Kushan Empire

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Not to be confused with Kingdom of Kush. "Kushan" redirects here. For the village in Iran, see Kushan, Iran.

Kushan Empire
Ku Rjavaa

30375

Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscription.[1]

Capital

Bagram Peshawar Taxila Mathura

Languages

Official language: Bactrian Regional languages: Gandhari (Gandhara), Sogdian (Sogdiana), Greek Chorasmian Tocharian Saka dialects Liturgical language: Sanskrit

Religion

Shamanism Buddhism Hinduism Zoroastrianism Manichaeism various Afghan-Indian religions

Government

Monarchy

Emperor -c. 60c. 80 Kujula Kadphises

-350375

Kipunada

Historical era -Kujula Kadphisesunites Yuezhi tribes into a confederation -Subjugated by theSassanians, Guptasand Hepthalites
[2]

Classical Antiquity 30

375

Currency

Kushan drachm

Today part of

Afghanistan China India Kyrgyzstan Pakistan Tajikistan Uzbekistan

History of Afghanistan
Timeline

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Outline of South Asian history

History of Indian subcontinent

The Kushan Empire (Sanskrit: , Ku Rjavaa; BHS: Gua vaa; Parthian: Kuanxar[3]) was an empire in South Asiaoriginally formed in the early 1st century AD under Kujula Kadphises in the territories of ancient Bactria around the Oxus River (Amu Darya), and later based near Kabul, Afghanistan.[4] The Kushans spread from the Kabul River Valley to defeat other Central Asian tribes that had previously conquered parts of the northern central Iranian Plateau once ruled by the Parthians, and reached their peak under the Buddhistemperor Kanishka (127151), whose realm stretched from Turfan in the Tarim Basin to Pataliputra on the Gangetic Plain."[2] The Kushans were one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation,[5][6] a possibly Tocharian,[7] IndoEuropean[8] nomadic people who had migrated from the Tarim Basin and settled in ancient Bactria.[6] During the 1st and early 2nd centuries AD, the Kushans expanded across the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near Varanasi (Benares), where inscriptions have been found dating to the era of the Kushan emperor Kanishka, which began about 127 AD.[9][10][11] Around 152 AD, Kanishka sent his armies north of theKarakoram mountains. They captured territories as far as Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkant, in the Tarim Basin of modern-day Xinjiang, China. A direct road from Gandhara to China was opened which

remained under Kushan control for more than 100 years. The security offered by the Kushans encouraged travel across the Khunjerab Pass and facilitated the spread of Mahayana Buddhism to China. The Kushan dynasty had diplomatic contacts with the Roman Empire, Sassanid Persia and Han China. While much philosophy, art, and science was created within its borders, the only textual record we have of the empire's history today comes from inscriptions and accounts in other languages, particularly Chinese.[12] The Kushan control fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms in the 3rd century AD, which fell to the Sassanians who targeted from the west. In the fourth century, the Guptas, an Indian dynasty also pressed from the east. The last of the Kushan and Sassanian kingdoms were eventually overwhelmed by the Hepthalites, another Indo-European people from the north.[2]
Contents
[hide]

1 Origins 2 Early Kushans 3 Diverse cultural influences 4 Territorial expansion 5 Main Kushan rulers

o o o o o o o

5.1 Kujula Kadphises (ca. 30 ca. 80) 5.2 Vima Taktu or Sadashkana (ca. 80 ca. 95) 5.3 Vima Kadphises (ca. 95 ca. 127) 5.4 Kanishka I (ca. 127 ca. 140)[citation needed] 5.5 Vsishka (ca. 140 ca. 160) 5.6 Huvishka (ca. 160 ca. 190) 5.7 Vasudeva I (ca. 190 ca. 230)

6 Kushan deities 7 Kushans and Buddhism

7.1 Kushan art

8 Contacts with Rome 9 Contacts with China 10 Decline 11 Main Kushan rulers 12 See also 13 Notes

14 References 15 Further reading 16 External links

[edit]Origins

Listing of Kushan royal tamgas

Chinese sources describe the Guishuang (), i.e. the Kushans, as one of the five aristocratic tribes of the Yuezhi[13] (), with some people claiming they were a loose confederation of Indo-European peoples,[14] though many scholars are still unconvinced that they originally spoke an Indo-European language. "For well over a century, however, there have been many arguments about the ethnic and linguistic origins of the Da Yuezhi (), Kushans (), and the Tochari, and still there is little consensus.[15] The Yuezhi had been living in the arid grasslands of eastern Central Asia's Tarim Basin, in modernday Xinjiang, China, possibly speaking varieties of the Tocharian languages, until they were driven west by the Xiongnu in 176160 BC. The five tribes constituting the Yuezhi are known in Chinese history as Xim ( ), Guishuang (), Shuangmi (), Xidun (), and Dm (). John Keay contextualizes the movements of the Kushan within a larger setting of mass migrations taking place in the region: "Chinese sources tell of the construction of the Great Wall in the third century BC and the repulse of various marauding tribes. Forced to head west and eventually south, these tribes displaced others in an ethnic knockon effect which lasted many decades and spread right across Central Asia. The Parthians from Iran and the Bactrian Greeks from Bactria had both been dislodged by the Sakas coming down from somewhere near the

Aral Sea. But the Sakas had in turn been dislodged by the Yueh-chi who had themselves been driven west to Xinjiang by the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu would not reach India for a long time. But the Yueh-chi continued to press on the Shakas, and having forced them out of Bactria, it was sections or clans of these Yueh-chi who next began to move down into India in the second half of the first century AD."[16] The Yuezhi reached the Hellenic kingdom of Greco-Bactria (in northern Afghanistan and Uzbekistan) around 135 BC. The displaced Greek dynasties resettled to the southeast in areas of the Hindu Kush and the Indus basin (in present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan), occupying the western part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. General Cunningham identified the Kushans as Gurjars or Gujjar.[17] The word Gusur is referenced in the Rabatak inscription of Kushan king Kanishka. According to some scholars the Word Gusur, which means Kulputra or a "man or woman born in high family", in this inscription stands forGurjara.[18][19][20] Gurjars belonging to Kusana or Kasana clan can be found even today in north western India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Gurjars of Central Asia are termed as Gusur (Gujur) even today.

[edit]Early

Kushans

Head of a Kushan prince (Khalchayan palace,Uzbekistan).

Some traces remain of the presence of the Kushans in the area of Bactria and Sogdiana. Archaeological structures are known in Takht-I-Sangin,Surkh Kotal (a monumental temple), and in the palace of Khalchayan. Various sculptures and friezes are known, representing horse-riding archers,[21]and significantly men with artificially deformed skulls, such as the Kushan prince of Khalchayan[22] (a practice well attested in nomadic Central Asia). The Chinese first referred to these people as the Yuezhi and said they established the Kushan Empire, although the relationship between the Yuezhi and the Kushans is still unclear. On the ruins of ancient Hellenistic cities such as Ai-Khanoum, the Kushans are known to have built fortresses. The earliest documented ruler, and the first one to proclaim himself as a Kushan ruler, was Heraios. He calls himself a "tyrant" on his coins, and also exhibits skull deformation. He may have been an ally of the Greeks, and he

shared the same style of coinage. Heraios may have been the father of the first Kushan emperor Kujula Kadphises. The Chinese Hou Hanshu chronicles gives an account of the formation of the Kushan empire based on a report made by the Chinese general Ban Yong to the Chinese Emperor c. 125 AD: "More than a hundred years later [than the conquest of Bactria by the Da Yuezhi], the prince [xihou] of Guishuang (Badakhshan) established himself as king, and his dynasty was called that of the Guishuang (Kushan) King. He invaded Anxi (Indo-Parthia), and took the Gaofu (Kabul) region. He also defeated the whole of the kingdoms of Puda (Paktiya) and Jibin (Kapisha and Gandhara). Qiujiuque (Kujula Kadphises) was more than eighty years old when he died. His son, Yangaozhen [probably Vema Tahk(tu) or, possibly, his brother Sadakaa], became king in his place. He defeated Tianzhu [North-western India] and installed Generals to supervise and lead it. The Yuezhi then became extremely rich. All the kingdoms call [their king] the Guishuang [Kushan] king, but the Han call them by their original name, Da Yuezhi." Hou Hanshu[23][24]

[edit]Diverse

cultural influences

A Buddhist devotee in Kushan dress, Mathura, 2nd century. The Kushan dress is generally depicted as quite stiff, and it is thought it was often made of leather (Francine Tissot, "Gandhara").

