Tristan Corbiere and The Poetics of Irony

OXFORD MODERN LANGUAGES
AND LITERATURE MONOGRAPHS

Editorial Committee
c. u. cii iii x i. x. ; iiiii\s a. xaux
x. x. xoui x. i. xciaucuii x
i . w. i. xaciiax i. a. c. iiaisox
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Tristan Corbi
`
ere
and the Poetics
of Irony
KATHERINE LUNN- ROCKLIFFE
CLARENDON PRESS OXFORD
1
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Data available
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Lunn-Rockliffe, Katherine, 1974 -
Tristan Corbi` ere and the poetics of irony / Katherine Lunn-Rockliffe.
p. cm. (Oxford modern languages and literature monographs)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 9780199295883 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0199295883 (alk. paper)
1. Corbi` ere, Tristan, 18451875Criticism and interpretation. 2. Irony in
literature. I. Title. II. Series.
PQ2211.C32Z748 2006 841
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Typeset by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India
Printed in Great Britain
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Acknowledgements
I wou i o like to thank the Arts and Humanities Research Board for
funding the doctoral research on which this book is based, and Hertford
College, Oxford, for a Baring Senior Scholarship which assisted the
preparation of the thesis. I am indebted to St Annes College, Oxford,
rst for awarding me a Fulford Junior Research Fellowship, which
enabledme to complete the book, andsecondly for continuing to support
me while I held a British Academy Postdoctoral Research Fellowship, in
the course of which the nal manuscript was delivered. I am extremely
grateful to Jim Hiddleston for supervising the original project and
for offering continued guidance. I would also like to thank Malcolm
Bowie, Patrick McGuinness, Anne Holmes, and Roger Pensomfor their
valuable support and feedback, and Rachel Killick and Steve Murphy
for commenting on earlier versions. I owe much to Lisa Downing, Ed
Welch, Ruth Cruickshank, and Miranda Gill for their discussions and I
thank them for their constant encouragement. Special thanks are due to
Nicola Thomas, Wanda Wyporska, Sophie Ratcliffe, Ian Sheehy, and
Sophie Lunn-Rockliffe. This book is dedicated to my parents.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
Note on References viii
Introduction 1
1. Voice-Defying Lyricism 11
2. Describing Brittany: Multiple Perspectives 52
3. Portraits of the Artist: Ironizing Irony 93
4. Thought-Feeling: The Language of Sensation 131
5. Rondels pour aprs: Circular Suggestion 171
Conclusion 216
Appendix: An early draft of Veder Napoli poi mori 220
Bibliography 221
Index 231
Note on References
I have used the Pliade edition of Corbires uvres compltes, ed.
Pierre-Olivier Walzer, in Charles Cros, Tristan Corbire: uvres compltes
(Paris: Gallimard, 1970). Quotations from poems in Les Amours jaunes
are simply followed by line numbers given in the text. Where reference
is made to other material in the Pliade edition, it is identied by the
abbreviation OC. All italics in the quotations are Corbires own.
Introduction
Tuis study of Tristan Corbi` eres poetry aims to showhowhis innovative
use of irony contributed to the general revolution in poetic language
that marked the 1870s. Corbi` eres idiosyncratic blend of oral diction,
quotation, and self-contradiction is often overlooked in mainstream
literary histories, but it is at the root of what Edmund Wilson calls
the conversational-ironic branch of Symbolism, inuencing Laforgue
in the 1880s, and Pound and Eliot in the twentieth century. This
tradition is often overshadowed by the parallel current of serious-
aesthetic poetry exemplied by Mallarm e,` but irony can create effects
as oblique and indeterminate as the more rareed forms of pure poetry.
Like his contemporaries such as Rimbaud, who are so often classed as
Symbolists, Corbi` ere is strictly speaking a precursor of the Symbolist
movement proper. His single published volume, Les Amours jaunes,
appeared in 1873, well before the movement gathered force in the
1880s, and was written in isolation from other originators. He is often
seen as the archetypal poète maudit, a misunderstood outsider in revolt
against conventions, and his brief but colourful life certainly fuels this
myth. However, his originality lies in the way he subverts the clich es of
the poète maudit and inscribes marginality in the very language of his
verse, which Huysmans describes as ` a peine francais.`
Irony lies at the heart of Corbi` eres aesthetic of defamiliarization
and operates at all levels from verbal wit to cosmic pessimism. During
the nineteenth century, irony emerged as a hallmark of modernity,
and in the process became far more than a mere trope. In its many
guises it remains a dening feature of Western culture, so Corbi` eres
use of irony to explore the spiritual void and the crisis-ridden sub-
ject still seems profoundly modern at the start of the twenty-rst
century. He nonetheless continues to perplex readers, bearing out Ezra
Edmund Wilson, Axels Castle (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1948), 96.
` Ibid. ` J.-K. Huysmans,
`
A rebours, Folio (Paris: Gallimard, 1977), 306.
2 Introduction
Pounds assertion that the ironist is one who suggests that the reader
should think. Corbi` eres writing systematically opposes the normal
recuperative strategies used by readers, and thus raises questions about
the function of irony and how one should read poetry. There is a
wealth of theoretical tools now available to tackle the ambiguities of
both irony and poetry, but the two things tend to be seen as mutu-
ally exclusive. Philippe Hamon has called for the relationship between
poetry and irony to be debated in more precise terms, noting that
lyric is a genre and irony a posture d enonciation, and underlin-
ing that irony has been an important ingredient in lyric poetry ever
since Baudelaire. This book pinpoints the workings of Corbi` eres par-
ticular blend of the lyric and the ironic, and outlines a method of
reading such verse. Rather than explaining Corbi` eres incongruities as
the expression of a troubled subjectivity, it takes the difculty posed
by irony as a starting point and shows how he uses it to manipulate
the reader.
Corbi` eres poetry represents a challenge to the literary competence of
readers. It problematizes representation and violates normal syntax in
ways which can seemreckless. His prosodic freedomand anti-intellectual
force have fuelled charges of amateurism, and critics have shied away
from a poet who did not theorize outside his verse; Corbi` ere left no
aesthetic manifesto or Lettre du voyant to shed light on his aims.
However, the lack of explanatory material has not deterred subsequent
poets, and Corbi` ere is very much a poets poet, admired by Modernists
and Surrealists alike. Indeed, the story of his critical reception overlaps
with that of his inuence on later poets, particularly in the Anglo-Saxon
world. Having been championed by Pound and Eliot, he continues
to inuence poets working in English, who are frequently drawn to
translate his verse.
Ezra Pound, Make it New: Essays by Ezra Pound (London: Faber, 1934), 171.
Philippe Hamon, Sujet lyrique et ironie, in Le Sujet lyrique en question, ed.
Dominique Rabat e, Jo elle de Sermet, and Yves Vad e (Presses Universitaires de Bordeaux,
1996), 1925 (19).
Ibid. 25. Few letters from his adulthood have survived.
One of Eliots early poems is a sonnet in French entitled Tristan Corbi` ere,
included in T. S. Eliot, Inventions of the March Hare: Poems 19091917, ed. Christopher
Ricks (London: Faber, 1996), 88. For translations of Corbi` ere, see Val Warner, The
Centenary Corbière: Poems and Prose of Tristan Corbière (Cheadle Hulme: Carcanet,
1974); Christopher Pilling, These Jaundiced Loves: A Translation of Tristan Corbières Les
Amours jaunes (Calstock: Peterloo Poets, 1995); Peter Dale, Wry-Blue Loves: Les Amours
jaunes and Other Poems (London: Anvil, 2005). Translations of Corbi` ere poems are also
included in Robin Skelton, The Dark Window (Oxford University Press, 1962).
Introduction 3
Despite this posthumous appreciation, his work passed almost
unnoticed in his own lifetime, he was not part of a poetic coterie,
and had little social contact with other writers. Contemporary readers
appear to have been bafed by Les Amours jaunes; the only three reviews
known to have appeared at the time of its publication all struggle with its
strangeness, originality, realism, and disregard for prosodic rules. These
reviewers all query the sincerity of the work. One reads it as a direct
expression of its author, but remarks that if it were after all contrived
it would be a tour de force. Another argues that la franchise est
pouss ee jusqu` a la rudesse as the author mocks everything but that the
humour conceals tragedy. The third concludes that Corbi` ere could
not have believed in any of what he had written, and that the book
is un plaidoyer contre les exag erations de l ecole moderne. All of
these concerns are still relevant, as are remarks on the discomfort of
the reading experience; the second reviewer confesses nos yeux ont lu
plus dun passage qui na rien dit ` a notre intelligence and the third
declares je sors de la lecture des Amours jaunes le cerveau affreusement
fatigu e.
Apart from these perplexed responses, Les Amours jaunes was over-
looked during its authors lifetime and only rescued from oblivion ten
years after its original publication, when Verlaine included Corbi` ere
in his sketches of Poètes maudits, alongside Mallarm e and Rimbaud.`
Verlaines comments inuenced subsequent reception of Corbi` ere, and
his distinction between the Paris and Brittany poems established a
dichotomy which has preoccupied critics ever since. Even more astute
commentary was provided by Laforgue, whose notes on Corbi` ere
offer valuable insights into the poetic techniques of his predecessor.`
Laforgues own poetry was inuenced by Corbi` ere, and a heated debate
about this debt was sparked by the publication of Les Complaintes. It
was claimed that Laforgue had in these dissonant poems merely pouss e
Les Amours jaunes, La Renaissance artistique et litteraire, 2/38 (26 Oct. 1873), 304.
Repr. in Francis F. Burch, Sur Tristan Corbière (Paris: Nizet, 1975), 969.
M. de Vaucelle, Chronique, LArtiste (1 Nov. 1873). Reproduced in Jean-Louis
Debauve, Autour de la publication des Amours jaunes, La Nouvelle Tour de feu, 1113
(1985), 5577 (702).
Anon., Les Amours jaunes, par Tristan Corbi` ere, LArt universel (1 Nov. 1873).
Reproduced in Debauve, Autour de la publication des Amours jaunes, 726.
` Paul Verlaine, Les Poètes maudits, in uvres en prose complètes, ed. Jacques Borel,
Pl eiade (Paris: Gallimard, 1972), 63343.
` Jules Laforgue, Une etude sur Corbi` ere, Entretiens politiques et litteraires, 2/16 (July
1891), 213 (7).
4 Introduction
jusqu` a lextravagance le proc ed e de lauteur des Amours jaunes, but
Laforgue retorted that he had only read Verlaines article after writing
Les Complaintes, and underlined the differences between Corbi` ere and
himself: Corbi` ere a du chic et jai de lhumour; Corbi` ere papillotte et je
ronronne; je vis dune philosophie absolue et non de tics. However,
Laforgues own notes on Corbi` ere are perceptive, and offer a useful
starting point for a study of his language. A later generation of admirers
included Eliot and Pound, who both acknowledged Corbi` eres inu-
ence on their own work and whose comments on his poetry offer useful
insights. Not only did these early commentaries ensure that Corbi` ere
was not forgotten, but their emphasis on formal aspects is a valuable
complement to the biographical avour of many early responses. These
relied heavily on Ren e Martineaus anecdotal account of Corbi` eres short
life, a tantalizing concoction of anguish and rebellious pranks which has
acquired the status of myth.
In recent years, Corbi` eres reputation as an amateurish iconoclast has
been eclipsed by the recognition of his innovative craft. In publishing
the rst major critical work devoted to Corbi` ere, Sonnenfeld put
questions about structure, psychology, tradition, and innovation on the
critical agenda, and over the last three decades the formal dimension
has come under closer scrutiny. Whereas Sonnenfeld still emphasized
Corbi` eres spontaneity, Angelets valuable survey of stylistic innovations
established that the poetry is carefully crafted d epo etisation moving
towards a po esie nouvelle. Pauline Newman-Gordons analysis of
the psychology of painful laughter opened up the question of irony
as an aesthetic strategy, and made way for studies of the mask.
MacFarlanes substantial study of the poetic persona brings out the
ctionality of this self-representation,` and Marshall Lindsays sensitive
L.-G. Mostrailles (pseudonym for L eon Epinette and Georges Rall), Les Quais de
demain, Lutèce, 4 (916 Aug. 1885), 2. Repr. in Burch, Sur Tristan Corbière, 1069.
Jules Laforgue, Lettre, Lutèce, 4 (411 Oct. 1885. Repr. in Burch, Sur Tristan
Corbière), 1501.
Ren e Martineau, Tristan Corbière (Paris: Le Divan, 1925).
Albert Sonnenfeld, Luvre poetique de Tristan Corbière (Paris: Presses Uni-
versitaires de France, 1960).
Christian Angelet, La Poetique de Tristan Corbière (Brussels: Palais des Acad emies,
1961). Michel Dansel uses a similar taxonomy to emphasize Corbi` eres modernity in
Langage et Modernite chez Corbière (Paris: Nizet, 1974).
Pauline Newman-Gordon, Corbière, Laforgue, Apollinaire ou le rire en pleurs (Paris:
Nouvelles

Editions Debresse, 1964).
` Keith H. Macfarlane, Tristan Corbière dans Les Amours jaunes (Paris: Minard,
1974).
Introduction 5
analysis shows how his poses do not conceal a unied subject but reveal
its multiformity.` Robert Mitchell presents Corbi` ere as a master-joker
in an accessible account of the way his playful rhetoric expresses serious
themes.`` Jean-Marie Gleize argues for a metapoetic reading, seeing Les
Amours jaunes as a rigorously crafted exploration of the poets condition
which reveals the impossibility of communication.`` Serge Meitinger
shows how poems range from straight denunciation of Romanticism
to a complete breakdown of conventional form.` Elisabeth Aragons
excellent analysis of Corbi` eres polyphony sketches the potential value
of considering it in Bakhtinian terms.` Hugues Laroche suggests that
the narrator gradually disappears in the course of the volume, as the
impasse of personal lyricism gives way to a proliferation of speakers
in the Brittany poems, and emphasizes the ultimate drive towards
silence.`
Whereas earlier critics tended to regard Corbi` eres dislocation as an
involuntary attempt to resolve a problem of personal identity, recent
ones have viewed it as an expression of artistic sterility or failure of
language itself. This study aims to explain rather how the striking
expressive force is an effect resulting from the self-conscious use of
language. It shows how the contradictions work as performance and
process, rather than anchoring them in either the authors biography or
in critical notions of impersonality. It integrates semiotic approaches,
Bakhtinian dialogism, and Anglo-American methodologies in order to
suggest a way of reading Corbi` ere. The clutch of poems not included
in Les Amours jaunes are taken into account,` but examples are mainly
drawn from the volume as originally published. Particular emphasis
is given to a neglected part of his output: the Rondels pour apr` es.
Reading with attention to ironic nuance reveals the sophistication of
these poems, and thus alters the way one views the corpus as a whole.
` Marshall Lindsay, Le Temps jaune: Essais sur Corbière (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1972).
`` Robert L. Mitchell, Tristan Corbière (Boston: Twayne, 1979).
`` Jean-Marie Gleize, Poesie et guration (Paris: Seuil, 1983).
` Serge Meitinger, LIronie antiromantique de Tristan Corbi` ere, Litterature, 51
(1983), 4158.
` Elisabeth Aragon, Tristan Corbi` ere et ses voix, in Voix de lecrivain: Melanges
offerts ` a Guy Sagnes, ed. Jean-Louis Caban` es (Toulouse: Presses Universitaires du Mirail,
1996), 179200.
` Hugues Laroche, Tristan Corbière, ou les voix de la corbière (Paris: Presses Uni-
versitaires de Vincennes, 1997).
` Collected in OC.
6 Introduction
Despite the limited size of the corpus, the extreme density of
Corbi` eres poetry demands close scrutiny. The striking thing about
Les Amours jaunes is its difculty, and although it is tempting to explain
this as a consequence of a troubled life or as a sign of ultimate mean-
inglessness, it needs to be taken as the starting point for reading. It
is helpful at this stage to distinguish between types of difculty, of
which George Steiner identies four. First, contingent difculties are
lexical and aim to be looked up.` Corbi` ere certainly requires diligence
in this respect, and, whilst the annotations in Aragon and Bonnins
edition are an invaluable source of references,` scouring dictionaries
and reference books has proved to illuminate still more of the bafing
jokes. I have identied additional intertextual references and collected
lexical information which throws light on the poems (particularly for the
Rondels pour apr` es). Steiners second kind of difculty, which he terms
modal, arises when the reader is faced with texts of an alien sensibility
and cannot judge their taste and seriousness.` Corbi` ere anticipates the
twentieth century in both his radical doubt and his colloquial style, and
has himself inuenced modernist authors, so this is less of a hurdle. Any
difculty in judging his seriousness arises as much from his extensive
use of Steiners third kind of difculty, termed tactical, created by
an author choosing to be obscure, to deepen our apprehension by
dislocating and goading to new life the supine energies of word and
grammar.` These three classes of difculty all arise within a contract
of ultimate or preponderant intelligibility between poet and reader, but
a fourth class, of ontological difculty, occurs when this contract is
itself broken. It questions the nature of human speech and the status of
signicance.`` Recent readings have tended to emphasize this aspect at
the expense of the others, and nothing becomes a nal term in which
to ground all the uncertainties. However, the difculty of Corbi` eres
poetry is very much a process, and constantly forces the reader to look
at things afresh, with every poem establishing a new set of bearings.
Irony is the guiding term of this study, considered at all levels from
verbal trope to view of the world. In Corbi` eres hands irony is not just
a tool of negation but an oblique way of saying many things at once.
Ambiguity certainly poses a challenge to the contract between poet and
` George Steiner, On Difculty and Other Essays (Oxford University Press, 1978), 40.
` Les Amours jaunes, ed. Elisabeth Aragon and Claude Bonnin (Toulouse: Presses
Universitaires du Mirail, 1992).
` Steiner, On Difculty, 29. ` Ibid. 40. `` Ibid. 401.
Introduction 7
reader but, far fromjust questioning the possibility of communication, it
invites us to view open-endedness as an afrmative liberation. Although
focusing on the slippery concept of irony is a risky enterprise, it is
the best way to examine the nuts and bolts of Corbi` eres language.
Theories of irony by critics as diverse as Mikhail Bakhtin, Vladimir
Jank el evitch, Wayne Booth, and Philippe Hamon all illuminate his
self-conscious writing. Bakhtins attention to polyphony is particularly
useful, since Corbi` eres irony is closely linked to a lively use of quotation
and a strong sense of a speaking voice. Although Bakhtin was analysing
prose novels, his view is appropriate to Corbi` eres particular citational
brand of poetry.`` It also emphasizes parallels with novelistic techniques
such as dialogue, quotation, and indirect discourse. Lilian Furst, who
examines these techniques closely, points out that the rise of the novel
was conducive to the blossoming of irony.` However, irony also feeds
extensively into poetry. John Porter Houston suggests that Corbi` eres
poetry, like that of Rimbaud and Laforgue, uses techniques being
developed by novelists,` and the parallels with prose ction need to
be explored in more detail. It is signicant that the work identied by
Gustave Kahn as coming closest to Les Amours jaunes, in its depiction
of a subject striving to sinscrire lui-m eme en notations pr ecises sans se
couvrir de philosophie ni de symbole,` is Rimbauds Une saison en enfer
(which also dates from 1873) and which uses polyphonic prose. The
Rimbaud text has been illuminated by readings which disentangle the
multiple voices,` and since this sort of approach has also proved fruitful
in readings of Laforgue, something similar is necessary for Corbi` ere.`
To showhowCorbi` eres irony operates within a specically lyric context,
`` Mikhail Bakhtin, Problems of Dostoevskys Poetics, ed. and trans. Caryl Emer-
son (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984).
` Lilian R. Furst, Fictions of Romantic Irony in European Narrative, 17601857
(London: Macmillan, 1984), 44.
` John Porter Houston, French Symbolism and the Modernist Movement: A Study of
Poetic Structures (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980), 59.
` Gustave Kahn, Tristan Corbi` ere, La Nouvelle Revue, 29 (15 July 1904),
2717 (275).
` See Margaret Davies, Une saison en enfer dArthur Rimbaud: Analyse du texte,
Archives des lettres modernes, 155 (Paris: Minard, 1975); Yoshikazu Nakaji, Combat
spirituel ou immense deraison? Essai danalyse textuelle dUne saison en enfer (Paris: Corti,
1987); Danielle Bandelier, Se dire et se taire. Lecriture dUne saison en enfer dArthur
Rimbaud (Neuch atel: La Baconni` ere, 1988).
` See Anne Holmes, Jules Laforgue and Poetic Innovation (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1993) and Jean-Pierre Bertrand, Les Complaintes de Jules Laforgue: Ironie et
desenchantement (Paris: Klincksieck, 1997).
8 Introduction
I drawon Bakhtins insights in conjunction with theories of poetry, such
as the semiotic approach of Riffaterre, which brings out the non-mimetic
quality of Corbi` eres language. The kind of close reading undertaken by
Anglo-American poetry critics such as Christopher Ricks and William
Empson stands as exemplary practice for the reader determined to home
in on ambiguities, and is particularly valuable for a poet who has always
fascinated speakers of English.
There are a number of reasons why the book does not fall into
neat self-contained chapters. A structure based purely on chronology is
ruled out by the difculty of dating poems exactly, even if we have a
general understanding of the genesis. Furthermore, critics have always
made much of the contrast between poems set in Paris and those set
in Brittany, but similar techniques are used in both, and I look at the
interconnections as well as the differences. A purely thematic structure
is inappropriate, since the interest of the material lies in the way style is
used to problematize subject matter. There is a temptation to control this
unsettling material by classifying it, and there are a number of studies
which usefully catalogue elds such as literary and religious inuences,
geographical locations, and animals.` However, since Corbi` eres irony
involves the manipulation of relationshipsbetween words, subjects,
and valueshe makes it difcult for us to seize on positive terms.
His poetry evades classication and subverts conventional categories, so
it seems imperative to avoid reducing it to a taxonomy, and to trace
instead the way it makes readers explore gaps. Because I am analysing
discontinuities, it would defeat the object to base chapters on articial
categories. Instead, each chapter pinpoints a realm of experience and
explores an associated set of formal features.
While such dense poetry demands close attention to detail, I have
tried to steer between the two extremes of, on the one hand, listing
quantities of microscopic examples taken out of context, and, on the
other hand, merely presenting a series of close readings. The danger of
the rst system is that by reducing the verse to a list of devices one
loses any sense of poems as whole structures, and the danger of the
second is that one loses a sense of the parallels and interconnections
` Analysed respectively in Francis F. Burch, Tristan Corbière: Loriginalite des Amours
jaunes et leur inuence sur T. S. Eliot (Paris: Nizet, 1970); Michel Dansel, Tristan Corbière:
Thematique de linspiration (Lausanne: L
Age dHomme, 1985); Fabienne Le Chanu,

Tristan Corbi` ere: Le bestiaire corbi erien des Amours jaunes, doctoral thesis, University
of Rennes II, 1993.
Introduction 9
between disparate texts. Each chapter therefore tackles a particular
set of problems across a selection of thematically linked poems, and,
because each poem is so different from all the others, selected examples
are examined in some detail. Reading Corbi` ere presents a particular
challenge, because each poem creates its own terms, forcing the reader
to evaluate each speaker and assess that speakers perspective. This makes
it difcult to sum up Corbi` eres aesthetic without overgeneralizing or
making him sound more like Baudelaire than he really is. Laforgues
notes, despite containing the comment that Corbi` ere contains pas la
moindre trace [. . .] de Baudelairien, sound remarkably similar to
his notes on Baudelaire, which perhaps tells us more about the later
poets own preoccupations than anything else. However, although many
of Corbi` eres general structures and themes resemble Baudelaires, the
texture of his language is very different, and it is through close reading
that his originality can be most clearly demonstrated.
