Math 4124 Wednesday, March 16

Fifth Homework Solutions

1. Let G be a group of order 10 with a normal subgroup H of order 2.
(a) Prove that H is contained in the center of G (hint: If 1 = x H and g G, then
1 = gxg
1
H).
(b) Prove that G is abelian.
(c) Let a G\H. Prove that aH has order 5 in G/H.
(d) Prove that G has an element y of order 5.
(e) Let 1 = x H. Prove that the order of xy is neither 2 nor 5.
(f) Prove that G is cyclic.
(g) Prove that G

=Z/10Z.
(a) Since |H| = 2, it has two elements, one of which is the identity 1; well call the
other element x. Let g G. The g1g
1
= 1. Also gxg
1
H\1 (because HG),
hence gxg
1
= x. It follows that g commutes with every element of H and we
deduce that H is contained in the center of G.
(b) Note that G/H is cyclic because it has order 5, which is a prime, and all groups
of prime order are cyclic. Since H is contained in the center of G, we conclude
that G is abelian.
(c) By Lagranges theorem, |aH| divides |G/H| = 5. Since aH = 1 because a / H,
we see that |aH| = 5.
(d) Since |aH| = 5, we see that |a| = 1 or 2. Also |a| divides 10 by Lagranges
theorem. Therefore |a| = 5 or 10. If |a| = 5, were nished. On the other hand if
|a| = 10, then |a
2
| = 5 as required.
(e) Note that |x| = 2. Since G is abelian, (xy)
2
= x
2
y
2
= y
2
= 1 and (xy)
5
= x
5
y
5
=
x = 1. Therefore |xy| = 2 or 5.
(f) Note that xy = 1. Therefore |xy| = 1, 2 or 5. It follows from Lagranges theorem
that |xy| = 10 and we conclude that G is cyclic.
(g) All cyclic groups of order 10 are isomorphic to Z/10Z. The result follows, be-
cause G is cyclic of order 10.
2. 3.3.8 on page 101. Let p be a prime and let G be the group of p-power roots of 1
in C. Prove that the map z z
p
is a surjective homomorphism. Deduce that G is
isomorphic to a proper quotient of itself.
Dene : G G by g = g
p
. Then for x, y G, we have (xy)
p
= x
p
y
p
because G is
abelian, consequently
(xy) = (xy)
p
= x
p
y
p
= xy,
so is a homomorphism. Suppose g G, then g = e
2ki/p
n
for some k, n Z. Set h =
e
2ki/p
n+1
. Then h G and h = g. Therefore is surjective. Finally e
2i/p
ker ,
so ker = 1. The result now follows from the rst isomorphism theorem.
3. Let G be a group, and suppose there is a homomorphism of G onto S
3
(the symmetric
group of degree 3) with kernel K. Determine the number of subgroups of G which
contain K, and show that exactly three of these subgroups are normal.
By the subgroup correspondence theorem, the subgroups containing K are in a one-
to-one correspondence with the subgroups of G/K, and this correspondence preserves
normality. This means we have to determine the subgroups of S
3
. Any subgroup
of S
3
has order dividing 6, so any subgroup not equal to 1 or S
3
has prime order
and is therefore cyclic. It follows easily that the subgroups of S
3
are 1, S
3
, (12),
(23), (31), (123), so there are six subgroups of G which contain K. Finally the
normal subgroups of S
3
are 1, S
3
and (123). We conclude that the number of normal
subgroups containing K is 3, as required.
4. 3.5.2 on page 111. Prove that
2
is an even permutation for every permutation .
We may write as a product of n transpositions for some positive integer n. Then
we may write
2
as a product of 2n transpositions, which shows that is an even
permutation.
5. 4.1.5(a) on page 116. Let S
3
act on the set A of 27 ordered triples {(i, j, k) | 1 i, j, k
3} by (i, j, k) = (i, j, k). Find the orbits of S
3
on A. For each S
3
, nd the
cycle decomposition of under this action. For each orbit O of S
3
acting on these 27
points, pick some a O and nd the stabilizer of a in S
3
.
The size of an orbit divides the order of the acting group, which is here S
3
, so we are
looking for orbits of size 1,2,3 or 6. By considering just the rst coordinate, it is easy
to see that all the orbits must have size at least 3, so each orbit has size 3 or 6. We will
consider S
3
as {1, (1 2), (1 3), (2 3), (1 2 3), (1 3 2)}. Then the orbits are
{(1,1,1), (2,2,2), (3,3,3)}
{(1,1,2), (2,2,1), (3,3,2), (1,1,3), (2,2,3), (3,3,1)}
{(1,2,1), (2,1,2), (3,2,3), (1,3,1), (2,3,2), (3,1,3)}
{(1,2,3), (2,1,3), (3,2,1), (1,3,2), (2,3,1), (3,1,2)}
{(1,2,2), (2,1,1), (3,2,2), (1,3,3), (2,3,3), (3,1,1)}
The stabilizer of (1,1,1) in S
6
is {1, (2 3)}, while the stabilizer of all elements in any
of the other four orbits is 1.
We will let (a, b, c) correspond to 9(a1) +3(b1) +c. This means the elements of
S are
(1,1,1)=1, (1,1,2)=2, (1,1,3)=3, (1,2,1)=4, (1,2,2)=5, (1,2,3)=6, (1,3,1)=7, (1,3,2)=8,
(1,3,3)=9, (2,1,1)=10, (2,1,2)=11, (2,1,3)=12, (2,2,1)=13, (2,2,2)=14, (2,2,3)=15,
(2,3,1)=16, (2,3,2)=17, (2,3,3)=18, (3,1,1)=19, (3,1,2)=20, (3,1,3)=21, (3,2,1)=22,
(3,2,2)=23, (3,2,3)=24, (3,3,1)=25, (3,3,2)=26, (3,3,3)=27
Element Cycle Decomposition
1 (1)
(1 2) (1 14)(2 13)(3 15)(4 11)(5 10)(6 12)(7 17)(8 16)(9 18)(19 23)(20 22)(21 24)(25 26)
