Scott E.

Hygnstrom
Extension Wildlife Damage Specialist
Department of Forestry, Fisheries
HAWKS AND OWLS
and Wildlife
University of Nebraska Fig. 1. Raptors, representative of those that may
cause damage by preying on poultry and other
Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0819 birds, pets, and other animals: (a) the goshawk
(Accipiter gentilis), (b) red-tailed hawk (Buteo
Scott R. Craven jamaicensis), and (c) great horned owl (Bubo
Extension Wildlife Specialist virginianus).
Department of Wildlife Ecology
Immature
University of Wisconsin, Madison
Madison, Wisconsin 53706 Adult

Immature

Adult

c
a

Damage Prevention and Install utility lines underground and Trapping and Relocating
remove telephone poles near
Control Methods poultry-rearing sites.
State and federal permits are required
to trap and relocate hawks and
Exclusion Cap poles with sheet metal cones, owls. If possible, experienced bird
Nixalite®, Cat Claws®, or inverted banders or trappers should do the
Livestock confinement is the most
spikes. trapping.
effective control method, but it
must be practical and economical. Frightening Landowners, however, can safely trap
hawks and owls if they follow
Confine free-roaming fowl in Use scarecrows and pyrotechnics.
instructions and are careful when
enclosures covered with netting or
Erect electric pole shockers when handling the birds.
woven wire.
hawks or owls are observed around
Shooting
Condition poultry and fowl to move areas of potential damage.
into coops or houses by feeding and State and federal permits are required
Repellents
watering them indoors at dusk. to shoot hawks and owls. They may
None are registered. be issued only when there is a
House them at night to protect them
serious public health or depredation
from owls. Toxicants
problem and when nonlethal
Habitat Modification None are registered. control methods fail or are
Eliminate perch sites near areas of impractical.
potential damage by removing
large, isolated trees and snags.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WILDLIFE DAMAGE — 1994

