COAL & ELECTRICITY

Total World Electricity Generation by Fuel (2009)

Coal plays a vital role in electricity generation worldwide. Coal-fired power plants currently fuel 41% of global electricity. In some countries, coal fuels a higher percentage of electricity.

Coal in Electricity Generation

South Africa 93% Poland 87% PR China 79%

Australia 78%

Kazakhstan 75%

India 68%

Israel 58%

Czech Rep 51%

Morocco 51%

Greece 54%

USA 45%

Germany 41%

How is Coal Converted to Electricity?

Steam coal, also known as thermal coal, is used in power stations to generate electricity.
Coal is first milled to a fine powder, which increases the surface area and allows it to burn more quickly. In these pulverised coal combustion (PCC) systems, the powdered coal is blown into the combustion chamber of a boiler where it is burnt at high temperature (see diagram below). The hot gases and heat energy produced converts water in tubes lining the boiler into steam.

The high pressure steam is passed into a turbine containing thousands of propellerlike blades. The steam pushes these blades causing the turbine shaft to rotate at high speed. A generator is mounted at one end of the turbine shaft and consists of carefully wound wire coils. Electricity is generated when these are rapidly rotated in a strong magnetic field. After passing through the turbine, the steam is condensed and returned to the boiler to be heated once again. The electricity generated is transformed into the higher voltages (up to 400,000 volts) used for economic, efficient transmission via power line grids. When it nears

the point of consumption, such as our homes, the electricity is transformed down to the safer 100-250 voltage systems used in the domestic market.

Wind power
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using: wind turbines to make electricity, windmills for mechanical power, wind pumps for water pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network. Offshore wind farms can harness more frequent and powerful winds than are available to land-based installations and have less visual impact on the landscape but construction costs are considerably higher. Small onshore wind facilities are used to provide electricity to isolated locations and utility companies increasingly buy surplus electricity produced by small domestic wind turbines.

Wind turbines
Wind power, as an alternative to fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation and uses little land. Any effects on the environment are generally less problematic than those from other power sources. As of 2011, 83 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis. As of 2010 wind energy was over 2.5% of total worldwide electricity usage, growing at more than 25% per annum. The

monetary cost per unit of energy produced is similar to the cost for new coal and natural gas installations. Although wind power is a popular form of energy generation, the construction of wind farms is not universally welcomed due to aesthetics Although very consistent from year to year, wind power has significant variation over shorter timescales. The intermittency of wind seldom creates problems when used to supply up to 20% of total electricity demand, but as the proportion increases, a need to upgrade the grid, and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur. Power management techniques such as having excess capacity storage, dispatchable backing supplies (usually natural gas), storage such as pumped-storage hydroelectricity, exporting and importing power to neighboring areas or reducing demand when wind production is low, can greatly mitigate these problems.

Solar energy
Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS), at 354 MW, is the largest solar energy generating facility in the world. It consists of ninesolar power plants in California's Mojave Desert, where insolation is among the best available in the United States. SEGS III (44 MW) are located at Daggett (345145N 1164945W), SEGS IIIVII (150 MW) are installed at Kramer Junction, and SEGS VIIIIX (160 MW) are placed at Harper Lake (3502N 11721W).[1] NextEra Energy Resources operates and partially owns the plants located at Kramer Junction and Harper Lake.

Plants' scale and operations

The plants have a 354 MW installed capacity, making it the largest installation of solar plants of any kind in the world.[1] The average gross solar output for all nine plants at SEGS is around 75 MWe a capacity factor of 21%. In addition, the turbines can be utilized at night by burning natural gas. NextEra claims that the solar plants power 232,500 homes (during the day, at peak power) and displace 3,800 tons of pollution per year that would have been produced if the electricity had been provided by fossil fuels, such as oil.[2] The facilities have a total of 936,384 mirrors and cover more than 1,600 acres (6.5 km2). Lined up, the parabolic mirrors would extend over 229 miles (370 km). As an example of cost, in 2002, one of the 30 MW Kramer Junction sites required $90 million to construct, and its operation and maintenance cost is about $3 million per year (4.6 cents per kilowatt hour).[3] With a considered lifetime of 20 years the

operation, maintainement and investments interests and depreciation triples the price to approximately 14 cents per kilowatt hour.