In the 1st century BC, the Guishuang (Ch: ) gained prominence over the other Yuezhi tribes, and welded them into a tight confederation under yabgu (Commander) Kujula Kadphises. The name Guishuang was

adopted in the West and modified into Kushanto designate the confederation, although the Chinese continued to call them Yuezhi. Gradually wresting control of the area from the Scythian tribes, the Kushans expanded south into the region traditionally known asGandhara (an area primarily in Pakistan's Pothowar and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region but going in an arc to include the Kabul valley and part of Qandahar in Afghanistan)[citation needed] and established twin capitals near present-day Kabul and Peshawar then known as Kapisa and Pushklavati respectively.

The Kushan writing system used the Greek alphabet, with the addition of the letterSho.

The Kushans adopted elements of the Hellenistic culture of Bactria. They adopted the Greek alphabet to suit their own language (with the additional development of the letter "sh", as in "Kushan") and soon began minting coinage on the Greek model. On their coins they used Greek language legends combined with Pali legends (in the Kharoshthi script), until the first few years of the reign of Kanishka. After that date,[vague][when?][dubious discuss] they used Kushan language legends (in an adapted Greek script), combined with legends in Greek (Greek script) and legends in Prakrit (Kharoshthi script). The Kushans are believed to have been predominantly Zoroastrian.[citation needed] However, from the time of Vima Takto, many Kushans started adopting aspects of Buddhist culture. Like the Egyptians, they absorbed the strong remnants of the Greek Culture of the Hellenistic Kingdoms, becoming at least partly Hellenised. The great Kushan emperor Vima Kadphises may have embraced Saivism, as surmised by coins minted during the period. The following Kushan emperors represented a wide variety of faiths including Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and possibly Saivism (a sect of Hinduism). The rule of the Kushans linked the seagoing trade of the Indian Ocean with the commerce of the Silk Road through the long-civilized Indus Valley. At the height of the dynasty, the Kushans loosely ruled a territory that extended to the Aral Sea through present-day Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan into northern India. The loose unity and comparative peace of such a vast expanse encouraged long-distance trade, brought Chinese silks to Rome, and created strings of flourishing urban centers.

[edit]Territorial

expansion

Sculpture of a spear-throwing foreign soldier, Later Han, Three Kingdoms, 3rd century AD, China.

Rosenfield noted that archaeological evidence of a Kushan rule of long duration is present in an area stretching from Surkh Kotal, Begram, the summer capital of the Kushans, Peshawar the capital under Kanishka I, Taxila and Mathura, the winter capital of the Kushans.[25] Other areas of probable rule include Khwarezm[25] Kausambi (excavations of the Allahabad University),[25] Sanchi and Sarnath (inscriptions with names and dates of Kushan kings),[25] Malwa and Maharashtra,[26] Orissa (imitation of Kushan coins, and large Kushan hoards).[25] Kushan invasions in the first century had been given as an explanation for the migration of Indians from the Indian Subcontinent toward Southeast Asiaaccording to proponents of a Greater India theory by 20th century Indian nationalists. However, there is no evidence to support this hypothesis.[27] The recently discovered Rabatak inscription confirms the account of the Hou Hanshu, Weile, and inscriptions dated early in the Kanishka era (incept probably 127 CE), that large Kushan dominions expanded into in the heartland of northern India in the early 2nd century CE. The lines 4 to 7 of the inscription [28] describe the cities which were under the rule of Kanishka, among which six names are identifiable: Ujjain, Kundina, Saketa, Kausambi,Pataliputra, and Champa (although the text is not clear whether Champa was a possession of Kanishka or just beyond it).[29][30][31] Northward, in the 2nd century AD, the Kushans under Kanishka made various forays into the Tarim Basin, seemingly the original ground of their ancestors the Yuezhi, where they had various contacts with the Chinese. Both archaeological findings and literary evidence suggest Kushan rule, in Kashgar, Yarkand andKhotan.[25] As late as the 3rd century AD, decorated coins of Huvishka were dedicated at Bodh Gaya together with other gold offerings under the "Enlightenment Throne" of the Buddha, suggesting direct Kushan influence in the area during that period.[32]

[edit]Main

Kushan rulers

Offerings found in Bodh Gaya under the "Enlightenment Throne of the Buddha", with an impression of an imitation of a coin of the Kushan emperor Huvishka, 2nd century AD.British Museum.

[edit]Kujula

Kadphises (ca. 30 ca. 80)

"...the prince [elavoor] of Guishuang, named thilac [Kujula Kadphises], attacked and exterminated the four other xihou. He established himself as king, and his dynasty was called that of the Guishuang [Kushan] King. He invaded Anxi [Indo-Parthia], and took the Gaofu [Kabul] region. He also defeated the whole of the kingdoms of Puda [Paktiya] and Jibin [Kapisha and Gandhara]. Qiujiuque [Kujula Kadphises] was more than eighty years old when he died." Hou Hanshu[23] These conquests probably took place sometime between 45 and 60, and laid the basis for the Kushan Empire which was rapidly expanded by his descendants. Kujula issued an extensive series of coins and fathered at least two sons, Sadakaa (who is known from only two inscriptions, especially the Rabatak inscription, and apparently never have ruled), and seemingly Vima Takto. Kujula Kadphises was the great grandfather of Kanishka.

[edit]Vima

Taktu or Sadashkana (ca. 80 ca. 95)

Vima Takto (Ancient Chinese: Yangaozhen) is mentioned in the Rabatak inscription (another son, Sadashkana, is mentioned in an inscription of Senavarman, the King of Odi). He was the predecessor of Vima Kadphises, and Kanishka I. He expanded the Kushan Empire into the northwest of the South Asia. The Hou Hanshu says: "His son, Yangaozhen [probably Vema Tahk(tu) or, possibly, his brother Sadakaa], became king in his place. He defeated Tianzhu [North-western India] and installed Generals to supervise and lead it. The Yuezhi then

became extremely rich. All the kingdoms call [their king] the Guishuang [Kushan] king, but the Han call them by their original name, Da Yuezhi." Hou Hanshu[23]

[edit]Vima

Kadphises (ca. 95 ca. 127)

Vima Kadphises (Kushan language: ) was a Kushan emperor from around 90100 AD, the son of Sadashkana and the grandson of Kujula Kadphises, and the father of Kanishka I, as detailed by the Rabatak inscription. Vima Kadphises added to the Kushan territory by his conquests in Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan. He issued an extensive series of coins and inscriptions. He was the first to introduce gold coinage in India, in addition to the existing copper and silver coinage.

[edit]Kanishka

I (ca. 127 ca. 140)[citation needed]

Kanishka, Gold Dinar, 7.96g, 20mm, MIIPO

The rule of Kanishka, fifth Kushan king, who flourished for about 13 years from c. 127. Upon his accession, Kanishka ruled a huge territory (virtually all of northern India), south to Ujjain and Kundina and east beyond Pataliputra, according to the Rabatak inscription:

The Qila Mubarak fort at Bathinda, India was built by Kanishka.

"In the year one, it has been proclaimed unto India, unto the whole realm of the governing class, including Koonadeano (Kaundiny, Kundina) and the city of Ozeno (Ozene, Ujjain) and the city of Zageda (Saketa) and the city of Kozambo (Kausambi) and the city of Palabotro (Pataliputra) and so long unto (i.e. as far as) the city of Ziri-tambo (Sri-Champa)." Rabatak inscription, Lines 46

His territory was administered from two capitals: Purushapura (now Peshawar in northwestern Pakistan) and Mathura, in northern India. He is also credited (along with Raja Dab) for building the massive, ancient Fort at Bathinda (Qila Mubarak), in the modern city of Bathinda, Indian Punjab. The Kushans also had a summer capital in Bagram (then known as Kapisa), where the "Begram Treasure", comprising works of art from Greece to China, has been found. According to the Rabatak inscription, Kanishka was the son of Vima Kadphises, the grandson of Sadashkana, and the great-grandson of Kujula Kadphises. Kanishkas era is now generally accepted to have begun in 127 on the basis of Harry Falks ground-breaking research.[9][33] Kanishkas era was used as a calendar reference by the Kushans for about a century, until the decline of the Kushan realm.