Cooperative Extension Division
Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources
University of Nebraska - Lincoln
United States Department of Agriculture
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
Animal Damage Control
E-53
Great Plains Agricultural Council
Wildlife Committee
 Introduction flight pattern consists of several rapid extremely varied, usually contains
wing beats, then a short period of glid- large numbers of rodents and other
Hawks and owls are birds of prey and ing flight, followed by more rapid small mammals. Redtails occasionally
are frequently referred to as raptors— wing beats. Accipiters are rarely seen take poultry and other livestock, but
a term that includes the falcons, eagles, except during migration because they the benefits they provide in aesthetics,
vultures, kites, ospreys, northern har- inhabit forested areas and are more as well as in the killing of rodents may
riers, and crested caracaras. Food hab- secretive than many of the buteos. outweigh depredation costs. Other
its vary greatly among the raptors. species of buteos rarely cause
The largest and least common, but
Hawks and owls are highly specialized problems.
most troublesome, accipiter is the gos-
predators that take their place at the hawk (Fig. 1). It is a bold predator that Owls, unlike hawks, are almost
top of the food chain. Some are feeds primarily on forest-dwelling entirely nocturnal. Thus, they are far
responsible for the loss of poultry or rodents, rabbits, and birds. Occasion- more difficult to observe, and much
small game. In the past, raptors were ally, it is attracted by free-ranging less is known about them. They have
persecuted through indiscriminate poultry or large concentrations of large heads and large, forward-facing
shooting, poisoning, and pole trap- game birds and can cause depredation eyes. Their flight is described as noise-
ping. The derogatory term chicken hawk problems. Its breeding range is limited less and mothlike. There are 19 species
was used generically to identify rap- to Canada, the northern United States, of owls in the continental United
tors, especially hawks, but has fallen and the montane forests of the western States. They range in size from the
out of usage during the past two United States. Spectacular autumn tiny, 5- to 6-inch (12- to 15-cm) elf owl
decades. Recently, many people have invasions of goshawks occur at irregu- (Micrathene whitneyi) that resides in the
developed a more enlightened attitude lar intervals in the northern states. arid Southwest, to the large, 24- to 33-
toward raptors and their place in the These are probably the result of wide- inch (60- to 84-cm) great gray owl
environment. spread declines in prey populations (Strix nebulosa) that inhabits the dense
People who experience raptor damage throughout the goshawk’s breeding boreal forests of Alaska, Canada, and
problems should immediately seek range. Cooper’s hawks will occasion- the northern United States.
information and/or assistance. “Frus- ally cause problems with poultry;
The great horned owl (Bubo virgini-
tration killings” occur far too often sharp-shinned hawks are rarely a
anus, Fig. 1) is probably the most
because landowners are unfamiliar problem because of their small size.
widely distributed raptor in North
with or unable to control damage with The buteos are known as the broad- America. Its range extends over almost
nonlethal control techniques. These winged or soaring hawks. They are the all the continent except for the extreme
killings result in the needless loss of most commonly observed raptors in northern regions of the Arctic. These
raptors, and they may lead to undesir- North America. Typical species large and powerful birds are consid-
able legal actions. If trapping or shoot- include the red-tailed hawk (Buteo ered to be the nocturnal complement
ing is necessary, permits should be jamaicensis), red-shouldered hawk of the red-tailed hawk. Great horned
requested and processed as quickly as (Buteo lineatus), broad-winged hawk owls generally prey on small- to
possible. Always consider the benefits (Buteo platypterus), Swainson’s hawk medium-sized birds and mammals
that raptors provide before removing (Buteo swainsoni), rough-legged hawk and will take poultry and other live-
them from an area; their ecological (Buteo lagopus), and ferruginous hawk stock when the opportunity presents
importance, aesthetic value, and con- (Buteo regalis). All buteos have long, itself. They are responsible for most
tributions as indicators of environmen- broad wings and relatively short, fan- raptor depredation problems.
tal health may outweigh the economic like tails. These features enable them to
damage they cause. soar over open country during their
daily travels and seasonal migrations. Damage and Damage
Identification and Identification
The red-tailed hawk (Fig. 1) is one of
General Biology our most common and widely distrib-
The most troublesome raptors are the
uted raptors. Redtails can be found
larger, more aggressive species, such
There are two main groups of hawks: over the entire North American conti-
as the goshawk, red-tailed hawk, and
accipiters and buteos. Accipiters are nent south of the treeless tundra and in
great horned owl. The majority of dep-
the forest-dwelling hawks. North much of Central America. They dem-
redation problems occur with free-
American species include the northern onstrate a remarkably wide ecological
ranging farmyard poultry and game
goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), Cooper’s tolerance for nesting and hunting sites
farm fowl. Chickens, turkeys, ducks,
hawk (Accipiter cooperii), and sharp- throughout their extensive range.
geese, and pigeons are vulnerable
shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus). They Typical eastern redtails nest in mature
because they are very conspicuous,
are characterized by distinctive flight forests and woodlots, while in the
unwary, and usually concentrated in
silhouettes—relatively short, rounded Southwest they often nest on cliffs or
areas that lack escape cover. Confined
wings and a long rudderlike tail. Their in trees and cacti. Their diet, although