The rst chapter gives an overview of Les Amours jaunes as a whole,
and shows how Corbi` eres poetry challenges both the conventional
codes of verse and habitual ways of reading irony. His irony is inex-
tricably bound up with his use of literary quotations and living speech,
and, in order to explore the dynamics of this relationship, I establish
a conceptual framework that draws on diverse theories of irony, dia-
logue, and intertextuality. The rst chapter establishes a set of tools
for reading Corbi` ere, and identies the fundamental strategies which
underlie his distracting rhetorical surface. Each of the remaining four
chapters pinpoints a specic set of ironic strategies, and examines a
group of poems which deploy them. The second chapter tackles the
more representational outwardly focused Brittany poems. It focuses on
descriptive techniques in these early texts to show how dialogue and
polyphony developed out of observation. The third chapter focuses on
self-irony in the representation of the artists Parisian poses, exploring
how Corbi` ere stages comic personae to convey both the artists self-
division and his problematic relationship with metropolitan and artistic
environments. The fourth explores how the indirect discourse of irony
is used to articulate sensory experience and the inner life, particularly
in the love poems, before examining how the disparity between ideas
and feelings has metaphysical scope. The fth chapter draws attention
to the little-known sequence of rondels, which fuse the key themes of
art, death, and love by combining all the different techniques already
Une etude sur Corbi` ere, 6.
10 Introduction
analysed. Their irony takes the form of subtle ambiguity, and represents
the culmination of Corbi` eres ironic aesthetic.
The book thus examines the different techniques of polyphony and
irony used to distance the speaker, moving from the more straightfor-
ward to the more complex. It follows the accepted view that the order
of Les Amours jaunes does not reect the chronology of its composition,
that the Brittany poems were written rst and the rondels last. Therefore,
after the overview given in the rst chapter, the book is roughly chrono-
logical in that the second chapter deals with the earliest poems, the fth
chapter with the latest ones, and the intervening chapters with those
written in between. It thus suggests that Corbi` eres style developed over
time. Woven into this sequential structure is an account of the shifting
opposition of subject and world. This line of argument leads from
general accounts of subjectivity and external description in Chapters 1
and 2 respectively, to an analysis of how the artist is at odds with the
world in Chapter 3. Chapters 4 and 5 then explore ways in which the
interface between subject and world becomes increasingly uid in the
more visionary poems.
1
Voice-Defying Lyricism
Tui title of Les Amours jaunes, the sole volume published in Corbires
lifetime (1873), sums up the paradoxical nature of his work as a whole.
Amours promises a prototypical lyrical collection and alludes to noble
antecedents, but the pejorative jaunes immediately undercuts any
expectations of harmony. Yellow literally qualies the love as jaundiced
and unhealthy, but also connotes venality and jealousy, for it could
refer to coins used to purchase sexual favours, or the expression tre
peint en jaune, meaning to be cuckolded. Above all, the title gives
the rire jaune, the bitter forced laughter of someone pretending to
nd something funny when it is not. This reference to ambivalent
humour hints at the predominant tone of the volume as a whole,
while the juxtaposition of incongruous terms encapsulates its heteroclite
style.
These paradoxes make it difcult to decide what sort of a book
this is. Its inscrutability is compounded by the lack of an aesthetic
manifesto and the uncertainty over its genesis. The strong sense of
a speaking voice and representation of a troubled subjectivity are
characteristic of the lyric, understood in the Romantic sense of a direct
expression of the inner self, and have tempted some commentators
to see the book as an expression of the authors brief but colourful
life. However, the comic personae, farcical anecdotes, self-referential
manoeuvres, puns, and constant shifts in mood are humorous traits
more usually found in prose, dramatic monologue, popular song, or
satire. As the title Les Amours jaunes signals, the work is a fusion of
lyric and comic elements. Its internal tensions need to be seen in the
context of a widespread experimentation with such hybrid forms at the
time.
12 Voice-Defying Lyricism
THE LI TERARY CONTEXT
In the course of the nineteenth century the boundary between high
literature and more ephemeral humorous writings was gradually being
eroded. Baudelaires poetry represents a milestone in introducing irony
into serious lyric verse, and his aesthetic of surnaturalisme et ironie
paved the way for the experiments of Corbires generation. Like all
his contemporaries, Corbire had clearly immersed himself in Les Fleurs
du mal, and he acknowledges his debt to Baudelaire by parodying him.`
Corbires verse also owes something to Banvilles virtuoso use of comic
rhyme in the Odes funambulesques. However, he was not acquainted
with contemporaries such as Rimbaud, Verlaine, Germain Nouveau,
and Charles Cros, and would not have known the parodic verse that
they were circulating amongst themselves in the early 1870s.` The ironic
spirit also manifests itself in published collections like Cross Le Coffret
de santal, which appeared in the same year as Les Amours jaunes. Irony
was clearly very much in lair du temps, and Corbires verse exhibits
many of the stylistic strategies used by his contemporaries. He was not
the only one of his generation to have independently developed the
poetic possibilities of irony, for Lautramont had produced Les Chants
du Maldoror (1869) in a similar isolation.
What unites these diverse poets in their anti-poetic experiments
is that they were reacting against the Romantic view of poetry as
inspiration. Corbires most blatant irony is directed at the excesses of
Romantic lyricism; poems like Le Fils de Lamartine et Graziella deride
its inated rhetoric, sentimental tone, and autobiographical themes.
Such antipathy to Romantic modes had long been commonplace, the
shortcomings of poetry as a spontaneous expression of strong feelings
had been intensely debated, and poets of all kinds were exploring more
impersonal modes of writing. Baudelaires intervention was once again
pivotal in this respect; in his critical writing he attacks les fatalistes
de linspiration and amateurs du dlire, and praises instead Poes
detached calculation of the elements required to produce a desired
Charles Baudelaire, uvres compltes, Pliade (Paris: Gallimard, 1976), ii. 658.
` Bonne fortune et fortune and La Pipe au pote parody Baudelaires une
passante and La Pipe respectively.
` See the Album zutique. Baudelaire, uvres compltes, ii. 335.
Ibid. 343.
Voice-Defying Lyricism 13
effect. Baudelaires predilection for imagination over passion, and his
careful crafting of language, enabled him to evoke emotions precisely
and with ironic distance. His emphasis on creation as a controlled
exploration of language inuenced all the poets of the 1860s, including
Mallarm and even Verlaine, whose early essay on Baudelaire rails
against lInspiration ce trteau.
This poetic ferment coalesced in the so-called Parnassian movement,
whose emphasis on impersonal description and formal perfection still
held sway at the time Corbire was writing. Its empty formalism is
directly mocked in Les Amours jaunes, for instance I Sonnet avec la
manire de sen servir ironically tells us it was written by numbers and
playfully parades the stultifying effect of such verse. It was commonplace
to deride the Parnassians; poems like Rimbauds Ce quon dit au pote
propos des eurs mock their articial style, and the press caricatured
Parnassian poets as impassibles to the extent that the epithet parnassien
itself became a term of abuse. Their brand of impersonality was
nonetheless an inuential part of the general reaction against Romantic
lyricism. Leconte de Lisle, one of the leading Parnassian poets, used the
preface to his Pomes antiques to sum up the impasse, as early as 1852.
He laments the vanity and limited scope of personal confession, and in
particular the sterile efforts of new poets recycling clichs and taking up
well-worn postures.
Corbire did not write any manifesto of this kind, but his ironization
of Romantic and Parnassian forms is a way of participating in the debate,
as noted by the contemporary critic who describes Les Amours jaunes
as a plaidoyer contre les exagrations de lcole moderne. Voices
of many of these other kinds of poet invade Les Amours jaunes and
Corbire enters into dialogue with them. He exaggerates the failings
of his predecessors to generate humour and to underline his own
originality. However, the literary landscape was more complex than this
Poe declared that we need severity rather than eforescence of language. We must
be simple, precise, terse. We must be cool, calm, unimpassioned. In a word, we must be
in that mood which, as nearly as possible, is the exact converse of the poetical. Edgar
Allan Poe, Complete Poems and Selected Essays, ed. Richard Gray, Everyman Library
(London: Dent, 1993), 158.
Charles Baudelaire, in uvres en prose compltes, 599612 (605).
See Catulle Mends, La Lgende du Parnasse contemporain (Brussels: Brancart,
1884), 89.
C.-M. Leconte de Lisle, Prface des Pomes Antiques (1852), in Articles, Prfaces,
Discours, ed. Edgard Pich (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1971), 10736.
Les Amours jaunes, par Tristan Corbire, LArt universel (1 Nov. 1873).
derision might suggest. The Parnassians were a diverse crowd and by
no means all anti-Romantic. Romanticism itself was far from being a
monolithic entity and had froman early stage conveyed disenchantment
using oblique strategies: Mussets verse is shot through with irony, Ptrus
Borel makes it impossible to pin down the self, and even Hugos extreme
uency conceals many of the discontinuities that later poets bring into
the open. To some extent, every writer creates his own predecessors,
and Corbire singles out the Romantics as the butt of his humour
and exaggerates their bombast and sentiment in order to emphasize
his revolt. Similarly, Poes attack on inspiration was an exaggeration
calculated to valorize his own aesthetic, as Baudelaire acknowledges,`
and Leconte de Lisles attack on Romanticism was not only a poetic
programme but a polemic act which raised his prole in the literary eld.
Corbires attack on his predecessors, then, is not in itself original, but
the multi-layered quality of his irony is something new. By making it dif-
cult to establish what his position is, he makes the problem of deciding
what sort of poetry to write his theme, and thereby reveals the com-
plexity of the literary landscape. Corbires use of irony and polyphony
is one way of avoiding the pitfalls of emotionalism and thus achieving
impersonality. It is part of the general nineteenth-century drive towards
poetic impersonality, which was to culminate in Mallarms dispari-
tion locutoire du pote.` Les Amours jaunes effects self-effacement by
means of self-irony, in statements like Cest bien moi, je suis l mais
comme une rature, and interpretations sensitive to modern theoret-
ical notions of impersonality have highlighted the preoccupation with
emptiness which haunts the book. Les Amours jaunes is certainly the
product of a culture haunted by a spiritual void, but rather than referring
all its contradictions to a nal term of silence or failure, it is necessary
to analyse how the effect of self-cancellation is produced by the tension
between comic and lyric forms. Before outlining a conceptual framework
which offers a way of reading this hybrid poetry, I shall rst consider
the difculties posed by the construction of the volume as a whole.
For an analysis of Hugos polyphony see Pierre Albouy, Hugo, ou le Je clat,
Romantisme, 1 (1971), 5364, and Ludmila Charles-Wurtz, Potique du sujet lyrique
dans luvre de Victor Hugo (Paris: Champion, 1998).
` uvres compltes, ii. 335, 343.
` Crise de vers, Stphane Mallarm, uvres compltes, ed. Bertrand Marchal, Pliade
(Paris: Gallimard, 2003), ii. 211.
Le Poete contumace, 80.
See Meitinger, LIronie antiromantique de Tristan Corbire; Laroche, Tristan
Corbire, ou les voix de la corbire; Gleize, Posie et guration.
LES AMOURS J AUNES: THE BOOK AND I TS
STRUCTURE
Lyric collections tend not to be highly structured, Les Fleurs du mal
being the exception rather than the norm, but Les Amours jaunes plays
with its own architectural possibilities. It is divided into seven loosely
thematic sections in the following order: a reects on the work and
the poet, Les Amours jaunes illustrates the fraught relations between
the sexes in a series of bitter love poems, Srnade des Srnades stages
the failed communication between a serenader and the object of his
attentions, Raccrocs is an eclectic mix of witty anecdotes and sub-
stantial reective poems, Armor describes Corbires native Brittany,
Gens de mer evokes the life of sailors, and the Rondels pour aprs
condense elements of the preceding sections into a ghostly evocation of
the afterlife. It has often been pointed out that the order of these sections
traces a progression from negativity towards positivity. The two poles
tend to be equated with the thematic opposition between Paris, which
dominates the rst four sections, and Brittany, which takes up the next
two. This duality has preoccupied Corbire critics ever since Verlaine
noted the contrast between the Corbire parisien [. . .] le Ddaigneux
et le Railleur de tout et de tous, and the Breton bretonnant de la
bonne manire. Verlaine himself favoured the latter, and opinion has
subsequently been polarized along the lines of his antithesis. Approaches
range from those claiming Corbire as a regional poet, to those cham-
pioning the Parisian poems as a hotbed of technical innovation. Others
construct global schemes to account for the duality; Sonnenfeld sees
in Les Amours jaunes a moral structure contrasting the worlds of Paris
and Brittany, symbols for damnation and salvation respectively. He
argues that Paris is criticized for isolating individuals while Brittany is
idealized for its human solidarity and pervasive religion.` However, the
geographical opposition does not account for the travel poems or the
Baudelaire wrote to Vigny le seul loge que je sollicite pour ce livre est quon
reconnaisse quil nest pas un pur album et quil a un commencement et une n.
Correspondance, ed. Claude Pichois, Pliade, 2 vols. (Paris: Gallimard, 1973), 196.
Barbey dAurevilly famously wrote about the architecture secrte of the volume. The
structure was exaggerated for the purposes of Baudelaires trial; it was argued that poems
representing immorality needed to be read in the context of an overall moral design.
Les Potes maudits, 639. Ibid. 641.
Luvre potique de Tristan Corbire, 120. ` Ibid. 60.
Rondels pour aprs, and there is a continuity between the two principal
settings. Both the urban environment with its chance encounters and
the rugged Breton landscape dramatize the existential isolation of the
individual. As Andr Breton says of the Brittany poems, Le dandysme
baudelairien est ici transpos en pleine solitude morale, dans lombre
de lossuaire de Roscoff.` Just as individual lines lack a grammatical
centre and poems lack a psychological centre, the work has no real
geographical heartland. The yellow love of the title encompasses both
the self-deprecating jealous love of women, and the affection for the
Landes jaunes dArmor.`` Even Armor, the Celtic name for Brittany
(meaning by the sea), reinforces the continuity between the two parts
by echoing the consonants of amour.
The puzzle of the works design is compounded by the lack of external
material to illuminate its genesis.`` The received view is that the order
of the sections does not reect the chronology of their composition.`
Armor and Gens de mer are thought to have been written in Brittany
between 1862 and 1871 (although mainly between 1868 and 1871),
and the preceding sections after 1871, when Corbire is supposed to
have fallen in love with the actress he called Marcelle, and after which he
spent much of his time in Paris. The Rondels pour aprs are thought
to have been composed shortly before the publication of Les Amours
jaunes in 1873. There is little reason to depart from this received view,
which, although often associated with the contrast between Paris and
Brittany, is also plausible at the level of style. The juvenilia which have
survived indicate that Corbire started writing parodic verse in his lyce
years.` The burlesque humour of a conscientious schoolboy seems
to have been gradually rened into a more attenuated intertextuality,
culminating in the subtle irony of the Rondels pour aprs. However,
it would be mere speculation to attempt to date the poems and recreate
the process of composition.` The development would seem not to have
` Andr Breton, Anthologie de lhumour noir (Paris: Pauvert, 1966), 265.
`` Cris daveugle, 50.
`` Although Jean-Louis Debauve has usefully traced the circumstances and chronology
of the books publication, and discredited the myth that the frres Glady were publishers
of pornography, in Autour de la publication des Amours jaunes, La Nouvelle Tour de
feu, 578.
` Approximate dates of composition are suggested by Martineau, Le Dantec, and
Sonnenfeld, and summarized by Walzer in OC 699.
` For instance, amongst the juvenilia, Ode aux Dperrier is a parody of Malherbe.
` Some commentators have proposed such theories. In Le Temps jaune, Marshall
Lindsay suggests that Corbire began with realism, discovered Baudelaire, but was unable
been straightforwardly linear, and the derisive style of the posthumous
poems suggests that Corbire reverted to less oblique techniques after
the rondels.` As each poemis so individual, it is difcult to group poems
belonging to identiable phases, and the predilection for hybrid forms
suggests that Corbire experimented with different sorts of poem simul-
taneously, and was more interested in amalgamating categories than in
perfecting specic genres. The integrity of Les Amours jaunes needs to be
considered in the light of its genesis, for many of the poems could have
been written well before any overall plan existed. Some may date fromas
early as 1862, although most of them were probably composed between
1869 and 1873. The book does not trace a poetic apprenticeship nor
were its constituent parts written according to a pre-determined scheme.
The resolutely non-chronological order suggests that the assembly of
the volume was a creative act adding its own meanings.
This self-conscious structuring is underlined by the volume of fram-
ing material. Laroches reading emphasizes the concentric symmetrical
structure of the book.` The Marcelle preface and postface poems
form the outermost layer, the introductory rst section a is mirrored
by the concluding section Rondels pour aprs. The central section
Raccrocs begins and ends with poems stating a philosophy of life. The
key text Litanie du Sommeil is at its centre, and therefore forms the
kernel of the book as a whole. Indeed, the amount of framing material
threatens to eclipse and even repeat the work itself, so the opposition
between external frame and work within is broken down. This blurring
is reinforced by the stylistic self-consciousness, since poems located at
the heart of the work seem to step outside it and comment on it.
Individual sections replicate the global pattern of nested layers, as
many have a circular pattern. Srnade des Srnades begins and ends
with the poet calling up at a window. Armor begins with the mythical
deathscape of Paysage mauvais and ends with a contemporary landscape
peopled with dying soldiers in La Pastorale de Conlie. The early sea
poems are presented as a book within a book; Gens de mer has its own
to evoke transcendence, so his art is a result of a reconciliation of his own materialism
with Baudelairian art, 413. In ch. 6 of Tristan Corbire: A Biographical and Critical
Study (doctoral thesis, University of Oxford, 1951), Ida Levi argues that each section of
Les Amours jaunes belongs to a particular stage in his poetic development, and Raccrocs
contains poems from all periods.
` e.g. Paris diurne and Paris nocturne. These were handwritten in Corbires
personal copy of Les Amours jaunes and thus easier to date.
` Tristan Corbire, ou les voix de la corbire, 95100.
preface. Even individual poems are framed with extensive peritext, boast-
ing long titles or unwieldy epigraphs such as that of pitaphe, which
begins thus: Sauf les amoureux commenans ou nis qui veulent com-
mencer par la n il y a tant de choses qui nissent par le commencement
que le commencement commence nir par tre la n [. . .]. This comic
conation of ends and beginnings is continued in a lengthy paragraph,
so the epigraph threatens to engulf the poem itself. Disruption of chro-
nology is evident at all levels of the book, from the order of the sections
to the structure of individual images in which the vehicle precedes the
tenor. Beginnings and endings are frequently false, as when the poemLa
Fin rounds off a section but is far from being the end of the collection.
Linear ow is further disrupted when adjacent poems clash with
each other, for each poem has a different point of view. For instance,
each of the metapoetic poems in the rst section a considers Les
Amours jaunes from a different point in time, and the book takes on
a different aspect in each case. The poem a? stages the reception of
the book, with a dialogue between an interrogator struggling to dene
the volume and the derisive author sabotaging his attempts, whereas
Paris is a dialogue in which two sides of the poet argue over the pose
to be struck. a? implies that the poet reects on the book only under
duress and once it has been written, whereas Paris shows the poet
calculating the best tactic to ensure success. Elsewhere, la douce amie
cruelly rewrites the more tender ma jument souris. In Fminin
singulier a woman responds violently to the stereotypes of femininity
listed by the poet in lternel Madame. The pair of sonnets Duel
aux Camlias and Fleur dart represent two very different takes on
a single story. Poems in remote parts of the volume resemble each
other in startling ways even if they have very different subjects. For
instance, Pudentiane (about religious hypocrisy) and La Goutte (a
description of a storm at sea) both consist of juxtaposed fragments.
The book is not united by a consistent authority, but the succession of
contradictory voices is itself a source of meaning. The striking use of
voice is a crucial element of the style, and Les Amours jaunes has been
shown to trace the drama of a voice nding itself. Meitinger identies
a development from despairexpressed through the abortive dialogue
of love in the early sectionsto freedom as the individual loses itself
in the increasingly depersonalized poems towards the end.` Laroche
` Serge Meitinger, Tristan Corbire dans le texte: une lecture des Amours jaunes,
doctoral thesis, Universit de Haute Bretagne, 1978.
expands on this to suggest that the narrator gradually disappears in the
course of the volume, the impasse of personal lyricism giving way to
a proliferation of speakers in the Brittany poems.` This view implies
that the order corresponds to an organic development of a voice, but
poems throughout the volume depersonalize the subjective lyric in
different ways. It is difcult to account for Les Amours jaunes in terms
of a single abstract scheme, as the overall picture is built up from the
sum of particular discontinuities. Unlike Hugos Les Contemplations,
the volume is not presented as embodying the self, but a picture of
a fragmented psyche emerges from the accumulation of fantasies and
clichs. The speaker is at times a dog, a toad, a pariah, but most often a
poet or hopeless lover. The incongruous juxtaposition of disparate voices
invites us to read the book as a carnivalesque succession of personae, and
makes it impossible to take the persona of any individual poemseriously.
I NVERTED LI FE HI STORY
The personae refract rather than reect biographical experience, and the
book is an artistic construct which bears little resemblance to the life of
its author. The boundary between reality and ction is already blurred
on the title-page, for the authors own name is semi-ctional. Originally
named after his father douard, Corbire assumed the more romantic
name Tristan, replete with Celtic and literary associations. Explaining
Corbires poetry with reference to his life is easier said than done, as it
is jokes all the way down; accounts are dominated by anecdotes which
present him as a prankster. He is supposed to have given a bleeding
sheeps heart to his aunt with the words Tiens, voil mon cur!, and
when he was taken to the Maison Dubois hospital shortly before his
death, he is said to have declared Je suis Dubois dont on fait des
cercueils.`
Although the content of Les Amours jaunes is drawn from personal
experience and the mode is confessional, it is far from being a direct
` Tristan Corbire, ou les voix de la corbire. Les Amours jaunes is thus a livre-tombe
reecting the emptiness of the self (110). a transforms life into death, Rondels pour
aprs death into life, and the main body of the work strives to situate itself between
the extremes of life and death, the overall movement ultimately being one of resolution
(956).
` These witticisms appealed to Andr Breton, who quotes them in his Anthologie de
lhumour noir, 2667. They were originally recounted in Martineau, Tristan Corbire,
49 and 79.
expression of Corbires life. He never was a sailor or a genuinely
poverty-stricken bohemian. The parodic locations and dates appended
to poems (such as Lits divers Une nuit de jour, Litanie du Sommeil)
proclaim the ctionality of the biographical framework and mock the
convention of lyric poetry as a spontaneous overow. The poems render
experience in such concentrated language that it takes on an objective life
of its own. As Flaubert advocates, impersonality can thus be combined
with personal lyricism:
Il faut couper court avec la queue lamartinienne et faire de lart impersonnel ou
bien, quand on fait du lyrisme individuel, il faut quil soit trange, dsordonn,
tellement intense enn que cela devienne une cration. Mais quant dire
faiblement ce que tout le monde sent faiblement, non.``
Each poem in Les Amours jaunes nds a different way of defying
monologic lyricism to achieve this intensity, and the book as a whole
plays on biographical chronology to make that strange too. Lyric poetry
parading its origins in the subject was sometimes presented in volumes
structured as the account of a life, whether that of the author, as in
Hugos Contemplations, or that of a ctional persona, as in Sainte-
Beuves Joseph Delorme. However, Les Amours jaunes departs from the
conventional life story by reversing its order. The volume begins with
an pitaphe, progresses through the cynicism of failed love in Paris
and the existential bleakness of Brittany, to the ethereal childs afterlife
of the Rondels pour aprs. The otherworldly rondels transcend the
biographical by blending elements of reality to evoke something beyond
the connes of life itself. The disruption of conventional narrative and
causality is particularly striking since it plays on one of the great literary
topoi of the nineteenth century: the move from the provinces to Paris.