(1 3) (1 27)(2 26)(3 25)(4 24)(5 23)(6 22)(7 21)(8 20)(9 19)(10 18)(11 17)(12 16)(13 15)
(2 3) (2 3)(4 7)(5 9)(6 8)(10 19)(11 21)(12 20)(13 25)(14 27)(15 26)(16 22)(17 24)(18 23)
(1 2 3) (1 14 27)(2 15 25)(3 13 26)(4 17 21)(5 18 19)(6 16 20)(7 11 24)(8 12 22)(9 10 23)
(1 3 2) (1 20 16)(2 25 15)(3 26 13)(4 21 17)(5 19 18)(6 20 16)(7 24 11)(8 22 12)(9 23 10)
Math 4124 Wednesday, March 23
Sixth Homework Solutions
1. 4.2.2 on page 121. List the elements of S
3
as 1, (1 2), (2 3), (1 3), (1 2 3), (1 3 2),
and label these with the integers 1,2,3,4,5,6 respectively. Exhibit the image of each
element of S
3
under the left regular representation of S
3
into S
6
.
Let us do the cycle decomposition for (1 2). This element sends
1 to (1 2), (1 2) to (1 2)(1 2) = 1, (2 3) to (1 2)(2 3) = (1 2 3), (1 2 3) to (1 2)(1 2 3)
= (2 3), (1 3) to (1 2)(1 3) = (1 3 2), (1 3 2) to (1 2)(1 3 2) = (1 3). It follows that
the cycle decomposition of the image of (1 2) in S
6
is (1 2)(3 5)(4 6). The other cycle
decompositions are done similarly. The nal answer is
Element Cycle Decomposition
1 (1)
(1 2) (1 2)(3 5)(4 6)
(2 3) (1 3)(2 6)(4 5)
(1 3) (1 4)(2 5)(3 6)
(1 2 3) (1 5 6)(2 4 3)
(1 3 2) (1 6 5)(2 3 4)
2. (a) The conjugacy classes of S
5
and their orders are given by the following table.
Shape (1) (1 2) (1 2 3) (1 2 3 4) (1 2 3 4 5) (1 2)(3 4) (1 2 3)(4 5)
Size 1 10 20 30 24 15 20
Check: 1+10+20+30+24+15+20=120=|S
5
|.
(b) If N contained a transposition, say t, then gtg
1
N for all g S
5
, because N is a
normal subgroup of S
5
. Since all transpositions are conjugate in S
5
(because they
have the same cycle shape), we deduce that N contains all transpositions of S
n
.
But any element of S
5
can be written as a product of transpositions, consequently
N = S
5
and the result follows.
(c) If N does not contain a transposition, then it cannot contain an element with cycle
shape (1 2 3)(4 5), because the cube of this element is a transposition, namely
(4 5). We now have a subset of the numbers 1,20,30,24,15 which must add to
give something dividing 120, and is not 1 or 120. Also we must include the num-
ber 1 (which corresponds to the conjugacy class consisting just of the identity).
The only way for this to happen is (go through all the possibilities) 1+24+15 or
1+20+24+15. However the former corresponds to the conjugacy classes with cy-
cle shape (1), (1 2 3 4 5), (1 2)(3 4); this is not a subgroup because it is not closed
under multiplication, for example (1 2 3 4 5)(1 2)(3 4) = (1 3 5). On the other
hand the latter corresponds to the conjugacy classes with cycle shape (1), (1 2 3),
(1 2 3 4 5), (1 2)(3 4). But this is precisely A
5
, so we are nished.
3. 4.3.5 on page 130. If the center of G has index n, prove that every conjugacy class has
at most n elements.
Write Z = Z(G) and let g G. First we show that Z C
G
(g). Indeed if z Z, then
zx = xz for all x G and so in particular zg = gz. Therefore z C
G
(g) for all z Z
which shows that Z C
G
(g).
Let K (g) denote the conjugacy class containing g. Then |K (g)| =|G: C
G
(g)| (this is
valid even if G is innite). Now |G : C
G
(g)|| C
G
(g) : Z| =|G : Z| (see Exercise 3.2.11
on page 96, ungraded HW of March 18) | C
G
(g) : Z| 1, and |G : Z| = n (given),
hence |G : C
G
(g)| n. Therefore |K (g)| n, and the result is proven.
4. Let 1 = x H and let K (x) indicate the conjugacy class in G containing x. Then
K (x) H because H G, and |K (x)| divides |G|. If |K (x)| 1, then |K (x)|
p which will tells us that H has at least p nonidentity elements. This violates the
hypothesis |H| = p. Therefore |K (x)| = 1 for all x H, which establishes that H
Z(G).
Math 4124 Wednesday, March 30
Seventh Homework Solutions
1. Exercise 4.4.3. Prove that under any automorphism of D
8
, r has at most two possible
images and s has at most four possible images. Deduce that | Aut(D
8
)| 8. Here
D
8
={r, s | r
4
=s
2
= 1, rs =sr
1
}.
As usual, D
8
= {1, r, r
2
, r
3
, s, sr, sr
2
, sr
3
}. Here |r| = |r
3
| = 4 and |r
2
| = |s| = |sr| =
|sr
2
| = |sr
3
| = 2. Let Aut D
8
. Since |r| = 4, we see that |r| = 4 (the order
of an element is preserved by an isomorphism, so in particular it is preserved by an
automorphism), hence r = r or r
3
; in other words there are at most two possible
choices for r.
Next |s| = 2, hence |s| = 2, so it would appear at rst sight that there are 5 possible
choices for s, namely r
2
, s, sr, sr
2
, sr
3
. However, we can rule out the case s = r
2
.
Indeed we have r =r or r
3
(from the rst paragraph), hence r
2
= (r)
2
=r
2
or r
6
and we see that r
2
= r
2
. Therefore s = r
2
(because is one-to-one) and we have
shown that there are at most 4 possible choices for s. We conclude that there are at
most 4 2 = 8 possibilities for , that is | Aut(D
8
)| 8.
2. Since Inn(G) Aut(G) and subgroups of cyclic groups are cyclic, we see that Inn(G)
is cyclic. But Inn(G)