E-54
fowl that are chased by raptors will prey. In contrast, mammalian preda- Legal Status
often pile up in a corner, resulting in tors such as skunks or raccoons often
the suffocation of some birds. Repro- kill several animals during a night. All hawks and owls are federally pro-
duction may also be impaired in some They will usually tear skin and muscle tected under the Migratory Bird Treaty
fowl if harassment persists. tissue from the carcass and cut Act (16 USC, 703-711). These laws
through the feathers of birds with their strictly prohibit the capture, killing, or
For years, game farms have dealt with
sharp teeth. possession of hawks or owls without
raptor depredation problems. Large
concentrations of game farm animals Hawks pluck birds, leaving piles of special permit. No permits are
are strong attractants to predators. feathers on the ground. Beak marks required to scare depredating migra-
Operators should consider the preven- can sometimes be seen on the shafts of tory birds except for endangered or
tion of predation as part of their cost of these plucked feathers. Owls also threatened species (see Table 1), in-
operation. Other depredation prob- pluck their prey, but at times they will cluding bald and golden eagles.
lems include the loss of rabbits at swallow small animals whole. Many In addition, most states have regula-
beagle clubs, the loss of homing and raptors (especially red-tailed hawks tions regarding hawks and owls. Some
racing pigeons, and occasionally the and other buteos) feed on carrion. The species may be common in one state
loss of farm or household pets. plucked feathers can often determine but may be on a state endangered spe-
Cooper’s and sharp-shinned hawks whether a raptor actually killed an ani- cies list in another. Consult your local
occasionally prey on songbirds that are mal or was simply “caught in the act” USDA-APHIS-Animal Damage Con-
attracted to feeding stations. This of feeding on a bird that had died of trol, US Fish and Wildlife Service
should be viewed as a natural event, other causes. If the feathers have small (USFWS), and/or state wildlife depart-
however, and control of the raptors is amounts of tissue clinging to their ment representatives for permit
not advisable. bases, they were plucked from a cold requirements and information.
bird that died of another cause. If the
There are occasions when raptors
base of a feather is smooth and clean,
cause human safety and health haz- Damage Prevention and
the bird was plucked shortly after it
ards. For example, concentrations of
was killed. Control Methods
raptors at airports increase the risk of
bird-aircraft collisions and loss of hu- Raptors often defecate at a kill site.
man life. The vast majority of aircraft Accipiters such as the goshawk leave a Exclusion
strikes involve gulls, starlings, and splash or streak of whitewash that The ultimate solution to raptor depre-
blackbirds, but a few raptor strikes radiates out from the feather pile, dation is prevention. Free-roaming
have been documented. It is interest- whereas owls leave small heaps of farmyard chickens, ducks, and pigeons
ing to note that falconers with trained chalky whitewash on the ground. attract hawks and owls and are highly
hawks have been used to clear airport susceptible to predation. Many prob-
Hawks and owls regurgitate pellets
runways of other birds so that air- lems can be eliminated by simply
that are accumulations of bones, teeth,
planes can land. Although raptors are housing poultry at night. They can be
hair, and other undigested materials.
usually secretive and choose to avoid conditioned to move into coops or
These are not usually found at the kill
human contact, they occasionally nest houses by feeding or watering them
site, but instead accumulate along with
or roost in close association with indoors at dusk. If depredation per-
whitewash beneath a nearby perch or
humans. At such times, noise, prop- sists, durable fenced enclosures can be
nest site. Fresh pellets, especially of
erty damage, and aggressive behavior constructed by securing poultry wire
owls, are covered with a moist irides-
at nest sites can cause problems. to a wooden framework and covering
cent sheen. They can be carefully
Poultry and other livestock are vulner- teased apart and examined to learn the enclosure with poultry wire, nylon
able to a wide range of predators. what the hawk or owl had been eating. netting, or overhead wires (Fig. 2). A
Frequent sightings of hawks and owls Owls gulp their food and swallow double layer of overhead netting sepa-
near the depredation site may be a clue many bones along with the flesh. rated by a 5- to 6-inch (12- to 15-cm)
to the predator involved, but these These bones are only slightly digested space may be necessary to keep owls
sightings could be misleading. When a and persist in the pellets. A pellet that away from penned birds. Large poul-
partially eaten carcass is found, it is contains large bones, such as those try operations rarely have depredation
often difficult to determine the cause from the leg of a rabbit, is undoubtably problems because most practice con-
of death. In all cases, the remains must from a great horned owl. Hawks feed finement.
be carefully examined. Raptors usually more daintily and have stronger diges-
Habitat Modification
kill only one bird per day. Raptor kills tive juices than owls. Thus, hawk pel-
usually have bloody puncture wounds lets contain fewer bones. Habitat modification can make an area
in the back and breast from the bird’s less attractive to raptors. Hawks and
talons. Owls often remove and eat the owls often survey an area from a perch
head and sometimes the neck of their prior to making an attack. Eliminate

