classical mechanics is used for the analysis of engineering problems.

Engineering Mechanics

1
Introduction to Engineering Mechanics
The state of rest and state of motion of the bodies under the action of different forces has engaged the attention of philosophers, mathematicians and scientists for many centuries. The branch of physical science that deals with the state of rest or the state of motion is termed as Mechanics. Starting from the analysis of rigid bodies under gravitational force and simple applied forces the mechanics has grown to the analysis of robotics, aircrafts, spacecrafts under dynamic forces, atmospheric forces, temperature forces etc. Archimedes (287-212 BC), Galileo (1564-1642), Sir Issac Newton (1642-1727) and Einstein (1878-1955) have contributed a lot to the development of mechanics. Contributions by Varignon, Euler, D. Alembert are also substantial. The mechanics developed by these researchers may be grouped as (i) Classical mechanics/Newtonian mechanics (ii) Relativistic mechanics (iii) Quantum mechanics/Wave mechanics. Sir Issac Newton, the principal architect of mechanics, consolidated the philosophy and experimental findings developed around the state of rest and state of motion of the bodies and put forth them in the form of three laws of motion as well as the law of gravitation. The mechanics based on these laws is called Classical mechanics or Newtonian mechanics. Albert Einstein proved that Newtonian mechanics fails to explain the behaviour of high speed (speed of light) bodies. He put forth the theory of Relativistic Mechanics. Schrdinger (1887-1961) and Broglie (1892-1965) showed that Newtonian mechanics fails to explain the behaviour of particles when atomic distances are concerned. They put forth the theory of Quantum Mechanics. Engineers are keen to use the laws of mechanics to actual field problems. Application of laws of mechanics to field problem is termed as Engineering Mechanics. For all the problems between atomic distances to high speed distances Classical/Newtonian mechanics has stood the test of time and hence that is the mechanics used by engineers. Hence in this text

1.1. CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Depending upon the body to which the mechanics is applied, the engineering mechanics is classified as (a) Mechanics of Solids, and (b) Mechanics of Fluids. The solid mechanics is further classified as mechanics of rigid bodies and mechanics of deformable bodies. The body which will not deform or the body in which deformation can be neglected in the analysis, are called as Rigid bodies. The mechanics of the rigid bodies dealing with the bodies at rest is termed as Statics and that dealing with bodies in motion is called Dynamics. The dynamics dealing with the problems without referring to the forces causing the motion of the body is termed as Kinematics and if it deals with the forces causing motion also, is called Kinetics. If the internal stresses developed in a body are to be studied, the deformation of the body should be considered. This field of mechanics is called Mechanics of Deformable Bodies/Strength of Materials/Solid Mechanics. This field may be further divided into Theory of Elasticity and Theory of Plasticity. Liquid and gases deform continuously with application of very small shear forces. Such materials are called Fluids. The mechanics dealing with behaviour of such materials is called Fluid Mechanics. Mechanics of ideal fluids, mechanics of viscous fluid and mechanics of incompressible fluids are further classification in

this area. The classification of mechanics is summarised below in flow chart.

1.2. BASIC TERMINOLOGIES IN MECHANICS

The following are the terms basic to study mechanics, which should be understood clearly:

Mass
The quantity of the matter possessed by a body is called mass. The mass of a body will not change unless the body is damaged and part of it is physically separated. When a body is taken out in a spacecraft, the mass will not change but its weight may change due to change in gravitational force. Even the body may become weightless when gravitational force vanishes but the mass remain the same.

Time

Time is the measure of succession of events. The successive event selected is the rotation of earth about its own axis and this is called a day. To have convenient units for various activities, a day is divided into 24 hours, an hour into 60 minutes and a minute into 60 seconds. Clocks are the instruments developed to measure time. To overcome difficulties due to irregularities in the earths rotation, the unit of time is taken as second which is defined as the duration of 9192631770 period of radiation of the cesium-133 atom.

Space
The geometric region in which study of body is involved is called space. A point in the space may be referred with respect to a predetermined point by a set of linear and angular measurements. The reference point is called the origin and set of measurements as coordinates. If coordinates involve only in mutually perpendicular directions they are known as Cartesian coordinates. If the coordinates involve angle and distances, it is termed as polar coordinate system.