[edit]Vsishka

(ca. 140 ca. 160)

Vashiska, Gold Dinar, 7.85g, 21mm, OESHO

Vsishka was a Kushan emperor who seems to have a 20 year reign following Kanishka. His rule is recorded as far south as Sanchi (near Vidisa), where several inscriptions in his name have been found, dated to the year 22 (The Sanchi inscription of "Vaksushana" i. e. Vasishka Kushana) and year 28 (The Sanchi inscription of Vasaska i. e. Vasishka) of the Kanishka era.

[edit]Huvishka

(ca. 160 ca. 190)

Huvishka, Gold Dinar, 8.02g, MIIPO

Huvishka (Kushan: , "Ooishki") was a Kushan emperor from about 20 years after the death of Kanishka (assumed on the best evidence available to be in 140 AD) until the succession of Vasudeva I about thirty years later. His rule was a period of retrenchment and consolidation for the Empire. In particular he devoted time and effort early in his reign to the exertion of greater control over the city of Mathura.

[edit]Vasudeva

I (ca. 190 ca. 230)

Vasudeva I, Gold Dinar, 7.79g, OESHO

Vasudeva I (Kushan: "Bazodeo", Chinese: "Bodiao") was the last of the "Great Kushans." Named inscriptions dating from year 64 to 98 of Kanishkas era suggest his reign extended from at least 191 to 225 AD. He was the last great Kushan emperor, and the end of his rule coincides with the invasion of the Sassanids as far as northwestern India, and the establishment of the Indo-Sassanids or Kushanshahs from around 240 AD.

[edit]Kushan

deities

The Kushan religious pantheon is extremely varied, as revealed by their coins and their seals, on which more than 30 different gods appear, belonging to the Hellenistic, the Iranian, and to a lesser extent the Indian world. Greek deities, with Greek names are represented on early coins. During Kanishka's reign, the language of the coinage changes to Bactrian (though it remained in Greek script for all kings). After Huvishka, only two divinities appear on the coins: Ardoxsho and Oesho (see details below). Representation of entities from Greek mythology and Hellenistic syncretism are:

(Helios), (Hephaistos), (Selene), (Anemos). Further, the coins of Huvishka also portray the demi-god erakiloHeracles, and the Egyptian god sarapo Sarapis.

The Indic entities represented on coinage include:

(boddo, Buddha) (metrago boddo, bodhisattava Maitreya) Mo (maaseno, Mahasena) o koo (skando komaro, Skanda Kumara) (shakamano boddho, Shakyamuni Buddha)

The Iranic entities depicted on coinage include:

(ardoxsho, Ashi Vanghuhi) Ao (ashaeixsho, Asha Vahishta) (athsho, Atar)

(pharro, Khwarenah) (lrooaspa, Drvaspa) , (manaobago, Vohu Manah) (mao, Mah) , , , (mithro and variants, Mithra) (mozdooano, Mazda *vana "Mazda the victorious?") , , (variations of pan-Asiatic nana, Sogdian nny, in a Zoroastrian context Aredvi Sura Anahita)

(oado Vata) Oxo (oaxsho, "Oxus") Oooo (ooromozdo, Ahura Mazda) (orlagno, Verethragna) (tiero, Tir)

Additionally,

(oesho), long considered to represent Indic Shiva,[34] but more recently identified as Avestan Vayu conflated with Shiva.[35][36]

Two copper coins of Huvishka bear a 'Ganesa' legend, but instead of depicting the typical theriomorphic figure of Ganesha, have a figure of an archer holding a full-length bow with string inwards and an arrow. This is typically a depiction of Rudra, but in the case of these two coins is generally assumed to represent Shiva.

Images of Kushan worshippers

Kushan worshipper with Zeus/Serapis/Ohrmazd, Bactria, 3rd century CE.[37]

Kushan worshipper withPharro, Bactria, 3rd century CE.[37]

Kushan worshipper with Shiva/Oesho, Bactria, 3rd century CE.[37]

Deities on Kushan coinage

Mahasena on a coin of Huvishka

Four-faced Oesho

Rishti

Shiva[38]

Manaobago

Pharro

Ardochsho

Oesho

Oesho with bull

Skanda and Visakha

Gold coin of Kanishka I, with a depiction of the Buddha, with the legend "Boddo" in Greek script;Ahin Posh

Kushan Carnelian seal representing the "" (adsho Atar), with triratanasymbol left, and Kanishka's dynastic mark right

[edit]Kushans

and Buddhism

An early Mahayana Buddhist triad. From left to right, a Kushan devotee, the Bodhisattva Maitreya, the Buddha, the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, and a Buddhist monk. 2nd3rd century, Gandhara.

Cultural exchanges also flourished, encouraging the development of Greco-Buddhism, a fusion of Hellenistic and Buddhist cultural elements, that was to expand into central and northern Asia.

Kanishka is renowned in Buddhist tradition for having convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir. Kanishka also had the original Gandharivernacular, or Prakrit, Buddhist texts translated into the language of Hybrid Sanskrit. Along with the Indian emperors Ashoka and Harsha Vardhanaand the Indo-Greek king Menander I (Milinda), Kanishka is considered by Buddhism as one of its greatest benefactors.

[edit]Kushan

art

The art and culture of Gandhara, at the crossroads of the Kushan hegemony, are the best known expressions of Kushan influences to Westerners. Several direct depictions of Kushans are known from Gandhara, where they are represented with a tunic, belt and trousers and play the role of devotees to the Buddha, as well as the Bodhisattva and future Buddha Maitreya. During the Kushan Empire, many images of Gandhara share a strong resemblance to the features of Greek, Syrian, Persian and Indian figures. These Western-looking stylistic signatures often include heavy drapery and curly hair,[39] representing a composite (the Greeks, for example, often possessed curly hair). In the iconography, they are never associated however with the very Hellenistic "Standing Buddha" statues (See image), which might therefore correspond to an earlier historical period. The style of these friezes incorporating Kushan devotees is already strongly Indianized, quite remote from earlier Hellenistic depictions of the Buddha:

Kushan art

Kushan prince, making a donation to a Bodhisattva

Kushan costume

Detail of the face of a Kushan devotee

Flaming Buddha with Kushan devotees around Maitreya

Maitreya, with Kushan devotee couple. 2nd century Gandhara

Detail of Kushan devotee

Maitreya, with Kushan devotees, left and right, 2nd century Gandhara

Maitreya, with Indian (left) and Kushan (right) devotees

Kushans worshipping the Buddha's bowl. 2nd century Gandhara

The "Kanishka casket", with the Buddha surrounded by Brahma and Indra, and Kanishka on the lower part, 127

Buddha triad and kneeling Kushan devotee couple. 3rd century

Kushan devotee (Mathura)

Stucco head of a Kushan man. Gandhara

Kushan devotee in the traditional costume with tunic and boots, 2nd century, Gandhara

Butkara stupa under the Kushans.[40]

[edit]Contacts

with Rome

Main article: Roman trade with India

Greco-Roman gladiator on a glass vessel, Begram, 2nd century

Several Roman sources describe the visit of ambassadors from the Kings of Bactria and India during the 2nd century, probably referring to the Kushans.

Coin of the Roman Emperor Trajan, found together with coins of Kanishka at the Ahin PoshMonastery

Historia Augusta, speaking of Emperor Hadrian (117138) tells: Reges Bactrianorum legatos ad eum, amicitiae petendae causa, supplices miserunt "The kings of the Bactrians sent supplicant ambassadors to him, to seek his friendship." Also in 138, according to Aurelius Victor (Epitome XV, 4), and Appian (Praef., 7), Antoninus Pius, successor to Hadrian, received some Indian, Bactrian Hyrcanian ambassadors. "Precious things from Da Qin [the Roman Empire] can be found there [in Tianzhu or Northwestern India], as well as fine cotton cloths, fine wool carpets, perfumes of all sorts, sugar candy, pepper, ginger, and black salt." Hou Hanshu[41] The summer capital of the Kushan in Begram has yielded a considerable amount of goods imported from the Roman Empire, in particular, various types of glassware.