=G/Z(G), so the result follows from Exercise 3.1.36 (recall if

H is a central subgroup of G and G/H is cyclic, then G is abelian).
3. Let Gdenote the group of order 1225. We rst factor this: 1225 =5
2
7
2
. The number
of Sylow 5-subgroups is congruent to 1 modulo 5 and divides 49; thus G has exactly
one Sylow 5-subgroup, call it A. Since there is exactly one Sylow 5-subgroup, AG.
Also the number of Sylow 7-subgroups is congruent to 1 modulo 7 and divides 25.
Therefore G has exactly one Sylow 7-subgroup; call it B, and then BG.
Note that A must be abelian because it has prime squared order. Therefore A C
G
(A).
Also every element of A commutes with every element of B, because A and B are
normal subgroups which intersect in the identity. Therefore B C
G
(A). Therefore
G C
G
(A), consequently A Z(G). Similarly B Z(G) and we conclude that G
Z(G), so G must be abelian.
4. Exercise 6.2.3. Prove that if |G| = 380, then G is not simple.
First we write 380 as a product of prime powers, namely 2
2
519. Suppose by way of
contradiction G is a simple group of order 380. The number of Sylow 19-subgroups is
congruent to 1 mod 19 and divides 20, hence is 1 or 20. But 1 is ruled out because then
G would have a normal subgroup of order 19, which would contradict the hypothesis
that G is simple. Therefore G has 20 Sylow 19-subgroups. Next we consider the
Sylow 5-subgroups. The number is congruent to 1 mod 5 and divides 4 19. Thus
there are 1 or 76 Sylow 5-subgroups.
Now we count elements. If P and Q are distinct Sylow 19-subgroups, then PQ =P
and PQP. Since |PQ| divides |P| = 19 by Lagranges theorem, we deduce that
PQ= 1. It follows that G has at least 2018 = 360 elements of order 19. Similarly
two distinct Sylow 5-subgroups intersect trivially and we deduce that G has at least
764 = 304 elements of order 5. We conclude that G has at least 360+304 = 664 >
380 elements, which is a contradiction. Therefore there is no simple group of order
380.
Math 4124 Wednesday, February 23
February 23, Ungraded Homework
Exercise 3.3.4 on page 101 Let C be a normal subgroup of the group A and let D be a
normal subgroup of the group B. Prove that (C D) (AB) and (AB)/(C D)

=
(A/C) (B/C).
Dene : AB (A/C)(B/D) by (a, b) = (aC, bD). Let a, a
1
A and b, b
1
B. Then

(a, b)(a
1
, b
1
)

= (aa
1
, bb
1
) = (aa
1
C, bb
1
D) = (aCa
1
C, bDb
1
D)
= (aC, bD)(a
1
C, b
1
D) = (a, b)(a
1
, b
1
)
Thus is a homomorphism.
is onto because given (aC, bD) (A/C) (B/D), (a, b) = (aC, bD).
ker ={(c, d) | (c, d) =e}, which is {(c, d) | (cC, dD) = (C, D)}. Now cC =C if and only
if c C, and dD = D if and only if d D. We deduce that ker =CD. The result now
follows from the fundamental homomorphism theorem (Theorem 16 on page 97).
Prove that C

/{1, 1}

=C

.
Let G = C

. Of course, G is the nonzero complex numbers under multiplication. Dene

: C C by (x) = x
2
for x G. Then is a mapping, because if x = 0, then x
2
= 0
and so certainly maps G to G. Next is a homomorphism, because if x, y G, then
(xy) = (xy)
2
= x
2
y
2
= (x)(y). Also if (x) = 1 (the identity), then x
2
= 1 and hence
ker ={1, 1}. Finally every nonzero complex number has a nonzero complex square root,
which shows that is onto. The result now follows from the fundamental homomorphism
theorem.
Exercise 3.3.3 on page 101 Prove that if H is a normal subgroup of G of prime index p,
then for all K G either
(i) K H or
(ii) G = HK and |K : KH| = p.
We know that HK G, because H, K G and one of them is normal. Obviously HK H.
Also |G/H| = p and p is prime, so by Lagranges theorem G/H has only two subgroups,
namely H/H and G/H. By subgroup correspondence theorem, we now see that HK = H or
G. If K is not contained in H, then we cannot have HK = H and we deduce that HK = G.
By the second isomorphism theorem we have HK/H

= K/K H, consequently |G/H| =
|K/KH| and the result follows.
Exercise 3.3.9 on page 101 Let p be a prime and let G be a group of order p
a
m where p
does not divide m. Assume that P is a subgroup of G of order p
a
and N is a normal subgroup
of G of order p
b
n, where p does not divide n. Prove that |PN| = p
b
and |PN/N| = p
ab
.
By the second isomorphism theorem, P/P N

= PN/N and in particular |P/P N| =
|PN/N|. We now apply Lagranges theorem. We may write |PN| = p
e
for some integer
e a, in particular |PN/N| = |P/PN| = p
ae
. We have p
e
= |PN|

