifts may cause cerebral edema/changes in
rails, bed in low position, frequent observation, soft mentation, especially in the geriatric population. Note:
restraints (if required). Application of restraints can increase agitation, requiring
alternative interventions (e.g., one-on-one monitoring,
sedation). Use of side rails may place the elderly
confused patient at risk for entrapment injury/death.
Collaborative
Monitor laboratory studies as indicated, e.g., electrolytes, Extracellular fluid shifts, sodium/water restriction, and
BUN, ABGs. renal function all affect serum sodium levels. Potassium
deficit may occur with diuretic therapy. BUN may be
increased as a result of renal dysfunction/failure. ABGs
may reflect metabolic acidosis.
Provide balanced protein, low-sodium diet. Restrict fluids In presence of decreased serum proteins (e.g.,
as indicated. malnutrition), increasing level of serum proteins can
enhance colloidal osmotic gradients and promote return
of fluid to the vascular space. Restriction of sodium/water
decreases extracellular fluid retention.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Hypervolemia Management (NIC)
Collaborative
Administer diuretics: loop diuretic, e.g., furosemide To achieve excretion of excess fluid, either a single
(Lasix); thiazide diuretic, e.g., hydrochlorothiazide diuretic (e.g., thiazide) or a combination of agents (e.g.,
(Esidrix); or potassium-sparing diuretic, e.g., thiazide and spironolactone) may be selected. The
spironolactone (Aldactone). combination can be particularly helpful when two drugs
have different sites of action, allowing more effective
control of fluid excess.
Replace potassium losses as indicated. Potassium deficit may occur, especially if patient is
receiving potassium-wasting diuretic. This can cause
lethal cardiac dysrhythmias if untreated.
Prepare for/assist with dialysis or ultrafiltration, if May be done to rapidly reduce fluid overload, especially
indicated. in the presence of severe cardiac/renal failure.
CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Hypotension, including postural changes
Pulse weak/thready; tachycardia
Neck veins flattened; CVP decreased
ELIMINATION
May report: Constipation or occasionally diarrhea, abdominal cramps
May exhibit: Urine volume decreased, dark/concentrated color; oliguria (severe fluid depletion)
FOOD/FLUID
May report: Thirst, anorexia, nausea/vomiting
May exhibit: Weight loss often exceeding 2%–8% of total body weight
Abdominal distension
Mucous membranes dry, furrows on tongue; decreased tearing and salivation
Skin dry with poor turgor; or pale, moist, clammy (shock)
NEUROSENSORY
May report: Tingling of the extremities, vertigo, syncope
May exhibit: Behavior change, apathy, restlessness, confusion
RESPIRATION
May exhibit: Tachypnea, rapid/shallow breathing
SAFETY
May exhibit: Temperature usually subnormal, although fever may occur
TEACHING/LEARNING
Refer to predisposing/contributing factors
Discharge plan DRG projected mean length of inpatient stay: depends on underlying cause
considerations: May require assistance with changes in therapeutic regimen, dietary management
Refer to plan of care concerning underlying medical/surgical condition for possible
considerations after discharge.
DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES
Serum sodium: May be normal, high, or low.
Urine sodium: Usually decreased (less than 10 mEq/L when losses are from external causes; usually higher than 20
mEq/L if the cause is renal or adrenal).
CBC: Hb/Hct and RBC usually increased (hemoconcentration); decrease suggests hemorrhage. In presence of mild
anemia, Hct may appear to be WNL.
Serum glucose: Normal or elevated.
Serum protein: Increased.
BUN and Cr: Increased BUN and normal Cr level resulting in a ratio greater than 20:1.
Urine specific gravity: Increased.
Independent
Monitor vital signs and CVP. Note presence/degree of Tachycardia is present along with a varying degree of
postural BP changes. Observe for temperature hypotension, depending on degree of fluid deficit. CVP
elevations/fever. measurements are useful in determining degree of fluid
deficit and response to replacement therapy. Fever
increases metabolism and exacerbates fluid loss.
Palpate peripheral pulses; note capillary refill, skin Conditions that contribute to extracellular fluid deficit can
color/temperature. Assess mentation. result in inadequate organ perfusion to all areas and may
cause circulatory collapse/shock.
Monitor urinary output. Measure/estimate fluid losses Fluid replacement needs are based on correction of
from all sources, e.g., gastric losses, wound drainage, current deficits and ongoing losses. Note: A diaphoretic
diaphoresis. episode requiring a full linen change may represent a
fluid loss of as much as 1 L. Decreased urinary output
may indicate insufficient renal perfusion/hypovolemia, or
polyuria can be present, requiring more aggressive fluid
replacement.
Weigh daily and compare with 24-hr fluid balance. Although weight gain and fluid intake higher than output
Mark/measure edematous areas, e.g., abdomen, limbs. may not accurately reflect intravascular volume, e.g.,
third-space fluid accumulation cannot be used by the
body for tissue perfusion, these measurements provide
useful data for comparison.
Ascertain patient’s beverage preferences, and set up a 24- Relieves thirst and discomfort of dry mucous membranes
hr schedule for fluid intake. Encourage foods with high and augments parenteral replacement.
fluid content.
Turn frequently, massage skin, and protect bony Tissues are susceptible to breakdown because of
prominences. vasoconstriction and increased cellular fragility.
Provide skin and mouth care. Bathe every other day using Skin and mucous membranes are dry, with decreased
mild soap. Apply lotion as indicated. elasticity, because of vasoconstriction and reduced
intracellular water. Daily bathing may increase dryness.