Principle of operation
The installation uses parabolic trough solar thermal technology along with natural gas to generate electricity. 90% of the electricity is produced by the sunlight. Natural gas is only used when the solar power is insufficient to meet the demand from Southern California Edison, the distributor of power in southern California.

Mirrors
The parabolic mirrors are shaped like a half-pipe. The sun shines onto the panels made of glass, which are 94% reflective, unlike a typical mirror, which is only 70% reflective. The mirrors automatically track the sun throughout the day. The greatest source of mirror breakage is wind, with 3000 typically replaced each year. Operators can turn the mirrors to protect them during intense wind storms. An automated washing mechanism is used to periodically clean the parabolic reflective panels.

Heat transfer
The sunlight bounces off the mirrors and is directed to a central tube filled with synthetic oil, which heats to over 400 C (750 F). The reflected light focused at the central tube is 71 to 80 times more intense than the ordinary sunlight. The synthetic oil transfers its heat to water, which boils and drives the Rankine cycle steam turbine,[4] thereby generating electricity. Synthetic oil is used to carry the heat (instead of water) to keep the pressure within manageable parameters.

Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectricity is electricity that is made by the movement of water. It is usually made with dams that block a river or collect water that is pumped there. When the water is "let go" the huge pressure behind the dam forces the water down shafts that lead to a turbine, this causes the turbine to turn, and electricity is produced. It is a form of renewable energy and reduces pollution.

Advantages of hydroelectricity
The way the electricity is produced does not harm the environment as much as fossil fuels like oil or coal. Hydroelectricity is very powerful, safe and produces no waste. Hydroelectricity can be made very quickly. This makes it useful for times when demand for electricity is high. Water that has been stored in a dam can be "let go" when needed, so the energy needed can be made quickly. Also hydroelectricity can not run out as long as there is a good water supply. Once the

dam is built the electricity is free, no waste or pollution produced and electricity can be generated constantly also there is then a lot of extra energy to save and use.

Disadvantages of hydroelectricity
The building of large dams to hold the water can damage the environment. In 1983 Australian government stopped the Tasmanian state government from building a dam on the Gordon River in Tasmania after a huge public protest.[2] The dam would have flooded the beautiful Franklin River. The Three Gorge Dam in China will be the world's largest hydroelectricity project. The dam has flooded a huge area, meaning that 1.2 million people have had to be moved. Scientists are concerned about many problems with the dam, such as pollution, silt, and the danger of the dam wall breaking.

Biogas (Gober gas)

Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Organic waste such as dead plant and animal material, animal feces, and kitchen waste can be converted into a gaseous fuel called biogas. Biogas originates from biogenic material and is a type of bio fuel.

Biogas is produced by the anaerobic digestion or fermentation of biodegradable materials such as biomass, manure, sewage,municipal waste, green waste, plant material, and crops. Biogas comprises primarily methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have small amounts of hydrogen sulphide (H2S), moisture and siloxanes. The gases methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide (CO) can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel. Biogas can be used as a fuel in any country for any heating purpose, such as cooking. It can also be used in anaerobic digesters where it is typically used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into electricity and heat. Biogas can be compressed, much like natural gas, and used to power motor vehicles. In the UK, for example, biogas is estimated to have the potential to replace around 17% of vehicle fuel.[3] Biogas is a renewable fuel, so it qualifies for renewable energy subsidies in some parts of the world. Biogas can also be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas standards when it becomes bio methane.

Eco-friendly building

To maximize energy output, the tapered towers funnel wind between them, creating a negative pressure zone behind the buildings that draws more air through the gap. This suction effect increases wind speeds by up to 30 percent at each of the 95-foot-long rotors to boost electricity production. It also redirects wind gusts hitting the tower by up to 45 degrees off center so that they hit the turbines at a nearly perpendicular angle for optimal electricity generation.

Solar panel
A solar panel (also solar module, photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged connected assembly of photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each panel is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions, and typically ranges from 100 to 320 watts. The efficiency of a panel determines the area of a panel given the same rated output - an 8% efficient 230 watt panel will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt panel. Because a single solar panel can produce only a limited amount of power, most installations contain multiple panels. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of solar panels, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and or solar tracker and interconnection wiring. Most solar modules are currently produced from silicon photovoltaic cells. These are typically categorized as monocrystalline or polycrystalline modules.