E-55
 Table 1. Federally endangered or threatened raptors. Pyrotechnics include a variety of
exploding or noise-making devices.
Name: California condor (Gymnogyps californianus)
Status: Endangered The most commonly used are shell
Where Endangered: US (California and Oregon), Mexico (Baja California). crackers, which are 12-gauge shotgun
Name: Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) shells containing a firecracker that is
Status: Endangered and Threatened projected 50 to 100 yards (45 to 90 m)
Where Endangered: US (Conterminous states except Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, before it explodes. Fire shell crackers
Washington, and Wisconsin)
in the direction of hawks or owls that
Where Threatened: US (Michigan, Minnesota, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin)
are found within the threatened area.
Name: American peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinis anatum)
Status: Endangered
An inexpensive open-choke shotgun is
Where Endangered: Nests from central Alaska across northcentral Canada to central recommended. Check the gun barrel
Mexico. Winters south to South America. after each shot and remove any wad-
Name: American peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinis tundrius) ding from the shells that may become
Status: Threatened lodged in the barrel. Noise, whistle,
Where Threatened: Nests from northern Alaska to Greenland. Winters south to Central and and bird bombs are also commercially
South America.
available. They are fired from pistols
Name: Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinis)
and are less expensive to use than shell
Status: Endangered
Where Endangered: Wherever found in wild in the conterminous 48 states. crackers, but their range is limited to
Name: Hawaiian (lo) hawk (Buteo solitarius)
25 to 75 yards (23 to 68 m). Your local
Status: Endangered fire warden can provide information
Where Endangered: US (Hawaii) on local or state permits that are
Name: Everglade (snail kite) kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis plumbeus) required to possess and use pyro-
Status: Endangered technics.
Where Endangered: US (Florida)
Name: Palau owl (Pyroglaux [=Otus] podargina) The electric pole shocker is a device
Status: Endangered developed by R.W. Schmitt of
Where Endangered: West Pacific Ocean: US (Palau Islands) Sheboygan, Wisconsin, to protect
game farms and poultry operations
(Fig. 3). It has proven very effective in
several different settings in Wisconsin.
Each unit consists of a ground wire
perch sites within 100 yards (90 m) of Frightening running 1 inch (2.5 cm) from and par-
the threatened area by removing large, allel to a wire that is connected to an
There are many techniques that can be
isolated trees and other perching sur- electric fence charger. Install electrical
used to scare hawks and owls from an
faces. Install utility lines underground shocking units on top of 14- to 16-foot
area where they are causing damage.
and remove telephone poles near poul- (4- to 5-m) poles and erect the poles
Some are inexpensive and easy to use,
try-rearing sites. Cap poles with sheet around the threatened area at 50- to
while others are not. The effectiveness
metal cones, Nixalite®, Cat Claws®, or 100-foot (15- to 30-m) intervals. When
of frightening devices depends greatly
inverted spikes. Improve rabbit escape a raptor lands on a pole, it receives an
on the bird, area, season, and method
cover at beagle clubs by constructing electric shock and is repelled from the
of application. Generally, if birds are
brush piles and cutting large trees to immediate area. Other perching sites
hungry, they quickly get used to and
increase the density of shrub and in the area should be removed or
ignore frightening devices. Frightening
ground cover. An abundance of rab- made unattractive. Energize the shock-
devices are usually a means of reduc-
bits will often attract raptors. Clubs ing unit only from dusk until dawn for
ing losses rather than totally eliminat-
should release only as many rabbits as owls and during daylight hours for
ing them. Landowners who use them
are needed for an outing. hawks.
must be willing to tolerate occasional
Hawks and owls that roost in build- losses. The electric pole shocker keeps raptors
ings can be frightened away, or live from perching within a threatened
Increasing human activity in the
trapped and removed. Close off all area but does not exclude them from
threatened area will keep most raptors
entryways after the birds are out of the nesting in or using a nearby area. Most
at a distance. The most common and
building. Common barn owls are hawks and owls are highly territorial.
easily implemented frightening device
endangered in some states and rarely, A pair that is allowed to remain will
is a shotgun fired into the air in the di-
if ever, cause damage to poultry. Their aggressively defend the area and usu-
rection of (not at) the raptor. Scare-
use of farm buildings, where sanitation ally exclude other hawks and owls.
crows are effective at repelling raptors
problems associated with droppings Thus, farmers may actually find it ben-
when they are moved regularly and
pose no threat, should be encouraged. eficial to coexist with a pair of hawks
used in conjunction with shotgun fire
Consult your local wildlife agency for or owls that have learned to avoid an
or pyrotechnics.
information on barn owls in your area. area protected by pole shockers.