Provide safety precautions as indicated, e.g., use of side Decreased cerebral perfusion frequently results in
rails, bed in low position, frequent observation, soft changes in mentation/altered thought processes, requiring
restraints (if required). protective measures to prevent patient injury. Note:
Application of restraints can increase agitation, requiring
alternative interventions (e.g., one-on-one monitoring,
sedation). Use of side rails may place the elderly
confused patient at risk for entrapment injury/death.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Hypovolemia Management (NIC)
Independent
Investigate reports of sudden/sharp chest pain, dyspnea, Hemoconcentration (sludging) and increased platelet
cyanosis, increased anxiety, restlessness. aggregation may result in systemic emboli formation.
Monitor for sudden/marked elevation of BP, restlessness, Too rapid a correction of fluid deficit may compromise
moist cough, dyspnea, basalar crackles, frothy sputum. the cardiopulmonary system, especially if colloids are
used in general fluid replacement (increased osmotic
pressure potentiates fluid shifts).
Collaborative
Monitor laboratory studies as indicated, e.g., electrolytes, Depending on the avenue of fluid loss, differing
glucose, pH/Pco2, coagulation studies. electrolyte/metabolic imbalances may be present/require
correction; e.g., use of glucose solutions in patients with
underlying glucose intolerance may result in serum
glucose elevation and increased urinary water losses.
Isotonic solutions, e.g., 0.9% NaCl (normal saline), 5% Crystalloids provide prompt circulatory improvement,
dextrose/water; although the benefit may be transient (increased renal
clearance).
0.45% NaCl (half-normal saline), lactated Ringer’s (LR) As soon as patient is normotensive, a hypotonic solution
solution; (0.45% NaCl) may be used to provide both electrolytes
and free water for renal excretion of metabolic wastes.
Note: Buffered crystalloids (LR) are used with caution
because they may potentiate the risk of metabolic
acidosis.
Colloids, e.g., dextran, Plasmanate/albumin, hetastarch Corrects plasma protein concentration deficits, thereby
(Hespan); increasing intravascular osmotic pressure and facilitating
return of fluid into vascular compartment.
Whole blood/packed RBC transfusion, or autologous Indicated when hypovolemia is related to active blood
collection of blood. loss.
Administer sodium bicarbonate, if indicated. May be given to correct severe acidosis while correcting
fluid balance.
Provide tube feedings, including free water as Enteral replacement can provide proteins and other
appropriate. needed elements in addition to meeting general fluid
requirements when swallowing is impaired.
SODIUM
Sodium (Na) is the major cation of extracellular fluid and is primarily responsible for osmotic pressure in that
compartment. Sodium enhances neuromuscular conduction/transmission of impulses and is essential for maintaining
acid-base balance. Normal serum range is 135–145 mEq/L; intracellular, 10 mEq/L. Chloride is carried by Na and will
display the same imbalances. Normal serum chloride range is 95–105 mEq/L.
General
ACTIVITY/REST
May report: Malaise
Generalized weakness, faintness, muscle cramps
EGO INTEGRITY
May report: Anxiety
May exhibit: Restlessness, apprehension
FOOD/FLUID
May report: Nausea, anorexia, thirst
Low-sodium diet
Diuretic use
NEUROSENSORY
May report: Headache, blurred vision, vertigo
May exhibit: Loss of coordination, stupor, personality changes
TEACHING/LEARNING
Refer to predisposing/contributing factors
Use of oral hypoglycemic agent, potent diuretics, NSAIDs, other drugs that impair renal
water excretion
Discharge plan DRG projected mean length of inpatient stay: depends on underlying cause
considerations: May require assistance with changes in therapeutic regimen, dietary management
Refer to plan of care concerning underlying medical/surgical condition for possible
considerations after discharge.
Sodium/Water Deficit
(Na less than 135 mEq/L; urine specific gravity elevated, serum osmolality normal)
CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Hypotension, tachycardia
Peripheral pulses diminished
Pallid, clammy skin
ELIMINATION
May report: Abdominal cramping, diarrhea
May exhibit: Urinary output decreased
FOOD/FLUID
May report: Anorexia, nausea/vomiting
May exhibit: Poor skin turgor; soft/sunken eyeballs
Mucous membranes dry, decreased saliva/perspiration
NEUROSENSORY
May report: Dizziness
May exhibit: Muscle twitching
Lethargy, restlessness, confusion, stupor
RESPIRATION
May exhibit: Tachypnea
SAFETY
May exhibit: Skin flushed, dry, hot
Fever
CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Hypertension
Generalized edema
ELIMINATION
May exhibit: Urinary output increased
NEUROSENSORY
May exhibit: Muscle twitching, restlessness, changes in mentation (more severe when problem is
acute/develops rapidly)
PAIN/DISCOMFORT
May report: Headache, abdominal cramps
CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Hypotension with vasomotor collapse
Rapid thready pulse
Cold/clammy skin, fingerprinting on sternum; cyanosis
NEUROSENSORY
May exhibit: Hyporeflexia
Convulsions/coma
DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES (DEPEND ON ASSOCIATED FLUID LEVEL)
Serum sodium: Decreased, less than 135 mEq/L. However, signs/symptoms may not occur until level is less than 120
mEq/L.
Urine sodium: Less than 15 mEq/L indicates renal conservation of sodium because of sodium loss from a nonrenal
source unless sodium-wasting nephropathy is present. Urine sodium higher than 20 mEq/L indicates SIADH.
Serum potassium: May be decreased as the kidneys attempt to conserve sodium at the expense of potassium.
Serum chloride/bicarbonate: Levels are decreased, depending on which ion is lost with the sodium.
Serum osmolality: Commonly low, but may be normal (pseudohyponatremia) or high (HHNC).
Urine osmolality: Usually less than 100 mOsm/L unless SIADH present, in which case it will exceed serum
osmolality.