|N| = p
b
n, conse-
quently e b. Also |PN/N|

|G/N| = p
ab
q where q is prime to p. Therefore ae ab
and we deduce that b e. We conclude that e = b and the result follows.
Let G = AB, the direct product of the groups A and B. Prove that G =A1, 1B.
By denition, A1, 1 B is a subgroup which must contain all elements of the form
(a, 1) and (1, b) for a A and b B. Thus this subgroup must contain all elements of the
form (a, 1)(1, b) = (a, b), in other words the whole of G and the result is proven.
Math 4124 Monday, February 28
February 28, Ungraded Homework
Exercise 3.5.11 on page 111 Prove that S
4
has no subgroup isomorphic to Q
8
.
In Q
8
we have the relation i j =k, and of course i, j, k all have order 4; in other words we have
the product of two elements of order 4 giving an element of order 4. Therefore if Q
8
was
isomorphic to a subgroup of S
4
, we would have in S
4
the product of two elements of order
4 giving an element of order 4. Since an element of order 4 in S
4
must be a 4-cycle, which
is an odd permutation, we would now have the product of two odd permutations giving an
odd permutation. But the product of two odd permutations is always an even permutation,
so we have a contradiction. Therefore Q
8
cannot be isomorphic to a subgroup of S
4
.
Let G = D
8
, the dihedral group of order 8. Prove that G has exactly one normal subgroup of
order 2, and that there are exactly 5 normal subgroups containing this subgroup.
D
8
={r, s | r
4
= s
2
= 1, rs = sr
1
}. Let H be a normal subgroup of order 2 in G. Then by
Exercise 2.2.10 (ungraded homework from January 31) H Z(G). Since Z(G) = {1, r
2
},
we deduce that H = {1, r
2
}. Now G/H is a group of order 4, so is either cyclic or iso-
morphic to Z/2ZZ/2Z. However if G/H is cyclic, then so is G/Z(G) and we deduce
that G is abelian (Exercise 3.1.36, ungraded homework from February 17), which is not the
case. Therefore G/H

= Z/2ZZ/2Z. By the subgroup correspondence theorem (fourth
isomorphism theorem in the book) the normal subgroups of G containing H are in a one-to-
one correspondence with the normal subgroups of G/H. Since G/H

= Z/2ZZ/2Z, an
abelian group, this is precisely the number of subgroups of Z/2ZZ/2Z. This last group
has one subgroup of order 1, three of order 2 and one of order 4, a total of ve and the proof
is nished.
Exercise 4.1.1 on page 116 Let G act on the set A. Prove that if a, b A and b = g a for
some g G, then G
b
= gG
a
g
1
(G
a
is the stabilizer of a). Deduce that if G acts transitively
on A, then the kernel of the action is

gG
gG
a
g
1
.
Suppose x gG
a
g
1
. Then x = gyg
1
where y G
a
, so y a = a. Therefore
x b = x (g a) = (xg) a
= gy a = g a = b
and we deduce that x G
b
. Therefore gG
a
g
1
G
b
. A similar argument, or alternatively
replacing g with g
1
, shows that G
b
gG
a
g
1
. We deduce that G
b
= gG
a
g
1
.
Suppose the action is transitive. This means that every element of A can be written in the
form g a. Therefore the stabilizer of each element of A is of the form gG
a
g
1
. Since g G
is in the kernel of the action if and only if g a = a for all a A, we see that g is in the kernel
of the action if and only if g

gG
gG
a
g
1
, and the result is proven.
Math 4124 Wednesday, March 2
March 2, Ungraded Homework
Exercise 4.1.4 on page 116 Let S
3
act on the set of ordered pairs: {(i, j) | 1 i, j 3}
by ((i, j)) = ((i), ( j)). Find the orbits of S
3
on . For each S
3
nd the cycle
decomposition of under this action (i.e., nd its cycle decomposition when is considered
as an element of S
9
rst x a labelling of these nine ordered pairs). For each orbit O of S
3
acting on these nine points pick some a O and nd the stabilizer of a in S
3
.
Thus, for example, (1 2)(3, 2) = (3, 1).
There are two orbits under S
3
, namely { (1,1), (2,2), (3,3) } and { (1,2), (2,3), (3,1), (1,3),
(2,1), (3,2) }. The stabilizer of (1,1) in S
3
is (2 3), and the stabilizer of (1,2) in S
3
is 1.
The cycle decompositions are given as follows.
(1)

(1, 1)

(12)

(1, 1)(2, 2)

(1, 2)(2, 1)

(1, 3)(2, 3)

(3, 1)(3, 2)

(23)

(2, 2)(3, 3)

(2, 3)(3, 2)

(2, 1)(3, 1)

(1, 2)(1, 3)

(13)

(1, 1)(3, 3)

(1, 3)(3, 1)

(1, 2)(3, 2)

(2, 1)(2, 3)

(123)

(1, 1)(2, 2)(3, 3)

(1, 2)(2, 3)(3, 1)

(1, 3)(2, 1)(3, 2)

(132)

(1, 1)(3, 3)(2, 2)

(1, 2)(3, 1)(2, 3)

(1, 3)(3, 2)(2, 1)

Let G be a nite group, let H G and let N G. Prove that |G/HN| and |N/N H| divide
|G/H|.
Note that HN G, because N G (we need one of the subgroups in HN to be normal for
HN to be a subgroup). Then
|G/HN| = |G|/|HN| = (|G|/|H|)/(|HN|/|H|) = |G/H|/|HN/H|.
Since |HN/H| is a positive integer, we deduce that |G/HN| divides |G/H|.
By one of the isomorphism theorems, we have HN/N