E-56
 hardy, easily obtained, and move
enough to attract hawks and owls.
Other good lures include starlings,
rats, and mice. For detailed informa-
tion on the construction and use of
Swedish goshawk traps, see Meng
(1971) and Kenward and Marcstrom
(1983).
The bal-chatri trap is a relatively small,
versatile trap that can be modified to
Fig. 2. A complete enclosure can protect fowl trap specific raptor species (Fig. 5).
and livestock from hawk and owl predation. Live mice are used to lure raptors into
landing on the traps. Nylon nooses en-
tangle their feet and hold the birds un-
7 til they are released. The quonset-hut
type bal-chatri was designed for trap-
1 6 ping large hawks and owls (Berger
5 and Hamerstrom 1962). The trap is
made of 1-inch (2.5-cm) chicken wire,
formed into a cage that is 18 inches
long, 10 inches wide, and 7 inches
high at the middle (46 x 25 x 18 cm).
The floor consists of 1-inch (2.5-cm)
2 mesh welded wire with a lure entrance
door and steel rod edging for ballast.
3 The top is covered with about 80
4 nooses of 40-pound (18-kg) test
monofilament fishing line (Fig. 5).
Pigeons, starlings, house mice, and
other small rodents can be used as
Fig. 3. The electric pole shocker.
(1) uninsulated (exposed) 12-gauge (0.28-cm) lures. The trap should be tied to a flex-
copper, ground, and hot wires (no connec- ible branch or bush to keep a trapped
tion from ground to hot wire) bird from dragging the trap too far
(2) insulated wire to ground
agency to trap any hawk or owl that is and breaking the nylon nooses.
(3) insulated wire to fence charger
(4) 14- to 16-foot (4- to 5-m) post causing damage. Trapping is usually
Spring-net traps are ideal for catching
(5) mounting screw permitted only after other nonlethal
(6) 1-inch x 6-inch (2.5- x 15-cm) self-insulat-
particular hawks or owls that are cre-
techniques have failed. Set traps in the
ing plastic pipe ating a damage problem (Fig. 6).
threatened area where they can be
(7) 3/4-inch (0.2-cm) sheet metal screws with Square spring nets, hoop nets, and the
plastic expansion sleeve or tubing between checked at least twice a day. If pos-
German “butterfly trap” have all been
head of screw and plastic pipe sible, experienced individuals or
used successfully. A trap is baited by
agency personnel should conduct the
attaching the partially eaten carcass of
Repellents and Toxicants trapping and handling of captured
a fresh kill or a stuffed bird to the trig-
birds.
ger bar. The trap should be camou-
No repellents or toxicants are regis-
The Swedish goshawk trap is a rela- flaged by covering the frame and
tered or recommended for controlling
tively large, semipermanent trap that folded net with leaves and feathers
hawk or owl damage. In years past,
can be used to capture all species of from the kill. For detailed information
raptors were killed by putting out car-
hawks and owls (Fig. 4). It consists of on spring-net traps see Kenward and
casses laced with poison. This practice
two parts: a 3 x 3 x 1-foot (90 x 90 x Marcstrom (1983).
led to the indiscriminate killing of
many nontarget animals. Concerns for 30-cm) bait cage made of 1-inch (2.5-
Problem hawks and owls can be
human safety also prompted the ban- cm) mesh welded wire. A trap mecha-
trapped safely using the sliding pad-
ning of toxicants for raptor control. nism consisting of a wooden “A”
ded pole trap because of their ten-
frame, nylon netting, and a trigger
dency to perch prior to making an
Trapping and Relocating mechanism is mounted on the bait
attack (Fig. 7). Erect 5- to 10-foot
cage. A hawk or owl dropping into the
A landowner must obtain a permit (1.5- to 3-m) poles around the threat-
trap will trip the trigger mechanism
from the US Fish and Wildlife Service ened area where they can be seen eas-
and be safely trapped inside. Pigeons
and usually the local state wildlife ily and place one padded steel leghold
make very good lures because they are

