Homework #4 Solutions (Due 10/3/06) : Niversity of Ennsylvania Epartment of Athematics

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
Math 370 Algebra Fall Semester 2006

Prof. Gerstenhaber, T.A. Asher Auel
Homework #4 Solutions (due 10/3/06)
Chapter 2 Groups
Recall: Let G be a group. For x G let #x denote the order of x in G. The central mantra of orders
(proved in the previous solution set) is:
x
n
= e #x | n
and the order #x of x is the smallest such positive integer n.
Denitions/Facts: About gcd and lcm. For positive integers n and m dene their greatest common
divisor to be the positive integer gcd(n, m) characterized by the following equivalent conditions:
i) any common divisor of n and m is a divisor of gcd(n, m), i.e. a|n and a|ma| gcd(n, m),
ii) gcd(n, m) is the smallest positive integer that can be written in the form kn+lm for k, l Z,
iii) writing n = p
e
1
1
p
er
r
and m = p
f
1
1
p
fr
r
as a product of powers of distinct prime num-
bers p
1
, . . . , p
r
with nonnegative exponents e
1
, . . . , e
r
, f
1
, . . . , f
r
0, then we have that
gcd(n, m) = p
g
1
1
p
gr
r
where g
i
= min{e
i
, f
i
} for i = 1, . . . , r.
For positive integers n and m dene their least common multiple to be the positive integer lcm(n, m)
characterized by the following equivalent conditions:
i) any common multiple of n and m is a multiple of lcm(n, m), i.e. n|b and m|b lcm(n, m)|b,
ii) lcm(n, m) is the smallest positive integer that can be written simultaneously in the form kn
and lm for k, l 1, note that in this case
l
k
is the reduced fraction of
n
m
,
iii) writing n = p
e
1
1
p
er
r
and m = p
f
1
1
p
fr
r
as a product of powers of distinct prime num-
bers p
1
, . . . , p
r
with nonnegative exponents e
1
, . . . , e
r
, f
1
, . . . , f
r
0, then we have that
gcd(n, m) = p
g
1
1
p
gr
r
where g
i
= max{e
i
, f
i
} for i = 1, . . . , r.
The gcd and lcm have the following useful properties:
gcd(n, m) lcm(n, m) = n m,
n and m are relatively prime gcd(n, m) = 1 lcm(n, m) = nm,
n|m gcd(n, m) = n lcm(n, m) = m
2.10 Let G be a group.
a) Claim: If #x = rs for some r, s 1 then #x
r
= s.
Proof. First note that (x
r
)
s
= x
rs
= e since #x = rs so #x
r
| s. Furthermore, for
0 < k < |s| we have that 0 < rk < r|s|, so that (x
r
)
k
= x
rk
= e. So #x
r
really is s.
b) Claim: If #x = n then
#x
r
=
n
gcd(n, r)
=
lcm(n, r)
r
.
for any r 1.
Proof. For l 1 we have that
(x
r
)
l
= x
rl
= e n|rl nk = rl for some k 1,
and if l = #x
r
, i.e. the least possible such l, then nk = rl = lcm(n, m) is then the least
common multiple of n and m. But then
#x
r
= l =
nk
r
=
lcm(n, m)
r
=
n
gcd(n, m)
,
where the nal equality comes from the formula relating gcd and lcm.
1
2.11 Let a, b G be elements of a group, and suppose ab is of nite order n. Then
(ab)
n
= e a
1
(ab)
n
a = a
1
a = e (a
1
aba)
n
= e (ba)
n
= e,
where the second equivalence is exercise 3.4. Thus ba has nite order and #ba|n. Now similarly, for
0 < k < n we have
(ab)
k
= e a
1
(ab)
k
a = a
1
a = e (a
1
aba)
k
= e (ba)
k
= e,
and so indeed the order of ba is n. This also proves that if ab has innite order, then so does ba.
2.16 Let G be a cyclic group of order n. Then an element x G generates G if and only if #x = n.
Now xing a generator x G, we have G = {e, x, x
2
, . . . , x
n1
}, and so in view of the formula
from exercise 2.10b, we see that
x
r
also generates G #x
r
= n
n
gcd(n, r)
= n gcd(n, r) = 1
r is relatively prime to n.
Thus in asking the question how many of its elements generate G? we are forced to deal with the
following number
(n) = |{r : 0 < r < n and gcd(n, r) = 1}|
= the number of numbers from 1, 2, . . . , n 1 that are relatively prime to n,
usually called the Euler phi-function of n.
a) For n = 6, we see that of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, only 1, 5 are relatively prime to 6, so
(6) = 2. For completeness Ill compute the cyclic subgroups generated by every element:
< e > = {e}
< x > = {e, x, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
, x
5
}
< x
2
> = {e, x
2
, x
4
}
< x
3
> = {e, x
3
}
< x
4
> = {e, x
4
, x
2
}
< x
5
> = {e, x
5
, x
4
, x
3
, x
2
, x}
and we see that only x and x
5
are generators.
b) Why dont we make a little table for n = 2, . . . , 12:
n numbers 1, . . . , n 1 relatively prime to n (n)
2 1 1 1
3 1, 2 1, 2 2
4 1, 2, 3 1, 3 2
5 1, 2, 3, 4 1, 2, 3, 4 4