The more harmonious Brittany is questioned by being placed after the
cynical Parisian poems. Brittany is not merely revisited nostalgically but
is ltered through a sophisticated consciousness. The Brittany poems
nd external analogues for the self rather than delving inwards, but the
world is still centred on the individual. Existential questions are evoked
in a personal way which avoids the clichs of world-weary Parisians.
Because the Breton poems follow the openly introspective ones, the
continuity of the existential themes is shown without being stated. Les
Amours jaunes unites the love of woman and love of Brittany, both are
`` Gustave Flaubert, Correspondance, ed. Jean Bruneau, Pliade, ii (Paris: Gallimard,
1980), 555.
ambivalent love-hate relationships which reveal the subjects internal
divisions. As both Paris and Brittany are treated with critical distance,
the volume as a whole conveys a complex world-view.
The overarching inversion of life history intensies individual poems,
because the presentation of frenzied cynicism before the more serenely
distanced Brittany poems allows it to colour the whole volume, and
suggests that disillusionment is always already present. Corbire does
not recount the loss of illusions chronologically as lived experience,
which reects the socio-cultural context of the 1870s, when ennui had
become a received idea. As Culler points out, this was already true of
Flauberts generation: they begin to write at a time when they have as
yet no experience to write about but know the conclusions they would
reach should they trouble to reduplicate experiences.`` Corbire refuses
to feign the innocence needed to describe the process of disillusionment
as empirical history, so, instead of telling it as a story, he conveys it
through the structure of the book. Positioning the Brittany poems after
the Paris poems brings out ironies which might be less obvious if they
were read in isolation. Disenchantment is also built into the language at
the level of the phrase, which is why his poetry calls for close attention
to style.
Perennial themes are explored through a stylized biography which
draws attention to its own processes. Whilst regressing from disillusion-
ment to the origins of a personal ideal which is already tarnished, Les
Amours jaunes also echoes past eras of poetry. The positioning of poems
which portray cynicism at the beginning makes irony its cornerstone.
However, putting the less cynical poems last suggests the volume is struc-
tured as a drive towards the positive, as emphasized by Sonnenfeld. The
work therefore pulls in two directions simultaneously, just as individual
poems vacillate between alternatives rather than ever settling on one
message. Disillusionment is conveyed by the ironic texture rather than
by depiction of conventional poses or ready-made terms like spleen or
by a story. Rather than being declaimed by a single knowing voice, the
latent hope only emerges indirectly across a succession of voices who are
not individually aware of the general direction. Poems taken in isolation
may seem to be merely incidental mockery, but the overall view is built
up from a sum of particularities, and even the slighter poems contribute
to the broader picture. Particular instances can be treated lightly, but a
`` Jonathan Culler, Flaubert: The Uses of Uncertainty (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press, 1974), 28.
generalized seriousness underlies the local mockeries, which bears out
Janklvitchs observation that for the ironist chaque moment, pris
part, est futile et ne mrite quune attention amuse, mais la totalit des
moments successifs rsiste notre humour.`
Although the dominant tone of the work is that of disenchantment,
structurally it inverts the chronological representation of loss of illusion,
by moving from poems of Parisian artice to poems praising the
elemental Breton sailors. However, the praise in the latter is attenuated,
partly as the reader encounters them only after the most cynical poems,
and partly as the Breton world is ltered through a sophisticated
cosmopolitan consciousness. The volume is neither symmetrical nor a
linear progression, but sets up a pattern of juxtapositions and parallels,
jumping backwards and forwards, and creating a Chinese box effect
through its ironic framing. The structure of Les Amours jaunes reects
the vacillation between the positive and the negative which is constantly
displayed at the microcosmic level, so an investigation of the linguistic
texture must be combined with an awareness of the interrelations
between different poems. The structure of the volume reects that of
individual poems, proceeding by alternation of opposites, reexivity, and
circularity, and is thus inextricably linked with the question of the style.
FRAMI NG POEMS
If Les Amours jaunes resembles a Chinese box, its outermost layer is
constituted by the two Marcelle poems. The volume opens with Le
Pote et la Cigale, and concludes with the parallel La Cigale et le Pote.
These book-end poems occupy a key position: the interface between
the literary text and the real world, and they explore the relationship
between the poet and his audience. The two poems thematize their
role as beginning and ending, by evoking inspiration and reception
respectively. The opening poem does not present itself as a preface
to a conventional collection, mediating between book and world, or
establishing a relationship between author and reader.` The author
` Vladimir Janklvitch, LIronie (Paris, Flammarion, 1964), 24.
` A fragment of a preface entitled Parade was handwritten in Corbires personal
copy of Les Amours jaunes. Walzer suggests it was abandoned before the volume was
published or only written afterwards, OC 91415. It is a patchwork of phrases used in
other poems, and parodies the conventions of the preface with phrases like Va mon livre
& ne | me reviendra plus.
adopts an anonymous voice and retreats behind a comic dialogue
between Marcelle and the poet, so it is hard to tell how close he is to this
poet. Although dedicated to Marcelle, the poem does not address her
directly, but is in the third person. Furthermore, the poem is a rewriting
of La Fontaines La Cigale et la fourmi, so the speaker is in more than
one way a ventriloquist. This parody is simultaneously an act of self-
abasement, an acknowledgement of tradition, and a rebellion against
the classic. Corbires attitude to his own fathers literary achievements
is similarly double-edged. douard Corbire senior was a prolic and
successful writer of sea adventure novels, notably Le Ngrier and Les
Pilotes de LIroise.` The son dedicates Les Amours jaunes to his father
with the words lauteur du Ngrier, which are modelled on the
formula par lauteur de, identied by Genette as a device whereby an
author promotes a newbook by reminding buyers of an earlier success.`
Corbire is trading on his fathers reputation and acknowledging that
he is dwarfed by it, but also simultaneously rivalling it and presenting
his own book as a challenge. Les Amours jaunes is thus located in both
cultural and personal space.
In the La Fontaine fable, a cicada who has spent the summer
singing rather than gathering food nds herself ill-prepared for the
onset of winter and begs the industrious and well-prepared ant to give
her food. Corbire transposes the moral tale to a stylized bohemian
setting, with the poet borrowing his muses name to use as a rhyme.
As the original text opens the Fables, it has introductory as well as
metapoetic associations, and is one of the best known. The Corbire
poem wittily revolves around the conceit of borrowing a rhyme, whilst
borrowing its rhymes from La Cigale et la fourmi. The irreverence
in itself was not original, as it was a commonplace in the nineteenth
century to rework the fables, particularly this one. As the Fables were
rmly lodged in the minds of nineteenth-century readers, being an
educational staple used to initiate children into culture, this poem has
an immediate familiarity. Corbire uses a reassuringly recognizable text
to introduce a deantly unclassiable book. He does not attack the
original poem, which was itself ambivalent rather than moralistic, but
uses it to suggest further layers of meaning. He echoes La Fontaine in
` The maritime novel was a genre made popular by Eugne Sue.
` Grard Genette, Seuils (Paris: Seuil, 1987), 45. The juxtaposition of jaunes in the
title with Ngrier in the dedication introduces a chromatic opposition of black and
yellow into the family drama.
combining sophistication and naivety, and, whilst remaining close to
the original syntax, does not stop at a supercial updating of content.
The cicada is an ancient emblem for the poet, although its connotations
in the nineteenth century were mixed.` The La Fontaine fable is
relevant to the practical problems of nineteenth-century poets no longer
being able to live by their pen. One might expect the ant to be
the bourgeois enemy (a stereotypical gure which haunts Les Amours
jaunes), and the cicada a nightingale singing in the dark (the idea of
song as frivolous practice reects the moral judgement of a bourgeois
audience for whom work was the cardinal virtue). This stereotypical
opposition certainly hovers in the background, but the literal sense
of the poem distorts the scheme still further by using the cicada to
represent the woman Marcelle. The poet thus assumes the role of the
ant, emphasizing that his poetry is crafted work rather than carefree
lyrics. In the wake of Baudelaire, poets increasingly privileged effort over
spontaneity, interiorizing the bourgeois work ethic in order to fabricate
difcult works, with the result that literature became an autonomous
practice which in turn alienated the bourgeoisie. Corbire plays on the
duality of the La Fontaine text to suggest the historical changes in the
poets role which led to the gulf between poet and audience. The poem
hesitates between presenting writing as a business transaction and as
disinterested art.
Marcelle establishes at the outset that the book cannot be read
in terms of biography; the rst two lines thoroughly confuse the
relationship between the author, the speaker, and the poet character:
Un pote ayant rim,
IMPRIM (12)
If the speaker is literally designating a poet who has already published
prior to this volume, he is setting up a persona far removed from
the biographical reality of the unknown author Corbire launching
` Illustrators often depicted the cicada as a female street singer, as shown by Kirsten
H. Powell in Fables in Frames: La Fontaine and Visual Culture in Nineteenth-Century
France (New York: Peter Lang, 1997). Cigale was also understood as a metaphor
for such itinerants, as in Hugos Notre-Dame de Paris (in Romans, ed. H. Guillemin
(Paris: Seuil, 1963), i. 263). Cigale is used by Zola and the Goncourts as little more than
an emblem of waif-like femininity, connotations which are present in the Marcelle
poems. Cigale also acquired the negative sense of a bad poet and is even further debased
when used as slang for a gold coin.
his rst collection. Although Corbire explores questions of fame and
recognition in subsequent poems, it borders on insolence to open on
this note. However, the capitalization indicates that the incongruity is
deliberate and exaggerated, and questions the poets having published, or
at the very least mocks his inated pride at having done so. Furthermore,
as the poet is a parodic version of the author of Les Amours jaunes,
IMPRIM could refer to this very book. It verges on the tautological
to refer to the poets being in print when he quite visibly is on that
very page, and the typography conveys glee at what can be done with
the medium of print itself. The work opens on a note of revelry, by
rejoicing at its own existence. Corbires aunting of his achievement is
understandable, given that this was his rst venture into print. However,
the capitalization also exaggerates and ironizes the feat rather than merely
voicing it presumptuously. As the poem goes on, it becomes clear that
the initial emphasis on print is a chronological distortion; the triumph
of being published precedes inspiration. Printed poems here precede
rather than represent oral utterance, so the poem points out its own
artice both as a story of the volumes origin, and as an introduction
to something that has already been written but the reader has not yet
begun. The different stages of creation of the book are co-present in
the nal work, rather than the product being polished to disguise its
fabrication. The poem refers to lyrical song but is itself far from being
such a performance; song is embedded in the text as just one of many
voices.
Corbire refuses to let his prefatory poem represent an episode from
the real world, although the backstage atmosphere nods to social reality.
However, this realism rehashes the clich of the poor but licentious
modern poet. The imaginary beginning purports to be naturalistic by
presenting the poetry as something thrown together out of the raw
material of life, but this spontaneity is clearly an artice, as the rhymes
are dictated by the La Fontaine text. Furthermore, the text ironically
fuses a number of existing myths of poetic inspiration. The revered
female gure of inspiration is debased by the sordid scene and by
being doubled, for it is uncertain whether the poet is inspired by
the Muse or by Marcelle. The opposition of abstract ideal and real
woman is undercut, for the Muse becomes an exploited sordid gure,
and Marcelle is elevated to some sort of oracle. The poems function
as preface to the completed volume suggests it is a late composition,
although it presents itself as a schoolboy parody of a classic set text.
Rather than asserting the superiority of mature publication to juvenile
derision, Corbire combines the two in a suggestive parody. The poet
is neither just pretending to be famous (which would be juvenile), nor
merely mocking his own naive excitement at being in print for the
rst time (which would be mature), but expressing both possibilities
simultaneously in a construction which is naive in the double-voiced
utterance Un pote ayant rim | IMPRIM.
The nal poem, La Cigale et le Pote, follows the same rhetorical
pattern as the rst, but its mise-en-abyme of the nished book and
anticipation of its reception comes closer to a conventional preface,
blurring beginnings and endings. It also blurs the clear-cut opposition
between praise and blame which John Porter Houston identies in
the Romantic lyric.` Marcelle embodies the possible response of a
philistine public by criticizing Les Amours jaunes. Instead of praising
and thanking Marcelle, the poem attacks her lack of taste. However,
although the poet-persona is threatened by her criticisms, these are not
to be taken at face value by the reader. The oblique presentation implies
that the ideal reader of Les Amours jaunes would be more perceptive than
Marcelle or the unappreciative audience she represents. The addressee
jeering at the poet parodically reects the publics incomprehension
of the marginalized poet, and is an ironic version of what Abastado
calls le mythe du Pote: poets suffering material hardship as a result
of social change elevated their isolation to a noble martyrdom, and
paraded their art as disinterested and autonomous. Although Corbire
himself never risked starvation in his bohemian garret, his poetry
reects the contradictions of the poets socio-historic position, rather
than sublimating it into nostalgia for an ideal. Les Amours jaunes is
punctuated with references to the association of poetry and money.
Le Pote et la Cigale had borrowed the nancial imagery of the La
Fontaine text to make an optimistic connection between poetry and
money; in effect promising to repay Marcelle for the loan of her name
by giving her the resultant poems. The manuscript version of La Cigale
et le Pote used a further nancial joke to demonstrate that the book is
far from being a repayment; the poet returns to Marcelle to ask another
favour, this time money to bribe a publisher:
` French Symbolism and the Modernist Movement, 9. Musset had already blurred this
distinction in poems like Julie.
Claude Abastado, Mythes et rituels de lcriture (Brussels: Complexe, 1979).
Il alla montrer sa mine
A la ci-devant Voisine
La priant de lui prter
Quelque sous pour acheter
Un acheteur son livre. (711)
This reects the material production of Les Amours jaunes, published at
the expense of the author, who was himself nancially supported by his
father. The nal version of the poemexpresses the difculty of the poets
position more subtly through the dialogue itself. Rather than failing to
be a repayment because it requires more outlay to get it into a marketable
form, it fails because Marcelle does not appreciate it as a book:
Il alla coller sa mine
Aux carreaux de sa voisine,
Pour lui peindre ses regrets
Davoir fait Oh : pas exprs!
Son honteux monstre de livre!
Mais: vous tiez donc bien ivre?
Ivre de vous! Est-ce mal?
crivain public banal! (714)
She mocks the poet, by likening him to an crivain public, which
literally denotes someone who makes his living by writing for illiterate
clients. Marcelle may be using the term accusingly, but it aptly suggests
the poets ventriloquy in Les Amours jaunes, in which irony frequently
involves communicating via other peoples discourses and writing down
feelings that the speaker hardly seems to recognize as his own. Marcelle
is also reproaching him for writing up their private affairs for money.
This is obviously a genuine fear on the part of an anti-Romantic poet,
for, whilst acknowledging the cursed position of the poet struggling
to make a living from his work, Corbire consistently mocks the
Romantics for making money by exposing their personal sentiment, and
he experiments with alternative means of representing personal torment
without prostituting the self. Here, a private conversation is overheard
rather than inated into a rhetorical performance. The sordidly personal
is a contrived ction too, and although it is a commonplace to allow
the audience to overhear an intimate exchange between poet and muse,
here the public is challenged rather than edied or entertained. Marcelle
describes the book as monstrous but does so in the language of a
The manuscript of this version is in the Bibliothque Municipale de Morlaix. The
lines which differ from the published version are transcribed in OC 1366.
horried bourgeois, which is itself undercut. Her insults are juxtaposed
with the poets attempts to defend himself. He humbly agrees that he
might just as well have simply told her that he loved her and saved
himself the bother of writing this book, but that on nest pas parfait.
His admission sounds like a quoted commonplace more than principled
honesty and Marcelle detects the artice:
Oh! cest tout comme, dit-elle,
Si vous chantiez, maintenant! (1920)
This suggests that she can discriminate between sincere and insincere
speech, yet her assumption that a moralizing comment constitutes
poetry seems to conrm her lack of artistic discernment. However, her
very words are richly suggestive, for she is playing on the self-deprecating
expression cest comme si je chantais, meaning that ones efforts are
useless. Voicing the idiomin the second instead of the usual rst person,
she sarcastically suggests that no one listens to his poetry. Whether or
not Marcelle is aware of her witticism becomes irrelevant when one
reads the poem as a writerly texture rather than as a dialogue between
two characters. Neither speaker holds the whole truth, and the author
is everywhere present but nowhere pronouncing.
These framing poems play on and add to the complexity of the
volume rather than providing an explanatory mode demploi for it. They
give the reader an indication of the uncertainties in store, and exacerbate
the difculties by not providing signposting to guide the reader through
them. They reect the ambiguous cultural status of a volume of poetry in
the 1870s, uncertain of its place in a world where poetry is marginalized.
These things are conveyed to us by a number of stylistic devices: dispar-
ities between what the reader sees and what the characters in the poem
see, juxtaposition of incongruous items, double-voicing, and quotation.
These all make considerable demands on the reader, and are all forms of
irony. To understand Corbires particular usage of these strategies, it
is helpful to consider exactly what is meant by irony, a protean concept
which is notoriously difcult to dene. Theoretical work on irony often
classies it into types, ranging from microcosmic wit to macrocosmic
philosophy, but Corbire defeats such orderly hierarchies.
OXYMORON, WORDPLAY, AND MASKS
Irony has classically been a rhetorical trope, involving a discrepancy
between what is said and what is meant. Wayne Booth calls this
traditional verbal irony stable covert irony; it causes the reader to reject
a literal meaning because of either some incongruity among the words
or between the words and something else that he knows.` The author
offers us an invitation to reconstruct a hidden meaning which is univocal
once uncovered. Victims are never the implied author or reader, as reader
and author stand securely together at the end.` Corbire rarely permits
such stability, as illustrated by his mock pitaphe which uses a series of
jokes in an attempt to dene a contradictory self: un arlequin-ragot,
| mlange adultre de tout (67). Convoluted expressions such as
gchant bien le mal, mal le bien (33) cannot easily be unravelled to
restore a univocal meaning. Whereas the lyric synthesizes opposites at
a transcendent level, Corbire highlights comic disparities. The poet is
described using paradoxes such as Trs mle et quelquefois trs lle
(31) and Un drle srieux, pas drle (22). Double meanings are
often exploited, as in:
Lesprit sec et la tte ivre,
Fini, mais ne sachant nir. (556)
The various connotations of the adjective ni are activated in this
context: it has the positive meaning of polished and the negative
meaning has-been (of a performer). It is also used as an intensier to
describe a liar or drunk. Elsewhere he plays on homonyms with different
meanings:
Brave, et souvent, par peur du plat,
Mettant ses deux pieds dans le plat. (367)
For fear of being pedestrian in the gurative realmof platitudes, the poet
makes a literally pedestrian gaffe. The speaker is ostensibly mocking
the poet, but his language insinuates admiration of his wit: Prenant
pour un trait le mot trs (28) implies that the poet is a foolish listener
who confuses two words which sound the same, but the speaker is
also making a clever joke, as trait can mean a ash of wit. Corbires
poems present themselves as the work of an anti-poet, an Artiste sans
art (20), representing him as a hapless buffoon, and using slang or
grating sound patterns to undercut expectations of eloquence, but this
supercial clumsiness is coupled with technical ingenuity. Elsewhere he
dismantles set phrases, drawing attention to the absurdity of the literal
` Wayne C. Booth, A Rhetoric of Irony (University of Chicago Press, 1974), 10.
` Ibid. 235.
meaning of their constituent components, or replacing these parts with
incongruous new elements, as in Du je-ne-sais-quoi. Mais ne sachant
o (8).
Such lines fuse two contradictory perspectives, and neither is the whole
truth, which probably lies somewhere between the two. Furthermore,
the point of view implied by any single line is invariably undercut by
the context, so no line can be read alone. Corbire presents things from
conicting points of view without deciding between them. We do not
know where the irony is asking us to stand, so this is impossible to read
as stable, but comes closer to what Booth terms unstable irony, in which
the author [. . .] refuses to declare himself, however subtly, for any stable
proposition, even the opposite of whatever proposition his irony vigorously
denies. The only sure afrmation is that negation that begins all ironic play: this
afrmation must be rejected, leaving the possibility, and in innite ironies the
clear implication, that since the universe (or at least the universe of discourse)
is inherently absurd, all statements are subject to ironic undermining. No
statement can really mean what it says.
As Linda Hutcheon emphasizes, ironic meaning is constituted not
necessarily only by an either/or substitution of opposites but involves
both the said and the unsaid working together to create something
new. Corbire makes it impossible for any given line to be taken
seriously as they are self-defeating, and each statement is discredited by
the next.
One way of trying to recuperate these instabilities is with the idea of
a contradictory persona. A popular metaphor for irony is that of seeing
behind a mask or a persona. Corbire tends to be read as hiding inner
suffering beneath a ludic surface, a mask of laughter. Statements like
je ris parce que a me fait un peu mal are often interpreted as
an invitation to forage behind the jokes, to read his poetry as ironic
statements that can be reversed to expose the tears of a true lyric poet.
This approach is symptomatic of a tendency to explain his contradictory
style by referring to biographical reality, a view descended from Roman-
ticism. It is the Romantics who appropriated the carnivalesque mask
and made it into a faade concealing something, as Bakhtin recounts:
the mask is torn away fromthe oneness of the folk carnival concept and
Booth, A Rhetoric of Irony, 2401.
Linda Hutcheon, Ironys Edge: The Theory and Politics of Irony (London: Routledge,
1994), 63.
Le Pote contumace, 164.
now hides something, keeps a secret, deceives. He argues that this
mutation is part of the general transformation of wholehearted laughter
into irony, of the carnival spirit into subjective idealistic philosophy.
This led to the topos of the sad clown, in which the festive gure masks
inner tragedy or nobility. The ludic surface of Les Amours jaunes appears
to conceal not so much nobility as a post-Romantic inner void. The loss
of belief and values is explicitly verbalized in pitaphe: Ne croyant
rien, croyant tout (46). However, the sad clown effect is not only a
result of an opposition between supercial comedy and tragic depth, but
the division is played out on the surface. The subject is presented as a
montage of comically contradictory elements. Irony is no longer a trope
hiding the truth, but ironic texture shows a plurality of contradictory
selves co-present in utterances. Irony is no longer a punctual device
used to ornament oratory, but consists of many markers permeating
the whole discourse, including carnivalesque reversal of high and low,
oxymorons, discrepancy between form and content, asserting things by
stating their opposite, contradictions, changes of register, metalinguistic
fragments, periphrases, quotations, italics, exaggerations, literalizations,
repetitions, and puns.
This colourful rhetorical surface produces a sense of a highly individu-
alized witty persona. The ironic jester is an alternative to the Romantic
declaimer, equally forceful but less sentimental. But the poetic voice of
Corbires poems is rarely simply that of an ironist overtly attacking a
clearly dened target. It is not that he simply replaces the traditional je
lyrique with an ironist. The subject is itself undercut, as can be seen in
the puns which encrust the surface. They hesitate between two meanings
which are often incongruously opposed. For instance, mal aim inverts
the clich bien aim, but permits it to linger as a remembered ideal
against which the reality of being unloved is measured. Similarly, the
line Bitor regardait a comment on fait la joie telescopes
faire lamour with lles de joie. It mocks aspirations to ideal love by
reducing them to sordid reality, but again they persist as a remembered
ideal. The vigour of joie contrasts the energy of low life with the
articial renements of poetry, so it is not easy to decide what is positive
and what is negative. The poet descends further into the gutter when
he declares, Je parle sous moi, which likens the act of uttering poetry
Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and his World, trans. Helene Iswolsky (Cambridge, MA:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1968), 40.