[edit]Contacts

with China

A bronze coin of Kanishka found in Khotan, Tarim Basin

During the 1st and 2nd century, the Kushan Empire expanded militarily to the north and occupied parts of the Tarim Basin, their original grounds, putting them at the center of the profitable Central Asian commerce with the Roman Empire. They are related to have collaborated militarily with the Chinese against nomadic incursion, particularly when they collaborated with the Han Dynasty general Ban Chao against the Sogdians in 84, when the latter were trying to support a revolt by the king of Kashgar.[42] Around 85, they also assisted the Chinese general in an attack on Turpan, east of the Tarim Basin.

The Kushan Buddhist monk Lokaksema, first known translator of Buddhist Mahayanascriptures into Chinese, c. 170.

In recognition for their support to the Chinese, the Kushans requested a Han princess, but were denied,[42][43] even after they had sent presents to the Chinese court. In retaliation, they marched on Ban Chao in 86 with a force of 70,000, but were defeated by a smaller Chinese force.[42][43] The Yuezhi retreated and paid tribute to the Chinese Empire during the reign of the Chinese emperor Han He (89106). Later, around 116, the Kushans under Kanishka established a kingdom centered on Kashgar, also taking control of Khotan and Yarkand, which were Chinese dependencies in the Tarim Basin, modern Xinjiang. They introduced the Brahmi script, the Indian Prakrit language for administration, and expanded the influence of Greco-Buddhist art which developed intoSerindian art. The Kushans are again recorded to have sent presents to the Chinese court in 158159 during the reign of the Chinese emperor Han Huan. Following these interactions, cultural exhanges further increased, and Kushan Buddhist missionaries, such as Lokaksema, became active in the Chinese capital cities of Loyang and sometimes Nanjing, where they particularly distinguished themselves by their translation work. They were the first recorded promoters of Hinayana and Mahayana scriptures in China, greatly contributing to the Silk Road transmission of Buddhism.

[edit]Decline

After the death of Vasudeva I in 225, the Kushan empire split into western and eastern halves. The Western Kushans (in Afghanistan) were soon subjugated by the Persian Sassanid Empire and lost Bactria and other territories. In 248 they were defeated again by the Persians, who deposed the Western dynasty and replaced them with Persian vassals known as the Kushanshas (or Indo-Sassanids). The Eastern Kushan kingdom was based in the Punjab. Around 270 their territories on the Gangetic plain became independent under local dynasties such as the Yaudheyas. Then in the mid-4th century they were subjugated by the Gupta Empire under Samudragupta. In 360 a Kushan vassal named Kidara overthrew the old Kushan dynasty and established the Kidarite Kingdom. The Kushan style of Kidarite coins indicates they considered themselves Kushans. The Kidarite seem to have been rather prosperous, although on a smaller scale than their Kushan predecessors. These remnants of the Kushan empire were ultimately wiped out in the 5th century by the invasions of the Hephthalites, and later the expansion of Islam.

[edit]Main

Kushan rulers

Heraios (c. 1 30), first Kushan ruler, generally Kushan ruling period is disputed Kujula Kadphises (c. 30 c. 80) Vima Takto, (c. 80 c. 95) alias Soter Megas or "Great Saviour." Vima Kadphises (c. 95 c. 127) the first great Kushan emperor Kanishka I (127 c. 140) Vsishka (c. 140 c. 160) Huvishka (c. 160 c. 190) Vasudeva I (c. 190 to at least 230), the last of the great Kushan emperors Kanishka II (c. 230 240) Vashishka (c. 240 250) Kanishka III (c. 250 275) Vasudeva II (c. 275 310)

Vasudeva III reported son of Vasudeva III,a King, uncertain.[citation needed] Vasudeva IV reported possible child of Vasudeva III,ruling in Kandahar, uncertain.[citation needed] Vasudeva of Kabul reported possible child of Vasudeva IV,ruling in Kabul, uncertain.[citation needed]

Chhu (c. 310? 325?)[citation needed] Shaka I (c. 325 345)[citation needed] Kipunada (c. 345 375)[citation needed]

[edit]See

also

Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan Indo-Parthian Kingdom Kucha, another Tocharian-speaking kingdom (with a related etymology)
Classical India

Timeline:

Northwestern India

Northern India

Southern India

Northeastern India

6th century BCE 5th century BCE 4th century BCE

Gandhara

Magadha Shishunaga dynasty

(Persian rule) (Greek conquests)

Pandyas

Indo-Greek Kingdom

Nanda empire Kalinga Maurya Empire Sunga Empire MahaMeghavahana Dynasty

Cholas Cheras Satavahana Empire

Yona

3rd century BCE 2nd century BCE

IndoScythians

Kuninda Kingdom

Varman dynasty Kamarupa kingdom

IndoParthians

Kalabhras dynasty

Pahlava Kushan Empire

Western Satraps Gupta Empire Maitraka Vakataka dynasty

Kadamba Dynasty

Mlechchha dynasty

1st century BCE 1st century CE

Western Ganga Dynasty

Pala dynasty Kamboja-Pala dynasty

IndoSassanids

Vishnukundina Pallava Kalachuri Chalukya Rashtrakuta Yadava dynasty

2nd century 3rd century 4th

Kidarite Kingdom

IndoHephthalites (Huna)

Harsha GurjaraPratihara

Western

century 5th century 6th century 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century 11th century

(Islamic conquests)

Pala Empire Paramara dynasty

Chalukyas

Kakatiya dynasty Hoysala Empire

Kabul Shahi

(Islamic Empire)

Solanki Eastern Ganga dynasty

Sena dynasty

[edit]Notes

1.

^ "The Rabatak inscription claims that in the year 1 Kanishka I's authority was proclaimed in India, in all the satrapies and in different cities like Koonadeano (Kundina), Ozeno (Ujjain), Kozambo (Kausambi), Zagedo (Saketa), Palabotro (Pataliputra) and Ziri-Tambo (Janjgir-Champa). These cities lay to the east and south of Mathura, up to which locality Wima had already carried his victorious arm. Therefore they must have been captured or subdued by Kanishka I himself." "Ancient Indian Inscriptions", S. R. Goyal, p. 93. See also the analysis ofSims-Williams and J.Cribb, who had a central role in the decipherment: "A new Bactrian inscription of Kanishka the Great", in "Silk Road Art and Archaeology" No4, 19951996. Also Mukherjee B.N. "The Great Kushanan Testament", Indian Museum Bulletin.

2.

a b c

"Afghanistan: Central Asian and Sassanian Rule, ca. 150 B.C.-700 A.D.". United States: Library of

Congress Country Studies. 1997. Retrieved 2012-08-16. 3. 4. 5. ^ The Dynasty Arts of the Kushans, University of California Press, 1967, p. 5 ^ Hill (2009), pp. 29, 318350 ^ Runion, Meredith L. (2007). The history of Afghanistan. Westport: Greenwood Press. p. 46.ISBN 978-0313-33798-7. "The Yuezhi people conquered Bactria in the second century B.C.E. and divided the country into five chiefdoms, one of which would become the Kushan Empire. Recognizing the importance of unification, these five tribes combined under the one dominate Kushan tribe, and the primary rulers descended from the Yuezhi."

6.

a b

Liu, Xinrui (2001). Adas, Michael. ed. Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical

history. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-1-56639-832-9. 7. 8. ^ Mallory & Mair (2000), pp. 270297. ^ "They are, by almost unanimous opinion, Indo-Europeans, probably the most oriental of those who occupied the steppes." Roux, p.90 9. ^
a b

Falk (2001), pp. 121136.