Urine specific gravity: May be decreased (less than 1.010) or increased (higher than 1.020) if SIADH is present.
Hct: Depends on fluid balance, e.g., fluid excess versus dehydration.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hyponatremia (NIC)
Independent
Identify patient at risk for hyponatremia and the specific Provides clues for early intervention. Hyponatremia is a
cause, e.g., sodium loss or fluid excess. common imbalance (especially in the elderly) and may
range from mild to severe. Severe hyponatremia can
cause neurological damage or death if not treated
promptly.
Monitor I&O. Calculate fluid balance. Weigh daily.
Indicators of fluid balance are important, because either
fluid excess or deficit may occur with hyponatremia.
Assess level of consciousness/neuromuscular response.
Sodium deficit may result in decreased mentation (to
point of coma), as well as generalized muscle
weakness/cramps, convulsions.
Maintain quiet environment; provide safety/seizure
precautions. Reduces CNS stimulation and risk of injury from
neurological complications, e.g., seizures.
Note respiratory rate and depth.
Co-occurring hypochloremia may produce slow/shallow
respirations as the body compensates for metabolic
alkalosis.
Encourage foods and fluids high in sodium, e.g., milk,
meat, eggs, carrots, beets, and celery. Use fruit juices and Unless sodium deficit causes serious symptoms requiring
bouillon instead of plain water. immediate IV replacement, patient may benefit from
slower replacement by oral method or removal of
previous salt restriction.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hyponatremia (NIC)
Independent
Irrigate NG tube (when used) with normal saline instead Isotonic irrigation will minimize loss of GI electrolytes.
of water.
Collaborative
Provide/restrict fluids depending on fluid volume status. In presence of hypovolemia, volume losses are replaced
with isotonic saline (e.g., normal saline), or, on occasion,
hypertonic solution (3% NaCl) when hyponatremia is
life-threatening. In the presence of fluid volume excess,
or SIADH, fluid restriction is indicated. Note: Too
rapid/excessive administration of hypertonic solutions can
be lethal.
Prepare for/assist with dialysis as indicated. May be done to restore sodium balance without
increasing fluid level when hyponatremia is severe or
response to diuretic therapy is inadequate.
ACTIVITY/REST
May report: Weakness
May exhibit: Muscle rigidity/tremors, generalized weakness
CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Decreased blood pressure, postural hypotension
Tachycardia
ELIMINATION
May exhibit: Decreased urinary output
FOOD/FLUID
May report: Thirst
May exhibit: Mucous membranes dry, sticky; tongue dry, swollen, rough
NEUROSENSORY
May exhibit: Irritability, lethargy/coma (depending on rapidity of onset rather than actual serum sodium
level)
Delusions, hallucinations
Muscle irritability, seizure activity
SAFETY
May exhibit: Hot, dry, flushed skin
Fever
Sodium/Water Excess
(Na higher than 145 mEq/L; urine specific gravity decreased)
CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Elevated BP, hypertension
ELIMINATION
May exhibit: Polyuria
FOOD/FLUID
May report: Thirst
May exhibit: Skin pale, moist, taut with pitting edema
Weight gain
NEUROSENSORY
May exhibit: Confusion, lethargy
Delusions, hallucinations
RESPIRATION
May exhibit: Dyspnea
DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES
Serum sodium: Increased, higher than 145 mEq/L. Serum levels higher than 160 mEq/L may be accompanied by
severe neurological signs.
Serum chloride: Increased, higher than 106 mEq/L.
Serum potassium: Decreased.
Serum osmolality: Higher than 295 mOsm/L when dehydrated; lower in presence of extracellular fluid excess, and less
than 200 mOsm/L with excessive polyuria.
Hct: May be normal or elevated depending on fluid status.
Urine sodium: Less than 50 mEq/L.
Urine chloride: Less than 50 mEq/L.
Urine osmolality: Higher than 800 mOsm/L.
Urine specific gravity: Increased, higher than 1.015, if water deficit present; or less than 1.010 when hypernatremia is
due to polyuria.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hypernatremia (NIC)
Independent
Monitor BP. Either hypertension or hypotension may be present,
depending on the fluid status. Presence of postural
hypotension may affect activity tolerance.
Identify patient at risk for hypernatremia and likely cause, Early identification and intervention prevents serious
e.g., water deficit, sodium excess. complications associated with this problem.
Note respiratory rate, depth. Deep, labored respirations with air hunger suggest
metabolic acidosis (hyperchloremia), which can lead to
cardiopulmonary arrest if not corrected.
Monitor I&O, urine specific gravity. Weigh daily. Assess These parameters are variable, depending on fluid status,
presence/location of edema. and are indicators of therapy needs/effectiveness.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hypernatremia (NIC)
Independent
Evaluate level of consciousness and muscular strength, Sodium imbalance may cause changes that vary from
tone, movement. confusion and irritability to seizures and coma. In
presence of water deficit, rapid rehydration may cause
cerebral edema.
Maintain safety/seizure precautions, as indicated, e.g., Sodium excess/cerebral edema increases risk of
bed in low position, use of padded side rails. convulsions.
Assess skin turgor, color, temperature, and mucous Water-deficit hyperatremia manifests by signs of
membrane moisture. dehydration.
Provide frequent oral care. Avoid use of mouthwash/rinse Promotes comfort and prevents further drying of mucous
that contains alcohol. membranes.
Offer debilitated patient fluids at regular intervals. Give May prevent hypernatremia in patient who is unable to
free water to patient receiving enteral feedings. perceive or respond to thirst.
Recommend avoidance of foods high in sodium, e.g., Reduces risk of sodium-associated complications.
canned soups/vegetables, processed foods, snack foods,
and condiments.