E-57
 Nylon netting

Hinged
45°
Trigger stick
3"
1"

5" 2"

25"
6"

3'
Redwood
3' 6"

Removable bait cage

(welded wire)

Fig. 4. The redesigned, modified, and improved

Swedish goshawk trap developed by Meng
(1971).

trap (No. 1 1/2) on top of each pole. most birds and make them less able to Select a box that is large enough for the
The jaws must be well padded with defend themselves. Reach in carefully bird to stand upright in. Holes should
surgical tubing or foam rubber and with your bare hands and grasp the be punched near the bottom of the box
wrapped with electrician’s tape. Run a bird’s lower legs. Control the feet to to supply fresh air and keep the raptor
12-gauge steel wire through the trap avoid getting “footed.” Pull the bird from struggling toward any cracks of
chain ring and staple it to the top and out of the trap so that it is clear of any light coming from the top of the box.
bottom of the post. This allows the object on which it could injure itself. Carry only one bird per box. Tape an
trap to slide to the ground where the Fold the wings down against the body old rag or towel to the floor to provide
bird can rest. Some states prohibit the and hold them securely. Check the a good gripping surface to keep the
use of pole traps. bird for any signs of external injury, bird from slipping. If a burlap bag
such as cut feet or legs, excessively bat- must be used to transport the bird, tie
Handling and Transportation. If
tered feathers, or scalping (the splitting the bird’s legs together with a nylon
necessary, landowners can safely
of the skin over the forehead). If the stocking to keep it from footing some-
handle and transport hawks and owls.
bird is injured, have a local veterinar- one during transport or release. If pos-
The key to successful raptor handling
ian examine it, or in extreme cases, sible, ask a local bird bander to attach
is to control the bird’s feet. The talons
transport it to the nearest raptor reha- a leg band. Banding information can
can easily grasp a careless hand and
bilitation center. be very useful to the research and
inflict a painful injury. There is signifi-
management of raptors.
cantly less chance of injury from the Raptors should be restrained before
wings and beak. The safest approach, they are transported to reduce the Transport the bird as quickly and
regardless of the type of trap, is to toss chances of injury to both the bird and comfortably as possible. Minimize
an old blanket or coat over both the handler. The best transport container excess handling, and above all, keep
bird and trap. The darkness will calm is a stout, covered cardboard box. the bird calm and cool. More birds die

E-58
 7"

18"
a

10"

1/4" steel rod

Fig. 5. (a) Big bal-chatri trap ready for nooses

(door is open). (b) Method of attaching nooses.

Fig. 6. Automatic spring-net trap in set position;

inset with bait.

26"
48"

E-59
 of overheating during shipment than
of any other cause. Transport the bird
as far away from the trapping site as
possible. Some biologists believe that
20 miles (32 km) is sufficient, but rap- 1/2 turn only
tors have been known to travel up to light wire
200 miles (320 ) km after release. If a
bird is trapped in the fall, help it along
Heavy staple
its way by transporting it southward. each side

Shooting
All hawks and owls are protected by Size of
federal and state laws. There are cases, jump trap-1 1/2
however, in which they can create
public health and safety hazards or
seriously affect a person’s livelihood.
Contact your local USDA-APHIS-
ADC office first if you are interested in
obtaining a shooting permit. The
USFWS and state wildlife agencies
may issue shooting permits for prob-
See insert above
lem hawks and owls if nonlethal meth-
ods of controlling damage have failed
or are impractical and if it is deter-
mined that killing the offending birds
will alleviate the problem.