10. ^ Falk, Harry (2004), pp. 167176. 11. ^ Hill (2009), pp. 29, 33, 368371. 12. ^ Hill (2009), p. 36 and notes. 13. ^ Yueh-chi or Yeh-chih in other transcriptions, For romanized spelling Yueh-chi see: Keay, p. 110. 14. ^ Kushan Empire (ca. 2nd century BC3rd century AD) | Thematic Essay | Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art 15. ^ Hill (2009), p. 311. 16. ^ Keay, p. 110. 17. ^ University of Calcutta (1885). Calcutta review, Volumes 8081. University of Calcutta. p. 202. "Southern Panjab, and as three Gujar princes were reigning somewhere possibly in the same country more than a hundred years later, General Cunningham thinks that the Kushan and the Gujar may be identical" 18. ^ Dineschandra Sircar (1971). Studies in the religious life of ancient and medieval India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.. pp. 108109. ISBN 81-208-2790-2, ISBN 978-81-208-2790-5. 19. ^ The history of the Gurjara-Pratihras, Edition 2. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. 1986. p. 20. 20. ^ University of Kerala. Dept. of History; University of Allahabad. Dept. of Modern Indian History, University of Travancore, University of Kerala (1963). Journal of Indian history, Volume 41. Dept. of Modern Indian History. p. 284. 21. ^ Lebedynsky, p. 62. 22. ^ Lebedynsky, p. 15. 23. ^
a b c

Hill (2009), p. 29.

24. ^ Chavannes (1907), pp. 190192. 25. ^

Rosenfield, p. 41.

26. ^ For "Malwa and Maharashtra, for which it is speculated that the Kushans had an alliance with the Western Kshatrapas", see: Rosenfield, p. 41. 27. ^ Hall, D.G.E. (1981). A History of South-East Asia, Fourth Edition. Hong Kong: Macmillan Education Ltd.. pp. 17. ISBN 0-333-24163-0. 28. ^ For a translation of the full text of the Rabatak inscription see: Mukherjee, B.N., "The Great Kushana Testament", Indian Museum Bulletin, Calcutta, 1995. This translation is quoted in: Goyal (2005), p.88.

29. ^ For quotation: "The Rabatak inscription claims that in the year 1 Kanishka I's authority was proclaimed in India, in all the satrapies and in different cities like Koonadeano (Kundina), Ozeno (Ujjain), Kozambo (Kausambi), Zagedo (Saketa), Palabotro (Pataliputra) and Ziri-Tambo (Janjgir-Champa). These cities lay to the east and south of Mathura, up to which locality Wima had already carried his victorious arm. Therefore they must have been captured or subdued by Kanishka I himself."see: Goyal, p. 93. 30. ^ See also the analysis of Sims-Williams and J. Cribb, specialists of the field, who had a central role in the decipherment: "A new Bactrian inscription of Kanishka the Great", in Silk Road Art and Archaeology No. 4, 19951996. pp.75142. 31. ^ Sims-Williams, Nicholas. "Bactrian Documents from Ancient Afghanistan". Retrieved 2007-05-24. 32. ^ British Museum display, Asian Art room. 33. ^ Falk (2004), pp. 167176. 34. ^ Sivaramamurti, p. 56-59. 35. ^ Sims-Williams, Nicolas. "Bactrian Language". Encyclopaedia Iranica. 3. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 36. ^ H. Humbach, 1975, p.402-408. K.Tanabe, 1997, p.277, M.Carter, 1995, p.152. J.Cribb, 1997, p.40. References cited in "De l'Indus l'Oxus". 37. ^
a b c

Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibition

38. ^ http://www.coinarchives.com/a/results.php?results=100&search=Vima+AND+Kadphises 39. ^ Birmingham Museum of Art (2010). Birmingham Museum of Art : guide to the collection. [Birmingham, Ala]: Birmingham Museum of Art. pp. 51. ISBN 978-1-904832-77-5. 40. ^ Faccena, p. 77 and following. 41. ^ Hill (2009), p. 31. 42. ^
a b c

de Crespigny, Rafe. (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220

AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. page 5-6. ISBN 90-04-15605-4. 43. ^

Torday, Laszlo. (1997). Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History. Durham: The

Durham Academic Press. page 393. ISBN 1-900838-03-6.

[edit]References

Avari, Burjor (2007). India: The Ancient Past. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35616-9. Bopearachchi, Osmund (2003) (in French). De l'Indus l'Oxus, Archologie de l'Asie Centrale. Lattes: Association imago-muse de Lattes. ISBN 2-9516679-2-2.

Chavannes, douard (1906). Trois Gnraux Chinois de la dynastie des Han Orientaux. Pan Tchao (32 102 p.C.); son fils Pan Yong; Leang Kin (112 p.C.). Chapitre LXXVII du Heou Han chou.. Toung pao 7.

Faccenna, Domenico (1980). Butkara I (Swt, Pakistan) 19561962, Volume III 1 (in English). Rome: IsMEO (Istituto Italiano Per Il Medio Ed Estremo Oriente).

Chavannes, douard (1907). Les pay d'occident d'aprs le Heou Han chou. Toung pao 8. pp. 149244.. Falk, Harry. 19951996. Silk Road Art and Archaeology IV. Falk, Harry. 2001. "The yuga of Sphujiddhvaja and the era of the Kuas." Silk Road Art and Archaeology VII, pp. 121136.

Falk, Harry. 2004. "The Kanika era in Gupta records." Harry Falk. Silk Road Art and Archaeology X, pp. 167176.

Goyal, S. R. "Ancient Indian Inscriptions" Kusumanjali Book World, Jodhpur (India), 2005. Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weile by Yu Huan : A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation. [1]

Hill, John E. (2009). Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE. BookSurge. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1.

Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0. Lebedynsky, Iaroslav (2006). Les Saces. Paris: Editions Errance. ISBN 2-87772-337-2. Rosenfield, John M. (1993). The Dynastic Art of the Kushans. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. ISBN 81-215-0579-8.

Sivaramamurti, C. (1976). atarudrya: Vibhti of iva's Iconography. Delhi: Abhinav Publications. Mallory, J. P.; Mair, Victor H. (2000). The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05101-1.

Roux, Jean-Paul, L'Asie Centrale, Histoire et Civilization (French), Fayard, 1997, ISBN 978-2-213-59894-9

[edit]Further

reading

Dorn'eich, Chris M. (2008). Chinese sources on the History of the Niusi-Wusi-Asi(oi)-Rishi(ka)-Arsi-ArshiRuzhi and their Kueishuang-Kushan Dynasty. Shiji 110/Hanshu 94A: The Xiongnu: Synopsis of Chinese original Text and several Western Translations with Extant Annotations. Berlin. To read or download go to: [2]

Foucher, M. A. 1901. "Notes sur la geographie ancienne du Gandhra (commentaire un chaptaire de Hiuen-Tsang)." BEFEO No. 4, Oct. 1901, pp. 322369.

Hargreaves, H. (191011): "Excavations at Shh-j-k Dhr"; Archaeological Survey of India, 191011, pp. 2532.

Harmatta, Jnos, ed., 1994. History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Paris, UNESCO Publishing.

Konow, Sten. Editor. 1929. Kharoshth Inscriptions with Exception of those of Asoka. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. II, Part I. Reprint: Indological Book House, Varanasi, 1969.

Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996. History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Paris, UNESCO Publishing.

Liu, Xinru 2001 "Migration and Settlement of the Yuezhi-Kushan: Interaction and Interdependence of Nomadic and Sedentary Societies." Journal of World History, Volume 12, No. 2, Fall 2001. University of Hawaii Press, pp. 261292. [3].

Sarianidi, Viktor. 1985. The Golden Hoard of Bactria: From the Tillya-tepe Excavations in Northern Afghanistan. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. New York.

Sims-Williams, Nicholas. 1998. "Further notes on the Bactrian inscription of Rabatak, with an Appendix on the names of Kujula Kadphises and Vima Taktu in Chinese." Proceedings of the Third European Conference of Iranian Studies Part 1: Old and Middle Iranian Studies. Edited by Nicholas Sims-Williams. Wiesbaden. 1998, pp. 7993.

Spooner, D. B. 19089. "Excavations at Shh-j-k Dhr."; Archaeological Survey of India, 19089, pp. 3859.

Watson, Burton. Trans. 1993. Records of the Grand Historian of China: Han Dynasty II. Translated from the Shiji of Sima Qian. Chapter 123: "The Account of Dayuan," Columbia University Press. Revised Edition. ISBN 0-231-08166-9; ISBN 0-231-08167-7 (pbk.)

Zrcher, E. (1968). "The Yeh-chih and Kanika in the Chinese sources." Papers on the Date of Kanika. Basham, A. L., ed., 1968. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 346393.