Length
It is a concept to measure linear distances. The diameter of a cylinder may be 300 mm, the height of a building may be 15 m. Actually metre is the unit of length. However depending upon the sizes involved micro, milli or kilo metre units are used for measurement. A metre is defined as length of the standard bar of platinum-iridium kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. To overcome difficulties of accessibility and reproduction, now meter is defined as 1690763.73 wavelength of krypton-86 atom.

Displacement
Displacement is defined as the distance moved by a body/particle in the specified direction. Referring to Fig. 1.1, if a body moves from position A to position B in the x-y plane shown, its displacement in x-direction is AB and its displacement in y-direction is BB.

Velocity
The rate of change of displacement with respect to time is defined as velocity.

Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. Thus a = dv/dt where v is velocity ..(1.1)

Momentum

The product of mass and velocity is called momentum. Thus Momentum = Mass Velocity...(1.2)

Continuum

A body consists of several matters. It is a well known fact that each particle can be subdivided into molecules, atoms and electrons. It is not possible to solve any engineering problem by treating a body as a conglomeration of such discrete particles. The body is assumed to consist of a continuous distribution of matter. In other words, the body is treated as continuum.

Rigid Body
A body is said to be rigid, if the relative positions of any two particles in it do not change under the action of the forces. In Fig. 1.2 (a) points A and B a After application of a system of forces F1, F2, F3, the body takes the position as shown in Fig. 1.2 ( b). A and B are the new positions of A and B. If the body is treated as rigid, the relative position of AB and AB are the same i.e., AB = AB.

Many engineering problems can be solved satisfactorily by assuming bodies rigid.

Particle
A particle may be defined as an object which has only mass and no size. Such a body cannot exist theoretically. However in dealing with problems involving distances considerably larger compared to the size of the body, the body may be treated as particle, without sacrificing accuracy. Examples of such situations are A bomber aeroplane is a particle for a gunner operating from the ground. A ship in mid sea is a particle in the study of its relative motion from a control tower. In the study of movement of the earth in celestial sphere, earth is treated as a particle.

1.3. LAWS OF MECHANICS

The following are the fundamental laws of mechanics: Newtons first law Newtons second law Newtons third law Newtons law of gravitation Law of transmissibility of forces, and Parallelogram law of forces.

Newtons First Law

It states that every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by an external agency acting on it. This leads to the definition of force as the external agency which changes or tends to change the state of rest or uniform linear motion of the body.

Newtons Second Law

It states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the it takes place in the direction of the force acting on it. Thus according to this law, Force rate of change of momentum. But momentum = mass velocity As mass do not change, Force mass rate of change of velocity i.e.,Force mass acceleration F m a ...(1.3) impressed force and

Newtons Third Law

It states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Consider the two bodies in contact with each other. Let one body applies a force F on another. According to this law the second body develops a reactive force R which is equal in magnitude to force F and acts in the line same as F but in the opposite direction. Figure. 1.3 shows the action of the ball and the reaction from the floor. In Fig. 1.4 the action of the ladder on the wall and the floor and the reactions from the wall and floor are shown.

Newtons Law of Gravitation

Everybody attracts the other body. The force of attraction between any two bodies is directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. According to this law the force of attraction between the bodies of mass m1 and mass m2 at a distance d as shown in Fig. 1.5 is F=G
m1m2/d2

...(1.4)

where G is the constant of proportionality and is known as constant of gravitation

Law of Transmissibility of Force

According to this law the state of rest or motion of the rigid body is unaltered if a force acting on the body is replaced by another force of the same magnitude and direction but acting anywhere on the body along the line of action of the replaced force. Let F be the force acting on a rigid body at point A as shown in Fig. 1.6. According to the law of transmissibility of force, this force has the same effect on the state of body as the force F applied at point B.

In using law of transmissibility of forces it should be carefully noted that it is applicable only if the body can be treated as rigid. In this text, the engineering mechanics is restricted to study of state of rigid bodies and hence this law is

frequently used. Same thing cannot be done in he subject solid mechanics where the bodies are treated as deformable and internal forces in the body are stud-ied.