Permittees may kill hawks or owls Secure

heavy
only with a shotgun not larger than wire
10-gauge, fired from the shoulder and
only within the area described by the
permit. Permittees may not use blinds
or other means of concealment, or
decoys or calls that are used to lure
birds within gun range. Exceptions to
the above must be specifically
After capture,
authorized by USFWS. All hawks or bird must
owls that are killed must be turned be allowed
over to USFWS personnel or their to rest on
representatives for disposal. ground

Economics of Damage
and Control
In 1985, we conducted a national sur-
vey of US Fish and Wildlife Service
and Cooperative Extension personnel.
Nearly all noted that the economic
damage caused by raptors is minimal
on a national scale, but can be locally
severe if depredation occurs on fowl
or livestock that are relatively valuable
and vulnerable.
Cost estimates of damage ranged from
$10 to $5,000 per report and from $70
Fig. 7. Sliding padded pole trap.
to $94,000 per year. The severity of

E-60
raptor problems is influenced by Meng, H. 1971. The Swedish goshawk trap.
For Additional J. Wildl. Manage. 35:832-835.
several factors, including prey and car-
rion abundance, weather, time of year,
Information Newton, I. 1979. Population ecology of raptors.
husbandry methods, vegetative cover, Buteo Books, Vermillion, South Dakota.
Berger, D. D., and F. Hamerstrom. 1962. 399 pp.
and topography as well as density and Protecting a trapping station from raptor
local distribution of raptors. predation. J. Wildl. Manage. 26:203-206. Peterson, L. 1979. Ecology of great horned owls
and red-tailed hawks in southeastern
Hamerstrom, F. 1972. Birds of prey of Wisconsin. Wisconsin Dep. Nat. Resour.
Wisconsin. Wisconsin Dep. Nat. Resour. Tech. Bull. 111. Madison. 63 pp.
Acknowledgments 64 pp.
Salmon, T. P., and F. S. Conte. 1981. Control of
Hamerstrom, F. 1984. Birding with a purpose. bird damage at aquaculture facilities. WML
We wish to thank Fran and Frederick N.
Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames. 130 pp. No. 475. US Dep. Inter. Fish Wildl. Serv.,
Hamerstrom for their comments on early
manuscripts and information regarding the Washington, D.C. 11 pp.
Heintzelman, D. S. 1979. Hawks and owls of
handling of raptors. Reviewers included North America. Universe Books, New York. US Fish and Wildlife Service. (no date). Raptor
Richard H. Behm, James L. Ruos, Leroy W. Sowl, 197 pp. control-protecting livestock from hawk and
V. Dan Stiles, and Richard Winters. Eldon L. owl predation. US Dep. Inter. An. Damage
McLaury reviewed the manuscript and Karlbom, M. 1981. Techniques for trapping
Control Bull. 211-1-77.
provided legal information. goshawks. Pages 138-144 in R. E. Kenward
and I. Lindsay, eds. Understanding the
Figure 1 by Elva Hamerstrom Paulson, from goshawk, Internat. Assoc. Falconry Conserv.
Hamerstrom (1972). Birds of Prey.
Figure 2 from Salmon and Conte (1981). Kenward, R. E., and V. Marcstrom. 1981. Editors
Goshawk predation in game and poultry: Scott E. Hygnstrom
Figure 3 by the authors.
some problems and solutions. Pages 152-162 Robert M. Timm
Figure 4 from Meng (1971). in R. E. Keward and I. Lindsay, eds. Gary E. Larson
Understanding the goshawk. Internat. Assoc.
Figure 5 from Berger and Hamerstrom (1962). Falconry Conserv. Birds of Prey.
Figure 6 from Kenward and Marcstrom (1983). Kenward, R. E., and V. Marcstrom. 1983. The
Figure 7 from US Department of Interior, price of success in goshawk trapping. Raptor
Bulletin 211-1-77. Res. 17:84-91.

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