Femme, 1. Le Bossu Bitor, 165.
to excretion, as the expression is modelled on the scatological faire sous
lui. Corbire invokes the grotesque physical body with disgust rather
than with glee, as in Bohme de chic, where the bohemian cocks his
leg and parades his virility. However, as Stallybrass and White argue,
disgust is a bourgeois internalization of the carnivalesque, and bourgeois
disdain for the low is haunted by fascination for all that is dirty,
repulsive, noisy, contaminating. The poet uses bourgeois judgements
to mock himself, but thereby mocks the bourgeois for being prudish. He
attacks himself using the prudish values of the society which rejects him,
recapturing a certain vitality by using his body to pater le bourgeois.
Puns not only divide the self, but also present stories from two
perspectives simultaneously, as in la mmoire de Zulma, a parody of
a world-weary voice recalling youthful love:
Elle tait riche de vingt ans,
Moi jtais jeune de vingt francs,
Et nous fmes bourse commune,
Place, fonds perdu, dans une
Indle nuit de printemps
La lune a fait un trou dedans,
Rond comme un cu de cinq francs,
Par o passa notre fortune:
Vingt ans! vingt francs! et puis la lune! (19)
The Romantic quest for ideal love is here described using colloquial
idiomatic expressions, so the sentimental theme is not attacked directly,
but undermined by double meanings which present it from two points
of view. The disparity between ideal and reality is folded into the
texture as the poem mixes the codes of love and money, as though
the linguistic accident were responsible for their entanglement. Using
nancial terminology to describe an emotional investment is a way
of undercutting feeling and simultaneously attacking the all-pervasive
capital. fonds perdu is a nancial analogy for the girls indelityhe
made an investment which was not returned. The speaker blames the
clichd moon with La lune a fait un trou dedans, which telescopes a
number of idioms: amant de la lune is a timid lover, lune is slang
for a coin, il y a des Lunes is a long time ago, faire un trou dans la
caisse is to spend money, faire un trou la lune is to disappear and
Rapsodie du sourd, 43.
See Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, The Politics and Poetics of Transgression
(London: Methuen, 1986), 191.
leave debts, faire un trou la lune avec quelquun is to run off with
someone, and voir la lune is to lose ones virginity. The expression
juxtaposes the Romantic clich of the moon hanging in the sky with a
very literal hole, a bodily orice. The language makes a mockery of the
quest for love, and the multiple meanings convey more complexity than
could be expressed in a self-absorbed lament.
The self-conscious wit of poems like la mmoire de Zulma
constantly rebounds on the poet himself, making it difcult to identify
a conventional lyric subject. pitaphe describes the elusive subject in
the third person with paradoxical statements such as:
Ne fut quelquun, ni quelque chose
Son naturel tait la pose. (423)
Poems like la mmoire de Zulma turn this into a rst person
performance by systematically destabilizing the je lyrique. Speakers
sometimes actively use puns as self-punishment, but wordplay also
exposes things which are beyond the speakers control. The double-
edged language of the witty persona undercuts itself, and such speakers
become the object as well as the subject of irony.
A CONTRADI CTORY WORLD:
PLAYI NG WI TH I DEAS
Corbires puns and masks make it difcult to pin down the subjects
of his poems, who often seem to be alienated from themselves. This
alienation is a manifestation of the spiritual void which haunts Les
Amours jaunes, and which is often seen as so-called cosmic irony.
Corbire juggles playfully with words denoting abstract ideas in phrases
like Coureur didal, sans ide.` However, it is difcult to identi-
fy a coherent world-view from such anti-intellectual verse. Laforgue,
who interpreted Corbire in the light of his own more philosophical
sensibility, saw that the relentless antitheses were underpinned by a
fundamental sense of disorientation:
Dailleurs tous ces gongorismes dantithse ne sont pas un jeu en lair il y
a des racines Cest lhomme qui dclare son amour et qui est dpit si on
lcoute. Lenfant gt qui ne sait ce quil veut refuse sa soupe parce quon la
` pitaphe, 15.
lui prche et pleurniche ds quon la lui enlve. Qui fuit la socit et se lamente
quon le laisse seul. Au fond ce sentiment incurable de la droute de labsolu et
du libre arbitre et de la logique que [Hegel] a souf partout.`
There are instances when the droute de labsolu is articulated openly
in Les Amours jaunes, and this is a specically modern incarnation of
irony. There has been a shift over time from seeing irony as a limited
classical trope to treating it as a view of the world; the device has become
content. Sometimes statements are ironic only because they assert an
irony in things or events that the speaker has observed and wants to
share. Wayne Booth differentiates these statements from traditional
rhetorical irony, stable covert irony, because they require no act of
reconstitution, and terms them stable overt irony. When such irony
does not stop at local observation but makes claims about the innite,
it verges on a philosophical vision. Unstable irony gives rise to a more
extreme expression of doubt: everything is questioned when the act of
recognizing contingency and relativity is itself undercut by irony. The
ironist does not observe the chaos from on high, but is caught up in the
midst of it and tormented by an awareness that attempts to step outside
of it are futile.
Paria is the poem which most nearly presents the speaker as a
philosophical seer using innite irony, both stable and unstable, to
thematize explicitly the loss of ideals. The resigned numbness of this
voice contrasts with the more strident tone of other poems. The poem
enacts the ironic state in geographical space, bearing out Janklvitchs
view that ironists are like vagabonds: Partout exil [. . .] lironiste ne
trouve jamais o se xer, o planter sa tente: cest un apatride ou,
comme disait Novalis, un citoyen du monde. The speaker of Paria
actively rejects a whole clutch of nineteenth-century clichs: Quils se
payent des rpubliques, | Hommes libres! carcan au cou (12)
attacks discourses of progress, Lidal moi: cest un songe | Creux;
mon horizon limprvu (212) attacks the ideal. The poem sets
the speaker up as an anti-hero who condemns society and invites us to
take his side. He rejects the social order, and there is no spiritual realm;
Des dieux? Par hasard jai pu natre; | Peut-tre en est-il par
hasard (534). He also shows the pain of this isolation by evoking
the absence of contact in concrete physical terms:
` Une tude sur Corbire, 8. Hegel was crossed out in Laforgues notes.
A Rhetoric of Irony, 236. Ibid. 236. LIronie, 152.
Quand je suis couch : ma patrie
Cest la couche seule et meurtrie
O je vais forcer dans mes bras
Ma moiti, comme moi sans me;
Et ma moiti : cest une femme
Une femme que je nai pas. (1520)
Rather than bemoaning the absence of a companion, he describes an
embrace, only to reveal there is no one there. The desired ideal is
once again brought up against the stark reality of its absence. Ideas are
frequently reduced to this tangible scale, or literalized, as in Mon avenir
Demaindemain (44).
The poem presents isolation indirectly through humour; it both
celebrates exile and undercuts the speakers own negativity. Is Hommes
libres! carcan au cou (2), an attack on freedom or a mockery of
the speakers paradoxical beliefs? Unstable irony undermines everything,
including its own processes. Is the speaker deriding himself for failing
to nd order in the universe, or is he stating a genuine belief that the
universe is essentially absurd? Booth points out that these two stances
entail two very different kinds of reading experience:
For the second, innite ironies present nally a treadmill, each step exactly like
every other, the nal revelation always the same: nada. Since the universe is
empty, life is empty of meaning, and every reading experience can nally be
shaken out into the same empty and melancholy non-truth. But for the rst,
the universe, though deceptive, is innitely, invitingly various; each ash of
ironic insight can lead us toward others, in a game never ending but always
meaningful and exhilarating.
To believe the cosmos is absurd is to believe in something after all, and
referring everything to the void is another way of anchoring the text.
Corbires poetry is haunted by the spiritual void, but the patterns of his
language are invitingly various, and he compensates for the emptiness
with verbal exuberance.
Paria offers the most explicit assertion of cosmic absurdity in the
book, but other poems, such as Libert, evoke the sensation of living
in this sort of absurd universe. Libert is an ode to freedom which
extols captivity, and operates on the basic principle of reversal, asserting
things by stating their opposite. The declaration that existence is
imprisonment is a clich, and presenting imprisonment as pleasure is
A Rhetoric of Irony, 269.
one way of lamenting the realities of life, giving the poem exuberant
energy although what it is saying is negative. However, the target
of the irony is not clear, and the poem makes us ask what motivates
the systematic reversal. It derides freedom as an idea, and uses the
term as the springboard for verbal playthe poem toys with ideas but
treats them as clichs to be undermined. It uses oxymoron to play with
the literary topos of liberty, and shows the emptiness of abstractions.
The preponderance of abstract nouns, such as vanit, gat, nudit,
virginit, Fidlit, and volupt, is unusual for Corbire, although
the rhymes often yoke incongruous ones and reduce them to the
burlesque. The title presents liberty as an abstraction, but the address-
like subtitle points to a particular instance of enclosure: la cellule
IV bis (Prison Royale de Gnes). The ludicrously specic subtitle has
generated debate about the likelihood of Corbire having been in prison
during his Italian travels. However, the cell does not so much invite
questions about the authors rst-hand experience of the law as establish
an equivalence between opposites: incarceration and freedom, ideas and
reality.
The poem starts as a pseudo-allegory in which the cell paradoxically
represents Liberty:
belle hospitalire
Qui ne me connais pas,
Vierge publique et re
Qui mas ouvert les bras! (14)
Corbire is here tapping into the complex network of feminine allegories
for Liberty, who was variously personied as a secular saint or new
goddess and dismissed as a prostitute. Maurice Agulhons account of
the development of Republican imagery points out that the tradition of
live allegory in particular gave counter-revolutionaries the opportunity
to characterize Liberty as a prostitute, for it was often claimed that the
women dressed up as allegories were actresses and thus presumed to be
licentious. In Lducation sentimentale Flaubert refers to a live allegory
in the Tuileries palace after the 1848 revolution: Dans lantichambre,
debout sur un tas de vtements, se tenait une lle publique, en statue
As in Laisser-courre which is about exile but celebrates the joys of life which have
been left behind.
Maurice Agulhon, Marianne into Battle: Republican Imagery and Symbolism in
France, 17891880, trans. Janet Lloyd (Cambridge University Press and Paris: Maison
des Sciences de lHomme, 1981), 2730.
de la Libert, immobile, les yeux grands ouverts, effrayante. David
Bellos has pointed out that the Liberty in Delacroixs La Libert guidant
le peuple looks allegorical to modern viewers but for viewers of 1831 she
was unmistakeably a prostitute represented with realistic touches of dirt
and hair. This kind of symbolism nds its way into poetic metaphors
too: in La Lgende des sicles, Hugo describes liberty (represented by a
comet) as a lle publique.` All of these associations feed the Corbire
text, such that his description of Liberty as a Vierge publique, a
paradoxical pun on lle publique, alludes to the ambiguous status of
the political allegory as well as presenting a variation on that favourite
nineteenth-century dichotomy of prostitute and virgin.
The rest of the poem goes on to play up the contradictions in this
composite female addressee, who takes on a life of her own, becoming
identied with the Goddess of love:
Comme la Vnus nue,
Dun bain de lait de chaux
Tu sors, blanche Inconnue,
Fille des noirs cachots. (912)
Her esh may literally be pale because she has been hidden from light
in the dungeon, but the chromatic contrast of white and black also
seems to be generated by two independent sets of clichs. First, the
name Venus automatically summons up an image of a pale beauty. The
reference to a bain de lait plays on the picture of a Botticelli gure rising
from the waves, by referring it to another myth of feminine beauty,
Cleopatras bath of asses milk, which is in turn debased by the idea of
whitewash, returning to the literal setting of the prison walls. Secondly,
the word cachot is accompanied by the expected epithet noir. The
darkness literally contradicts the suggestion of white walls, but darkness
is the basis of stereotypical descriptions of imprisonment, and Corbire
is playing on precisely this clich. The contrast between white and black
does not merely describe a pale woman in a dark cell, but is a meeting
of two autonomous descriptive systems.
Gustave Flaubert, uvres compltes de Gustave Flaubert (Paris: Club de LHonnte
Homme, 1971), iii. 289.
In the Minds Eye: The Meanings of Liberty Guiding the People, in The Process
of Art: Essays on Nineteenth-Century French Literature, Music and Painting in Honour of
Alan Raitt, ed. Mike Freeman, Elizabeth Fallaize, et al. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998),
1124 (1618).
` L-Haut, La Lgende des sicles, Pliade (Paris: Gallimard, 1950), 493.
A way of reading which tackles such distortions of mimesis, and also
the accompanying ironies, is Riffaterres semiotic approach. Riffaterre
treats both non-mimetic and ironic strategies as forms of semantic
indirection which create poetic meaning: a poem says one thing and
means another.` He shows how a reader rst approaches the language
of a poem as though it were referential, but that contradictory details,
which he calls ungrammaticalities, force the reader to reconsider it at a
semiotic level. At this level the poemcan be seen as the transformation of
a matrix, a hypothetical minimal and literal sentence which may be
one word, a clich, quotation, or descriptioninto a longer complex,
and nonliteral periphrasis. The high incidence of contradictions in
Corbires poetry obliges the reader to move rapidly to this semiotic
level. Riffaterre says that the detour around the repressed matrix,
being made of separate distinct ungrammaticalities, looks like a series
of inappropriate, twisted wordings, which is a good description of
Libert. Riffaterre describes irony as a transformation which is not
semantic; as the matrix will always have a positive or negative orientation,
the transformation can consist of nothing more than such a permutation
of the markers, turning a mimesis which is normally positive into a code
of universal condemnation. In the case of Libert, a negative topos,
the jail, is turned into a code of eulogy.
The basic ironic inversion leads to distortions of mimesis and a series
of inappropriate, twisted wordings, which suggest analogies between
different kinds of experience. The development of an autonomous
female gure introduces an erotic theme, which is superimposed onto
the notion of liberty: the phrase franche nudit suggests erotic openness
but the oldest meaning of franc is free in a more general sense. Nudit
refers both to the womans nakedness and the bareness of the dungeon
walls. An equivalence is established between openness and closedness
in physical love, as the truth of virginity is regarded with indifference:
vraie ou fausse, se rouvre | Une virginit! (234), just as the prison
cells closure is described as open. Architectural boundaries are linked
with bodily ones, culminating in the Tombeau de volupt (32).
Individual details are connected through wordplay, but the abstrac-
tions do not add up to a coherent whole. Is the poet suggesting existence
is imprisonment, or reecting on the plight of the poet, or mocking
` Michael Riffaterre, Semiotics of Poetry (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
1978; repr. London: Methuen, 1980), 1.
Ibid. 19. Ibid. 21. Ibid. 656.
the ideal of liberty for being an idea, or indirectly celebrating freedom
by ironically praising its opposite? The discovery of freedom in prison
is a theme famously explored by Stendhal in La Chartreuse de Parme,
but that novel locates the paradox in a narrative context, whereas
Corbires condensed poem makes the ironic juxtaposition its very rais-
on dtre. The oxymoron of Quatre murs! Libert! (40), like the line
Hommes libres! carcan au cou in Paria (2), is ironic, but it is
not possible simply to activate the device of irony to reconstruct a real
meaning. There is little interest in reversing the statement and settling
for a reductive nal meaning that four walls are really imprisonment.
Furthermore, the telegraphic style cuts out any emotive cues which
might invite readers to interpret the poem as expressing a state of mind
(feigning joy in order to disguise despair) rather than focusing on its
conceptual content. The telegraphic style also avoids tracing the sort
of reasoning process which might equate captivity with freedom, for
instance by following the Romantic logic that solitude is freedom. It also
avoids specifying whether the starting point was the empirical four walls
or the idea of liberty. Quatre murs! Libert! is purely paradoxical
when singled out as an ironic formula, but is loaded with signicance
in the context of the poem as whole. The interest of the poem lies in
the semantic indirection and the uncertainties built into the language.
It is not a description of prison experience but a witty bricolage making
connections between unexpected experiences. Each element belongs in
several systems, so many themes are dealt with simultaneously, and it
is impossible to decide which one (love, freedom, art) was the starting
point which generated the others.
Similarly, it is not clear what is concrete ground and what is gure.
Dcor is elevated from backdrop detail to central allegory. The pitcher,
normally a mere metonymic prop in the prison setting, takes on a
metaphoric function and is likened to the cell itself:
Cruche, au moins ingnue,
Puits de la vrit!
Vide, quand on la bue
Vase de puret! (6972)
Furthermore, given that the poem is governed by a female gure, the
cruche suggests the image of a cruche casse, connoting lost virginity.
Cruche also activates the adjectival usage, meaning stupid. Ingnue
repeats the implication but replaces the insult with a term which
connotes commendable innocence, and also happens to be a legal term
for free. This whole description is also a reference to the traditional
representation of Vrit as an unclothed female gure emerging from
a well, recalling the description of Venus in the second stanza. The
obvious parallel between Truth and Liberty, both allegorical female
gures, is reinforced by the way in which words syntactically linked to
each are given independent phonetic and metaphorical links too.
A third female gure is the Muse, who introduces the theme of
art, leading to a meditation on writing as freedom and the benets
of solitude for artistic endeavour. The act of writing, undertaken in a
cell-like garret as bets the archetypal pote maudit, is a liberation: the
poetic text can juxtapose things that would be mutually exclusive in
the real world. The cell represents the poem in which contradictory
elements coexist, and, like a poem, the cell offers both freedom and
constraints. The formal restriction in Libert is that incarceration has
to be represented as liberty. The artist is free in two senses: as a maker
of poems he can reconcile opposites through wordplay; as a spiritual
being he can shut himself into an ivory tower and declare himself free. If
solitude is the starting point, there is a sort of double reversal: Corbire
mocks the gurative clich of the poet nding freedom in solitude,
by ironically portraying solitude as a literal imprisonment. Paria
complements Libert; both use indirect ways of asserting freedom,
but the real freedom is in the language. Although these poems express
attitudes to life, Corbire rarely deals so openly in the currency of ideas,
but more often builds the sense of the droute de labsolu into the nuts
and bolts of his language.
The sort of self-mockery we saw in poems like pitaphe and la
mmoire de Zulma does not just convey an inner void, but also implies
condemnation of the more general spiritual void which characterizes
the modern world. Exiles who borrow the terms of the world to deride
themselves are at the same time deriding the world for taking itself
too seriously, and presenting themselves as anti-heroes with whom the
reader should side. Similarly, the poet denigrates his own dissonance,
yet simultaneously boasts that it is an authentic quality superior to
Lamartinian lyricism. The effect of ironizing one aesthetic is not to
reinforce another, but to undercut both. This cutting two ways is
the mechanism by which Corbire evokes the void in both the self
and the world, and makes it impossible to identify a coherent value
system. Speakers attack themselves using the terms of society, and then
attack society, so everything is discredited. If one goes to the lengths
of ironizing idealism, one implies nostalgia for it. As Wayne Booth
says, irony presents a new view as a look back upon an old inferior
one. Corbire does not transform reality into a myth or transcend
it with beauty, but makes contradiction his essence, and expresses the
resultant irritation with concrete precision. The world is not neatly
reversed, but the very process of reversal is constantly enacted at the
level of the phrase, and never allows us to settle on neutral ground.
Idealism is shown to be ridiculously sentimental by being brought up
against sordid reality, whose hollowness in turn suggests an aspiration to
something beyond. Transcendence and spleen are juxtaposed in such a
way as to produce a chaotic jumble of values rather than an overarching
Baudelairian dualism. Corbire pushes the strategy to its limits in order
to devalue everything, and does not invoke an overarching framework to
explain the vacillation between opposites. Just as he piles up synonyms
and parallel constructions, so he accumulates local ironies in a chain
which is never anchored by a cosmic meta-irony.
Unstable irony may be a sign of emptiness but, in the process of
deferring an explicit acknowledgement of the void, it can communicate
a plenitude of other things. Janklvitch emphasizes that irony is open-
ended rather than closed; it takes the reader on a voyage which nest pas
un dtour, ni du temps perdu; ce voyage est, comme toute mdiation,
une preuve. Irony may take the reader on a circuitous journey
through time and space, but it also needs to be seen as a speech event
occurring within a communicative circuit, as an interaction between
author, reader, and characters. If irony suggests that the reader should
think, it is imperative to view it as an intersubjective process.
POLYPHONY
Corbires verse frustrates attempts to read it according to existing mod-
els. Biography is exposed as a ction, and poems which one might expect
to conform to a type, such as the epitaph, only subvert expectations.
Habitual ways of reading irony as oxymoron, mask, or cosmic philosophy
are of limited use. The ironies manifested variously in the rhetorical
surface, the postures, and the world-view need to be brought within a
single perspective, and a way of doing this is to examine howirony works
A Rhetoric of Irony, 36. LIronie, 63.
as a communicative strategy or dialogue. Edmund Wilson describes this
kind of poetry as conversational-ironic, and it is worth unpacking
his term to consider how the evasiveness of irony is inextricably linked
to the immediacy of living speech. We have already seen instances of
this: the use of contrasting voices in successive poems, and the plurality
of voices which coexist within the individual Marcelle poems.
Corbires poems present themselves as living utterances. Lyric poetry
is traditionally determined by its orality, as Valry famously declares:
Le lyrisme est le genre de posie qui suppose la voix en action
and Le lyrisme est le dveloppement dune exclamation. It is the
Romantics who harnessed the inherent orality of the lyric form as a
medium for voicing the inner self, turning the genre into a vehicle for
expressing subjectivity, and initiating a vogue for excessive confession
and declamation. Like irony, lyricismbecame an idea, and its formyoked
to an existential theme. Corbire constantly challenges the assumption
that lyric poetry should be a direct expression of the self. Romantic poetry
had presented itself as the representation of a spoken performance, and
had been organized around a set of identiable rhetorical situations,
a term used by John Porter Houston to encompass the relationships
among author, speaker, person or thing addressed, subject matter, and
reader. Corbire disrupts the sort of clear-cut relationships between
speaker and reader which had characterized Romantic verse: the lover
opening his heart to a listener, or the mage declaiming to the human
race. These stances are the product of a historically specic cultural
form, and Corbire exposes them as such.
In dening himself against the lyric, Corbire is thus engaging with a
form which plays on communicative situations to explore subjectivity,
and it is signicant that the same is true of irony. As Linda Hutcheon
points out, Irony is a relational strategy in the sense that it operates
not only between meanings (said, unsaid) but between people (ironists,
interpreters, targets).` Both irony and poetry stage intersubjectivity in
action, and Corbire fuses the two in innovative ways, using irony to
blur conventional rhetorical situations, and poetic compression to blur
traditional stable irony.
Corbires poetry gives a clear sense of a speaking voice; its con-
versational irony permits performative force whilst avoiding Romantic
Axels Castle, 96.
Paul Valry, uvres, Pliade (Paris: Gallimard, 1960), ii. 549.
French Symbolism and the Modernist Movement, 7. ` Ironys Edge, 58.
eloquence and bombast. Exclamations and questions lend a strong
expressive force, and colloquial and demotic expressions give an oral
feel. Frenetic punctuation and typographical variations are used to build
intonation into the writing. As Laforgue says, la moiti de son vers est
dans lintonation, le geste et les grimaces du diseur.` For instance, in
une camarade, the speaker utters a monologue strongly coloured by
what Roman Jakobson calls the emotive function of language, to
evoke a crisis point in his relationship with the addressee:
Que nous sommes-nous donc fait lun lautre?
Rien Peut-tre alors que cest pour cela;
Quel a commenc? Pas moi, bon aptre!