= H/H N and hence |HN|/|N| =
|H|/|H N|. Therefore
|N/NH| = |N|/|NH| = |HN|/|H| = (|G|/|H|)/|G|/|HN| = |G/H|/|G/HN|.
Since |G/HN| is a positive integer, we conclude that |N/NH| divides |G/H|.
Math 4124 Monday, March 14
March 14, Ungraded Homework
Exercise 4.2.1 on page 121 Let G =1, a, b, c be the Klein 4-group.
(a) Label 1, a, b, c with the integers 1,2,4,3, respectively, and prove that under the left regular
representation of G into S
4
the nonidentity elements are mapped as follows:
a (1 2)(3 4) b (1 4)(2 3) c (1 3)(2 4)
(b) Relabel 1, a, b, c as 1,4,2,3, respectively, and compute the image of each element of
G under the left regular representation of G into S
4
. Show that the image of G in S
4
under this labelling is the same subgroup as the image of G in part (a) (even though the
nonidentity elements individually map to different permutations under the two different
labellings).
Of course in both cases 1 gets mapped to the identity permutation (1).
(a) a sends 1 to a1 = a, a to aa = 1, b to ab = c, c to ac = b. Therefore a corresponds to
the permutation (1 2)(3 4).
b sends 1 to b1 = b, a to ba = c, b to bb = 1, c to bc = a. Therefore b corresponds to
the permutation (1 4)(2 3)
c sends 1 to c1 = c, a to ca = b, b to cb = a, c to cc = 1. Therefore c corresponds to the
permutation (1 3)(2 4)
(b) a sends 1 to a1 = a, a to aa = 1, b to ab = c, c to ac = b. Therefore a corresponds to
the permutation (1 4)(2 3).
b sends 1 to b1 = b, a to ba = c, b to bb = 1, c to bc = a. Therefore b corresponds to
the permutation (1 2)(3 4)
c sends 1 to c1 = c, a to ca = b, b to cb = a, c to cc = 1. Therefore c corresponds to the
permutation (1 3)(2 4)
In both cases, the image of G in S
4
is 1, (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3).
Exercise 4.3.2 on page 130 Find all the conjugacy classes and their sizes in the following
groups.
(a) D
8
(b) Q
8
(c) A
4
(a) We write D
8
=r, s [ r
4
= s
2
= 1, rs = sr
1
). Then the conjugacy classes are 1, r
2
,
r, r
3
, s, sr
2
, sr, sr
3
. For example to do the conjugacy class containing s, we have
1s1
1
= s, rsr
1
= sr
2
= sr
2
so the conjugacy class has size at least 2. On the other hand 1, s, r
2
, sr
2
C
D
8
(s)
so [ C
D
8
(s)[ 4. By Lagranges theorem, we deduce that [ C
D
8
(s)[ = 4 or 8. Also
[K (s)[ 2 from the above, and we have the basic formula
[K (s)[[ C
D
8
(s)[ =[D
8
[ = 8.
Therefore [K (s)[ = 2 and we deduce that K (s) =s, sr
2
.
(b) We write Q
8
= 1, i, j, k. Then the conjugacy classes are 1, 1, i,
j, k. For example i is conjugate to i because ji j
1
=i j j
1
=i. A similar
argument as for s D
8
above shows that [K (i)[ = 1 or 2.
(c) In A
4
we have permutations with cycle shape (1), (1 2 3), (1 2)(3 4). Clearly permu-
tations with different cycle shape cannot be conjugate in A
4
, otherwise they would be
conjugate in S
4
. There are 3 elements with cycle shape (1 2)(3 4), and these are all
conjugate, for example
(1 2 3)(1 2)(3 4)(1 2 3)
1
= (2 3)(1 4)
which shows that (1 2)(3 4) is conjugate to (2 3)(1 4). There are eight 3-cycles. The
centralizer of a 3-cycle has order at least 3, consequently [K (1 2 3)[ 12/3 = 4. We
can also show that [K (1 2 3)[ 4, because
(1 3 4)(1 2 3)(1 3 4)
1
= (3 2 4), (2 3 4)(1 2 3)(2 3 4)
1
= (1 3 4),
(1 4 3)(1 2 3)(1 4 3)
1
= (4 2 1)
We conclude that the conjugacy classes are 1, (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(2 3), (2
4 3), (1 3 4), (1 4 2), (1 2 3), (2 3 4), (1 4 3), (1 2 4), (1 3 2).
Exercise 4.3.9 on page 130 Show that [ C
S
n
((1 2)(3 4))[ = 8 (n 4)! for all n 4. De-
termine the elements in this centralizer explicitly.
[K ((1 2)(3 4))[ = n(n1)(n2)(n3)/2
3
. Using the formula [K (g)[[ C
S
n
(g)[ =[S
n
[ =
n!, we deduce that [ C
S
n
((1 2)(3 4))[ = 8 (n4)!. The elements of the centralizer are of the
form ab, where b denotes the permutations which involve only 5, 6, . . . , n (a total of (n4)!
permutations), and a (1), (1 2), (3 4), (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), (1 4)(3 2), (1 3 2 4), (1 4 2
3). It is a little difcult to motivate this last step; however this gives the correct number of
elements, and we were trying to nd 8 elements in S
4
which commute with (1 2)(3 4).
Exercise 3.2.11 on page 96 Let H K G. Prove that [G : H[ =[G : K[ [K : H[.
In the case G is nite, the following is valid. By Lagranges theorem [G : H[ = [G[/[H[,
[G : K[ =[G[/[K[, [K : H[ =[K[/[H[. Therefore
[G : K[[K : H[ = ([G[/[K[)([K[/[H[) =[G[/[H[ =[G : H[
as required (in particular [G : K[ [G : H[).
When G is innite, we cannot use the above argument because we will get /s, so for
the general case we proceed differently (youre not required to understand the following
argument).
If [K : H[ = , let x
1
H, x
2
H, . . . be distinct left cosets of H in K. Then x
1
H, x
2
H, . . . are
also distinct left cosets of H in G and it follows that [G : H[ = . This establishes the case
[K : H[ =.
If [G: K[ =, let x
1
K, x
2
K, . . . be distinct left cosets of K in G. I claim that x
1
H, x
2
H, . . . are
distinct left cosets of H in G. Indeed if x
i
H =x
j
H, then x
i
Kx
j
K ,= / 0 because x
i
H x
i
K and
x
j
H x
j
K, hence x
i
K =x
j
K and we deduce that i = j. This establishes the case [G: K[ =.
Now suppose that [G : K[ and [K : H[ are nite, say [G : K[ = m and [K : H[ = n. Write
the left cosets of K in G as x
1
K, x
2
K, . . . , x
m
K, and write the left cosets of H in K as
y
1
H, y
2
H, . . . , y
n
H. Then I claim that the left cosets of H in G are precisely x
i
y
j
H where
1 i m and 1 j n. This will establish the result, for then it is immediate that there are
mn left cosets of H in G.
If x
i
y
j
H =x
r
y
s
H, then x
i
K and x
r
K overlap and must therefore be equal, consequently i =r.
We may now cancel x
i
to obtain y
j
H = y
s
H and it follows that j = s. We conclude that the
cosets x
i
y
j
H are distinct.
Now we must show that we have got all the left cosets of H in G. If gH is a left coset, then
gK is a left coset of K in G, so we must have gK = x
i
K for some i, hence x
1
i
gK = K and
we deduce that x
1
i
g K, consequently x
1
i
gH is a left coset of H in K. Therefore we must
have x
1
i
gH = y
j
H for some j, and it follows that gH = x
i
y
j
H. This completes the proof.
Compute the sizes of the centralizer and conjugacy class containing (1 2)(3 4)(5 6)(7 8 9)
in S
14
.
Recall that in S
n
, two elements are conjugate if and only if they have the same cycle shape.
There are 14 choices for the rst element, 13 for the second, . . . and 6 for the ninth element.
Then we may rotate the cycles; e.g. (7 8 9) = (8 9 7) (but not (7 9 8)), so we have to divide
by 2223. Finally we can write the three two cycles in any order, so we have to divide
by 3! =6. We conclude that the size of the conjugacy class containing (1 2)(3 4)(5 6)(7 8 9)
is 14131211109876/(22236) =5045040. The order of the centralizer
is 14!/5045040 = 17280.
Let NS
6
.
(i) If N contains a transposition, prove that N = S
6
.
(ii) If N contains a 5-cycle, prove that N = A
6
or S
6
.
(i) If N contains a transposition, then it must contain all elements conjugate to this trans-
position. Since any two transpositions are conjugate, we see that N must contain all
transpositions, hence N contains all elements which can be expressed as a product of
transpositions because N is a subgroup. But every element of S
6
can be expressed as
a product of transpositions, and we conclude that N contains S
6
and therefore N must
be S
6
.
(ii) There are several ways to proceed; here is one route. Since S
6
/A
6