Collaborative
Monitor serum electrolytes, osmolality, and ABGs as Evaluates therapy needs/effectiveness. Note: Co-
indicated. occurring hyperchloremia may cause metabolic acidosis,
requiring buffering, e.g., sodium bicarbonate.
Increase PO/IV fluid intake, e.g., 5% dextrose/water in Replacement of total body water deficit will gradually
presence of dehydration; 0.9% NaCl if extracellular restore sodium/water balance. Note: Rapid reduction of
deficit is present. serum sodium level with corresponding decrease in serum
osmolality can cause cerebral edema/convulsions.
Restrict sodium intake and administer diuretics as Restriction of sodium intake while promoting renal
indicated. clearance lowers serum sodium levels in the presence of
extracellular fluid excess.
POTASSIUM
Potassium is the major cation of the intracellular fluid and is responsible for maintaining intracellular osmotic pressure.
Potassium also regulates neuromuscular excitability, aids in maintenance of acid-base balance, synthesis of protein,
and metabolism of carbohydrates. Normal serum range is 3.5–5.0 mEq/L (body total of 42 mEq/L).
CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Hypotension
Pulses weak/diminished, irregular
Heart sounds distant
Dysrhythmias, e.g., premature ventricular contractions (PVCs), ventricular tachycardia/
fibrillation
ELIMINATION
May exhibit: Nocturia, polyuria if factors contributing to hypokalemia include HF or DM
Bowel sounds diminished, decreased bowel motility, paralytic ileus
Abdominal distension
FOOD/FLUID
May report: Anorexia, nausea/vomiting
Thirst
NEUROSENSORY
May report: Paresthesias
May exhibit: Depressed mental state/confusion, apathy, drowsiness, irritability, coma
Hyporeflexia, tetany, paralysis (flaccid quadriparesis)
PAIN/DISCOMFORT
May report: Muscle pain/cramps
RESPIRATION
May exhibit: Hypoventilation/decreased respiratory depth due to muscle weakness/paralysis of
diaphragm; apnea, cyanosis
TEACHING/LEARNING
Refer to predisposing/contributing factors
Discharge plan DRG projected mean length of inpatient stay: depends on underlying cause
considerations: May require assistance with changes in therapeutic regimen, dietary management
Refer to plan of care concerning underlying medical/surgical condition for possible
considerations after discharge.
DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES
Serum potassium: Decreased, less than 3.5 mEq/L.
Serum chloride: Often decreased, less than 98 mEq/L.
Serum glucose: May be slightly elevated.
Serum magnesium: Levels often decreased when potassium deficit is present.
Plasma bicarbonate: Increased, higher than 29 mEq/L.
Urine osmolality: Decreased.
ABGs: pH and bicarbonate may be elevated (metabolic alkalosis).
ECG: Low voltage; flat or inverted T wave, appearance of U wave, depressed ST segment, peaked P waves; prolonged
QT interval, ventricular dysrhythmias.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hypokalemia (NIC)
Independent
Monitor heart rate/rhythm. Changes associated with hypokalemia include
abnormalities in both conduction and contractility.
Tachycardia may develop, and potentially life-threatening
atrial and ventricular dysrhythmias, e.g., PVCs, sinus
bradycardia, atrioventricular (AV) blocks, AV
dissociation, ventricular tachycardia.
Monitor respiratory rate, depth, effort. Encourage Respiratory muscle weakness may proceed to paralysis
cough/deep-breathing exercises; reposition frequently. and eventual respiratory arrest.
Assess level of consciousness and neuromuscular Apathy, drowsiness, irritability, tetany, paresthesias, and
function, e.g., strength, sensation, movement. coma may occur.
Auscultate bowel sounds, noting decrease/absence or Paralytic ileus commonly follows gastric losses through
change. vomiting/gastric suction, protracted diarrhea.
Maintain accurate record of urinary, gastric, and wound Guide for calculating fluid/potassium replacement needs.
losses.
Monitor rate of IV potassium administration using Ensures controlled delivery of medication to prevent
microdrop or pump infusion devices. Check for side bolus effect and reduce associated discomfort, e.g.,
effects. Provide ice pack as indicated. burning sensation at IV site. When solution cannot be
administered via central vein and slowing rate is not
possible/effective, ice pack to infusion site may help
relieve discomfort.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hypokalemia (NIC)
Independent
Encourage intake of foods and fluids high in potassium, Potassium may be replaced/level maintained through the
e.g., bananas, oranges, dried fruits, red meat, turkey, diet when patient is allowed oral food and fluids. Dietary
salmon, leafy vegetables, peas, baked potatoes, tomatoes, replacement of 40–60 mEq/L/day is typically sufficient if
winter squash, coffee, colas, tea. Discuss use of potassium no abnormal losses are occurring.
chloride salt substitutes for patient receiving long-term
diuretics.
Review drug regimen for potassium-wasting drugs, e.g., If alternative agents, e.g., potassium-sparing diuretics
furosemide (Lasix), hydrochlorothiazide (Esidrix), such as spirinolactone (Aldactone), triamterene
Acetazolamide (Diamox), IV catecholamines, gentamicin (Dyrenium), amiloride (Midamor), cannot be
(Garamycin), carbenicillin (Geocillin), amphotericin B administered or when high-dose sodium drugs are
(Fungizone). administered (e.g., carbenicillin), close monitoring and
replacement of potassium are necessary.
Discuss preventable causes of condition, e.g., nutritional Provides opportunity for patient to prevent recurrence.
choices, proper use of laxatives. Also, dietary control is more palatable than oral
replacement medications.