Aprs, quel dira: cest donc tout voil! (214)
The emphatic tone suggests a forceful presence, yet uncertainty about
the speakers position is built into the language; his violence both
travesties the conventional discourse of love, and masks sensitivity. The
utterance is literally a vociferous denial that anything has happened,
but the emotive force suggests the speaker is struggling to extricate
himself fromsomething that has happened. The discourse is interrupted
by interjections from the feminine camarade, but it is difcult to
decide if the two parties are speaking as one and hence in accord
over events, if he is quarrelling with her, or indeed projecting what
he would like her to say. Such texts are difcult to read as a record
of a unied performance by a clearly delineated subject, and fall into
the category of writing that Volosinov describes as voice-defying.
In his discussion of indirect discourse, Volosinov argues that it is the
silent reading of prose that has made possible the multileveledness
and voice-defying complexity of intonational structures that are so
characteristic for modern literature. However, Corbire creates a voice-
defying discourse by playing on the rhetorical situations specic to lyric
poetry.
It is illuminating to approach Corbires poetry through the optic
offered by the writings of Volosinov and Bakhtin, who present language
` Une tude sur Corbire, 7.
Dened in Linguistics and poetics, in Style in Language, ed. Thomas Sebeok
(Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1960), 35077 (354) as
a direct expression of the speakers attitude toward what he is talking about which is
laid bare in the interjections, avours to some extent all our utterances, on their phonic,
grammatical, and lexical level.
V. N. Volosinov, Marxism and the Philosophy of Language, trans. Ladislav Matejka
and I. R. Titunik (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), 156.
as inherently dialogic. They emphasize that language is a social activity
and utterances always embedded in a context; speech acts are produced
in response to others and in anticipation of an answer. In this view,
a plurality of discourses traverse the social sphere, and individual
utterances are inhabited by disparate voices. The most systematic
version of Bakhtins analysis of literary polyphony is given in Problems of
Dostoevskys Poetics. Although Bakhtin sawa stark opposition between the
celebration of polyphony found in novels by authors such as Dostoevsky
and the oppressive monologismwhich he sawas a characteristic of poetry,
Corbires irony has much in common with novelistic techniques such
as dialogue, quotation, and indirect discourse.
An advantage of the Bakhtinian model is that it enables one to explore
parallels between Corbires poetry and experiments in the novels of
the time, which are all variations on the quest for impersonality.
However, this approach cannot account for the many ways in which
Corbire subverts conventions specic to lyric poetry. Anglo-American
methodologies, following the example of Eliot, tackle the voice-defying
potential within poetry itself and thus complement the Bakhtinian
perspective. Critics of nineteenth-century poetry in English are more
alert to the artice of the lyric subject, partly because this period saw
the rise of the dramatic monologue, a form which engineers distance
between the writing poet and speaking persona. Indeed, one of the
reproaches levelled at New Criticism has been that it reads all poems as
though they were implied dramatic monologues. However, approaches
in the New Critical tradition are appropriate to Corbires particular
kind of poetry. Eric Grifths in particular has emphasized that attention
to voice is crucial to the reading of poetry.
Poetry lies somewhere between speaking and writing; it is written
to produce a speaking voice effect, a ctional communicative circuit.
Eric Grifths goes so far as to assert that acknowledging the printed
character of the poetic voice in most texts involves a recognition of
the very conditions of poetic meaning. He argues that since the
sentences of the written language frequently [. . .] remain indeterminate
between several semantically distinct vocal utterances, and can become
unambiguous only when spoken, the reader of poetry is forced to
imagine a voicing which will bring the text to life:
Eric Grifths, The Printed Voice of Victorian Poetry (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1989), 60.
Ibid. 18.
The spoken voice, more richly than writing, conveys, in emphasis and intona-
tion, by stress and juncture, and so on, much of the illocutionary force of any
utterance. Not that the wealth of such features in vocal utterance is always an
advantage; creative opportunities may also arise from the comparative absence
of vocal quality in print.
This intonational ambiguity is the source of great reserve, multiplicity,
self-checking, and pliability of intention in writers. Corbire plays
extensively on the fact that poetry is an aesthetic representation of
speech and not just a record of an actual oral performance. Like Cros,
Verlaine, Laforgue, and Richepin, he was interested in the spoken style,
but, whereas the monologues of Charles Cros read like a transcription
of caf-concert performances, Corbires verse does not originate from
this milieu, and its performative quality is folded into a writerly texture.
We are constantly reminded that his writing is contrived to project a
mere illusion of speech, and yet we simultaneously suspend disbelief
and hear living voices speaking through each other.
It is possible to identify three ways in which Corbire blurs the rhetor-
ical situation of lyric poems to produce a voice-defying discourse. First,
he parodies the very convention of the lyric voice by exposing speakers as
articial constructs. The most strikingly forceful and expressive speak-
ers are often being parodied by the very language they are apparently
uttering. As Laforgue says, chaque sortie il avertit: vous savez! me
prenez pas au srieux. tout a cest fait de chic, je pose. Je vais mme
vous expliquer comment a se fabrique. Instead of being a vague
lyric voice with which the audience is expected to identify, the speaker
becomes a comic persona.` As Jakobson has pointed out, any poetry is
a sort of reported message, speech within speech, since it is a ctional
utterance by a lyric subject, and used as a real communication between
author and reader.` I discussed above how the idea of a mask is used to
Ibid. 60. Ibid. 48.
Daniel Grojnowski demonstrates that the eruption of the spoken style into poetry
at this time was closely linked to cabaret culture, Aux commencements du rire moderne:
LEsprit fumiste (Paris: Corti, 1997), 89.
Une tude sur Corbire, 2.
` In Stages of Self: The Dramatic Monologues of Laforgue, Mallarm and Valry (Athens:
Ohio University Press, 1990), Elizabeth Howe points out that the vagueness of the lyric
I allows the reader to identify with the speaker, adopting the I as his own voice,
putting himself in the speakers place. She contrasts this with dramatic monologues
which engineer distance between the poet and his lyric persona by a variety of means,
one of which is irony (1718). While Corbires poems are not monologues in the strict
sense, his ironic distancing of the speaker has much in common with that form.
` Linguistics and Poetics, 371.
recuperate instabilities in Corbires poetry, and this approach can be
nuanced by examining carefully how the mask effect is created by the
language. Corbire revels in the ctionality of the utterance by creating
the poetic equivalent of the unreliable narrator. A good example of the
unreliable je lyrique is the speaking pipe in La Pipe au pote, a parody
of Baudelaires La Pipe. It is easy to label it ironic, because it wittily
derides the poet, but the irony is not easy to pin down. The title, La
Pipe au pote, simultaneously means The poets Pipe and the Pipe
said to the poet. The rst possibility may seem the more obvious, being
rooted in the naming function of language, but the second is a reminder
of the interpersonal function which is so vital to irony. Rather than
depicting a subordinate poets pipe, it consists of a monologue uttered
by an insubordinate pipe. Whereas Baudelaires pipe refers respectfully
to its master, Corbires pipe immediately hijacks the poem and reduces
the poet to a comically pathetic gure:
Je suis la Pipe dun pote,
Sa nourrice, et: jendors sa Bte. (12)
By adopting the grammatical rst person the pipe gains the correspond-
ing condence of a Romantic je lyrique. The pipe mocks the poets
dreams and madness, yet the effect of this banal object having such a
self-important tone is to make it in turn an object of comedy. Whenever
the pipe deates the poet, it simultaneously emphasizes its own ludicrous
presumption, for instance by appropriating the capital P normally used
to consecrate the poet. The rhetorical situation is a source of ambiguity,
because the pipe ironizes the poet, but as the pipe is itself a comic
character we do not know to what extent to trust the pipes evaluation
of the poet. Many of Corbires poems create similar effects without the
motivation of devices as transparent as the speaking pipe. Each poemhas
a different persona, sometimes highly particularized, as in the case of the
pipe. Speakers are routinely made gures of fun when their discourse is
undercut from within. This framing of the speaker as a comic character
reects the breakdown in communication between poet and audience;
the way Corbire alienates the reader fromhis personae contrasts sharply
with the way Hugo invokes shared experience to encourage his reader
to identify with his lyric persona.
As stated in his preface to Les Contemplations: quand je vous parle de moi, je
vous parle de vous, Victor Hugo, uvres potiques, 3 vols., Pliade (Paris: Gallimard,
196474), ii (1967), 482.
A second way in which Corbire disrupts the je lyrique is by breaking
up the unied linear utterance. This is achieved by juxtaposing fragments
of speech by different voices. It is a distinctive feature of Corbires
poems that they rarely address the reader directly. Instead, they often
consist of dialogues played out for the benet of the reader. The idea
of poetry as conversation overheard is not novel, but Corbire stretches
the practice to its limits by making it difcult for the reader to position
him or herself in relation to the conversations. For instance, a? is
a stylized dialogue in which a police interrogator proposes a series of
potted denitions of Les Amours jaunes, all of which the poet playfully
contradicts. The dialogic alternation makes for a litany of oxymoronic
lines, which begins by problematizing the notion of the book:
Des essais? Allons donc, je nai pas essay!
tude? Fainant je nai jamais pill.
Volume? Trop broch pour tre reli
De la copie? Hlas non, ce nest pas pay! (14)
The poet as criminal is one version of the pote maudit. The interrogator
embodies the puzzlement of a readership clinging to conventional
categories, and the replies embody the poets wit. The dialogue stages
the clash between the two, so the book is presented in terms of two
antithetical perspectives on it, rather than as a determinate object.
Neither interlocutor holds the whole truth but the denition of the
book is the sum of the contradictions, so the poems sense lies in the
relationship between the voices. The repeated rejection of attempts to
pigeon-hole the volume implies that it resists denition, yet the poem
as a whole denes the books complex and contradictory particularity.
Les Amours jaunes contains elements of all the possibilities enumerated
and looks different when viewed from different quarters. No single
evaluation within the work itself can be taken as denitive, for they
vary from mon enfant to son honteux monstre de livre, and the
sense of any such statement depends on the context. The moralistic
terms of criticism and the way the poet is hounded as a miscreant
imply that poetry is deviant, but there is also a certain pride in this.
The book conveys no clear indication of how it is to be read. In
contrast to many self-referential parodic texts, Les Amours jaunes does
not address the reader directly, and speakers in the poems rarely step
This echoes the opening of the Satires of Persius; Satire I consists of a dialogue
between Persius and a friend, in which the poet attacks the literary taste of his time.
aside to comment on their own performance. Self-awareness is conveyed
indirectly, so it is difcult to extract a consistent metapoetic stance. This
is no monologic ironist simply uttering oxymorons, but the paradoxes
are created through the movement of the dialogue.
The third way in which Corbire blurs rhetorical situations is by
fusing voices. This is fundamental to his texture even in the most
straightforward monologues. It is particularly illuminating to reassess
his parodic quotation of literary texts and clichs in this light. For
instance, the discourse of sentimental lyricism is frequently paraphrased
by realist speakers using it with critical distance, as in Steam-boat:
En fume elle est donc chasse
Lternit, la traverse
Qui t de Vous ma sur dun jour,
Ma sur damour! (14)
The poetic clich of eternity is undercut by being yoked with the
transient traverse, which is then further cut down to un jour. It
is a clich which the lovers might have used in vows made to each
other in the heat of the moment, but here it is quoted with cynical
distance to point out that the encounter was a brief one. Although
ternit is undercut by this bathos, it nonetheless opens up the rather
neutral traverse into something more promising. The enormity of
eternity is actually highlighted by its being unexpectedly smuggled into
a small-scale description, so the context gives the well-worn word new
life. The realist speaker does not destroy the sentimental discourse he
inhabits, but gives it a new resonance.
This use of ternit can be labelled ironic, but classical denitions of
irony as a discrepancy between what is said and what is meant cannot
account for its signicance. This sort of irony can usefully be read in
the terms suggested by Sperber and Wilson, as a quotation of existing
material in such a way as to express an attitude towards it, as well as
communicating something by means of it. Such an operation can
be clearly seen in Corbires ironic quotation of evaluating words like
bon and bien. The lexical meaning of these terms is positive, and,
as they indicate that a judgement has been made, they tend to imply
the presence of an authoritative speaker. When such words are quoted
See also Aprs la pluie: Veux-tu, dune amour delle, | Eternelle! | Nous adorer
pour ce soir? (435).
Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson, Les Ironies comme mentions, Potique, 36
(1978), 399412.
ironically, their positive value is challenged. Approval and disapproval
coexist within one short word, dividing the speaker and making him
difcult to pin down. A playful example of this is found in Vsuves et
C
ie
, which describes how a poet visiting Vesuvius nds that images of
the volcano remembered from childhood have a greater impact than the
real thing:
Pompea-station Vsuve, est-ce encor toi?
Toi qui s mon bonheur, tout petit, en Bretagne,
Du bon temps o la foi transportait la montagne
Sur un bel abat-jour, chez une tante moi. (14)
Childhood is literally described as the bon temps. Such idealization is
a Romantic clich, and the nasal assonance reinforces the stereotypical
status of the phrase by binding the two words into a self-evident
block. The syntactically unanchored tout petit has already belittled
both the self, his happiness, and the volcano. Furthermore, the gurative
expression that faith moves mountains looks as though it is being taken
literally, since the poem is about a volcano. The naive credulity of
childhood is thus exaggerated to the point of ridicule by the knowing
adult. The poemsimultaneously mocks and idealizes childhood, so bon
has a double intonation.
Evaluative terms like bon and bien are often charged with irony,
because irony reverses values rather than meanings, as Philippe Hamon
emphasizes:
Le discours [ironique] est certes ddoubl, double sens, souvent mdiatis
(il est l cho dun autre discours), mais il vaudrait mieux dire, pour mieux
rendre compte de toute sa complexit, double valeur. Sa vise, en effet, nest
pas strictement et uniquement informative (dire a pour non-a, ou inversement),
mais valuative.
Irony itself is an indirect means of conveying an evaluation. For
Hutcheon, irony has a cutting edge and thus an emotive force.
For Booth, irony fuses fact and value, requiring us to construct
alternative hierarchies and choose among them, and reading stable
irony involves assessing whether the false meaning rejected by the reader
Anne Herschberg-Pierrot shows how clichs insert preconstructed knowledge into
a text by packing it into particular forms which present it as presupposed and obvious,
Problmatiques du clich, Potique, 43 (1980), 3345.
Philippe Hamon, LIronie littraire: Essai sur les formes de lcriture oblique (Par-
is: Hachette, 1996), 28.
Ironys Edge, 37. A Rhetoric of Irony, 44.
is also rejected by the author.` This entails making a decision about the
authors knowledge or beliefs, which is particularly difcult in writing
like Corbires, which does not present decidable beliefs. He borrows
evaluative terms, not wholeheartedly to assert or challenge an ideology
but to empty themof their positive and negative weight and to evoke the
contingency of belief. Double-voiced utterances are used to juxtapose
competing value-systems.
Double-voiced utterances like bon temps come close to the rst
strategy I described, whereby a speaker is exposed as ctional and his
utterance parodied from within. Indeed, the three strategiesempha-
sizing the poem as speech within speech, juxtaposing contradictory
voices in sequence, and fusing themare constantly recombined in new
ways. Marie Maclean says that Baudelaires prose poems reect the many
possible variants of the writerreader relationship and use a variety of
narrative voices and focalization.` Similarly, Corbire confuses the rela-
tionships between author, speaker, addressee, subject matter, and reader
fromwithin verse poetry. Instead of submitting to the endless uncertain-
ties of the irony, it is useful to examine the ways in which he manipulates
these relationships, and the rest of this book will examine in more depth
the variety of effects produced by the different congurations.
Corbires poems are not readable according to classic notions of
irony as a code of reversibility, in which ironist and target are clearly
dened, but display a more modern open-ended, unstable kind of
irony. Hamon suggests that one can describe as modern the type
dironie qui laisse otter la fois les cibles, les sens reconstituer, et
lorigine mme de sa parole. Roland Barthes distinguishes between
traditional irony, which is a feature of lisible modes of writing, and
the polyphonic kind which is characteristic of the modern writerly texts
he celebrates. His description of Flauberts ironie frappe dincertitude
is characteristically acute:
il narrte pas le jeu des codes (o larrte mal), en sorte que (cest l sans doute
la preuve de lcriture) on ne sait jamais sil est responsable de ce quil crit (sil y
` A Rhetoric of Irony, 11.
` Marie Maclean, Narrative as Performance: The Baudelairian Experiment (Lon-
don: Routledge, 1988), 48.
LIronie littraire, 36.
Le code ironique est en principe une citation explicite dautrui; mais lironie joue
le rle dune afche et par l dtruit la multivalence quon pouvait esprer dun discours
citationnel. Roland Barthes, S/Z, Points (Paris: Seuil, 1970), 46.
a un sujet derrire son langage); car ltre de lcriture (le sens du travail qui la
constitue) est dempcher de jamais rpondre cette question: Qui parle?
Corbire does something similar by making it impossible to read
his poetry according to the convention of the lyric voice, and the
uncertainty over who speaks is more disturbing in a lyric poem than
in a Flaubert novel. Corbire thereby lays bare the workings of lyric
poetry. Novelistic techniques of irony and indirect speech are imported
into lyric poetry to deride it from within, yet they introduce a strikingly
modern mode of representing subjectivity, which reinvigorates the
genres concern with identity. Such voice-defying poetry reects its
disenchanted age; the socially marginalized poet can no longer declaim
condently to an audience, but fragments his speech to evoke the
hesitations of a consciousness grappling with the modern world. The
chapters that followwill examine the way these techniques are used both
to problematize the subject and to fragment the outside world.
However, poems with very different themes share a common feature;
they all force the reader to participate in the elucidation of meaning.
In Les Amours jaunes, irony is an effect arising from the relationship
between the lines rather than being the result of monologic performance
by an ironist. It is not possible to determine the meaning of any line
read in isolation. Taken to extremes, this produces a multidirectional
irony where the speaker is lost in a series of mentions. Rather than just
inviting the reader to jump through hoops in order to join the author on
a safe platform, this sort of irony challenges the reader. Commentators
have been driven to seek elaborate biographical explanations for the
troubled self-identity, but it can also be explained as an effect produced
in the reader through the play on voice. Polyphony operates in such
a way as to make the self difcult to pin down, and this difculty is
not something to be overcome, but is built into the poetry to produce
a complex suggestivity. By forcing the reader to ask who is speaking,
to question the authority of each voice, and to negotiate multi-layered
constructs, the poetry obliges him or her to experience the sensation of
uncertainty which is one of its most powerful themes, and to participate
actively in the process of not being able to make sense.
Ibid. 134.
2
Describing Brittany:
Multiple Perspectives
Ix the Armor and Gens de mer sections of Les Amours jaunes,
Corbires voice-defying style is used to describe the external world of
Brittany and the sea. These so-called Brittany poems are generally seen as
narrative and descriptive, and contrasted with the more self-reexive and
personal Paris poems. The contrast between settings certainly divides
the book, and Corbires poetry clearly falls into two broad types, which
Laforgue distinguishes as follows:
Une o il raconte en vers sans armatures, ni volutes, qui se dsagrgeraient sans
le coup de fouet incessant de lexpression mordante et la poigne densemble.
[. . .] Lautre plus intime, tout subjectif, repli sur soi ou Paris ou sur leau et
trs-self comme mtier sans que ce mtier soit riche.
The geographical distinction does not coincide exactly with the formal
difference, because, as Laforgue indicates, the intime is explored both
in Paris and at sea, and descriptive passages are found throughout the
volume. However, although outwardly focused poems are not found
solely in Armor and Gens de mer, the techniques identied in
Laforgues rst category can be most clearly seen in examples from
these Brittany sections. As these texts paint a picture of a recognizable
world using versions of familiar literary techniques, they have much
to tell us about how Corbire plays on conventional ways of reading.
An understanding of these strategies will help us later understand the
more sui generis poems which completely overturn such conventions.
Since the Brittany sections are generally thought to have been composed
rst, focusing on these texts is also a way of tracking the emergence of
Corbires style. By defamiliarizing the world and challenging literary
conventions, the Brittany poems experiment with the aesthetic of
Describing Brittany 53
indirection which was taken to extreme in later poems. Instead of reading
the Brittany poems in opposition to the Paris ones, I shall examine how
Corbires approach to Breton subject matter shaped his art.
The idiosyncratic style of Les Amours jaunes makes Corbires Brittany
very different from the sort of picturesque verse produced by Auguste
Brizeux. Heather Williams has shown how such poetry about Brittany
gained popularity in the nineteenth century by using clichs aimed
at a Parisian audience, and points out that Corbire disrupts these
clichs.` His familiarity with Breton culture permeates the poems of
Armor, but it is often ltered through the optic of an outsider. This
can be seen clearly in his use of the Breton language. As part of his
linguistic patchwork, he uses words based on Breton vocabulary, such
as cornandons (derived from kornandouns, which denotes a kind
of fantastic dwarf ),` and neologisms based on Breton words, such as
ankokrignets (derived from ankou, a personication of death that
haunts Breton culture). However, these are the kind of words which
would have been familiar to any French-speaking inhabitant of Brittany.
They are not used merely for local colour but as part of a general strategy
of juxtaposing different discourses. Pascal Rannou usefully analyses the
importance of the Breton language in Les Amours jaunes, and makes
the case for Corbire as a Breton poet by arguing that he adopted the
regional culture as part of his disenchantment with the dominant class.
Corbires relationship to Brittany is certainly not straightforward, and
I shall focus on the ways he uses it to disorientate the reader, asking
rst how his dense language produces a vivid sense of the place and its
people, and secondly how the poet obscures his relation to this concrete
world.
Corbire has been admired for his realism, and represents Brit-
tany with considerable precision, often specifying real locations in the
peritext, and making vivid use of detail. The effect of precise particularity
` Heather Williams, Writing to Paris: Poets, Nobles and Savages in Nineteenth-
Century Brittany, French Studies, 57 (2003), 47590.
` Un riche en Bretagne, 36.
La Rapsode foraine et le Pardon de Sainte-Anne, 166.
Pascal Rannou (ed.), Visages de Tristan Corbire (Morlaix: Skol Vreizh, 1995),
concisely assesses the extent of Corbires debt to Brittany. For an extended account of
Les Amours jaunes as a quest for Breton identity, see Pascal Rannou, De Corbire
Tristan: La Qute identitaire comme principe organisateur des Amours jaunes (doctoral
thesis, Universit de Haute Bretagne, 1998), which argues that Corbire was brought
up in a bourgeois milieu hostile to Breton civilization and rebelled by embracing this
marginalized culture.
54 Describing Brittany
is a stylistic trait that Pound identies in Gautier and Corbire as hard-
ness. At the same time, Corbire creates impressionistic blurs and
makes it difcult to decide where his speakers stand. He resists the
picturesque of earlier Breton poets in order to convey a more personal
vision, and at times the poetry issues from its very heart, but at others
seems to ironize it. The Brittany poems are often described as free of
irony, but their fragmentation and polyphony are techniques central to
Corbires ironic aesthetic. The question of his distance fromthe Breton
community and sailors he evokes is often linked to biographical factors;
it is part of the legend that he was unable to be a sailor owing to poor
health, and his poetry is often read as celebrating what he was denied
in life. The way these poems have driven readers to seek biographical
evidence to establish Corbires attitude to his native Brittany is a sign
of their ambivalence.
There are a number of reasons why it is difcult to identify a unied
attitude to Brittany. Both Armor and Gens de mer contain a spectrum
of different kinds of poem, ranging from impersonal description to
personal lyricism. Laforgues opposition represents a sliding scale rather
than a rigid dichotomy, as Warren Ramsey points out. Marshall Lindsay
usefully divides Corbires uvre into poems of self-expression (grouped
under the banner pose) and those which describe others (regard). He
shows that the latter focus on outcasts and gures which mirror the poet,
so that poems of both kinds explore the self. Poems range from quasi-
ethnographic dissections of Breton folklore in Armor to reworkings
of ocean topoi in Gens de mer. They alternate between two poles:
celebration of sailors vigour and virility, and compassion for outcasts
or those enduring hardships as a result of the dangers of seafaring.