= Z/2Z, there are
by the subgroup correspondence theorem only two subgroups containing A
6
, namely
A
6
and S
6
. If N A
6
then we are nished, so we may assume that N does not contain
A
6
. Set H = N A
6
. Then H is a normal subgroup of S
6
which is properly contained
in A
6
, so H must be a union of conjugacy classes all of which are contained in A
6
.
For each x S
6
, let K (x) denote the conjugacy class containing x. Then the orders
of the conjugacy classes of S
6
which are contained in A
6
are given by [K (1)[ = 1,
[K (123)[ = 40, [K (12345)[ = 144, [K

(12)(34)

[ = 45, [K

(12)(3456)

[ = 90,
[K

(123)(456)

[ = 40 (check: 1+40+144+45+90+40 = 360, the order of A

6
).
Since H contains 1 and a 5-cycle, we already have 1+144 = 145 elements in H. Also
[H[

360 by Lagranges theorem and since H ,= A

6
, we see that [H[ = 180. Therefore
the other conjugacy classes contained in H account for 35 elements: this is not pos-
sible because the remaining conjugacy classes of A
6
have orders 40, 45, 90, 40. This
contradiction completes the proof.
Math 4124 Wednesday, March 16
March 16, Ungraded Homework
Exercise 4.4.1 on page 137 Prove that if Aut(G) and
g
is conjugation by g, then

1
=
(g)
. Deduce that Inn(G) Aut(G).
Let x G. Then

1
(x) = (g(
1
(x))g
1
) = (g)(
1
(x))(g)
1
=
(g)
(x).
Since this is true for all x G, it follows that
g

