Conservation of Total Linear Momentum d2 rcm =0 dt2 = rcm = c1 t + c2
m1 r1 + m2 r2 m1 + m2
Two-Body Equation of Relative Motion d2 r + 3r = 0 2 dt r Vector Notation Position Vectors r1 = x1 ix + y1 iy + z1 iz r2 = x2 ix + y2 iy + z2 iz r = r2 r1 = x ix + y iy + z iz dv = 3r dt r
Page 108 r = r2 r1 r = |r| = |r2 r1 | = G(m1 + m2 )
or
where
x1 r1 = y1 z1
x2 r2 = y2 z2
x y r = r 2 r1 = z
Two-Body Equations of Motion in Rectangular Coordinates d2 x + 3x = 0 2 dt r Velocity Vectors d2 y + 3y = 0 2 dt r d2 z + 3z = 0 2 dt r
dx/dt dr dx dy dz v= = ix + iy + i = dy/dt dt dt dt dt z dz/dt
Polar Coordinates r = r ir v= ir = cos ix + sin iy i = sin ix + cos iy = dir d
dr dr di d d dr = ir + r r = ir + r i = vr ir + v i dt dt d dt dt dt
16.346 Astrodynamics
Lecture 1
Keplers Second Law
1609
Equal Areas Swept Out in Equal Times
Assume z = 0 so that the motion is conned to the x-y plane
d2 x d dy dx dy dx d2 y 0 = x 2 y 2 = x y =
x y = Constant dt dt dt dt dt dt dt Using polar coordinates x = r cos y = r sin = x dx d d dy y = r2 = Constant h = 2 Area dt dt dt dt Vector Analysis for the Engineer Appendix B1 r1 r2 = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2 = r1 r2 cos i x iy iz r1 r2 = x1 y1 z1 = r1 r2 sin in x y z 2 2 2 x y z 1 1 1 r1 r2 r3 = x2 y2 z2 x y z
d dv = (r v) = 0 = h = r v = Constant dt dt Motion takes place in a plane and angular momentum is conserved In polar coordinates dr d dr =v= ir + r i = vr i r + v i dt dt dt so that the angular momentum of m2 with respect to m1 is r = r ir m2 r v = m2 r2 Rectilinear Motion: For r d def = m2 h = Constant dt
v, then h = 0 .
16.346 Astrodynamics
Lecture 1
The quantity h is called the angular momentum but is actually the massless angular momentum. In vector form h = h i z so that h = rv and is a constant in both magnitude and direction. This is called Keplers second law even though it was really his rst major result. As Kepler expressed it, the radius vector sweeps out equal areas in equal time since 1 d h dA = Constant = r2 = dt 2 dt 2 Keplers Law is a direct consequence of radial acceleration! Eccentricity Vector d dv h h d di (v h) = h = 3 r h = 2 i r ih = 2 i = i = r dt dt r r r dt dt Hence e = v h r = Constant r
The vector quantity e is often referred to as the Laplace Vector. We will call the vector e the eccentricity vector because its magnitude e is the eccentricity of the orbit. Keplers First Law 1609 The Equation of Orbit
If we take the scalar product of the Laplace vector and the position vector, we have e r = v h r Also e r = re cos f r= r r = r v h r = h h r = h2 r r so that h2
where f is the angle between r and e or r = p ex where
def
p 1 + e cos f
p =
is the Equation of Orbit in polar coordinates. (Note that r cos f = x .) The angle f is the true anomaly and p , called the parameter, is the value of the radius r for f = 90 . The pericenter ( f = 0) and apocenter ( f = ) radii are rp = p 1+e and ra = p 1e = p = a(1 e2 )
If 2a is the length of the major axis, then rp + ra = 2a
16.346 Astrodynamics
Lecture 1
Keplers Third Law
1619
The Harmony of the World
Archimedes was the rst to discover that the area of an ellipse is ab where a and b are the semimajor and semiminor axes of the ellipse. Since the radius vector sweeps out equal areas in equal times, then the entire area will be swept out in the time interval called the period P . Therefore, from Keplers Second Law ab h = = P 2 p a(1 e2 ) = 2 2
Also, from the elementary properties of an ellipse, we have b = a 1 e2 so that the Period of the ellipse is P = 2 a3
Other expressions and terminology are used 2 = n= P a3 = n2 a3 a3 = Constant P2
Mean Motion
or
or
The last of these is known as Keplers third law. Kepler made the false assumption that is the same for all planets. Units for Numerical Calculations A convenient choice of units is Length Time Mass Then = G(m1 + m2 ) = G(msun + mplanet ) = G(msun ) = G so that, from Keplers Third Law, we have = G = 4 2 or k= G = 2 The astronomical unit (Mean distance from Earth to the Sun) The year (the Earths period) The Suns mass (Ignore other masses compared to Suns mass)
where G is the Universal Gravitation Constant.
16.346 Astrodynamics
Lecture 1
Josiah Willard Gibbs (18391908) was a professor of mathematical physics at Yale College where he inaugurated the new subject three dimensional vector analysis. He had printed for private distribution to his students a small pamphlet on the Elements of Vector Analysis in 1881 and 1884. Gibbs pamphlet became widely known and was nally incorporated in the book Vector Analysis by J. W. Gibbs and E. B. Wilson and published in 1901. Gibbs Method of Orbit Determination Pages 131133
Given r1 , r2 , r3 with r1 r2 r3 = 0 To determine the eccentricity vector e and the parameter p r r n r r n r2 = r1 + r3 with n = r1 r3 = = 2 23 and = 1 22 n n r r2 + r3 p= 1 0 = e (r2 r1 r3 ) = p r2 (p r1 ) (p r3 ) = 1+ To determine the eccentricity vector, we observe that: n e = (r1 r3 ) e = (e r1 )r3 (e r3 )r1 = (p r1 )r3 (p r3 )r1 Then, since (n e) n = n2 e e= it follows that