6 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 1, 5 2
7 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 6
8 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 1, 3, 5, 7 4
9 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 6
10 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 1, 3, 7, 9 4
11 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 10
12 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 1, 5, 7, 11 4
c) As already noted, the number of elements that generate a cyclic group of order n is (n).
2.20a Claim: Let x, y G be commuting elements of a group and let #x = n and #y = m. Then
all we can say is that
#xy | lcm(n, m).
Proof. First, note that since x and y commute, (xy)
l
= x
l
y
l
for all l Z. Now let l = lcm(n, m).
Then since n| l and m| l, i.e. there exist a, b 1 such that l = an = bm, we know that
(xy)
l
= x
l
y
l
= (x
n
)
a
(y
m
)
b
= e
a
e
b
= e,
thus #xy | lcm(n, m).
Note: The order #xy is difcult to relate exactly to the individual orders #x and #y. For example,
let G =< a > be a cyclic group of order 6, then the following table displays the range of possible
behavior:
x y xy #x #y #xy lcm(#x, #y) =?
a a a
2
6 6 3 6 no
a a
2
a
3
6 3 2 6 no
a a
3
a
4
6 2 3 6 no
a a
4
a
5
6 3 6 6 yes
a a
5
e 6 6 1 6 no
a
2
a
2
a
4
3 3 3 3 yes
a
2
a
3
a
5
3 2 6 6 yes
a
2
a
4
e 3 3 1 3 no
a
2
a
5
a 3 6 6 6 yes
a
3
a
3
e 2 2 1 2 no
a
3
a
4
a 2 3 6 6 yes
a
3
a
5
a
2
2 6 3 6 no
a
4
a
4
a
2
3 3 3 3 yes
a
4
a
5
a
3
3 6 2 6 no
a
5
a
5
a
4
6 6 3 6 no
3.11 Claim: Let G be a group. Then the set Aut(G) of group automorphisms of G forms a group
under composition.
Proof. We need to verify the group axioms for the set Aut(G) under the operation of composition.
First, we show that Aut(G) is closed under composition. Well need the following:
Lemma: Let , : G G be maps. Then
i) if and are injective then so is ,
ii) if and are surjective then so is ,
iii) if and are bijective then so is ,
iv) if and are group homomorphisms then so is ,
v) if and are group isomorphisms then so is .
Proof. To i), let x, y G, then
( )(x) = ( )(y) ((x)) = ((y)) (x) = (y) x = y,
where the second and third implications follow if and are injective, respectively. Thus is
injective.
To ii), let x G, then since is surjective, there exists x
G such that (x
) = x. Since is
surjective, there exists x
G such that (x
) = x
. But then
( )(x
) = ((x
)) = (x
) = x,
so we see that is surjective.
To iii), combine i) and ii).
To iv), let x, y G, then
( )(xy) = ((xy)) = ((x)(y)) = ((x)) ((y)) = ( )(x) ( )(y),
if both and are homomorphisms. So we indeed see that is a homomorphism.
To v), combine iii) and iv).
Thus we see that for automorphisms , Aut(G) the composition Aut(G) is again an
automorphism, so Aut(G) is closed under composition.
Next we quickly verify that composition is associative. For , , Aut(G) and for x G we
have
(( ) )(x) = ( )((x)) = (((x))) = (( )(x)) = ( ( ))(x),
so that indeed ( ) = ( ), so composition is associative.
Next, we nd an identity. Let id : G G be the identity function, which is clearly an automor-
phism. For Aut(G) and for x G note that
( id)(x) = (id(x)) = (x), and (id )(x) = id((x)) = (x),
so that indeed id = and id = . Thus id Aut(G) is indeed an identity.
Finally, we check that inverses exist, but we already did this in exercise 3.5. For an isomorphism
: G G, we previously showed that the inverse function
1
: G G is again an isomorphism,
and by denition satises
1
= id and
1
= id, so
1
is an inverse of for composition. So
indeed, Aut(G) has inverses. Weve nished showing that Aut(G) is a group under composition.
3.14 Determining some automorphism groups.
a) Were already show that Aut(Z) = {id} in exercise 4.4.
b) Since Z/10Z is a cyclic group generated by 1, any homomorphism : Z/10Z Z/10Z
is completely dened by the image of 1. Now we also know by exercise 3.6a that if is an
isomorphism, then it preserves orders of elements, i.e. #(x) = #x for all x Z/10Z. In
particular, a generator must be sent to a generator. Now in exercise 2.16b, we already know
that the only elements in Z/10Z that generate are 1, 3, 7, 9. Its also easy to see that each of
the four choices of where to send 1 gives an automorphism of Z/10Z, so well label them
accordingly:
Aut(Z/10Z) = {
1
,
3
,
7
,
9
}.
Note that
1
= id. Now we compute the group structure on Aut(Z/10Z). For example, for
x Z/10Z, we have
(
3