1
=
(g)
. Furthermore Inn(G)
Aut(G) (see page 134) and since every element of Inn(G) is of the form
g
for some g G,
we conclude that Inn(G) Aut(G).
Exercise 4.4.4 on page 137 Prove | Aut(Q
8
)| 24.
We write Q
8
in the usual way as {1, i, j, k}. Since |i| = 4 and j / i, we see that
Q
8
= i, j. Let be an automorphism of Q
8
. Since |i| = 4 and there are six elements of
order 4, we see that there are at most six possibilities for i. Note that (i) = i, so
j = i. Since | j| = 4, we see that j also has order 4 and consequently there are at most
four possibilities for j. Since is determined by its affect on {i, j}, we conclude there are
at most 6*4 = 24 possibilities for and the result follows.
Prove that | Aut(Q
8
)| is a multiple of 4.
We shall use the usual notation for the elements of Q
8
, that is {1, i, j, k}. Then
Z(Q
8
) ={1}, so in particular | Z(Q
8
)| =2. Therefore |Q
8
/Z(Q
8
)| =4 and we deduce that
| Inn(Q
8
)| = 4. Since Inn(Q
8
) Aut(Q
8
), the result now follows from Lagranges theorem.
Let G be a group of order 200. Prove that there exists HG such that 1 = H = G.
200 = 2
3
5
2
. Therefore the number of Sylow 5-subgroups divides 8 and is congruent to
1 modulo 5. Therefore G has exactly one Sylow 5-subgroup, and so the Sylow 5-subgroup
(which has order 25, so cannot be 1 or G) is normal.
Math 4124 Monday, March 21
March 21, Ungraded Homework
Prove that a group of order 175 is abelian.
Let G be the group of order 175 = 7 5
2
. The number of Sylow 7-subgroups is congruent
to 1 mod 7 and divides 25. The only possibility is 1, so G has a normal Sylow 7-subgroup,
call it A. Also the number of Sylow 5-subgroups is congruent to 1 mod 5 and divides 7.
Therefore G has a normal Sylow 5-subgroup, call it B. Since A and B are of prime or prime
squared order, they are both abelian, in particular A C
G
(A). Furthermore by Lagranges
theoremAB =1. Since A, BG, we deduce that every element of A commutes with every
element of B (recall that one proves this by considering aba
1
b
1
= (aba
1
)b
1
B and
similarly A, so aba
1
b
1
AB = 1). Thus B C
G
(A). By Lagranges theorem |A|, |B|
divide | C
G
(A)|, so | C
G
(A)| = 175, consequently C
G
(A) = G. This means that A Z(G).
Similarly B Z(G) and we deduce that |A|, |B| divide | Z(G)|. It follows that Z(G) has order
a multiple of 7 25, which is only possible if Z(G) = G. This means that G is abelian, as
required.
Exercise 4.5.24 on page 147. Prove that if G is a group of order 231 then Z(G) contains a
Sylow 11-subgroup of G and a Sylow 7-subgroup is normal in G.
First we write 231 as a product of prime factors, namely 3 7 11. When applying Sylows
theorems, its usually best to start with the largest prime dividing |G|, so we will consider
the Sylow 11-subgroups of G rst. We know the number of them is congruent to 1 modulo
11, and divides 21. The only possibility for this is 1, which means that there is exactly one
Sylow 11-subgroup; let us call it A. Then AG.
Also, the number of Sylow 7-subgroups is congruent to 1 modulo 7 and divides 33. The
only possibility for this is that there is exactly one Sylow 7-subgroup, and then we must
have that this subgroup, call it B, is normal in G. So far we have shown that G has normal
Sylow 7-subgroups and Sylow 11-subgroups. We cannot apply the same argument for the
Sylow 3-subgroups, because 7 is congruent to 1 mod 3 and divides 77.
Let C be a Sylow 3-subgroup. Since AG, we see that AC G. Also |AC| |A||C| and
|A|, |C| divide |AC|. Therefore AC is a subgroup of G of order 33. Now the number of Sylow
3-subgroups of AC is congruent to 1 mod 3 and divides 11, so there is exactly one Sylow
3-subgroup, which must be C and normal. Since A and C are normal subgroups of AC which
intersect in 1 (by Lagrange), we see that every element of A commutes with every element
of C. Therefore C C
G
(A). Furthermore A has prime order, so A is abelian and we have
A C
G
(A). Finally A and B are normal subgroups of G which intersect in 1 (by Lagrange),
so every element of A commutes with every element of B and we deduce that B C
G
(A).
We conclude that |A|, |B|, |C| divide | C
G
(A)|, hence 231 divides | C
G
(A)|. Since |G| = 231,
we must have C
G
(A) =G, equivalently A Z(G).
Math 4124 Wednesday, March 23
March 23, Ungraded Homework
Exercise 4.5.18 on page 147. Prove that a group of order 200 has a normal Sylow 5-
subgroup.
200 = 8*25. Therefore the number of Sylow 5-subgroups divides 8 and is congruent to 1
mod 5. The only possibility is 1, which shows that the Sylow 5-subgroup is normal.
Exercise 4.5.26 on page 147. Let G be a group of order 105. Prove that if a Sylow 3-
subgroup of G is normal in G, then G is abelian.
105 = 3*5*7. We want to show that the Sylow 5 and 7-subgroups are abelian, and then it
will quickly follow that G is abelian. Now we cannot immediately assert that the number
of Sylow 7-subgroups is 1, because it appears at rst glance that 15 is a possibility (15 is
congruent to 1 mod 7 and divides 3*5). Let A be a Sylow 3-subgroup of G. We know that
AG, so we may consider G/A, a group of order 105/3 = 35. The number of Sylow 7-
subgroups of G/A is congruent to 1 mod 7 and divides 5, hence G/A has exactly on Sylow
7-subgroup and we deduce that G/A has a normal Sylow 7-subgroup. By the subgroup
correspondence theorem, we may write this subgroup as P/A, where PG and |P| =7|A| =
21. The number of Sylow 7-subgroups of P is congruent to 1 mod 7 and divides 3, hence
this number is 1 and we see that P has a normal Sylow 7-subgroup, which we shall call B.
Though the property of being normal is not in general transitive, it is true that BPG
implies BG, because B is a Sylow p-subgroup of P, where p = 7. Thus G has a normal
subgroup B of order 7. Similarly G has a normal subgroup C of order 5. Thus G has
a normal Sylow p-subgroup for all primes p. Since the Sylow subgroups are all abelian
(because groups of prime order are abelian), we conclude that G is abelian.
Exercise 4.5.27 on page 147. Let G be a group of order 315 which has a normal Sylow 3-
subgroup. Prove that Z(G) contains a Sylow 3-subgroup of G and deduce that G is abelian.
315 =3
2
5 7. Let A denote the normal Sylow 3-subgroup. Then G/A is a group of order 35,
so the number of Sylow 5-subgroups is congruent to 1 mod 5 and divides 7, so is 1, and the
number of Sylow 7-subgroups is congruent to 1 mod 7 and divides 5, so is also 1. Therefore
G/A has normal Sylow 5 and 7-subgroups, which by the subgroup correspondence theorem
we may write as H/A and K/A respectively, where H, KG.
Now H has order 45, so the number of Sylow 5-subgroups of H is congruent to 1 mod 5 and
divides 9, so must be 1. It follows that H has a normal Sylow 5-subgroup which we shall
B. We have BHG and B is a Sylow subgroup of H. Therefore BG. Similarly K has
order 63, so it has a normal Sylow 7-subgroup which we shall call C. Then CHG and