The law of transmissibility of forces can be proved using the law of superposition, which can be stated as the action of a given system of forces on a rigid body is not changed by adding or subtracting another system of forces in equilibrium.

Consider the rigid body shown in Fig. 1.7 ( a). It is subjected to a force F at A. B is another point on the line of action of the force. From the law of superposition it is obvious that if two equal and opposite forces of magnitude F are applied at B along the line of action of given force F, [Ref. Fig. 1.7 (b)] the effect of given force on the

body is not altered. Force F at A and opposite force F at B form a system of

forces in equilibrium. If these two forces are subtracted from the system, the resulting system is as shown in Fig. 1.7 ( c). Looking at the system of forces in Figs. 1.7 (a) and 1.7 (c), we can conclude the law of transmissibility of forces is proved.

A system of 4 concurrent forces acting on a body are shown in Fig. 1.9. AB represents F1 and BC Parallelogram Law of Forces represents F2. The parallelogram law of forces enables us to determine the single force called Hence according to resultant which can replace the two forces acting at a point with the same effect as triangle law of that of the two forces. This law was formulated based on experimental results. forces AC Though Stevinces employed it in 1586, the credit of presenting it as a law goes to represents the Varignon and Newton (1687). This law states that if two forces acting simultaneously on resultant of F1 and a body at a point are presented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of F2, say, R1. a parallelogram, their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which passes through the point of intersection of the two sides representing the forces. In Fig. 1.8 the force F1 = 4 units and force F2 = 3 units are acting on a body at point A. Then to get resultant of these forces parallelogram ABCD is constructed such that AB is equal to 4 units to linear scale and AC is equal to 3 units. Then according to this law, the diagonal AD represents the resultant in the direction and magnitude. Thus the resultant of the forces F1 and F2 on the body is equal to units corresponding to AD in the direction to F1.

If CD is drawn to represent F3, then from triangle law of forces AD represents, the resultant of R1 and F3. In other words AD represents the resultant of F1, F2 and F3. Let it be called as R2. On the same line logic can be extended to say that AE represents the resultant of F1, F2, F3 and F4 if DE represents F4. Thus resultant R is represented by the closing line of the polygon ABCDE in the direction AE. Thus we have derived polygon of law of forces and it may be stated as If a number of

1.4. DERIVED LAWS

Referring to Fig. 1.8 (b), we can get the resultant AD by constructing triangle ABD. Line AB is drawn to represent F1 and BD to represent F2. Then AD should represent the resultant of F1 and F2. Then we have derived triangle law of forces from fundamental law parallelogram law of forces. The Triangle Law of Forces may be stated as If two forces acting on a body are represented one after another by the sides of a triangle, their resultant is represented by the closing side of the triangle taken from first point to the last point. If more than two concurrent forces are acting on a body, two forces at a time can be combined by triangle law of forces and finally resultant of all the forces acting on the body may be obtained.

concurrent forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon, taken in a order, then the resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon, taken from first point to last point.

becomes units. Unit of force can be derived from eqn. (1.5) as Unit of Force = kg m/sec2 = kg - m/sec2

In MKS, the unit of force is defined as Length (L), Mass (M) and Time (S) are the fundamental units in mechanics. The units of all that force which makes a mass of 1 kg other quantities may be expressed in terms of these basic units. The three commonly to move with used systems in engineering are gravitational acceleration g Metre-KilogrammeSecond (MKS) system m/sec2. This unit of CentimetreGrammeSecond (CGS) system, and FootPoundSecond (FPS) force is called system. kilogramme weight or kg/wt. Gravitational The units of length, mass and time used in the system are used to name the systems. acceleration is 9.81 Using these basic units, the units for other quantities can be found. For example, in m/sec2 near the earth MKS the units for the various quantities are as shown below: surface. In all the problems Quantit Unit Notatio encountered in engineering Area Squar m2 mechanics the e variation in gravitational meter acceleration is Volume Cubic m3 negligible and may be meter taken as 9.81 m/sec2. Hence the constant of Vilocity Meter m/sec proportionality in eqn. Per (1.5) is 9.81, Secon which means

1.5. UNITS

d Acceleratio n Meter per secon d squar e m/sec2

1 kg-wt = 9.81 newton It may be noted that in public usage, kg-wt force is called as kg only.