Furthermore, conicting points of view are combined within single
poems. Sonnenfeld presents the Paris/Brittany opposition in monolithic
symbolic terms, but the duality also operates at the level of the phrase.
Instead of looking at Brittany in terms of its symbolic opposition to
Paris, it is necessary to see how the combination of points of view makes
it difcult to establish a xed outlook. Rather than speculating how far
Corbire might have taken a boat out to sea, it is more fruitful to focus
on the stylistic combination of concrete realism and ironic distancing.
Ezra Pound, Literary Essays of Ezra Pound (London: Faber, 1954), 288.
Warren Ramsey, Jules Laforgue and the Ironic Inheritance (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1954), 96.
Le Temps jaune, 22.
FRAGMENTI NG THE VI SI BLE WORLD
Corbires pictorial qualities have attracted less attention than his orality,
but his poetry makes tangible a concrete world. His anti-rhetorical style,
with its juxtapositions and ellipsis, is well suited to visual material,
producing effects of simultaneity. Descriptions combine precision with
disorientation, and are often crammed with vivid detail, as in the cabaret
scene from Le Bossu Bitor:
Des Hollandais sals, lards de couperose
De blonds Norvgiens hercules de chlorose;
Des Espagnols avec leurs gures en os;
Des baleiniers huileux comme des cachalots
Dhonntes caboteurs bien carrs denvergures,
Calfats de goudron sur toutes les coutures;
Des Ngres blancs, avec des multres lippus;
Des Chinois, le chignon roul sous un gibus,
Vtus dun frac ambant-neuf et dun parapluie. (1319)
Corbire builds up a picture through exhaustive notation of visu-
al observations which are juxtaposed without any interpretation. His
close attention to the waterproong of the caboteurs verges on the
microscopic, and his myopic vision belongs in the line of Gautier,
Flaubert, and the Goncourts. For the Goncourt brothers, this optic is
a sign of modernity: Le caractre de la littrature ancienne est dtre
une littrature de presbyte, cest--dire densemble. Le caractre de
la littrature moderne et son progrs est dtre une littrature
de myope, cest--dire de dtails. Les Amours jaunes has afnities
with the Goncourts criture artiste, and the resemblance was recog-
nized by Laforgue, who noted that its procds [. . .] sont, tripls et
plus spontans, ceux dAnatole, de Manette Salomon. It is a well-
known paradox that an excess of detail can make things harder to see,
and this is particularly true when familiar objects are broken down
into component parts denoted with specialist vocabulary. Like the
Naturalists, Corbire uses a plethora of technical language, particu-
larly in his representations of boats, as in Le Novice en partance et
sentimental:
Edmond Goncourt and Jules Goncourt, Journal, ed. Robert Ricatte (Paris: Robert
Laffont, 1989), i. 971.
Lettre, Lutce (411 Oct. 1885). Repr. in Burch, Sur Tristan Corbire.
Et hisse le grand foc! la loi me le commande.
Largue les garcettes, sans gant! (378)
The specicity of the referents implies a realist desire to document life at
sea, to initiate the reader into an exotic milieu, and to teach him or her
about the purpose of unfamiliar objects. However, as Philippe Hamon
points out, realist novelists include extended descriptions as a way of
explaining technical terms and thus neutralizing ces lieux dangereux
o une dation smantique, une illisibilit, risque de se produire.
In contrast, Corbires verse makes no room for explanation, and thus
foregrounds the unreadability of these terms, which disconcert the
general reader, for whom they are opaque and cannot conjure a visual
image.` Hugo had already experimented with this effect of marine
language in the visionary novel Les Travailleurs de la mer, and Corbire
heightens the disorientation by writing in such a condensed style. This
concision in turn contributes to the sense of concrete particularity.
He crafts diverse sense impressions into a dense and precise style
which Pound denes as hard-bit.` Corbire underlines the sensuous
particularity of things through devices of condensation such as ellipsis.
The effect of chiselled precision in the description of the caboteurs
above is underlined by the sound patterning on [k].
Corbire systematically avoids vague and abstract words, a practice
applauded by Max Jacob, who quotes Corbires Matelots as exempli-
fying the concrete style essential to true poetry. He argues En posie la
valeur prcise du mot na de valeur que si cette prcision est exagre.
La Rapsode foraine et le Pardon de Sainte-Anne exemplies Corbires
hard-bit quality, for instance in its description of the statue of sainte
Anne in the chapel:
Mre taille coups de hache,
Tout cur de chne dur et bon;
Sous lor de ta robe se cache
Lme en pice dun franc-Breton! (258)
Where Gautiers chiselled style is impersonal, Corbire conveys the
emotional context of his description by incorporating words like bon
Philippe Hamon, Introduction lanalyse du descriptif (Paris: Hachette, 1981), 45.
` Riffaterre argues in La Production du texte (Paris: Seuil, 1979) that the readers
ignorance of the exact referent of a technical term will draw attention to the word as a
source of stylistic effect, 401.
` Literary Essays of Ezra Pound, 13.
Max Jacob, Conseils un jeune pote (Paris: Gallimard, 1945), 23.
drawn from everyday spoken language. Living words are used to evoke
the perspective of an ordinary congregation, and, like most of Corbires
ekphrastic descriptions, this quatrain represents popular rather than
high art. Having described the statue as ravaged by suffering, as if
it were human, the poem describes the suffering of living people in
pictorial terms. It gives a lengthy description of the sick and maimed
who habitually gather for a pardon, a Breton religious festival. The
poem is a visual display: just as the inrm parade their suffering to make
money, the speaker parades it to make his point. The bodies have a
strong visual and emotive impact:
Sont-ils pas divins sur leurs claies,
Quaurole un nimbe vermeil,
Ces propritaires de plaies,
Rubis vivants sous le soleil! (12932)
Redness, with its connotations of blood, is expressed by the specic ver-
meil and rubis, and the colour takes on a life of its own independently
of the wounds. The verb auroler is an artistic term meaning to draw a
halo, suggesting the observer is embellishing the picture, and that much
of the signicance is in the eye of the beholder. Sound patterning binds
the components of rubis vivant in a paradoxical union of animate
esh and inanimate mineral, ironically transmuting pain into decorative
material. The theme of bodily disintegration also arises in Le Bossu
Bitor, in which the contorted form of the eponymous hunchback is
emphasized by the fragmented elliptic description: Un vrai bossu: cou
tors et retors, trs madr (7). The emphasis on the brute materiality of
esh is underlined in the description of the dead hunchbacks body at
the end of the poem:
Plus tard, leau soulevait une masse vaseuse
Dans le dock. On trouva des plaques de vareuse
Un cadavre bossu, ballonn, dmasqu
Par les crabes. Et a fut jet sur le quai. (2458)
First we are shown a masse vaseuse, the sound patterning dissolves
the words into a morass to underline the sense. Closer investigation
reveals traces of sailors jacket, and nally the remains are identied
Other examples include the description of the sailors tattoo in Le Novice en
partance et sentimental (1002), the ex-voto in La Rapsode foraine et le Pardon de
Sainte-Anne (181), the poets portrait of his lover in Un jeune qui sen va (30), and
the keepsakes in Fleur dart (14).
as a corpse. While Corbires style fractures anything monument-
al, it also evokes amorphous objects faithfully. He describes what
the corpse looks like before explaining what it is in logical terms.
This defamiliarizes the object, but also presents phenomena in the
order in which they are apprehended by those discovering the body,
rather than having an omniscient narrator tell us what he knows is
there.
The fragmented style contributes to the effect of precision, by
reecting the transience and uncertainty of phenomena perceived. This
is especially true of evocations of the weather and the sea. Corbire
avoids extended descriptions of the ocean, a subject which induced
prolixity in the Romantics, by giving only condensed glimpses. The sea
is never described as a static picture, but eetingly observed at intervals.
Corbire concisely notes the violent effects of sea and weather, as in La
Goutte:
Sous un seul hunier le dernier la cape,
Le navire tait sol; leau sur nous faisait nappe. (12)
Laforgue asserts that Corbire a un mtier sans intrt plastique
lintrt, leffet est dans le cingl, la pointe-sche, le calembour, la
fringance, le hach romantique, but the sketches of bulk and expanse
in the examples above have a strong visual impact. As Laforgue also
indicates, descriptions frequently collapse into wordplay, surprising
metaphors, and caricature. For instance, Le Naufrageur plays ironic-
ally on Hugos laine des moutons sinistres de la mer:
La mer moutonne! Ho, mon troupeau!
Cest moi le berger, sur le sable (223)
La Fin makes an apparently incongruous comparison between the
contours of the seascape and those of a woman, although this is a way
of showing the world as perceived through the consciousness of a virile
sailor:
Voyez lhorizon se soulever la houle;
On dirait le ventre amoureux
Dune lle de joie en rut, moiti sole (313)
As Philippe Hamon points out, description has something in common with
tautology (favoured by Corbire) as both use repetition to intensify and to be precise.
See Introduction lanalyse du descriptif, 77.
Pasteurs et troupeaux, Les Contemplations, uvres potiques, ii. 708.
When static descriptions occur, they tend to be self-reexive. This
description of reections in the sea from Le Bossu Bitor incorporates
eyes, as though the scene is gazing back at the describer:
Parmi les yeux du brai ottant qui luit en plaque,
Le ciel miroit semble une immense aque. (1920)
The same poem contains the condensed line Le soleil est noy. Cest
le soir (15), which verges on the surreal, but can be explained by an
intertext: the metaphoric death of the sun recalls Baudelaires Harmonie
du soir, but the image is undercut by the prosaic paraphrase. The key
visual referent of redness is buried, as the blood from the Baudelaire
poem is only implied. Corbire often uses visual references to comic
effect. To take an example from outside Brittany, Vsuves et C
ie
has a
description which does not add up to a picture in the real world. A visit
to Vesuvius revives memories of images which resemble the volcano,
including a decorated screen:
Bleu sur fond rose, avec ta Mditerrane
Te renvoyant pendu, rose sur un champ bleu. (1516)
The design may be highly stylized but effectively the reection is a
verbal inversion rather than a visual one. The fact that it is a physical
impossibility reects the poems theme; the poets internalized images
and childhood memories of volcanic images are more vivid than the
tourist sight itself.
La Pastorale de Conlie uses an implicit description of Gricaults
painting Le Radeau de la Mduse:
On et dit un radeau de naufrags. Misre
Nous crevions devant lhorizon.
Nos yeux troubles restaient tendus vers une terre
Un cri nous montait : Trahison! (214)
This is a tableau describing the despair of Breton soldiers conned to
their camp during the Franco-Prussian war, because Gambetta feared
they might start a royalist uprising in the tradition of the chouans. The
analogy between camp and shipwreck is surprising, but the backdrop is
not to be read in a literal sense. In describing a known image, Corbire
elevates the plight of the soldiers to the nobility of a large oil painting,
and borrows the visual force of the contorted bodies which the reference
brings to mind. The cry trahison! also hints at a parallel between the
causes of the two dbcles, since both resulted frompolitical decisions.
Another way in which Corbire dissolves visual material into the
verbal texture is by turning it into gurative language. His start-
ling juxtapositions of things which could not coexist in reality often
have a strong visual impact. Exaggerated precision is combined with
imaginative metaphor in Matelots to caricature the sailors:
Ces anges mal lchs, ces durs enfants perdus!
Leur tte a du requin et du petit-Jsus. (456)
Angelets useful analysis of Corbires imagery shows how he creates
surreal effects by placing the vehicle before the tenor in his metaphors,
as in Bambine:`
Bambine fait les cent pas.
Un ange, une femme
Le prend : Cest ennuyeux a, conducteur! Cessez! (1819)
This is as disorientating as the myopic focus on details, and disrupts
the forward movement of the lyric line. Corbire uses precisely those
devices of condensation admired by Laforgue to render the visual
problematic. Corbires poetry is not devoid of plastic interest, but
it actively problematizes the plastic. He does not theorize the visual
any more than he theorizes any other aesthetic questions, but allusions
scattered throughout his uvre suggest that he was as preoccupied by
the relation between word and image as many of his contemporaries.`
The closest Corbire comes to set-piece descriptions is in Paysage
mauvais and Nature morte. His descriptions generally focus on people
rather than landscape, but these two poems, which open Armor,
establish a pictorial backdrop for the section. Paysage mauvais launches
straight into an impressionistic tableau:
Sables de vieux os Le ot rle
Des glas : crevant bruit sur bruit
Palud ple, o la lune avale
De gros vers, pour passer la nuit. (14)
Although the ideological agenda in 1870 was the reverse of that in 1816, when the
Restoration government had been blamed for choosing an incompetent captain for the
Mduse on the grounds that he was a royalist.
` La Potique de Tristan Corbire, 93.
` He was friends with painters and produced caricatures himself. The Paris poems
refer more explicitly to the aesthetic and socio-historic position of the painter.
The fragmented nominal style creates a strong pictorial effect, as the
landscape items are separated in small syntactic groups, which gives
an impression of simultaneity. The quatrain amasses details without
ordering them through syntactic subordination. The key words Sables
and Palud are given without articles, and this telegraphic style is
the verbal equivalent of a sketch. Huysmans comments that Corbire
abusait des suppressions de verbes.`` Nominalization was in literary
vogue during this period, as exemplied by the criture artiste of the
Goncourts, and was often associated with pictorial styles. Corbire
experiments with different ways of foregrounding nouns, but here
the compression is achieved by omitting verbs and juxtaposing noun
phrases, as though he is noting impressions without any attention to the
logical armature of syntax.``
The poem is a patchwork of allusions to Breton folklore, translated
into the visual terms of a surreal tableau.` As David Scott points out,
the sonnet form has diagrammatic potential, and here it structures
the fragmented content: the quatrains set the background, and the
tercets people it with creatures.` Breton folklore portrays the moon as
man-eating, and its voraciousness is suggested by a vivid image in lines
34. The night setting and the unspecic adjectives of colour, ple in
line 3 and blanche in line 9, suggest a black and white picture. The
o construction of the rst quatrain emphasizes the spatial dimension,
and locates the moon in the marsh, which could literally mean it is
reected there. The possibility of a visual reection is mirrored by the
symmetry of sound patterning in line 3. The second quatrain opens
with another o construction, Calme de peste, o la vre |
Cuit, but it contrasts with the previous one, as the adverb o is
harder to read literally. It indicates a spatial relationship between items
which are highly intangible, and the description tails off in suspension
points. As in Verlaine, this evokes an atmosphere more than a clear-cut
picture.
Whereas Paysage mauvais suggests a direct imitation of reality, the
title of the second poem in the diptych, Nature morte, denotes a
`` rebours, 306.
`` The Brittany poems have fewer ambiguous noun constructions than the Paris
poems.
` Aragon and Bonnin identify the references in their edition of Les Amours jaunes,
30911.
` David Scott, Pictorialist Poetics: Poetry and the Visual Arts in Nineteenth-Century
France (Cambridge University Press, 1988), 79.
still-life painting, suggesting that the poem is more aware of itself as
a representation, and implicitly likening the act of artistic creation to
death. In contrast to the fragmented Paysage mauvais, the winding
syntax of Nature morte carefully links the separate items, as though
tracing an existing picture. The self-conscious attention to form is
reected in elevated terms like funbre and tnbre which contrast
with the earthier damn, puante, and sale in the previous poem.
Whereas Paysage mauvais drew its memento mori image from the
bones in their outdoor setting, Nature morte sets up a bourgeois interior
inhabited by an old man, and whose dcor includes a Baudelairian
reminder of mortality: a clock. The sense-impressions evoked in Nature
morte are largely sounds, but these too are described in visual terms,
all overdetermined with terms for death.` The poem culminates in
the death of an individual, possibly the old man, as it ends with
the tautological Le dfunt qui sen va demain. The doomed man is
described as a corpse already, although he will not die until tomorrow.
This could signify the time of vigil spent waiting for the soul to depart,
but gives a strange effect of the future being projected into the present.
This last line sums up the death in life topos which is the key to
these poems. They look like mimetic descriptions, but the mythical
references point to a symbolic interpretation, and the poems ultimately
have a moral concern, being an expansion of the memento mori topos,
and semiotic patterns override the mimetic function. To use Riffaterres
terms, Nature morte expands the hypogram of death in life given by
its title, and Paysage mauvais expands mauvais by developing a series
of images which are stereotypes connoting the sinister. Retrospectively,
Paysage mauvais is just as much an articial construct as Nature morte,
and follows the same basic structure. The rst stanza of each focuses on
time, the second on light, the third introduces a Breton personication
of death, and the fourth concludes with the intense activity of a
specic creature, as though life persists amidst the deathscape. The
mlancolique of the rst poem is modulated into joyeux in the
second, reinforcing the theme of life persisting into death. This semiotic
density is an extreme version of Corbires strategy of dissolving visual
material into the textual. The point of departure of the Brittany poems
may have been observation, but Armor and Gens de mer dissolve the
` Jean-Marie Gleize has shown how Nature morte uses sound patterning and
interior rhyme to reinforce this insistence on the theme of death in Debout, l, travers,
La Nouvelle Tour de feu, 1113 (1985), 1259.
visible world into textual play, a tendency which is taken to extremes in
the rest of his work.
DI ALOGUE
The sense of orality is particularly immediate in Armor and Gens
de mer, and can be explained, more easily than in other sections, by
simply picking out the many phrases which are borrowed from the oral
register. However, this removes them from their poetic context and
skates over the question of how Corbire creates an artistic image of
spoken language. Incorporating oral material into poems is different
fromtransposing visual material into verbal form. Visual details can only
be included by way of words which signify visible referents, whereas oral
fragments can literally be pasted into a literary text, as Barthes points
out: si vous isolez une phrase dun dialogue romanesque, rien ne peut
a priori la distinguer dune portion du langage ordinaire, cest--dire
du rel qui lui sert en principe de modle.` However, oral fragments
are not self-contained specimens, but embody the consciousness of
individual speakers and bring with them the traces of an interpersonal
context.
Descriptions of people often use fragments of their own language as
a way of extending the physical description, especially in Matelots:
Ils sont mal culotts comme leurs brle-gueules.
Quand le roulis leur manque ils se sentent rouler :
terre, on a beau boire, on ne peut dsoler! (1618)
Corbire paints with the living word; oral details are juxtaposed with
visual details, and the intonation and elisions of popular speech are
recorded, as in Captaine Ledoux, which is constructed entirely out of
dialogue:
Tiens, cest lcaptain Ledoux! et quel bon vent vous pousse?
Un bon frais, maam Galmiche, fairplier mon pouce. (12)
Hugo had used dialogue as one way of introducing everyday language
and rhythms into poetry, and Corbire takes this much further.` The
` Roland Barthes, Essais critiques, Points (Paris: Seuil, 1964), 263.
` Carol de Dobay Rifelj compares Hugos Les Pauvres Gens to Corbires La
Balancelle to show that Hugos sherman speaks mostly in standard, even somewhat
incorporation of popular language into verse is part of his realism, as
emphasized by Angelet, who says of Corbires sailors: Pour les peindre,
Tristan juge indispensable de recourir leur propre parlure, rejoignant
en cela la technique romanesque des naturalistes.` Lines like Quon te
fiche droit, quoi? pas dgut! Merci!` look like a transcription of
genuinely oral fragments.` Such naturalistic dialogue is disconcerting
because it is unexpected in poetry.
Dialogue is thus a means of importing material from a specic world,
but also makes representations more open-ended, since giving characters
a voice of their own is a way of showing what they are like rather than
telling us. La Goutte evokes a storm at sea almost entirely through
juxtaposed fragments of dialogue. Direct speech forces the reader to
construct the narrative and gives an impression of unmediated action:
Aux pompes, faillis chiens! Lquipage t non.
Le hunier! le hunier!
Cest un coup de canon,
Un grand froufrou de soie travers la tourmente.
Le hunier emport Cest la n. Quelquun chante. (36)
The narrators voice interrupts the exchange to report the loss of the
topsail, but he describes it from the point of view of the sailors, noting
the sound they would hear rather than explaining what it is. As a
froufrou de soie prototypically evokes the rustling silk of a womans
dress, he is also superimposing erotic imagery onto the scene of action,
and thereby emphasizing the sailors virility. The condensed language
of line 5 thus has a dual perspective; although it is an intervention by
the narrator, it is imprinted with the preoccupations of the characters.
The introduction of the third person at this point underlines that the
loss of the topsail is an event beyond the sailors control. However,
the narrative swiftly reverts to direct speech to convey their alarm. The
violence of the sea is never described from a secure vantage point, but
always from the midst of the drama. There is none of the suave mari
elevated French whereas Corbires sailors speak a tongue rich in popular constructions,
argot, and sailors terminology, Word and Figure: The Language of Nineteenth-Century
French Poetry (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1987), 423.
` Le Bossu Bitor, 112.
` As Genette emphasizes, strictly speaking mimesis can only apply to direct speech:
La mimsis verbale ne peut tre que mimsis du verbe. Pour le reste, nous navons et ne
pouvons avoir que des degrs de digsis. Figures III (Paris: Seuil, 1972), 1856.
magno, in which the observer enjoys the spectacle of disaster from a
point of safety.
Using the voices of Breton people is realistic and also a way of creating
a polyphonic texture. In La Goutte it is impossible to isolate separate
voices from the cacophony:
Tais-toi, Lascar! Tantt. Le hunier emport!
Pare le foc, quelquun de bonne volont!
Moi. Toi, lascar? Je chantais a, moi, capitaine.
Va. Non : la goutte avant? Non, aprs. Pas la peine:
La grande tasse est l pour un coup Pour braver,
Quoi! Mourir pour mourir et ne rien sauver (712)
As well as breaking up the authoritative linear direction of discourse,
polyphony incorporates multiple perspectives. Sometimes Parisian man-
ners are juxtaposed with sailors speech, and the contrasting languages
brought up against each other in dialogue. Bambine motivates this by
having a Breton sailor take urban passengers on a pleasure trip. Mate-
lots does the reverse, attacking the articial theatrical representations
of sailors accepted by urban audiences, and showing the real sailors on
land, where they are not in their element, since they disembark only if
they are wounded or if there is an opportunity for revelry. As well as
citing the landlubbers theatrical view of the sailors, it incorporates the
sailors view of the landlubbers in lines 2930. An observer gapes at the
deformities of the sailors body, only to have each itemwittily countered
by a defensive sailor:
Un il en moins. Et vous, lavez-vous en plus?
La vre-jaune. Et bien, et vous, lavez-vous rose?
Une balafre. Ah, cest sign! Cest quelque chose! (803)
This dialogue is stylized rather than noted verbatim; it sums up the
conicting opinions of the outsider recoiling at the scars and the sailors
pride in them. It recalls the dialogue of a?, in which the ignorant
audiences attempts to categorize the book are all thrown back at them.
Not only do fragments of speech hint at an interpersonal context,
but they are also in dialogue with the literary discourse into which
they are inserted. Rather than seeing dialogue as real speech pasted
into poetic discourse, we need to read the poems as ctional constructs
of which the dialogue is an integral part. As Bakhtin points out, a
literary text involves more than one linguistic consciousness: Sil ny
avait pas cette seconde conscience reprsentante, cette seconde volont
de reprsentation, nous verrions non point une image du langage,
mais simplement un chantillon du langage dautrui, authentique ou
factice.`` Corbire articulates the concerns of the Breton people in ways
they could not express themselves. He uses their discourse as other,
but rather than deriding it he conveys its directness with sophisticated
self-awareness. For instance, Captaine Ledoux stages a dialogue in a
bar between a widow and a sailor, in which the widow reproaches her
child for sitting on the captains knee. Without any authorial comment
the poem conveys the childs need for a father gure, and thus the tragic
impact of seafaring on a family. The poem is meticulously realistic in
its transcription of the bars sign and of the elisions of popular speech,
and yet it is stylized as all the rhymes echo the [u] sound of Ledoux.``
Another poem which transforms the sailors language into poetic form
is Le Mousse, a dialogue between the eponymous ships boy and a
boy whose father died at sea but whose ambition is to be a sailor too.