___________________________________

1. Panel Fragment with the God Shiva/Oesho Kushan Empire Bactria 3rd century CE Terracotta gouache(http://www.flickr.com/photos/mharrsch/823991736/) (http://www.nupam.com/kushan1.html) 2. Kushan Empire. Vima Kadphises. c. 100-127/8 AD. Distater, 15.95g. Obv: BACIC ooHMoKAICHC Draped bust of the king facing right on cloud,

holding club in right hand, far shoulder flaming. In upper left field, tamgha. Rx: Shiva standing facing, head turned left, holding trident in right hand. Behind him, bull Nandi standing right. In upper left field, nandipada.. cf. Gobl 20. EF. (http://coincircuit.com/Closed_Coin_Auction/showitems.php?dirname=Closed_Coin_ Auction&class=Coin&sale_id=1577&start_print=350) 3. Panel with the god Zeus/Serapis/Ohrmazd and Worshiper Kushan Empire Bactria 3rd century CE Terracotta gouache(http://www.flickr.com/photos/44124324682@N01/823128783/) (http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/ZeusSerapisOhrmazdWithWorshi pperBactria3rdCenturyCE.jpg) 4. kyamuni Buddha protected by the Demigod Hercules - Gandhara 2nd century CE (http://platonic-buddhist.org/) 5. Excavated Buddha statue dating back to Kushan empire (http://www.flickr.com/photos/29868194@N08/2796005579/) 6. Head of a Kushan prince (Khalchayan palace, Uzbekistan) (http://www.ask.com/wiki/Kushan_empire) 7. Standing Bodhisattva - 2nd3rd century A.D. - India (Pakistan), ancient region of Gandhara, Kushan period - (c. 50 B.C.A.D. 320) - Gray schist(https://www.kimbellart.org/Collections/CollectionsDetail.aspx?P=&TypeID=&Focus=&cid=8385&prov=true&cons=) ___________________________________

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BRZn1ffNndY

*** Cosmopolitanism of the Kushan Regime

The Kushans built one of the most intriguing political power in world history. Contemporary to the Roman Empire and the Han Empire, across millenniums around the Common Era, this regime lasted more than three hundred years counting from its dominance at Bactria around the beginning of the first century BCE to the its submission to the Sassanian Empire in the third century CE. At the apex of imperial expansion, the Kushan Empire encompassed a large territory from Central Asia to South Asia. Yet the Kushan regime was probably among the least understood ancient empires in world history. Scholars who study various aspects of the Kushan culture have encountered many insurmountable difficulties to set up a historical frame, chronologically and geographically, for the empire. When arriving at Bactria from the steppe, the nomadic Yuezhi people who later established the Kushan regime had not developed a written language to record their history yet. When ruling a large agricultural empire, the Kushans managed to hold many different peoples with different languages, religions, and cultures under its power for several centuries, but never established a unified official language to record its history. Though the multiple cultures under the Kushan Empire make the study of Kushan history difficult, this very cosmopolitanism of the regime should invite more discussions and interpretations of the political experiment by a people from the steppe. The Origin of the Kushans The Kushans who built the Kushan Empire were not indigenous to Afghanistan. The Kushana was one branch of the Yuezhi people who migrated from Central Asia. The Yuezhi people, like many other nomads lived in Central Asia, once formed a formidable steppe state but migrated westward after being defeated by a more powerful nomadic group, the Xiongnu. According to Chinese historian Sima Qian, there were 100,000 to 200,000 horse-riding archers, or fighters, in the Yuezhi tribe during the second century BCE. Yet they were overpowered by the Xiongnu confederacy, which boasted about more than 300,000 horse-riding archers. Though defeated, a branch of the Yuezhi, probably a major branch, invaded then sedentary agricultural society in Afghanistan and became rulers there. Nomadic peoples who resided on the border of agricultural China often maintained hostile relationship with China as they frequently made incursions to farm lands to loot agricultural products. The Yuezhi people, on the contrary, were known to Chinese as skillful traders from antiquity. The Yuezhi was first known to Chinese as the supplier of

jade in the first millennium BCE. Ancient economist Guan Zhong (c. d. 645 BCE) referred to the name of Yuzhi or Niuzhi as a people who sold jade to Chinese. Ancient Chinese rulers and nobles were very fond of jade, but jade often had to come from faraway places. The jade artifacts, more than 750 pieces, excavated from the tomb of Fuhao of the Shang Dynasty were made from rough jade from Khotan in modern Xinjiang. The Shang kings did not have direct access to the jade of Khotan. The Yuezhi people, during the time as early as the mid-first millennium BCE, probably did. Wherever the source of the jade of that time, the Yuezhi people were agents of jade trade, and their consumers were rulers of agricultural China. The Yuezhi was the major supplier of horses during the third century BCE, when Xiongnu became a real threat to the border of the Chinese empire. In dealing with the incursion of the horse riding nomads from the north, mainly the Xiongnu, cavalry was most important. Securing the supply of horses was a great concern of the First Emperor of the Qin Dynasty. Good horses, however, must have come from the steppe where the vast grassland provides the environment for breeding and training. Chinese agricultural societies who needed horses and other draft animals had to obtain them from the pastoral peoples. During the Qin Dynasty (221-207 BCE), the conflicts with the Xiongnu who caused the great endeavor of building the Great Wall created demand rather the supply for horses. The Yuezhi tribe, which was still powerful on the steppe and kept a friendly trading relationship with Chinese rulers, was naturally the provider for horses. According to Sima Qian, a chief named Lou of the Wuzhi was the major horse supplier of the First Emperor. Wuzhi was another variation of Yuezhi in archaic Chinese. The chief traded horses and cattle for silks then resold silks to other chiefs of the steppe. It was said that Lou made ten times profit out of his principle in this trade and became very rich. The First Emperor was so pleased with his services that granted him a very high status that he could join ministers in the court for the emperors audience. If Sima Qians record is reliable, we may consider the Yuezhi as the very people who initiated the Silk Road trade. While redistributing silks to tribes on the steppe, they stimulated the silk-horse transactions as well as the fame of silk products--yarn, floss and textiles--from China around the third century BCE. Meanwhile, the Yuezhi sold so many horses to China for silk, the reputation of their horses spread to sedentary societies. The fame of Yuezhi horses was not limited in China but spread to the entire Central

Asia. A Sogdhian writer from the third century CE once said in his geographical book that while China was famous for its numerous people, and Rome was famous for its numerous treasures, the Yuezhi was famous for its numerous horses. This reputation of the Yuezhi probably prompted the Emperor of the Han Dynasty, Han Wudi, sent Zhang Qian to the west to seek the alliance with Yuezhi in the warfare against the Xiongnu. When the Xiongnu made Chinese pay them silks, food grains and other products of agricultural societies, the Han court heard the news of the animosity between the Xiongnu and the Yuezhi. Meanwhile, remembering the more friendly transactions between the Yuezhi and Chinese, the Han emperor naturally assumed that the Yuezhi should be his ally against the Xiongnu. Zhang Qian could not convince the Yuezhi, who already settled at the fertile bank of the Oxus, to fight with the Xiongnu again. But the Han China finally found the Yuezhi who lost from the sight for several decades and resumed the exchanges of goods. The Yuezhi and China continuously exchanged information and goods after the failed mission of Zhang Qian. At a newly discovered site of a border fortress near Dunhuang, archaeologists found a document recording supply of food to the envoys of the Yuezhi. The document (DQ. C:39) was dated around the later first century BCE, when China was under the Former Han empire, and the Kushan was already a powerful sedentary state around north Afghanistan. A wood slip of Chinese inscriptions from the Niya site in Chinese Central Asia, dated to the Former Han, also reveal that the communications between the Yuezhi and the Han court continued. The Chinese inscriptions on the wood slip state that the king of Dawan was helping an envoy from the Great Yuezhi to write this letter. Some of the characters are illegible, but the remain characters inform us that the Great Yuezhi wanted to receive an ambassador from the Han court, and complained that they were harassed by (the Xiongnu?). Those communications took place before the Yuezhi -Kushans invaded north India and established the vast empire, but already settled at north Afghanistan. That they continued to correspond with the Han court, but refused to be involved in the military conflicts with the Xiongnu as requested by the Han, was to continue the trading relationship. Meanwhile, the Han rulers had been watching the politics of Central Asia and the progress of settlement of the Yuezhi kingdom. They knew that after the Yuezhi conquered Daxia, the region was controlled by five Xihou, or principals. The Kushans, one of them, unified the five parts into a single kingdom, which developed into a powerful and affluent empire. The rulers of this kingdom called themselves Kushana