Unit of Forces
Presently the whole world is in the process of switching over to SI system of units. SI stands for System Internationale d units or International System of units. As in MKS system, in SI system also the fundamental units are metre for length, kilogramme for mass and second for time. The difference between MKS and SI system arise mainly in selecting
the unit of force. From eqn. (1.3), we have Force Mass Acceleration = k Mass Acceleration ...(1.5) In SI system unit of force is defined as that force which causes 1 kg mass to move with an acceleration of 1m/sec2 and is termed as 1 Newton. Hence the constant of proportionality k
d2

Unit of Constant of Gravitatio n

From eqn. (1.4), F=G
m1m2

/d

or G = Fd 2...(1.6)

m1m

Unit of G =

m = Nm2/kg2 kg kg

It has been proved by experimental results that the value of G = 6.673 10-11 Nm /kg2. Thus if two bodies one of mass 10 kg and the other of 5 kg are at a distance of 1 m, they exert a force
2

F 6.673 on each other.

= 1011 10 5
2

= 33.365 10-10 N

Now let us find the force acting between 1 kg-mass near earth surface and the earth. Earth has a radius of 6371 103 m and has a mass 5.96506 1024 kg. Hence the force between the two bodies is = 6.673 10 1 5.96504 10 2 = 9.80665 N. (6371 103)
11 24

In common usage we call the force exerted by earth on a body as weight of the body. Thus weight of 1 kg mass on earth surface is 9.80665 N, which is approximated as 9.81 N for all practical problems. Compared to this force the force exerted by two bodies near earth surface is negligible as may be seen from the example of 10 kg and 5 kg mass bodies. Denoting the weight of the body by W, from eqn. (1.4), we get W= where m is the mass of body Me the radius of the earth
Gm2 e

is the mass of the earth, and

r is

Denoting

GM

by g, we get W = mg = 9.81 m ...(1.7)

Unit of g can be obtained as follows: g=

GM e
2

Unit of g = Nm
2

kg
2

(kg) m kg as unit of Newton force is kg-m/sec2, we get

2

Unit of kgm/sec

g kg

= = m/sec2

Hence g may be called as acceleration due to gravity. Any body falling freely near earth surface experiences this acceleration. The value of g is 9.81 m/sec2 near the earth surface as can be seen from eqn. (1.7). The prefixes used in SI system when quantities are too big or too small are shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Prefixes and Symbols of Multiplying Factors in SI

Multiplying Factor 1012 109 106 103 100 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 10-15 10-18 Prefix Tega Giga Mega Kilo Milli Micro Nano Pico Femto Atto Symbol T G M k m n p f a

1.6. CHARACTERISTICS OF A FORCE

From Newtons first law, we defined the force as the agency which tries to change state of stress or state of uniform motion of the body. From Newtons second law of motion we arrived at practical definition of unit force as the force required to produce unit acceleration in a body of unit mass. Thus 1 newton is the force required to produce an acceleration of 1 m/sec2 in a body of 1 kg mass. It may be noted that a force is completely specified only when the following four characteristics are specified: Magnitude Point of application Line of action, and

 Direction

In Fig. 1.10 AB is a ladder kept against a wall. At point C, a person weighing 600 N is standing. The force applied by the person on the ladder has the following characters: magnitude is 600 N the point of application is at C which is 2 m from A along the ladder. the line of action is vertical, and the direction is downward. Note that the magnitude of the force is written near the arrow. The line of the arrow shows the line of application and the arrow head represents the point of application and the direction of the force.

600 N

C 2m

Fig. 1.10

1.7. SYSTEM OF FORCES

When several forces act simultaneously on a body, they constitute a system of forces. If all the forces in a system do not lie in a single plane they constitute the system of forces in space. If all the forces in a system lie in a single plane, it is called a coplanar force system. If the line of action of all the forces in a system pass through a single point, it is called a concurrent force system. In a system of parallel forces all the forces are parallel to each other. If the line of action of all the forces lie along a single line then it is called a collinear force system. Various system of forces, their characteristics and examples are given in Table 1.2 and shown in Fig. 1.11.