The discourse is pared down to the bare minimum, and the sonnet
form reects the extreme formal control. The childs language reects
the fact that he is old before his time, having had to ll the shoes of
an absent father. He says Cest moi son mari sur la terre and refers to
his family in the terms we would expect of a breadwinner, labelling his
younger siblings as deux petits. The language is also stylized, as the
poem has internal patterns which would not be found in direct speech,
for instance the idea of the sea as deathbed:
En dcouchant davec ma mre,
Il a couch dans les brisants (34)
The imagery is drawn from the everyday, but rather than faithfully
imitating the diction of a child, the poem condenses childlike simplicity
into poetry. The bald statement of fact, including specication of the
only remains which were washed up, son garde-pipe et son sabot, and
the absence of emotive vocabulary, all add to the resonance.
Similarly, Lettre du Mexique stylizes the linguistic awkwardness of
a sailor writing to inform a family that their young son has died at
sea. Although the letter is a written form, the repetition of a, and
expressions like Cest bien sr and Jaurais donn ma peau joliment
sans faon are oral. The poets voice is barely heard as he is no more than
`` Mikhail Bakhtin, Esthtique et thorie du roman, trans. Daria Olivier (Paris: Galli-
mard, 1978), 176.
`` Capitaine Ledoux is the name of a slave trader in Mrimes tale Tamango, who
is massacred in a revolt aboard his ship. The suggestion of danger and cruelty thus
underpins the banter of this poem.
an organizing presence, juxtaposing fragments of simple discourse in
such a way as to charge them with meaning. The hallucinatory image of
angels present at the boys death is visionary, but true to the superstitious
beliefs of the sailors. Statements like ce mal-l na pas de raison baldly
express human helplessness, and the avoidance of trite consolation only
drives home the pain of grief. The brusque tone reects the harshness
of this liferepeatedly stressing that death is an everyday phenomenon
only underlines its violence. The letter form heightens the impact, as it
places the reader in the position of the recipient of bad news.
These three poems evoke the tragic impact of the sea on families,
focusing on those who lose husbands, fathers, and children at sea.
We are given fragments of situations which show the causes of their
suffering. The author expresses compassion by withdrawing rather than
vociferously proclaiming his sympathy in a Hugolian fashion. The poems
combine the simple sentences, direct speech, and episodic anecdote,
which are characteristic of popular forms, with a more complex artistry.
Corbire borrows the language of the people he describes to bring their
stories to life. Bakhtin shows that the living voice embodies a concrete
consciousness, so the thought of an individual is drawn into an event,
becomes itself part of the event and takes on that special quality of an
idea-feeling .` The use of the embodied word is part of Corbires
verbal precision, and also contributes a sense of affect. When Corbire
quotes the speech of Breton people, it often contains evaluative words
like bon and bien (as in La Rapsode foraine above). It is characteristic
of popular songs and tales that they use terms of evaluation rather than
description.` Angelet remarks on the deliberate banality of Corbires
epithets,` and it is their ambiguous double intonation which gives these
ordinary words their poetic force. Popular forms embody the ideology
of the society from which they spring, and use these evaluative words
wholeheartedly with the assumption that the community shares their
judgement. Corbire uses themfromoutside in a more distanced way, so
a critical consciousness inhabits the simple vocabulary. The individual
estranged from the community uses this discourse in a double-voiced,
aestheticized way. Dialogue is appropriated by speakers to different
degrees. At one extreme direct speech is added as a disruptive trimming,
and at the other it provides the basis for whole poems which create
` Problems of Dostoevskys Poetics, ed. and trans. Emerson, 10.
` Philippe Hamon, Introduction lanalyse du descriptif, 41.
artistic images of oral language. Playing on modes of indirect speech
is a novelistic technique, but it feeds poetry by introducing ambiguity
and condensation. Before examining in more detail the ways in which
Corbire plays on the distance between the artist and his borrowed
discourses, it is worth pausing to consider the impact of spoken dialogue
on the visual descriptions.
VOI CE- I MAGES
Corbire uses the formal structures of poetry to establish equivalences
between the different senses, by juxtaposing visual details and oral
quotations in sequence. The syntax lines up technical terms for nautical
equipment with clichs and fragments of popular speech. Hamon points
out that in classical aesthetics, le dtail peut faire le mme effet fcheux
quune citation, il est toujours senti, peu ou prou, comme un lment
autonome, ou tranger.` Similarly, David Scott argues that Baudelaire
uses dialogue as a literary equivalent to the bizarre juxtaposition of visual
motifs.` Corbire uses both oral and visual scraps as though they were
similar sorts of bric-a-brac, to create a heteroclite texture. Sometimes
samples of language are themselves concrete objects, as when Corbire
inserts transcriptions of shop signs as subtitles, giving a realistic twist to
the practice of using literary quotations as epigraphs.` Corbires verse
is encrusted with visual and oral fragments which are rarely connected
by the armature of syntax but may be linked by puns or other internal
patterns. The development of pictorial techniques in the nineteenth
century coincided with the emergence of increasingly anti-rhetorical
styles, marked by a changing use of punctuation. David Scott shows
how dashes are often used in nineteenth-century writing to pick out
details. Corbire more often uses them to indicate dialogue, but in
Paysage mauvais and the cabaret description fromLe Bossu Bitor they
also signal visual details. Where one would expect pictorial language to
be directed towards its referential object, Corbires visual descriptions
get caught up in the dialogic style, and his images are spoken. He also
dissolves the pictorial into the oral by harnessing the intonational force
of language.
` Introduction lanalyse du descriptif, 17. ` Pictorialist Poetics, 65.
` As in Captaine Ledoux and Le Novice en partance et sentimental.
Pictorialist Poetics, 101.
These techniques are evident in Au vieux Roscoff , a celebration of
the small port where Corbire spent much of his brief adulthood. The
description is cast as a lullaby, constructed out of exclamations addressed
to the place, so it is foregrounded as a communicative speech act rather
than just conveying information about the place. Parts of it have a
strong visual impact, such as the description of the rigging cutting up
the sky:
O battaient-ils, ces pavillons,
charpant ton ciel en haillons! (256)
The observer describes what he sees is there, rather than what he knows
is there, such that the sky and cloth appear to be of one material, as in an
impressionist painting. The idiom battre pavillon is fragmented so its
components regain their original meanings, bringing out the violence
of the verb battre. The imagery of battle is underlined by charpant
and continues into the following line, Dors au ciel de plomb sur tes
dunes, since one of the meanings of plomb is lead shot. However,
Corbire is also playing on the words more peaceful connotations: ciel
de plomb plays on the expression soleil de plomb, to evoke a blazing
sun, and also implies a sommeil de plomb, a deep sleep. The line
reads like two utterances of different sorts grafted on to each other: a
command to sleep and a description of sky and sand. The imperative
and the image are held together by the verbal trickery of ciel de plomb
but are not joined in any clear grammatical sense, as if they have not
been fully assimilated into a unied style. It is as though a battle between
the oral and the visual is causing the language to strain at the seams.
In contrast to the nominalization which is rife elsewhere, Au vieux
Roscoff verbalizes description. It collapses the opposition between
description and action, by systematically combining the two apparently
contradictory codes of sleeping and ghting. Paradoxically, the speaker
lulls the place to sleep by reminding it of past battles, so a historical
dimension is insinuated into the description. The vieux nid corsaires
(12) has a double meaning; the gurative sense of a den of thieves
gives the theme of the poem, but the lullaby form picks up on the
connotations of infancy and security in nest. While the intimate
address to the second person, reinforced by homely adjectives like
vieux and bon, creates a cosy atmosphere, the action escalates from
violent storms and drunken revelry to full-scale battle.
Orality contributes to Corbires visionary quality by injecting affect-
ive force into his visual descriptions. Inconsequential oral asides are often
rhymed with key nouns, for instance quoi with noro, peut-tre
with fentre,` and jupon with la vie a du bon.` Corbire even
uses zeugma to yoke visual notations and exclamations, as in Le Bossu
Bitor: Il fait noir, il est gris. Lor nest quune chimre! (819).
The rst hemistich telescopes black and grey, as il fait noir is an
impersonal construction describing night, and the parallel il est gris
is a third-person statement that the character Bitor (il) is drunk. The
second part of the line appears to introduce a third colour, gold, but
this is a quotation of proverbial wisdom, apparently quoted by Bitor to
justify his desire to spend money, and which retrospectively explains his
intoxication. The ellipsis reects his excitement, and the fragmented line
jumps between this inner consciousness and description of the context.
This is a poetic counterpart of Flauberts unied texture in which the
novelist merged external events, mental activity, and description in a
stylistic continuum.
This technique of fusing the oral and the visual is most marked in the
visionary passages addressing extreme subjects like suffering and revolt.
Cris daveugle tackles suffering in a monologue by a blind person whose
primal cries recapture the power of vision through the force of speech.
The loss of outward vision increases inner vision, which is expressed
through fragments of a specically Breton setting. This compression
makes for what can be described as voice-images. The cry of pain is
objectied into a chain of hallucinatory and nightmarish images, so
the sensation is translated into something tangible. The poem uses the
existing melody of a complainte, and the pounding insistence of its
masculine rhymes reinforces the theme of violence. A whole spectrum
of devices are used to sculpt the cry, including repetition, rhythm,
and wordplay. The complete lack of punctuation depersonalizes the
utterance. Normally punctuation is used to suggest intonation, but here
strength of feeling is forged into more permanent static images. The
poemdraws on diverse sense experience; breaking the world into a urry
of colours, sounds, and pain, disconnected fromtheir context and causes.
The speaker seems to be noting sensations as they assail him, recording
his trauma in a series of images and sounds. However, the subjective
outpouring is carefully constructed, and the incantatory power of lan-
guage is used to suggest a realm between life and death. The paradoxical
Le Novice en partance et sentimental, 702. ` Ibid. 1057.
` La Rapsode foraine, 2224.
Houston, French Symbolism and the Modernist Movement, 41.
opening line lil tu nest pas mort recalls le dfunt sen va demain
of Nature morte. It relies on the repetition of key elements such as the
eyes, which are metaphorically echoed in a variety of terms denoting
holes (they are variously deux trous and bnitiers ardents; the motif is
echoed in sabord, forge denfer). Each stanza begins and ends with a
six-syllable couplet rhymed on [Or] (all echoing the sound of mort). In
each stanza the second couplet recombines elements of the rst one so
as to give it a more negative twist. For instance, Pardon de prier fort |
Seigneur si cest le sort (5560) becomes Pardon de crier fort | Seigneur
contre le sort (5960). Religious imagery, which frequently features
in delirious utterances, here underscores the impression of a deranged
subjectivity, and is inextricably bound up with the Breton setting.
Le Naufrageur takes up the hammering repetition and hellish
imagery of Cris daveugle to evoke a contrasting experience: the
action of a glamorized criminal. It describes the activity of wreckers, rst
justifying it by referring to the desperation of the pauvre gens, and then
depicting its drama in visionary terms. The speaker is the eponymous
wrecker, who harmonizes with his elemental storm-torn setting. What
he sees opens up a visionary sphere, as he himself states: Jai vu dans mes
yeux, dans mon rve (2) and Moi je vois profond dans la nuit, sans voir!
(12). This visionary dimension is conveyed in a compressed language
which he would not use himself, although the plethora of oral signs give
it the immediacy of an utterance produced in the midst of the storm:
Lenfer fait lamour. Je ris comme un mort
Sautez sous le H! le H des rafales,
Sur les noirs taureaux sourds, blanches cavales!
Votre cume moi, cavales dArmor!
Et vos crins au vent! Je ris comme un mort (248)
The intonation of the words links with their sense to create concise
and suggestive voice-images. The command to spur on a horse has
become a noun: le H, as though it were an object. Images with a
strong visual impact are compressed into little yelps with a powerful
affective force. Just as conventional poetic images gain much of their
force from sound patterning and rhythm, Corbires gain much from
the affect of the implied intonation. Figurative language is not just
visual, but the oral H has become metaphorical. If imagistic language
is derived from visual description, Corbire derives a similar written
image of orality from speech. Imagery borrows the visual to describe
other things guratively, and Corbire uses the oral to produce similar
effects. Voice-images are central to his visionary idiom which conveys a
sense of what Pound identies as that force of romance which is a quite
real and apparently ineradicable part of our life.
This harnessing of orality means that consciousness is imprinted on
all Corbires descriptions. The texts are full of signs of voice, but
these cannot be attributed to a single originating authority. Corbires
identication with the Breton people is conveyed stylistically rather than
being presented by a rst person who is unequivocally one of them.
Le Naufrageur ironically quotes the sort of formula used by a witness
to assert the veracity of a yarn: Si ce ntait pas vrai Que je crve!
(1), but the compression comes from the author and not the hero. Just
as Corbire represents private emotions objectively by making them
disordered and strange, so he approaches the alien world of seafarers by
forging a vigorous style to make it seemvividly real, rather than claiming
to speak from personal experience.
CLASH OF CULTURES
Corbire stylizes Brittany by fragmenting visual description and speaking
through the voices of characters, and together these strategies give his
writing great intensity. Since we are aware that this world is presented
with an aesthetic distance, it follows that there must be signs of the artist
responsible for the patterning. Some poems delineate the quoted voices
clearly fromthe quoting ones, with the result that the narrators discourse
is exposed as a code in itself. Speakers often adopt an exaggerated version
of literary discourse to undermine it from within, and the intrusions
of speech from the Breton people only highlight the artice of this
self-conscious literary pose. For instance, in the self-mocking elegy
mon cotre Le Ngrier the speaker is a littrateur borrowing the discourse
of sailors to bid farewell to a pleasure boat which he is selling. The boat
represents the carefree part of self which aspires to sea adventure, but
the knowledgeable use of nautical terms is incongruous, given that the
speaker is no hardened mariner. This speaker who can only play at being
a sailor is perhaps the one who comes closest to Corbire the author,
He preceded and thereby escaped that spirit or that school which was to senti-
mentalize over ugliness with a more silly sentimentality than the early romanticists had
shown toward the beauties of nature. The Approach to Paris, New Age, 13 (2 Oct.
1913), 663.
and is presented as a gure of fun. The poem juxtaposes cosmopolitan
renement with descriptions of the elemental setting. A similar strategy
is used in Le Phare, which expands the topos of lighthouse as phallic
image through a series of classical references, quotations from Musset,
and an absurd description of installing Madame in this abode, which
all seemincongruous against the rugged coastal backdrop. It also exposes
the inauthenticity of Breton Romantic poetry, by parodying Le Phare
by Hyacinthe du Pontavice de Heussey, which solemnly describes the
lighthouse in inated language such as:
Il est seul dans son calme et sa virilit,
Un contre tous, debout comme la vrit!
Corbires version takes the priapic imagery literally to mock it from
within.
Il se mate et rit de sa rage,
Bandant bloc;
Fier bout de chandelle sauvage
Plante au roc! (912)
It concludes with a literal deation: lrection du phare | Ny tiendrait
pas (5960).
The fact that the narrators discourse is merely a conventional code is
particularly obvious when he adopts the conventions of a recognizable
genre. No two poems follow the same model, and Corbire reworks
a variety of genres, including epic (Le Bossu Bitor), portrait (Le
Rngat), and song (the fragmented sea shanty Aurora). Despite their
immediacy, the poems in both Armor and Gens de mer lter reality
through existing interpretations. Gens de mer includes sailor poems in
the style of La Landelle, and draws on the world of seafaring adventure
depicted in novels by Corbires father.
Since so many narrators self-consciously parody poetic style, it is
difcult to locate the artist. Indeed, the poet is often diffused, and
recognizes himself in outsiders. A telling example occurs in the portrait
Le Rngat in which a protean buccaneer is described as an artiste
de proie. The renegade mirrors the artist, but the rapacious image
suggests that he might also ght back; he is not merely a passive
observer but actively preys on subject matter and thus participates in
the brutality of the natural world. Other characteristics of the renegade
La Posie Bretonne au XIXe sicle, ed. Joseph Rousse (Paris: Lethielleux, 1895), 200.
could equally describe the poet: the transgressive declamation a mange
de lhumain, de lor, de lexcrment (13) literalizes the poetic process
of depicting all kinds of subject matter. Whereas Baudelaire wrote of
turning mud into gold, this raptor-like artist is offered raw materials
which are even more abject, and he devours them all indiscriminately,
which is a metaphor for the poets cannibalization of the discourse of
others.
Le Douanier goes so far as to introduce a poet persona into the
scene and to describe his relationship with a coastguard rooted in his
clifftop environment. This venerable gure is forced to retire because
of administrative rationalization, and Corbire ironically paraphrases
the marching orders issued by bureaucrats: Va, lzard dmod!
(80). The poet effusively celebrates the coastguard, who belongs in a
rapidly vanishing world referred to as a songe pass, and this nostalgia
is expressed in dreamlike language. The poem ostensibly articulates a
realist aesthetic, with the poet describing his ambition to immortalize
the weathered customs ofcer: je vais tempailler [. . .] Et te coller ici,
boucan de mes rimes (35). However, the analogy between art and
taxidermy is ironic and the speaker is mocking the ambitions of realism.
His poem is a ction which plays on existing formsit contains an
inset song and reworks the Hugolian theme of the humble gure as
seer. The coastguard is described in ironically precious terms, and the
amboyant imagery exaggerated to the point of ridicule:
Telle que, sans rose, une sombre pervenche
Se replie, en closant sa corolle qui penche
Telle, sans contrebande, on voit se replier
Le capote gris-bleu, corolle du douanier! (847)
The disparity between the coarse subject matter and overblown elegiac
tone is comic. The elegist is represented within the poem, observing the
coastguard, and informs us that their relationship was characterized by
communion and identication, but an idealized description of the pair
at work shows the coastguard doing his sums while the poet writes verse,
and it is clear that they speak utterly different languages. The poet likens
the coastguard to a philosopher, and elevates his sums to an existential
formula, describing them as lennui contemplatif divis par lui-mme
(89), but this is exaggerated self-consciousness, and the poem is really
showing how the poet is alien in this world. By describing the Breton
Tu mas donn ta boue et jen ai fait de lor, uvres compltes, ii. 192.
people from the point of view of the man of letters, Corbire makes
the literary discourse as much an object as he does the oral language
of the sailors. The so-called authorial discourse is no more a direct
expression of the author than that of the sailors. The author is not to
be found in any one language but lies between them, as Bakhtin points
out: Lauteur [. . .] est introuvable sur les divers plans du langage: il se
trouve au centre o sorganise lintersection des plans. Corbire is a
ventriloquist who adopts multiple voices without fully inhabiting any
single one. As Bakhtin says: The writer is a person who knows how to
work language while remaining outside of it; he has the gift of indirect
speech. Corbire shows the limits of particular styles by juxtaposing
different ones in an attempt to penetrate reality. The true meaning of
his poems lies in the relationships between the styles.
It is difcult to pin down the speaker of any given utterance and none
is totally authentic, since the artists commentary is often exaggerated to
the point of self-parody, and the characters speech is stylized. Above all,
the voices of artist and characters constantly interfere with each other
to produce a range of hybrid utterances. This incessant fusion of voices
means that the world is often described from a variety of perspectives
simultaneously. It is retinted and qualied in every line, building up
an overall picture of a complex world-view. In his short introduction
to Corbire, written long before the wave of critical interest launched
by Sonnenfeld in the 1960s, Turnell astutely identies Corbires
ddoublement as the key to his poetry, which he describes as the
sense that we are regarding the same experience simultaneously under
two aspects. He argues that Corbire expresses simple emotions but
complicates them by commenting on them. This division is enacted in
the Brittany poems, in which an elemental world is perceived through
the optic of modern consciousness. Turnell suggests that Corbires
poetry represents a return to nature as a reaction against sophisticated
urban poetry, but presents the two worlds of feelings (Breton peasants
and sceptical observer) as equally real. It is the sum of stylistic effects
which I have identied that produces this sense of an overarching double
perspective.
Esthtique et thorie du roman, 408.
Quoted by Tzvetan Todorov, Mikhail Bakhtin: The Dialogic Principle, trans. Wlad
Godzich (Manchester University Press, 1984), p. vii.
G. M. Turnell, Introduction to the Study of Tristan Corbire, The Criterion, 15
(1936), 393417 (398).
Ibid. 4004.
LE BOSSU BI TOR : NARRATI VE
Many of the devices discussed above are novelistic, so it is worthwhile
examining Corbires narrative poetry, which offers the scope for more
sustained experimentation with dialogue and points of view, and of
which the best example is Le Bossu Bitor. It tells the story of a
hunchback sailor who permits himself an annual trip ashore to enjoy
the brothels, like all the other sailors. One year he fails to return from
his expedition and is later found dead; the events leading up to the
fatal event are described in graphic detail. Much of the poems irony
stems from disparities between the epic genre, conventionally reserved
for elevated subject matter, and the anti-hero Bitor. The humour cuts
both ways, for the hunchback is mocked for his crudity, but the ribald
humour from within the sailors world also undercuts the artice of the
epic. Corbires realism and irony contrasts with mythical tales of sailors
seeking love between land and sea, such as the The Flying Dutchman.
There is humour in the use of heroic discourse to describe a hunchback
creeping out to pay for his pleasure, and Corbire plays up the comic
theatrical motif of an unprepossessing customer selecting his Grce de
corve with delectation (1501). However, Bitors world is a brutal one
in which the ttest survive; when he contemplates the choice of girls
in the cabaret he is described as a chauve-souris xant les albatros en
proie (166), which suggests that he is doomed from the start and that
there is tragedy in his fate.
Corbire plays with the traditional form of French narrative poetry:
long passages of alexandrines with a predominance of rimes plates,
much used by the Romantics. Corbire attacks these predecessors, and
his narrative differs from theirs by refusing idealism and fragmenting
the authorial voice. Laforgue rightly emphasizes the condensation of
the poem:
Cest racont avec une iiooiciiusi puration (Bitor), cest condens, a ptille,
tout est prendre, la rime ne compte pas comme rime, on ne la sent pas. Il
fait de la peine voir compter ses syllabes, alterner ses distiques par masculines
et fminines, scander ses csures que na-t-il fait cela en prose cest
impossible chanter, ce texte.`
The language has a staccato quality and, although some periods extend
across several lines of verse, there is a predominance of end-stopped lines.
When successive lines all initiate new syntactic structures, a sense of
agitation is produced, which often reects Bitors restlessness, as in lines
737). The accumulation of short snippets of speech, often separated
by suspension points, enables Corbire to retain the prosaic word order
of speech whilst ensuring the metrical autonomy of his alexandrines,
as in:
Bon. Tu men conduiras une et propre! combien?
Tire ton sac. Voil. Parole! il a du bien! (11718)
In narrative verse the rhymes are often less prominent than in shorter
poems, but Le Bossu Bitor further foregrounds line-endings with
colourful rhymes such as cossuses with bossuses (11920).
The overarching narrative provides a distinct structure; the poem
describes the setting, dramatizes the key events, and concludes with a
retrospective summary of the outcome. There are changes in pace, and
description and action alternate. Suspense is generated; in the fourth
section we do not see what Bitor does on his escapade and are not
told why he returns in a sorrowful mood, but this is retrospectively
explained as a subsequent escapade is evoked in graphic detail. Gaps in
the narration puzzle the reader, for instance we are not told exactly how
Bitor dies. First we are shown Bitors habit from the point of view of
others, then we are shown his nal escapade as a singular event from a
point of view close to the protagonist himself.