now. But Chinese writers and travelers, according the History of the Later Han, continued to call them the Yuezhi in the traditional way. The place name Daxia probably was a Chinese transliteration of Tuharan, the name of an Indo-European language or the people who spoke the language. The Yuezhi-Kushan people were Tuharan speakers, but might not be the only Tuharan speakers of the time. This region, i.e., north Afghanistan and part of Uzebekistan, was called Bactria by Greeks, as one of the Hellenistic regimes after Alexanders invasion. That the Hellenistic Bactria changed to Daxia even before the Kushan crossed the Oxus River indicates the possibility that Tuharans were already there before the conquest of the Yuezhi. While the headquaters of the Yuezhi migrated to Daxia, many former subjects or members remained along the routes, living in various colonies. Those who stayed in their homeland of the Tianshan foothills called themselves the Little Yuezhi. The migrations of branching out of the Yuezhi tribes left many place names which echoed the sound of Tuharan along the Central Asian routes. Meanwhile, encounters with other groups, whether friendly or hostile, might have recruited new members to the fold of the Yuezhi. The encounters between the Yuezhi and the Xiongnu, the Yuezhi and the Wusun, another nomadic group, might have changed ethnic elements of the Yuezhi people. Therefore when the Yuezhi people arrived at Daxia and created the Kushan regime, they were not necessarily a homogenous ethnic group but a people represented various cultures from the Central Asian steppe. The Kushan Empire The Yuezhi-Kushan, proud, affluent horse riding people skillful in both fighting and trading, established a powerful regime in north Afghanistan. There were 100,000 soldiers among the population of 400,000 in total. However, the land they just conquered had a much larger population with a high civilization. Whether the Daxia before the conquest of the Yuezhi-Kushans was already ruled by other Tuharan speakers or still by Greeks, the country South of the Oxus was a sedentary agricultural country. There were walled cities and houses. Yet, similar to Greece, there was no one great sovereign for the entire country. Instead cities often had their own chiefs. The population of Daxia was very large, might be more than one million. Therefore, the encounter of the Kushans and the Bactrian-Daxia was not an event of a handful warlike nomads descending on an agricultural society, but a meeting of two substantial populations of different high cultures.

Before the arrival of the Tuharans, north Afghanistan kept frequent contacts with West Asia and the Mediterranean. Though this region was once under the rule of Achaemenid Persia, when the Yuezhi-Kushan arrived in the second century BCE, the dominant cultural influence was probably Hellenistic. Actually, Hellenistic influence stretched to a much larger area than Bactria-- south down to Gandharan region in modern Pakistan and east to Samarkand in modern Uzbekistan. The beautiful city goddess excavated from Charsada, the site of ancient Purushapura, one of the Kushan capitals near modern Peshawa in Pakistan, demonstrates that Hellenistic influence persisted even under the Kushan rule. Not only the artistic style of the sculpture but also the city-wall crown of the goddess, the symbol of the patron deity of a city, provide evidences of Hellenistic nature of the city. Excavations at Ai-Khanoum, the site on the southern side of the Amu Darya or the Oxus River in Greek, demonstrate a comprehensive picture of Greek life--a theater, a gymnasium, temples, and a palace. The palace was not only the residence of the ruler, but also the administration center and treasuries. The very presence of a palace meant the city was the capital of a sovereign state. According to the Chinese records of the political structure of the region, this should be one of the many city-states in Daxia. The entrance of Tuharan speaking people to the Hellenistic region created a special combination of urban life, viticulture and equestrian culture. There is no record about the actual process of the conquests of Bactria by the Yuezhi or other Tuharans. In spite of the destruction caused by invasions, as in the case of Ai Khanoum, some Greek cities might have remained for quite a long time and Greek architecture might have continued to function under the Kushans, according to a Chinese sources: The Great Yuezhi is located about seven thousand li north to India. Their land is at a high altitude; the climate is dry; the region is remote. The king of the state calls himself the son of the heaven. Riding horses in that country are always as numerous as some hundred thousands. City layouts and Palaces are quite similar to those of the Romans (Da Qin). Skin color of people there is reddish white. People are skillful at horse archery. Local products, rarities, treasures, clothing and upholstery are very good, even India cannot compare with it. Although it is difficult to verify the sources of this record about the Kushans as the quoted book is perhaps lost, this picture looks very much like a former Hellenistic country ruled by horse riding Kushans. The climate and location look like north

Afghanistan; kings of the Kushans did call themselves devaputra, meaning son of heaven or son of god. The Kushans owned numerous good horses and kept nomadic skills and cultures. Yet they ruled a country with quite a population of Greeks and other immigrants from the Mediterranean that it is possible that architecture of the country kept the Greco-Roman style which looked similar to the Roman style in Chinese eyes, and that people looked fairer than Indians to the south and some other Central Asian population to the east. East of the Kushan kingdom, the powerful state of Dawan in modern Ferghana was also a land of cities, agriculture and good horses. There were seventy cities populated by several hundred thousands people in the second century BCE. According to the History of the Former Han, people in Dawan shared similar custom and style with the Yuezhi. Furthermore, Dawan was famous for its grape wine and horses. Rich households stored more than ten thousands shi (barrel?) of grape wine which would not deteriorate for several decades. It seems that viticulture was well developed there. Grape wine was a symbol of Hellenistic influence. Ferghana might have experienced Hellenization before Tuharan speakers took over. The name Dawan was also a variation of Tuharan. The horses of Dawan were so famous that Wudi sent two major military expeditions to defeat the king and obtained the horses. Now the Yuezhi lived in Daxia, further from China than Dawan. Their major trading item with the Han probably was no longer horses as used to be. They controlled resources not only of Central Asia, but also those from South Asia and even the Mediterranean. Excavations at Tillya-tepe, a site in modern Afghanistan dated around the first century BCE to the first century CE, revealed tombs of Kushan royal members fabulously rich with burial goods. The excavated six tombs probably buried princes and princesses of the Yuezhi-Kushan. Most of the buried items are in gold. The more than 20,000 gold pieces include vessels, plates, buckles, and small decorative pieces of clothing. Artistic expressions of the tomb items show that the new rulers of Bactria quickly accepted art works and styles of neighboring sedentary peoples while maintaining customs from the steppe. While a bronze mirror was obviously Chinese and some ivory carvings were obvious[ly] Indian, most golden art works show either steppe animal design or the Bactrian Hellenistic influence. The rule in Afghanistan and later on in South Asia facilitated further transformation of the Kushans. After the Kushan army crossed the Hindu Kush and occupied north Indian

plain, their territory included parts of both Central Asia and South Asia, thus controlled the crucial sector of the Silk Road, and benefited tremendously from the trade traffic. The excavation at Begram, the site of the ancient city Kapisa, revealed an even more divers variety of wealth. Begram, not far from modern Kabul city, was probably a summer palace of the Kushan Empire after the court moved into India. The palace treasury with 150 years occupation from the first century CE held artistic works from the Mediterranean, South Asia and East Asia. The trading skill of Yuezhi-Kushan people since the days of their wandering on the steppe had now been well paid. In addition to horses, wine was a symbol of high culture under the early Kushan regime. When selling Chinese silk, Indian precious stones, Himalaya fragrances and other rarities to Roman traders, Kushans imported wine from the Mediterranean. Shards of amphora with residue of wine have been found at sites associated with Roman trade. Supply to the Kushan territory mostly came through Red Sea trade of the Roman Empire. The manual of navigation on the Red Sea by Periplus recorded Roman marketing wine to the port of Baryagaza, a port on the mouth of the Indus River, and Barbaricum, a port in the Gulf of Cambay. Amphora shards have been found at the Saka-Parthian level of Sirkap, the second site of Taxila, and under the level of the Red Polished Ware, and Ksatrapa coins at Elephanta, an island of shore of Bambay. The Mediterranean Grape wine, used to be the major export of Greek states, now in the hands of Roman traders. But it was the Greeks who brought viticulture and the taste for grape wine to all their colonies a few centuries ago created the market in India, at least in the northwest region. While Tuharans or Yuezhi-Kushans accepted wine drinking as a high culture, the Bactrians and Indians accepted horse riding as a high culture. There are numerous bacchanalian scenes appearing on Gandharan Buddhist artworks. It is difficult to understand why that Buddhism as a religion denouncing desires for material things could tolerate, or admire, the joy of intoxication. Leaving aside the theological interpretations of the drinking scenes, the background of a prosperous viticulture and prestige associated with wine drinking may be helpful in understanding this topic of Buddhist art. That the nomadic Yuezhi who transformed into the Kushans happened to choose the routes passing Hellenistic countries to enter South Asia did enriched their cultures from that direction. Persian cultural influence also presented in Bactria. Though the Achaemenid rule in