Table 1.2: System of Forces

Force System Collinear forces Coplanar parallel forces Characteristics Examples Line of action of all the forces act Forces on a rope in a tug of war. along the same line. All forces are parallel to each other System of forces acting on a beam and lie in a single plane. subjected to vertical loads (including reactions). All forces are parallel to each other,Weight of a stationary train on a lie in a single plane and are actingrail when the track is straight. in the same direction.

Coplanar like parallel forces

Coplanar concurrent forces Line of action of all forces pass Forces on a rod resting against a through a single point and forces wall. lie in the same plane. Coplanar concurrent forces nonNoncoplanar concurrent forces Noncoplanar non-concurrent forces

Non-coplanar parallel forces

All forces do not meet at a point, but lie in Forces on a a single plane. ladder resting against a wall when a All the forces are parallel to each other, but person stands on a not in same plane. rung which is All forces do not lie in the same plane, but not at its their lines of action pass through a single centre of point. gravity. All forces do not lie in the same The weight of plane and their lines of action do benches in a not pass through a single point. classroom. A tripod carrying a camera.

Forces acting on a moving bus.

Collinear

Coplanar parallel

Coplanar like parallel

Coplanar concurrent y

Coplanar non-concurrent y

z Non-coplanar parallel

z Non-coplanar concurrent

z Non-coplanar non-concurrent

Fig. 1.11

1.8. VECTORS
Various quantities used in engineering mechanics may be grouped into scalars and vectors. A quantity is said to be scalar if it is completely defined by its magnitude alone. Examples of scalars are length, area, time and mass. A quantity is said to be vector if it is completely defined only when its magnitude as well as direction are specified. Hence force is a vector. The other examples of vector are velocity, acceleration, momentum etc.

1.9. DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY

The qualitative description of physical variable is known as dimension while the quantitative description is known as unit. We come across several relations among the physical quantities. Some of the terms may be having dimensions and some others may be dimensionless. However in any equation dimensions of the terms on both sides must be the same. This is called dimensional homogenity. The branch of mathematics dealing with dimensions of quantities is called dimensional analysis. There are two systems of dimensional analysis viz. absolute system and gravitational system. In absolute system the basic quantities selected are Mass, Length and Time. Hence it is known as MLT-system. In gravitational system the basic quantities are Force, Length and Time. Hence it is termed as FLT-system.

The dimension of acceleration is

we have physical relation Hence the dimensional relation is,

L
2

= LT-2 since its unit is m/sec2 From Newtons law

Force = Mass Acceleration

F= or

ML T2
2

...(1.8a)

M = FT ...(1.8b) L Eqn. (1.8) helps in converting dimensions from one system to another. The dimensions of some of the physical quantities are listed in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3: Dimensions of Quantities

Sr. No.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Quantity
Velocity Acceleration Momentum Area Volume Force Gravitational Cosntant

MLT-system
LT LT-2 MLT-1 LT2 L3 MLT-2 M-1L3T-2
-1

FLT-system
LT-1 LT-2 FT L2 L3 F F-1L4T-4

Checking Dimensional Homogenity

As stated earlier all the terms in an equation to the left and right side should have the same dimensions. In other words if, X=Y+Z the terms, X, Y and Z should have same dimension. If, X = bY and if X and Y do not have same dimension, b is not dimensionless constant. The value of this constant will be different in different system of units. Example 1.1. Verify whether the following equation has dimensional homogenity: v2 - u2 = 2as where v is final velocity, u is initial velocity, a is acceleration and s is the distance moved. Solution. Dimensions of velocity = LT -1 Dimensions of acceleration = LT -2 and dimension of distance =L Substituting these dimensions in the given equation, we get LT-1 - LT -1 = 2LT -2 L LT -1 LT -1 LT -1 Hence it is dimensionally homogeneous equation.