since C is a Sylow subgroup of H, we have CG.
It now follows that G has normal Sylow 3,5,7-subgroups A, B,C respectively. Since groups
of prime or prime squared order are abelian, we deduce that the elements of A, B,C all
commute among themselves. As usual we conclude that C
G
(A) = C
G
(B) = C
G
(C) = G,
then Z(G) =G, and the result follows.
Exercise 4.5.32 on page 147. Let P be a Sylow p-subgroup of H and let H be a subgroup
of K. If PH and H K, prove PK. Deduce that if P is a Sylow p-subgroup of G and
H = N
G
(P), then N
G
(H) =H.
Let k K. Then kPk
1
is a subgroup of K with order |K|. Since P H and H is normal in
K, we see that kPk
1
is contained in H, consequently (since it has the right order) kPk
1
is
a Sylow p-subgroup of H. Furthermore H has a normal Sylow p-subgroup, consequently it
has only one Sylow p-subgroup and we deduce that kPk
1
=P. Therefore PK.
Now suppose P is a Sylow p-subgroup of G. Set H =N
G
(P) and K =N
G
(H). Then we have
PHK; also since P is a Sylow p-subgroup of G and is contained in H, it is certainly a
Sylow p-subgroup of H. We deduce that PK. By denition of N
G
(P), we conclude that
K N
G
(P) and the result follows.
Prove that a group of order 132 cannot be simple.
Suppose by way of contradiction that G is a simple group of order 132. We factor 132 into
prime powers: 132 = 4311. The number of Sylow 11-subgroups is congruent to 1 mod
11 and divides 12. Since G is simple, this number cannot be 1, otherwise G has a normal
subgroup of order 11, contradicting the hypothesis G is simple. Therefore G has 12 Sylow
11-subgroups. Next if P, Q are distinct Sylow 11-subgroups of G, then since PQ P, we
have |PQ| = 1 or 11 by Lagranges theorem. But |PQ| = 11 can only happen if P =Q
by simple set theory, which contradicts our assumption. We conclude that PQ = 1. We
now count the number of elements of order 11. In each Sylow 11-subgroup, there are 10
elements of order 11, and none of these elements can appear in two Sylow 11-subgroups.
We conclude that G has 1210 = 120 elements of order 11.
Next we consider the number of Sylow 3-subgroups. This is congruent to 1 mod 3 and
divides 44. Since G is not simple, this number cannot be 1, so there are at least 4 Sylow
3-subgroups. By the same argument as above, if P, Q are distinct Sylow 3-subgroups, then
PQ = 1 and we see that G has at least 42 = 8 elements of order 3.
Note that since 4 is not prime, the arguments above will not yield the property that if
P, Q are distinct Sylow 2-subgroups, then PQ = 1, because we could have |PQ| = 2.
However because G is not simple there are at least two Sylow 2-subgroups, and all elements
of a Sylow 2-subgroup have order a power of 2. Since a Sylow 2-subgroup has 4 elements,
we see that G must have at least 5 elements of order a power of 2.
We now add up the number of elements we have so far: we obtain 120+8+5 = 133 >
132. So we have obtained more elements than the order of G, which is not possible, and we
conclude that there is no simple group of order 132.
Math 4124 Monday, March 28
March 28, Ungraded Homework
Prove that a group of order 765 is abelian.
Let G be a group of order 765 = 9 5 17. We need to prove that G is abelian. It is
usually best to consider the largest prime dividing the order of the group rst, so we will
rst consider the number of Sylow 17-subgroups. This is congruent to 1 mod 17 and divides
45, so the only possibility is 1. Thus G has a normal 17-subgroup, which we shall call
A. Now we cannot immediately assert that the number of Sylow 5-subgroups is 1, because
51 appears possible. Instead we consider G/A, a group of order 765/17 = 45. Since the
number of Sylow 5-subgroups is congruent to 1 mod 5 and divides 9, we see that G/A has a
normal Sylow 5-subgroup P/A, where PG and |P| = 517 = 85. The number of Sylow
5-subgroups of P is congruent to 1 mod 5 and divides 17, so must be 1 and we see that P has
a normal Sylow 5-subgroup B. Now BPG does not imply BG in general, but it does
here because B is a Sylow subgroup of P. Similarly G has a normal Sylow 3-subgroup C of
order 9. Thus G has abelian normal Sylow p-subgroups for all primes p, because groups of
order 1, p and p
2
are abelian. It follows that G is abelian.
Exercise 4.5.13 on page 147. Prove that a group of order 56 has a normal Sylow p-subgroup
for some prime p dividing its order.
Let G be a group of order 56 and suppose it does not have a normal Sylow 7-subgroup. We
have 56 = 2
3
7. Therefore the number of Sylow 7-subgroups is congruent to 1 mod 8 and
divides 8. Since G does not have a normal Sylow 7-subgroup, 1 is ruled out, consequently it
has exactly 8 Sylow 7-subgroups. We now count the number of elements of order 7. Since
there are 6 elements of order 7 in a Sylow 7-subgroup and any two Sylow 7-subgroups
intersect in 1 by Lagrange, there are 8 6 elements of order 7 in G. There are 56 48 = 8
elements remaining. If G has at least two Sylow 2-subgroups, then it would have at least 9
elements whose order is a power of 2 (a Sylow 2-subgroup has 8 elements of order a power
of 2, so if there was a second Sylow 2-subgroup, we would get at least one more element
whose order was a power of 2). Thus G has only one Sylow 2-subgroup and so it must be
normal. This completes the proof.
Prove that a group of order 168 has a subgroup of order 21.
Let G be a group of order 168 = 2
3
3 7. Let P be a Sylow 7-subgroup and let N denote
its normalizer. Then the number of Sylow 7-subgroups is 168/|N|. The number of Sylow
7-subgroups is congruent to 1 mod 7 and divides 24. Therefore there are either 8 or 1 Sylow
7-subgroups. If there are 8, then |N| =21 as required. On the other hand if there is exactly
one Sylow 7-subgroup, then PG. Let A be a Sylow 3-subgroup. Then |A| =3 and PA <G,
because P, A are subgroups with A normal. Also |PA/P| =|A/PA| =|A|, because PA=1
by Lagranges theorem, so |PA| =21 and we are nished.
Prove that a group of order 1452 is not simple.
Suppose G is a simple group of order 1452 = 2
2
3 11
2
. Let P be a Sylow 11-subgroup
and let N denote its normalizer. Then the number of Sylow 11-subgroups is congruent to 1
mod 11 and divides 12, so is 1 or 12. But if there is exactly one Sylow 11-subgroup, then
it is normal which contradicts the hypothesis that G is simple. Therefore G has 12 Sylow
11-subgroups; this means that |G/N| = 12. We now have a homomorphism : G S
12
such that ker N. Since G is simple and N =G, we must have ker =1. Thus G

=G.
Remark: since G is a simple group of order at least 3, we see that G A
12
(note that
A
12
G = 1 or G because A
12
GG, and if A
12
G = 1, then G

= A
12
G/A
12
).
However we do not require this property for this problem.
Now G S
12
and 11
2
divides |G|. Therefore 11
2
divides |S
12
|, which is not true. Thus
we have a contradiction and so there is no simple group of order 1452.