Dilute liquid and effervescent potassium supplements (K- May prevent/reduce GI irritation and saline laxative
Tab, K-Lyte/Cl) with 4 oz water/juice and give after effect.
meals.
Watch for signs of digitalis intoxication when used (e.g., Low potassium enhances effect of digitalis, slowing
reports of nausea/vomiting, blurred vision, increasing cardiac conduction. Note: Combined effects of digitalis,
atrial dysrhythmias, and heart block). diuretics, and hypokalemia may produce lethal
dysrhythmias.
Observe for signs of metabolic alkalosis, e.g., Frequently associated with hypokalemia and requiring
hypoventilation, tachycardia, dysrhythmias, tetany, additional correction.
changes in mentation.
Collaborative
Collaborative
Serum magnesium; Hypomagnesemia occurs with and exacerbates potassium
loss and sodium retention, altering cell membrane
excitability (affects cardiac and neuromuscular function).
Administer oral and/or IV potassium. May be required to correct deficiencies when changes in
medication, therapy, and/or dietary intake are insufficient.
Note: Even in severe deficit, parenteral replacement
should not exceed 40 mEq/2 hr. Dietary supplementation
may also be used to produce a gradual equilibration if
patient is able to take oral food and fluids.
ACTIVITY/REST
May report: Vague muscular weakness
May exhibit: Restlessness, irritability
CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Irregular pulse, bradycardia, heart block, asystole
EGO INTEGRITY
May report: Apprehension
ELIMINATION
May report: Intermittent abdominal cramps, diarrhea
May exhibit: Urine volume decreased
Hyperactive bowel sounds
FOOD/FLUID
May report: Nausea/vomiting
NEUROSENSORY
May report: Paresthesias (often of face, tongue, hands, feet)
Slurred speech
May exhibit: Decreased deep-tendon reflexes; progressive, ascending flaccid paralysis; twitching,
seizure activity
Apathy, confusion
PAIN/DISCOMFORT
May report: Muscle cramps/pain
TEACHING/LEARNING
Refer to predisposing/contributing factors
Discharge plan DRG projected mean length of inpatient stay: depends on underlying cause
considerations: May require assistance with changes in therapeutic regimen, dietary management
Refer to plan of care concerning underlying medical/surgical condition for possible
considerations after discharge.
DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES
Serum potassium: Increased, higher than 5.1 mEq/L.
Serum magnesium: Levels may be elevated if renal failure is present.
Renal function studies: May be altered, indicating failure.
Leukocyte or thrombocyte count: Elevation may cause a pseudohyperkalemia, affecting choice of interventions.
ECG changes: T waves tall and peaked/tented, prolonged PR interval, loss of P waves, widening of QRS complex,
shortened QT interval, and ST segment depression; atrial/ventricular dysrhythmias, e.g., bradycardia, atrial arrest,
complete heart block, ventricular fibrillation, cardiac arrest.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hyperkalemia (NIC)
Collaborative
Identify patient at risk; or the cause of the hyperkalemia, Influences choice of interventions. Early identification
e.g., excessive intake of potassium or decreased and treatment can prevent complication. Note: A major
excretion. cause of hyperkalemia is decreased renal excretion.
Collaborative
Monitor respiratory rate and depth. Elevate head of bed. Patients may hypoventilate and retain CO2, leading to
Encourage cough/deep-breathing exercises. respiratory acidosis. Muscular weakness can affect
respiratory muscles and lead to complications of
respiratory infection/failure.
Monitor heart rate/rhythm. Be aware that cardiac arrest Excess potassium depresses myocardial conduction.
can occur. Bradycardia can progress to cardiac fibrillation/arrest.
Assess level of consciousness, neuromuscular function, Patient is usually awake and alert; however, muscular
e.g., movement, strength, sensation. paresthesia, weakness, and flaccid paralysis may occur.
Encourage/assist with ROM exercises as tolerated. Improves muscular tone and reduces muscle cramps and
pain.
Encourage frequent rest periods; assist with care General muscle weakness decreases activity tolerance.
activities, as indicated.
Review drug regimen for medications Requires regular monitoring of potassium levels, and may
containing/affecting potassium excretion, e.g., penicillin require alternative drug choices or changes in
G, spironolactone (Aldactone), amiloride (Midamor), dosage/frequency.
hydrochlorothiazide (Dyazide, Maxzide).
Identify/discontinue dietary sources of potassium, e.g., Facilitates reduction of potassium level and may prevent
tomatoes, broccoli, orange juice, bananas, bran, recurrence of hyperkalemia.
chocolate, coffee, tea, eggs, dairy products, dried fruits.
Recommend an increase in carbohydrates/fats and foods Reduces exogenous sources of potassium and prevents
low in potassium, e.g., canned fruits, refined cereals, catabolic tissue breakdown with release of cellular
apple/cranberry juice. potassium.
Stress importance of patient’s notifying future caregivers May help prevent recurrence.
when chronic condition potentiates development of
hyperkalemia, e.g., oliguric renal failure.
Collaborative
Monitor laboratory results, e.g., serum potassium, ABGs, Evaluates therapy needs/effectiveness. Note:
BUN/Cr, glucose as indicated. Hypoventilation may result in respiratory acidosis,
thereby increasing serum potassium levels.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hyperkalemia (NIC)
Collaborative
Administer medications as indicated, e.g.:
Diuretics, e.g., furosemide (Lasix); Loop or thiazide diuretics promote renal clearance and
excretion of potassium.
IV glucose with insulin, sodium bicarbonate; Short-term emergency measure to move potassium into
the cell, thus reducing toxic serum level. Note: Use with
caution in presence of HF or hypernatremia. Use of
glucose is contraindicated in patients who are
hyperkalemic.