Daxia finished by the invasion of Alexander, Persian religious traditions survived or even flourished under the Hellenistic period. In the typical Hellenistic site of Ai Khanoum, while the official deities on coins were Greek, all three temples in the vicinity were not for Greek gods but perhaps altars for fire worship. Greek religion was not monotheist thus Hellenistic cities might have tolerated other deities in their pantheon while maintaining Greek art style. Therefore, when the Yuezhi-Kushan or other nomadic people came in, Zoroastrian cult did not disappear in Hellenistic Bactria. The Kushans were very willing to embrace cults and religious practices of the conquered peoples. Religious tolerance and diversity of the region itself also made the Kushans adopt various cults available to them. Religions under the Kushans The Kushan Empire is famous for the abundant religious art works, especially sculptures. Even sculptures of kings and princes were found in religious settings. Thus one may say that the dynastic art was a part of religious art. Meanwhile, religious cults appeared on the coinsthe dynastic symbolto indicate religious devotion of a particular king. A variety of gods and cults were documented on Kushan coins - the Sumerian goddess Nana on her lion, Persian gods Oado and Atash, Indian cults of Buddha and Shiva. Zoroastrian fire worship left many remains. When the Kushans entered South Asia, they encountered both Brahmanism and Buddhism, and cults of both religions appeared on Kushan coins. Among the various religious art works, Buddhist art, both Gandharan school and Mathuran school, achieved highest level under the Kushans. Hellenistic impact of the Gandharan Buddhist art is well known. However, the art works, and the Buddhist institutions that managed the execution of the works, developed mostly under the patronage of the Kushans who came from the steppe. It seems the rulers from the steppe did not hold any particular religion as their state religion. Various rulers favored different cults as shown on the coins of the patron rulers. Yet religious institutions performed a crucial function under the Kushan rule. The Kushan rulers patronized religious cults to claim their legitimacy of ruling the conquered sedentary societies - the Central Asian territory influenced by Persian religions, the Hellenistic Bactria, and Brahmanical and Buddhist South Asia. The foremost source of their legitimacy was no doubt the claim of divinity of their kingship. Rulers of Kushans

called themselves the Son of the God or the Son the Heaven. Its translation in Chinese was the same as the appellation of a Chinese emperor, which caused speculations about Yuezhi-Kushans relationship with Chinese. However, worship of the heaven has prevailed in many tribes on the steppe. Kushans probably, just like other tribes, claim the legitimacy of the chief from the divinity of the heaven. While the faith of the divine origin of their kingship was never shaking, the Kushan rulers might have changed the name of their divine father. The family temple ( devakula in Sanskrit) of the Kushan royal family was where patron deity or deities of the Kushans should be worshipped. Two devakulas so far discovered, one at Surkh Kotal in South Bactria (Afghanistan) and another one at Mat near Mathura in north India. The devakulas contained sculptures of Kushan rulers Kanishka and others. The statues of Kanishka from Mat and Surkh Kotal are very similar. The temple at Surkh Kotal was built by Kanishka, as testified by an inscription (sk 4). Two other statues have not been identified, but one inscription (sk2) refers to an earlier king Vima Kadphises. Among the statues from Mat, there were probably a statue of Vima Kadphises and one of Huvishka, a king later than Kanishka, so that the two devakulas might have existed in the same time frame. No detail of architecture is available from the excavations of Mat. The temple at Surkh Kotal is Bactrian Hellenistic in style. Six of the seven inscriptions are written with Greek letters but a local Prakrit dialogue. The inscriptions from Mat were in Karoshthi script and Prakrit language of Mathura region. With the statues of Kushan rulers in the temples, the question is whether they were objects of worship or rather represented the patrons of the temple, which was a common religious practice in Central Asia and South Asia. Based on the excavations, Fussman argued that the deities were worshiped in the Surkh Kotal temple were not the Kushan rulers themselves. The temples were called devakula because they serve the Kushan royal family. A more recently discovered inscription of the Kushan ruler Kanishka may shed lights on the function of devakula. The inscription was found at Rabatak, not far from Surkh Kotal. It was about building a temple, housing both deities and kings. The deities in this case were two Zoroastrian gods, Sroshard and Narasa, and the kings were the three ancestors and Kanishka himself. The presence of statues of Kushan rulers in the temple stresses the close relationship between the deities, whoever they were, and the ruling clan. Though there was not an official state religion, Buddhism was no doubt the dominant one and received greatest patronage from the Kushan rulers. Several Buddhist

monasteries were named after Kushan rulers, such as Kanishkas monastery, Huvishkas Monastery etc. Kushan rulers were famous for their patronage of Buddhism not only India. Buddhist literature eulogized Kanishka as a royal patron second to the Mauryan king Ashoka. Though the legend of Kanishka sponsored the fourth conference of the Buddhist sangha could not be verified by royal inscriptions, Buddhism and Buddhist art flourished under the Kushan regime demonstrates the popularity of the religion. The Gandharan Buddhist art is heavily Hellenistic and Roman in style, but one should not neglect the impact of nomadic culture. Statues of the Buddha in Kushan times often stand with two feet pointing outside, a typical posture of horse-riding people. The well-known Kushan coin of Kanishka from the reliquary deposit of the stupa of Ahin-Posh near Jalalabad is an example. The image of Buddha on the obverse face is a typical nomadic Buddha. Numerous votive inscriptions under the Kushan regime often name Kushan rulers as beneficiaries of the merits from the donation. Under the Kushan rule the center of Buddhist activities moved from the mid and lower Ganges plain to the northwest region of South Asian subcontinent. The legend of the begging bowl of the Buddha and numerous other objects attracting pilgrims appeared in the northwest during the Kushan period. The Kushans brought fortune to northwest region of South Asia, not only through trade, but also by promoting religious activities. The Kushan Empire was also responsible for the spread of Buddhism to China. It was also under the Kushan period Buddhist preachers with the surname Zhi appeared in Luoyang and other major cities of China. The images of the Buddha and Buddhist patrons, with strong Bactrian-nomadic Kushan flavor, were executed on boulders at Kongwangshan on the east coast of China around the end of the second century CE. The connections to the steppe people, and the tolerance and patronage of multiple religions made the Kushan Empire the most efficient agent of propagating Buddhism. Cosmopolitanism of the Kushan Regime While the modern world of sedentary societies often look down upon nomads as inferior, a nomadic people some two thousand years ago not only indulged themselves in the high cultures of silk, wine, fragrances and other exotics from the Chinese, Greeks, Romans, Persians and Indians, but also imposed the equestrian culture, the high culture from the steppe, to the sedentary societies under their rule. It is worthwhile to ponder how the Kushans could reach the political cohesion that made the cultural achievements under their regime possible. The Kushan period left little records of the administration of

the empire but numerous religious inscriptions. Those inscriptions recorded donations and patronage of religious institutions -Buddhism, Brahmanism, Jainism etc. - by the Kushan rulers and nobles, and more often, by their subjects. Whether voluntarily or obligatory, the donors and patrons of the ruled society referred the dates of the reigns and offered to share the religious merits gained from the donations with the rulers. As little as we know, there is no evidence of religious conflicts or rebellions against the rulers. In stead, there are abundant evidences of religious prosperity and expansion, of flourishing commerce and urban life. One may speculate that Kushan subjects did attribute some of their fortune to the rulers who ruled with a cosmopolitan vision.