7
)(x) =
3
(
7
(x)) =
3
(7x) = 3(7x) = 21x = x,
so we nd that
3

7
= id =
1
. Continuing like this we can calculate the multiplication
table for Aut(Z/10Z):

1

3

7

9
1

1

3

7

9
3

3

9

1

7
7

7

1

9

3
9

9

7

3

1
Notice that we have a nice group isomorphism
(Z/10Z)

Aut(Z/10Z)
a
a
We also see that both
3
,
7
Aut(Z/10Z) have order 4, i.e. they each generate. This shows
that Aut(Z/10Z) is cyclic, and we can construct two different isomorphisms
Z/4Z

Aut(Z/10Z) Z/4Z

Aut(Z/10Z)
0
1
0
1
1
3
1
7
2
9
2
9
3
7
3
3
neither of which seems particularly appealing, but just illustrates the two ways we can force
ourselves to think of Aut(Z/10Z) as a cyclic group of order 4.
c) Writing S
3
=< s, t : s
2
= t
3
= e, ts = st
2
>, we see that the symmetric group S
3
is generated by elements s, t or orders 2, 3, respectively, subject to a further relation. Any
automorphism : S
3
S
3
is determined by the images of s, t, and as before, must preserve
the orders of elements. Now S
3
has three elements s, st, st
2
of order 2, and two elements t, t
2
of order 3. So any automorphism must take s to one of s, st, s
2
and t to one of t, t
2
. There
are only six conceivable ways of doing this:
s s s st s st
2
t t t t t t
s s s st s st
2
t t
2
t t
2
t t
2
One now checks that each of these in fact does give an automorphism of S
3
. Thus Aut(S
3
)
just consists of these six elements. We would further like to know the structure of Aut(S
3
).
One way to do this is to know that there are only two isomorphism classes of groups of
order six, namely cyclic of order six and S
3
. We then just need to check if two of these
automorphisms dont commute. In fact Aut(S
3
)

= S
3
. Another way to see this is to note
that the center Z(S
3
) is trivial, so that conjugation by each element of S
3
gives a different
automorphism, since there are already six of these, these ll up all of Aut(S
3
). Thus we have
the nice isomorphism
ad : S
3
Aut(S
3
)
x ad
x
: y xyx
1
,
in the notation from lab.
d) The analysis of Aut(Z/8Z) follows exactly the same way as for Aut(Z/10Z) in part b). In
the end, we nd that Aut(Z/8Z) = {
1
,
3
,
5
,
7
} and we have the nice isomorphism
(Z/8Z)

Aut(Z/8Z)
a
a
Incidentally, we check that each element of Aut(Z/8Z) has order two, so that Aut(Z/8Z)

=
Z/2Z Z/2Z.
e) Is the automorphism group of a cyclic group necessarily cyclic? Well, no, see part d).
f) Is the automorphism group of an abelian group necessarily abelian? Well, no either. Take for
example the abelian group Z/2Z Z/2Z Z/2Z. Each permutation of the entries gives a
group automorphism, and as we know, permutations of three objects dont usually commute.
In particular, we see that Aut(Z/2Z Z/2Z Z/2Z) has a subgroup isomorphic to the
permutation group S
3
. Do you think that is the whole automorphism group?
4.8 Subgroups of groups.
a) The subgroups of S
3
=< s, t : s
2
= t
3
= e, ts = st
2
> are:
{e}, {e, s}, {e, st}, {e, st
2
}, {e, t, t
2
}, S
3
,
and {e}, {e, t, t
2
}, S
3
are normal subgroups.
b) The subgroups of the quaternion group Q = {1, i, j, k} where i
2
= j
2
= k
2
= 1
and ij = k, jk = i, and ki = j, are:
{1}, {1}, {1, i}, {1, j}, {1, k}, Q,
and every subgroup is normal.
4.9b Claim: Let : G G
and : G
be homomorphisms of groups. Then

ker( ) =
1
(ker()) G.
Proof. Obvious.

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UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

Math 370 Algebra Fall Semester 2006

be homomorphisms of groups. Then

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