Sodium polystyrene sulfonate (Kayexalate, SPS Resin removes potassium by exchanging potassium for
suspension), orally, per NG tube, or rectally; sodium or calcium in the GI tract. Sorbitol enhances
evacuation. Note: Use cautiously in patients with HF,
edema, and in the elderly because it increases sodium
level. In addition, Kayexalate may cause hyperchloremia.
[beta]-adrenergic agonist, e.g., albuterol (Proventil). Nebulizer administration has been effective in patients
receiving hemodialysis, and may also attentuate the
hypoglycemic effect of insulin administration.
Provide fresh blood or washed RBCs (when possible) if Fresh blood has less potassium than banked blood,
transfusions required. because breakdown of older RBCs releases potassium.
Prepare for/assist with dialysis (peritoneal or May be required when more conservative methods fail or
hemodialysis). are contraindicated, e.g., severe HF.
CALCIUM
CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Hypotension
Pulses weak/decreased, irregular (weak cardiac contraction/premature dysrhythmias)
ELIMINATION
May report: Diarrhea, abdominal pain
May exhibit: Abdominal distension (paralytic ileus)
FOOD/FLUID
May report: Nausea/vomiting
May exhibit: Difficulty swallowing
HYGIENE
May exhibit: Coarse, dry skin; alopecia (chronic)
NEUROSENSORY
May report: Circumoral paresthesia, numbness and tingling of fingers and toes; muscle cramps
May exhibit: Anxiety, confusion, irritability, alteration in mood, impaired memory, depression,
hallucinations, psychoses
Muscle spasms (carpopedal and laryngeal), increased deep-tendon reflexes; tetany,
tonic/clonic seizure activity, positive Trousseau’s and Chvostek’s signs
RESPIRATION
May exhibit: Labored shallow breathing; stridor (spasm of laryngeal muscles)
SAFETY
May exhibit: Bleeding with no or minimal trauma
TEACHING/LEARNING
Refer to predisposing/contributing factors
Discharge plan DRG projected mean length of inpatient stay: depends on underlying cause
considerations: May require assistance with changes in therapeutic regimen, dietary management
Refer to plan of care concerning underlying medical/surgical condition for possible
considerations after discharge.
DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES
Serum calcium: Decreased, less than 4.5 mEq/L or 8.5 mg/dL (total), 2.1 mEq/L (ionized)
Urine Sulkowitch test: Shows light or no precipitate.
ECG: Prolonged QT interval (characteristic but not necessarily diagnostic). In severe deficiency, T waves may flatten
or invert, giving appearance of hypokalemia or myocardial ischemia; ventricular tachycardia may develop.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hypercalcemia (NIC)
Independent
Monitor heart rate/rhythm. Calcium deficit along with associated hypomagnesemia
weakens cardiac muscle/contractility.
Assess respiratory rate, rhythm, effort. Have Laryngeal stridor may develop and result in respiratory
tracheostomy equipment available. emergency/arrest.
Observe for neuromuscular irritability, e.g., tetany, Calcium deficit causes repetitive and uncontrolled nerve
seizure activity. Assess for presence of transmission, leading to muscle spasms and
Chvostek’s/Trousseau’s signs. hyperirritability.
Provide quiet environment and seizure precautions as Reduces CNS stimulation and protects patient from
appropriate. potential injury.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hypercalcemia (NIC)
Independent
Encourage relaxation/stress reduction techniques, e.g., Tetany can be potentiated by hyperventilation and stress.
deep-breathing exercises, guided imagery, visualization. Note: Direct pressure on the nerves (e.g., tightening BP
cuff) may also cause tetany.
Check for bleeding from any source (mucous membranes, Alterations in coagulation can occur as a result of calcium
puncture sites, wounds/incisions, and so on). Note deficiency.
presence of ecchymosis, petechiae.
Review patient’s drug regimen, e.g., use of insulin, Some drugs can lower magnesium levels, affecting
plicamycin (Mithracin), parathyroid injection, digitalis. calcium level. The effect of digitalis is enhanced by
calcium, and, in patients receiving calcium, digitalis
intoxication may develop.
Review dietary intake of vitamins and fat. Insufficient ingestion of vitamin D and fat impairs
absorption of calcium.
Identify sources to increase calcium and vitamin D in Vitamin D aids in absorption of calcium from intestinal
diet, e.g., dairy products, beans, cauliflower, eggs, tract. Phosphorus competes with calcium for intestinal
oranges, pineapples, sardines, shellfish. Restrict intake of absorption.
phosphorus, e.g., barley, bran, whole wheat, rye, liver,
nuts, chocolate.
Encourage use of calcium-containing antacids if needed Possible sources for oral replacement to help maintain
(e.g., Titralac, Tums). calcium levels, especially in patients at risk for
osteoporosis.
Stress importance of meeting calcium needs. Adverse effects of long-term deficiency include tooth
decay, eczema, cataracts, and osteoporosis.
Collaborative
Collaborative
Administer the following:
Calcium gluconate/gluceptate/chloride IV; Provides rapid treatment in acute calcium deficit
(especially in presence of tetany/convulsions). Note:
Calcium chloride is not used as often because it is
irritating to the vein and can cause tissue sloughing if it
leaks into tissues.
Oral preparations, e.g., calcium lactate/carbonate; Oral preparations are useful in correcting subacute
deficiencies.
Vitamin D supplement (e.g., calcitriol). May be used in combination with calcium therapy to
enhance calcium absorption once concomitant phosphate
deficiency is corrected.
CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Hypertension
Irregular pulse, dysrhythmias, bradycardia
ELIMINATION
May report: Constipation or diarrhea
May exhibit: Polyuria, nocturia
Kidney stones/calculi
FOOD/FLUID
May report: Anorexia, nausea/vomiting
Thirst
Abdominal pain
May exhibit: Poor skin turgor, dry mucous membranes
NEUROSENSORY
May report: Headache
May exhibit: Hypotonicity/muscular relaxation, flaccid paralysis, depressed/absent deep-tendon reflexes
Drowsiness, apathy, paranoia, personality changes, decreased attention span, memory loss,
depression, inappropriate/bizarre behaviors, psychosis, confusion, stupor/coma
Slurred speech
PAIN/DISCOMFORT
May report: Epigastric, deep flank pain, or bone/joint pain
TEACHING/LEARNING
Refer to predisposing/contributing factors
Discharge plan DRG projected mean length of inpatient stay: depends on underlying cause
considerations: May require assistance with changes in therapeutic regimen, dietary management
Refer to plan of care concerning underlying medical/surgical condition for possible
considerations after discharge.
DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES
Serum calcium: Increased, higher than 2.6 mEq/L (ionized) or 10.5 mg/dL (total).
BUN: Increased (calculi can damage kidney).
Serum phosphorus: Decreased levels may be noted.
Urine Sulkowitch test: Shows heavy precipitate.
Urine calcium: Increased.
Urine osmolality: Decreased.
Urine specific gravity: Decreased.
X-ray: May reveal evidence of bone cavitation, pathological fracture, osteoporosis, urinary calculi.
ECG changes: Shortened QT interval, inverted T waves. In severe deficit, QRS may widen, PR interval lengthen, and
ventricular prematurities develop.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hypercalcemia (NIC)
Independent
Monitor cardiac rate/rhythm. Be aware that cardiac arrest Overstimulation of cardiac muscle occurs with resultant
can occur in hypercalcemic crisis. dysrhythmias and ineffective cardiac contraction. Sinus
bradycardia, sinus dysrhythmias, wandering pacemaker,
and AV block may be noted. Hypercalcemia creates a
predisposition to cardiac arrest.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hypercalcemia (NIC)
Independent
Assess level of consciousness and neuromuscular status, Nerve and muscle activity is depressed. Lethargy and
e.g., muscle movement, strength, tone. fatigue can progress to convulsion/coma.
Monitor I&O; calculate fluid balance. Efforts to correct original condition may result in
secondary imbalances/complications.
Encourage fluid intake of 3–4 L/day, including fluids Reduces dehydration, encourages urinary flow and
(within cardiac tolerance) and use of acid-ash juices, e.g., clearance of calcium, reduces risk of stone formation.
cranberry and prune if kidney stones present or suspected. Note: Sodium favors calcium excretion and can be used if
not contraindicated by other conditions.
Strain urine if flank pain occurs. Large amount of calcium present in kidney parenchyma
may lead to stone formation.
Encourage frequent repositioning and ROM and/or Muscle activity may reduce calcium shifting from the
muscle-setting exercises with caution. Promote bones that occurs during immobilization. Note: Increased
ambulation if patient is able. risk for pathological fractures exists because of calcium
shifts out of the bones.
Provide safety measures, e.g., gentle handling when Reduces risk of injury/pathological fractures.
moving/transferring patient.
Review drug regimen, noting use of calcium-elevating May affect drug choice or require reduction in oral
drugs, e.g., heparin, tetracyclines, methicillin, phenytoin. sources of calcium.
Identify/restrict sources of calcium intake, e.g., dairy Foods or drugs containing calcium may need to be limited
products, eggs, and spinach; calcium-containing antacids in chronic conditions causing hypercalcemia.
(Titralac, Tums).
Collaborative
Monitor laboratory studies, e.g., calcium, magnesium, Monitors therapy needs/effectiveness. Note: Phosphate
phosphate. levels may be low when parathyroid hormone inversely
promotes calcium uptake and calcium competes with
phosphate for absorption/transport with vitamin D.
Administer isotonic saline and sodium sulfate IV/orally. Emergency measures in severe hypercalcemia used to
dilute extracellular calcium concentration and inhibit
tubular reabsorption of calcium, thereby increasing
urinary excretion.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hypercalcemia (NIC)
Collaborative
Administer medications as indicated:
Diuretics, e.g., furosemide (Lasix); Diuresis promotes renal excretion of calcium and reduces
risks of fluid excess from isotonic saline infusion.
Neutra-Phos, Fleet Phospho-Soda. These drugs bind calcium in the GI tract, promoting
excretion.
Prepare for/assist with hemodialysis. Rapid reduction of serum calcium may be necessary to
correct life-threatening situation.
MAGNESIUM
Magnesium influences carbohydrate metabolism, secretion of parathyroid hormone, sodium/potassium transport across
the cell membrane, and synthesis of protein and nucleic acid. Magnesium activates adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and
mediates neural transmission within the CNS. Magnesium deficit is often associated with hypokalemia and promotes
intracellular potassium loss and sodium accumulation, altering and exacerbating membrane excitability. Normal serum
range is 1.5–2.5 mEq/L or 1.8–3.0 mg/dL.
CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Tachycardia, dysrhythmias
Hypotension (vasodilation); occasional hypertension
FOOD/FLUID
May report:Anorexia, nausea/vomiting, diarrhea
NEUROSENSORY
May report: Paresthesia (legs, feet)
Vertigo
May exhibit: Nystagmus
Musculoskeletal fasciculations/tremors, neuromuscular irritability/spasticity, spontaneous
carpopedal spasms, hyperactive deep-tendon reflexes, clonus
Tetany, convulsions; positive Babinski’s, Chvostek’s, and Trousseau’s signs
Disorientation, apathy, depression, irritability, agitation, hallucinations/psychoses, coma
TEACHING/LEARNING
Refer to predisposing/contributing factors
Discharge plan DRG projected mean length of inpatient stay: depends on underlying cause
considerations: May require assistance with changes in therapeutic regimen, dietary management
Refer to plan of care concerning underlying medical/surgical condition for possible
postdischarge considerations.
DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES
Serum magnesium: Decreased, less than 1.5 mEq/L or 1.8 mg/dL. (Usually symptoms do not appear until level is less
than 1 mEq/L.)
Calcium: May be decreased, unless there is a hypercalcemic condition causing the magnesium deficit.
Potassium: Decrease associated with severe hypomagnesemia.
ECG: Prolonged PR and QT intervals, widened QRS complex, ST-segment depression, T-wave inversion.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hypomagnesemia (NIC)
Independent
Monitor cardiac rate/rhythm, noting tachydysrhythmias Magnesium influences sodium/potassium transport across
and characteristic ECG changes. the cell membrane and affects excitability of cardiac
tissue.
Monitor for signs of digitalis intoxication when used Magnesium deficit may precipitate digitalis toxicity.
(e.g., reports of nausea/vomiting, blurred vision;
increasing atrial dysrhythmias and heart block).
Assess level of consciousness and neuromuscular status, Confusion, irritability, and psychosis may occur.
e.g., movement, strength, reflexes/tone; note presence of However, more common manifestations are muscular,
Chvostek’s/Trousseau’s signs. e.g., hyperactive deep-tendon reflexes, muscle tremors,
spasticity, generalized tetany.
Monitor status of airway and swallowing. Laryngeal stridor and dysphagia can occur when
depletion is moderate to severe.
Take seizure/safety precautions, e.g., padded side rails, Changes in mentation or the development of seizure
bed in low position, frequent observation as indicated. activity in severe hypomagnesemia increases the risk of
patient injury.
Provide quiet environment and subdued lighting. Reduces extraneous stimuli; promotes rest.
Independent
Instruct patient in proper use of laxatives and diuretics. Deficit may be the result of abuse of these drugs.
Observe for signs of magnesium toxicity during Rapid, excessive IV replacement may lead to toxicity and
replacement therapy, e.g., thirst, feeling hot and flushed, life-threatening complications.
diaphoresis, anxiety, drowsiness, hypotension, increased
muscular and nervous system irritability, loss of patellar
reflex.
Collaborative
Assist with identification/treatment of underlying cause. Refer to listing of predisposing/contributing factors. Note:
Studies have shown that chronic alcoholism with
malnutrition is the most common cause of
hypomagnesemia in the United States.
Monitor laboratory studies, e.g., serum magnesium, Evaluates therapy needs/effectiveness. Note: These
calcium, and potassium levels. electrolytes are interrelated; symptoms may be similar,
and deficits of more than one may be present.
Magnesium sulfate IM, or magnesium hydroxide PO May be given for mild deficit or in nonemergent
(Milk of Magnesia); situations. Injections should be deep IM to decrease local
tissue reaction.
Magnesium-based antacids, e.g., Mylanta, Maalox, Can supplement dietary replacement. Note: Use of these
Gelusil, Riopan. products may cause diarrhea, which can be alleviated by
concurrent use of aluminum-containing products, e.g.,
Amphojel, Basaljel.
Hypermagnesemia (Magnesium Excess)
PREDISPOSING/CONTRIBUTING FACTORS
Reduced renal function (e.g., acute processes or age), chronic renal disease/failure; or dialysis with hard water
Excessive intake/absorption: e.g., too-rapid replacement of magnesium (as in pregnancy-induced hypertension or
premature labor), excessive use of magnesium-containing drugs/products, e.g., Maalox, Milk of Magnesia, Epsom salts
Untreated diabetic ketoacidosis
Hyperparathyroidism, aldosterone deficiency, adrenal insufficiency
Extracellular fluid volume depletion (e.g., after diuretic abuse)
Salt-water near-drowning, hypothermia, shock
Chronic diarrhea; diseases that interfere with gastric absorption
CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Hypotension (mild to severe)
Pulses weak/irregular, bradycardia (12–15 mEq/L), cardiac arrest (higher than 25 mEq/L)
FOOD/FLUID
May report: Nausea/vomiting
NEUROSENSORY
May exhibit: Depressed deep-tendon reflexes (7–10 mEq/L) progressing to flaccid paralysis
Decreased level of consciousness, lethargy progressing to coma
Slurred speech
RESPIRATION
May exhibit: Hypoventilation progressing to apnea (12–15 mEq/L)
SAFETY
May exhibit: Skin flushing, sweating
TEACHING/LEARNING
Refer to predisposing/contributing factors
Discharge plan DRG projected mean length of inpatient stay: depends on underlying cause
considerations: May require assistance with changes in therapeutic regimen, dietary management
Refer to plan of care concerning underlying medical/surgical condition for possible
considerations after discharge.
DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES
Serum magnesium: Symptomatic at levels higher than 3 mEq/L (increase to 10–20 mEq/L results in respiratory
depression, coma, and cardiac arrest).
ECG: Prolonged PR and QT intervals, wide QRS, elevated T waves, development of heart block, cardiac arrest.
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION CRITERIA—PATIENT WILL:
Electrolyte & Acid/Base Balance (NOC)
Display heart rhythm, muscular strength, cognitive status, and laboratory results WNL for patient, absence of
respiratory impairment.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hypermagnesemia
(NIC)
Collaborative
Refer to listing of predisposing/contributing factors to
Assist with identification/treatment of underlying cause. determine treatment needs. Note: Most frequently occurs
in patients with advanced renal failure.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Electrolyte Management: Hypermagnesemia
(NIC)