Example 1.2. In the following equation verify, whether 9.81 is dimensionless constant. If it is not so, what should be its dimension? s = ut + 1 2 9.81 t2 where s = distance u = initial velocity t = time Solution. Dimensions of various terms are s=L u = LT -1 t=T Substituting these in the given equation, we get, L = LT -1 T + 1 T 2 9.81 2 L= L+1 T 2 9.81 2 Hence, 9.81 cannot be dimensionless constant. Its dimension is given by L 1 9.81 T 2 2 9.81 should have dimensions LT -2, same as that of acceleration. We know this is gravitational acceleration term in SI unit i.e., it is in m/sec2 term. Hence the given equation cannot be straightway used is FPS system or CGS system.

1.10. IDEALISATIONS IN MECHANICS

A number of ideal conditions are assumed to exist while applying the principles of mechanics to practical problems. In fact without such assumptions it is not possible to arrive at practical solutions. The following idealisations are usually made in engineering mechanics. 1. The body is rigid. 2. The body can be treated as continuum. 3. If the size of the body is small compared to other distances involved in the problem, it may be treated as a particle. 4. If the area over which force is acting on a body is small compared to the size of the body, it may be treated as a point force. For example, in Fig. 1.9, 600 N force is the weight of a man. Actually the man cannot apply his weight through a single point. There is certain area of contact, which is, however, small compared to the other dimensions in the problem. Hence, the weight of the man is treated as a point load. 5. Support conditions are idealised (which will be discussed later) as simple, hinged, fixed etc.

1.11. ACCURACY OF CALCULATIONS

As explained in Art. 1.9, a number of ideal conditions are assumed to exist while applying the principles of mechanics to engineering problems. These assumptions have some effect on the accuracy of final results. Further in engineering analysis, many loads are estimated

loads. There are some imperfection in construction and fabrications of structures. To take care all these uncertainities engineers multiply the load by a number (1.5 to 2.25), which is called factor of safety. In view of all these, there is no need in noting the calculations beyond four digits. It is found that 0.2% accuracy is more than sufficient, in the calculations.

1.12. APPROACHES TO SOLUTION

There are two approaches for the solution of engineering mechanics problems i.e. classical approach and vector approach. Classical approach gives physical feel of the problem. It gives confidence to engineers in accepting the results presented by others and quickly take decisions on site. Development of such feel of the problem is very much essential for engineers. However it becomes difficult to solve three dimensional problems by classical approach. Vector approach is ideally suited for the analysis of three dimensional problems. But the disadvantage of vector approach is physical feel of the problem is lost and the ability of site engineers in quick decision is not developed. Hence there are two school of academicians, one advocating for classical approach and the other advocating for vector approach. In this book author has used classical approach for the solution of engineering mechanics problems.

Important Definitions and Concepts

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Displacement is defined as the distance moved by a body or particle in the specified direction. The rate of change of displacement with time is called velocity. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. The product of mass and velocity is called momentum. A body is said to be treated as continuum, if it is assumed to consist of continuous distribution of matter. A body is said to be rigid, if the relative position of any two particles in it do not change under the action of the forces. Newtons first law states that everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by an external agency acting on it. Newtons second law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the impressed force and it takes place in the direction of the force acting on it. Newtons third law states for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Newtons law of gravitation states everybody attracts the other body, the force of attraction between any two bodies is directly proportional to their mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. According to the law of transmissibility of force, the state of rest or motion of a rigid body is unaltered, if a force acting on a body is replaced by another force of the same magnitude and direction but acting anywhere on the body along the line of action of the replaced force.

9. 10.

11.

12.

The parallelogram law of forces states that if two forces acting simultaneously on a body at a point are represented by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which passes through the point of intersection of the two sides representing the forces. The qualitative description of physical variable is known as dimension while the quantitative description is known as unit.

13.

14. A quantity is said to be scalar, if it is completely defined by its magnitude alone. 15. A quantity is said to be vector if it is completely defined only when its magnitude as well as direction are specified.

QUESTIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Explain the following terms as used in Engineering Mechanics: (i) Continuum (ii) Rigid Body (iii) Particle. State and explain Newtons three laws of motion. State and explain Newtons law of gravitation. State and explain Law of transmissibility of forces. State and explain parallelogram law of forces. From this derive triangle and polygonal laws of forces. Explain the term Force and list its characteristics. Explain the termsconcurrent and non-concurrent force system; planar and non-planar system of forces.