Laforgue asks que na-t-il fait cela en prose. Rather than following
the conventions of the narrative poem and using poetic rhetoric to tell
a story, Corbire exploits more novelistic techniques, by playing on the
artice of the narrative voice. In ction, narrators vary between being
unobtrusive in those works which aspire to objectivity (projecting a
maximum dinformation et un minimum dinformateur),` and being
highly subjective in texts which aim to represent the narrative act
itself realistically (parading the limited perspective and consciousness of
the speaker). Both of these strategies are merely conventions, and, by
repeatedly alternating between them, Le Bossu Bitor emphasizes their
conventionality.
There is objectivity in the way the narrator describes events from
Bitors physical perspective, following him in time and space, for
instance describing what Bitor sees as he enters the bar:
` Genette, Figures III, 187.
Une porte souvrit. Cest la salle allume.
Silhouettes grouillant travers la fume. (1234)
Commentators have spoken of the realism of the subject matter but the
realism of presentation is also important, as the shifting incompletion
reects the sensation of real life. Bitor is constantly being described from
slightly different points of view, and these jumps do not reect soubre-
sauts de conscience as in the more lyrical poems, but have a narrative
function. Abundant use of the present tense gives an impression of imme-
diacy very different from the style of much Romantic narrative poetry.
Life only becomes a story retrospectively once it has ended, but although
Bitors story ends in death and invites just such a teleological treatment,
it is told as if in the process of unfolding. When the narrator withdraws
in this way, Bitors own point of view is conveyed more immediately.
However, even when the narrator is closely tailing his character, he
constantly projects his own subjectivity into the telling. The narrator is
not declaiming retrospectively, and it is hard to separate his narration
from the narrated events. At times he is physically present in his story,
as when Bitor heads down the backstreets of the port. The question
Qui va l? (91) sounds like a cry from the patrol mentioned in
line 37, but it is answered from outside by the narrator with an ironic
allusive description of Bitor, comparing him to a series of historical
hunchback gures. Lines 1013 could be read as though the narrator
were literally following Bitor, in which case they are ironic, or as though
Bitor were talking himself through events:
Va donc Paillasse! Et le trousse-galant temporte!
Tiens : cest l! Cest un mur Heurte encor! Cest la porte:
As-tu peur!
Il coute Enn : un bruit de clefs. (1013)
This demonstrates that the question of irony cannot be dissociated from
that of voice; one cannot merely categorize each phrase as genuine or
ironic if it is not clear who is meant to be speaking.
The narrative act is foregrounded as a performance, and there are
frequent marks of a personal narrator; the most obtrusive being the
overt use of the rst person:
Jy sens je ne sais quoi dassez mlancolique,
Comme un vague fumet dholocauste lantique (678)
Attention is drawn to the narrator through the self-mocking affectation
of poetic language. Other marks are interjections such as mystre!
(28), a clichd narratorial comment creating suspense. Phrases like
Ctait la n (69) imply the control of a speaking voice which is
not just showing events but ordering them. These signs of voice are
often ironic; and no more than vestiges of an absent authoritative
narrator. Furthermore, the narrators point of view is far from constant.
Generalized statements such as Tout le monde a pourtant quelque
bosse en la tte (51) imply a certain omniscience but elsewhere
the narrators authority is limited, as when the explanation given for
Bitors deformity is the sailors own rather than a narratorial summary
(1214). The disclaimer il disait implies a sceptical attitude to this
source, especially as the Chilean earthquake seems an uncharacteristically
romantic explanation for his handicap.
Corbire constantly gives a voice to characters within the poem, and
direct speech forces the reader to construct the narrative. The most
intense use of direct speech coincides with the narrative climax in the
brothel scene, highlighting its power as a dramatic resource. Elsewhere,
fragments of dialogue are used to express attitudes to Bitor from voices
other than the narrator:
Tiens : Bitor disparu. Cest son jour de sabbats
Il en a pour deux nuits : rgl comme un compas.
Cest un sorcier pour sr
Aucun naurait pu dire. (579)
Corbire blurs the origin of these anonymous speakers, and it is not
clear whether they said or merely thought these things, whether the
author is quoting them or verbalizing their mindset. This is naturalistic
compared with Hugos use of dialogue in La Lgende des sicles.
This uncertainty over exactly who is speaking dominates the poem.
The narrator fuses with his characters in a passage describing a typical
night on the town for the sailors:
Entendez-vous l-bas, dans les culs-de-sac louches,
Roucouler leur chanson ces tourtereaux farouches!
Chantez! La vie est courte et drlement corde!
Hle toi, si tu peux, une bonne borde
jouer de la lle, jouer du couteau
Roucoulez mes Amours! Qui sait : demain! tantt
Tantt, tantt la ronde en crmant la ville,
Vous soulage en douceur quelque tranard tranquille
Pour le coller en vrac, lger chantillon,
Bleu saignant et vainqueur, au clou. Tradition. (3140)
Lines 312 seem to originate from within the story, as if the speaker
is pointing to events at the moment they are happening. However, he
is distanced from the sailors both spatially, by l-bas, and through his
ironic attitudethe tender roucouler and tourtereaux are undercut
by their assonance with the more dubious louches and farouches.
Entendez-vous seems to be spoken by a narrator situated close to the
events. Lines 336 are more ambiguous; the words seem to be the
sailors song, though the carpe diem motif directed at an unknown
second person has the effect of reaching out to the narratee in the
same way as line 31, and thus blends with the narrators discourse.
The recurrence of the verb roucouler seems ironic but it is not clear
where the irony stems from. The sailor himself might be using the word
ironically to mock the idea of sentimental love, or the narrator might be
juxtaposing the sailors brute instincts with cooing lovesickness to ironic
effect. In any case, the amorous adventure culminates in the drunken
sailors arrest, an inevitable conclusion whose messiness is described
with glee. This satisfaction is both a sign of the sailors pride, and of the
narrators own condence that he too is a man of the world. Irony stems
as much from the sailors cynical view of love as from the narrators
ironic handling of his characters. This ambiguity over the identity of
the speaker and the source of discursive effects brings the narrator close
to the sailors and suggests sympathy with them.
The poem itself undermines the idea of a narrator incorporating
fragments of unpoetic natural language into a poetic discourse. Although
the rhythmis frequently dislocated, rhymes are foregrounded in the very
sections dominated by dialogue, often to burlesque effect, Mary-Saloppe
uses a range of gurative language to describe Bitor (195200), whereas
the narrator only contributes the bald statement Ctait lheureux
Bitor (200). Although Mary-Saloppes language is coarse, it is rich and
expressive, demonstrating that the language of the characters is more
than just local colour. The fact that the direct speech is quoted in full
rather than merely recounted draws attention to the way it is said rather
than what is said (which sounds suspiciously like a denition of poetry).
The apparently non-poetic is paradoxically a source of poetic effect,
and this tension reects the fault-line between the realistic and the
defamiliarizing which runs through the whole poem. Corbire does not
just incorporate samples of the speech of others, but uses the rhythms of
speech in the texture of the poem as a whole. The language of the sailors
is partly used in direct speech, partly appropriated in the discourse of the
narrator, and partly in a confusion of the two. Many passages in which
the voice cannot be identied are a sort of paraphrase by the narrator
of the spoken language of the characters. For instance, the girls services
are described in a chorus:
Du velours pour frotter cru leur cuir tann!
Et du fard, pour torcher leur baiser boucan!
leurs ceintures dor, faut ceinture dore! (15961)
This is presented as their dialogue, yet the idiom seems to have been
rened by a representing consciousness, as though two or more voices
coexist in the discourse. A similar effect is apparent in:
Charivari! Pour qui? Quelle ronde infernale
Quel paquet crev roule en hurlant dans la salle? (1934)
The use of punctuation, exclamation, and questions suggests this is
a quotation of dialogue uttered within the turmoil of events, yet the
description of the couple seems to come from outside the scene. It is as
if the narrator is voicing for them the experience that they could not
express themselves, whilst remaining close to their vocabulary.
The narrator also uses a variety of different languages within his own
discourse, so that stylistic shifts are no guide to changes in voice. At
times the voice of the narrator is clearly demarcated: the description of
Bitors attire is self-consciously produced by a man of letters who cannot
resist a playful allusion to Gautier:
Un pantalon jadis cuisse-de-nymphe-mue,
Couleur tendre mourir! et trop tt devenue
Merdoie except dans les plus rose-damour,
Gardiens de la couleur, gardiens du pur contour (7780)
This contrasts with Bitors direct speech, such as the exclamation
Ah! cest que ce nest pas, non plus, tous les jours fte! (82),
a popular saying consisting entirely of monosyllables. However, the
narrators interpolation Enn il sest lav, gratt rude toilette! (81) is
closer to Bitors turn of phrase, and the narrator is hardly distinguishable
from his character here. The question of distance is highlighted by the
italicized words. These are foregrounded typographically, suggesting
they are being quoted or that the speaker is distancing himself fromthem.
In Le Bossu Bitor, they occur both in passages attributed to the narrator
and in dialogue, and it is uncertain which voice is expressing the distance.
Gautier,LArt: Lutte avec le carrare | Avec le paros dur | Et rare | Gardiens du
contour pur.
Corbire undercuts the contrast between an elevated narrators voice
and less poetic dialogue found in Hugos narrative poetry. The narrator
cannot be located either as an identiable voice or as the source of a
characteristic discourse, and incorporates citations fromother discourses
into his own, such as appeals to universal wisdom like Car chacun sait
quen mer un bossu porte chance (9) and popular sayings like Bitors
use of ce nest pas tous les jours fte (82). This variety in the narrators
language even within short stretches means dialogue is not the only
method of incorporating alien discourses, and in fact there is little
difference between dialogue and quotations from other sources. The
narrator is a ventriloquist who varies between a self-aware man of letters
and a sailor telling a yarn, and quotes direct speech, proverbs, and
technical terms. He allows extraneous voices to articulate sections of
his account, either to give an effect of immediacy or to contribute an
evaluative perspective. For instance, superstitious interjections are cited
ironically as embodying a limited perspective, but these are part of the
world he is representing.
The dialogue is fragmented, so it is no longer a communicative speech
act but part of a more anonymous piece of writing, and the alternation
of voices is subsumed into an interweaving of discourses, ranging from
slang and the technical terminology of sailors to literary allusions and
passages in the past historic. The cacophony of different languages is
even gured concretely in the enumeration of nationalities patronizing
the bar (12548) which represents a background babble of foreign
tongues. Corbire exaggerates the discontinuity between discourses by
suppressing the customary metonymic connections such as he said.
However, the interwoven discourses do not just clash, but actually
blend with each other; the nautical imagery describing Bitors amorous
encounters evokes his outlook in a way which could not be paraphrased,
his sailors life impinging on all experience. The poem may not say one
thing and mean another in a straight ironic fashion, but it constantly
uses the language of others with a certain distance.
If words are cut off from an identiable origin, they are also cut
off from their destination within the represented world; the dialogue
of the characters in the story is no longer discourse directed at other
characters. Bitors talking to himself prior to his escapade (7685) could
be seen as a sort of broken monologue, but elsewhere the utterances
are more of a chorus, telling the reader something rather than being
part of the action. The narrative is aimed at the reader, but as it
is largely constructed out of discontinuous elements it is no single
linear communicative act. Narrative is a means of introducing a variety
of characters, languages, and voices, and Corbire exaggerates this
heterogeneity by suppressing natural metonymic connections. Laforgue
described this poemas impossible chanter because it stretches prosodic
limits, but it also resists monologic performance because its multiple
voices break up the lyric line, a technique which is novelistic. The
uncertain irony means that events are presented without any conclusion
being drawn or moral being spelled out by a narratorial authority. Bitor
remains an ambivalent gure. Passages such as the description of his
trousers make him a gure of fun, but this irony is not Corbires
most lacerating. Bitor also has romantic aspirations, and could be seen
as seeking redemption although he is not aware of it. The last line,
Le pauvre corps avait connu lamour!, expresses his satisfaction at
the experience, and yet also carries the narrators ironic awareness of its
inadequacy. Bitors cruel fate in itself gives him pathos, and compassion
underlies the material reality. Realism and irony do not negate the epic
but give it a new twist, bearing out Flauberts assertion that lironie
nenlve rien au paththique.
RELATI VI ZI NG BELI EFS
Although fragmentation and double-voicing have so far been presented
in formal terms, beliefs are nonetheless at stake, as is particularly clear in
La Rapsode foraine et le Pardon de Sainte-Anne. This long poem uses
pictorial techniques to describe the physical afictions of participants
gathering for a religious festival, and also combines an ethnographic
approach to the superstition of the Breton people with a metaphysical
approach to the question of suffering. It is divided into four sections
which each have quite distinct voices. The rst sets the scene with a
description reminiscent of Nature morte, and identies the setting as a
liminal site between the sainte and the sauvage, an opposition which
the poem systematically undercuts.
The second section takes up the sainte/sauvage opposition in a
cantique spirituel addressed to sainte Anne which is introduced as
a Chur sraphique et chant divrogne. It fuses the sacred and the
human, and gives the faithful a voice in a lengthy chorus of praise,
Correspondance, ii. 172.
requests, and promises addressed to sainte Anne, who is represented in
the image of the Breton people:
Bton des aveugles! Bquille
Des vieilles! Bras des nouveau-ns!
Mre de madame ta lle!
Parente des abandonns! (414)
Corbire refuses to apply single coercive labels to individuals, but
instead offers a litany of nominal images, showing how the saint appears
differently in the eyes of different people. The scene is presented
from two perspectives. There is sympathy to Breton superstition, and
concern with elemental fears of sickness, infertility, and death (in both
agricultural and domestic contexts). The annual event of the pardon
is a natural cycle, and the constant alternation between life and death
reects an acceptance of the cyclical nature of life. At the same time,
the multiple voices of the participants in the pardon are orchestrated by
an external consciousness which both mocks them and conveys their
preoccupations.
The poem evokes belief indirectly; the cynical speaker could not
voice faith directly himself, but conveys the beliefs of the Breton people
with sympathy. He compresses much information about their lives into
dense language. He makes light of their mercenary quirks, yet this only
underlines the harsh reality of their life. Faith is brought down to the
human scale in a way which is true to the Christian spirit. Connections
are constantly made between the activities of holy gures and those
of ordinary people, whether everyday tasks, such as spinning, or the
rituals surrounding birth and death. Internal echoes give an incantatory
quality and allude to implicit correspondences, underlining the way
beliefs are rooted in the everyday lives of these people. Repetitions are
not refrain-like or ritualistic formulae, but half-echoes lightly touched
in, for instance childrens cradles are likened to Christs crib (614 and
736). Biblical imagery is fused with the everyday language of social
interaction.
The third section is uttered by an onlooker who is spatially close
to the scene (he gestures towards it with deictics like ici and l)
but sceptical about the religion which underpins it. He experiences an
emotional response to what he sees, and his mounting anger at the fate
of the unfortunate makes his tone increasingly caustic. This depiction
See also Saint Tupetu de tu-pe-tu.
of an unfolding thought process shows a particularized consciousness
in action. The speaker begins by quoting declarations of faith made by
characters within the scene, such as Sainte Anne, ayez piti de nous!
(118) and Allez : la Foi vous a sauv! (124), which are vestiges
of the preceding cantique spirituel. These epitomize the faith of the
people he is describing, and he initially interprets the spectacle in the
light of their faith, by using terms they might use themselves. He then
ceases merely to quote theological formulae of the blessed are the poor
variety, and begins to ironize this logic by taking it literally, for instance
by sanctifying the invalids into a religious painting, whilst emphasizing
the gory reality of their plight:
Sont-ils pas divins sur leurs claies,
Quaurole un nimbe vermeil
Ces propritaires de plaies,
Rubis vivants sous le soleil! (12932)
He then compares the ravages of disease to an organic symbiosis, which
ostensibly accepts that suffering is part of the natural order:
L, ce tronc dhomme o crot lulcre,
Contre un tronc darbre o crot le gui. (1378)
However, there is a stark contrast between the man aficted with an ulcer
and the tree on which mistletoe benignly grows. Eliot, who describes La
Rapsode foraine as Corbires greatest poem, argues that this sudden
and surprising collocation of the animal and vegetable resembles the
conceit as used by the metaphysical poets of the seventeenth century
in that it establishes a disparity between the idea and the image.
The image naively equates disease with natural harmony, but the very
disparity between the disease and the natural order only underlines the
stark horror of physical malfunction. The faithful would accept disease
as part of the divine order, but the speakers language is straining to come
to terms with the all too real affront of suffering. As Eliot acknowledges,
where the metaphysical poets of the seventeenth century were merely
witty, Corbires conceits give rise to a more serious irony.
The irony gradually escalates, as the speaker rejects the religious
explanations of suffering more vehemently. One indication of the
T. S. Eliot, The Varieties of Metaphysical Poetry, ed. Ronald Schuchard (London:
Faber, 1993), 21819.
Ibid. 219.
progression is that at rst he insists that the wounds on display are
authentic:
Ce nest pas la cour des miracles,
Les trous sont vrais : Vide latus! (1278)
By line 141 he contradicts this with the observation that a father is
cultivating his childs abscess in order to beg more money. Rather
than directly condemning this practice, he dispassionately describes the
cruelty in order to underline the desperate lengths to which the victims
have been driven by their plight. He continues to ironize religious
formulae by taking them literally:
Tiens, passant, regarde: tout passe
Lil de lidiot est rest.
Car il est en tat-de-grce
Et la Grce est lternit! (14952)
This is a parodic expression of the clich that the village idiot is pure,
in contrast to the knowing sceptic whose nerves are jangling from
the effects of civilization. The visual wit of the suspended eye is as
surreal as a Cheshire cats grin, and this initiates a series of increasingly
absurd images, which reverse the Christian logic that the rst shall
be last and the last rst. Dysphoric realities are portrayed in euphoric
termsleprosy is likened to blooming owers:
Un cadavre, vivant de lpre,
Fleurit souvenir des croiss (1556)
There is a gradual progression from describing disease as an organic
phenomenon, to embroidering the visual details into witty conceits to
express a satirical point of view. An explanation that kings in bygone
ages were able to cure the sick by touching them (15764) culminates
in an ironically literal description of pustules as emblems of royalty: Ces
eurs de lis en crouelles (163). This alludes to the fact that convicts
were branded with the eur-de-lis under the penal code, and also to
the superstition that the abscesses caused by scrofula could be cured by
kings. Since the belief no longer appliesthe speaker underlines that
La France na plus de rois (159) and suggests that God too has ceased
Vide latus, meaning see my side, is what Christ says when pointing to his wounds
after his resurrection, to convince his doubting disciple Thomas that they are real. The
cour des miracles alludes to a scene in Hugos Notre-Dame de Paris, in which beggars
fake inrmity, Romans, i. 2689.
to manifest any mercy (160)it is absurd that these swellings should
take the shape of eur-de-lis. The wit here is partly visual, and by
presenting the emblem as swollen esh, Corbire brings out the erotic
associations of the tripartite lily, which resembles the male genitals.
Physical realities of illness and sexuality are confronted with ideas of
nobility.
This is another example of what Eliot describes as a conceit; the
disparity between concrete abscesses and abstract divinity suggests that
Christianity is unable to deal with the reality of suffering. Eliots brief
comments on Corbire generally occur in the context of his theory of
metaphysical poetry, and thus the question of belief is pivotal in his
reading. He takes Corbire out of his historical context, by identifying
parallels between his irony (coupled with that of Laforgue) and the wit
of the English metaphysical poets of the seventeenth century. Eliot
identies as metaphysical poetry that which deals with the relationship
between thought and feeling in a particularly intense way; it translates
ideas into sensible form instead of inserting them using commonplaces
or discursive exposition. Corbires heraldic pustules are certainly a
vivid way of investing a thought in poetry. In Eliots view, metaphysical
poetry makes manifest the intimate relation between our philosophical
beliefs and our private feelings and behaviour, and this can occur in full
possession of belief, in the disintegration of belief, or in the conscious
loss of belief and the search for it (in contrast to philosophical poetry in
which a systemis felt as a whole by a poet).` This notion of metaphysical
poetry thus depends on Eliots theory of the history of belief, in which
the thirteenth century, the seventeenth, and the nineteenth century, all
occupy their places in [. . .] a process of disintegration.` Debatable
though Eliots grand narrative and the disssociation of sensibility
theory may be, the perspective in which he places Corbire nonetheless
brings out the particularity of the latters irony both as a rhetorical
device, and as a world-view, for Corbire represents the disintegration
of belief through the concrete representation of experience. In the
cantique spirituel section there was a real relation between beliefs
There is no direct literary historical link between Corbire and the English poets
to whom Eliot compares him, notably Crashaw. However, Odette de Mourgues argues
that there are French equivalents to the English metaphysicals, and examines their use
of the conceit, in Metaphysical, Baroque and Prcieux Poetry (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1953). Corbire does echo seventeenth-century French poets such as Saint-Amant, as
well as the earlier grand rhtoriqueurs.
Varieties of Metaphysical Poetry, 534. ` Ibid. 293. ` Ibid. 220.
and behaviour, but here the ingenious wit reects the divergence of
belief and experience. The poem as a whole thus traces a sequence of
disintegration, and moves from the faith of the cantique towards a
more sceptical viewpoint.
The variations on the blessed are the poor theme stage a conict
between faith and doubt, which Verlaine identied when he called
Corbire a faux sceptique effrayant. Corbire repeats the letter of
Christian teaching and shows it to be wanting when faced with the
harshness of reality. He ironically refers to suffering people as the
choisis, the lus, and shows that the promise of salvation is a mockery
in the face of their earthly suffering. Irony often debases the noble
by describing it in trivial terms, but Corbire describes sordid reality
in noble terms. References to existing representations and man-made
institutions contrast with the earlier organic descriptions, and expose the
absurdity of value systems. He juxtaposes criticism of religious doctrine
with compassion for human suffering. Corbire does not just express
sympathy, but elevates the abrasive wear and tear of life to a visionary
level to criticize man-made systems. He attacks rational explanations
for things that defy reason. Houston emphasizes that Corbire replaces
abstractions with sensations, which are often described in highly physical
terms: the rubbing and erosion the individual perceives as the condition
of living. The visual impact of the language underlines the visceral
nature of sickness. Emphasizing the fragility of the human frame is a
Christian practice, and the depiction of ayed bodies in the iconography
of the Crucixion is central to the Christian tradition. The literal
representations of the body disintegrate into visionary wit in order to
carry the abstractions.
The cynical speaker is foregrounded as a persona, and the external
scene sparks strong reactions in his mind. The nightmarish vision of
lines 1858 suggests he is deranged by the spectacle. Having rst
described the plight of the inrm with compassion, and then struggled
to contain his anger with wit, the witness seems to succumb to panic
and the scene takes on a correspondingly hellish aspect. The mounting
existential indignation is not conveyed by a logical exposition but by a
realistic representation of an individuals stream-of-consciousness. His
outrage culminates in a quatrain of outright satire in the manner of La
Pastorale de Conlie:
Les Potes maudits, 641.
French Symbolism and the Modernist Movement, 61.
Du grand troupeau, boucs missaires
Chargs des forfaits dici-bas,
Sur eux Dieu purge ses colres!
Le pasteur de Sainte-Anne est gras. (1936)
Salvation and doubt seem more urgent concerns than if they were
evoked as abstractions. An individual riveted by gory details which
provoke ugly reactions is more realistic than an orator sentimentalizing
compassion for the poor, and more likely to engage the reader. The
speaker is perhaps not so much expressing his own fear, as he is using
horric imagery calculated to pater les bourgeois. Unusually, the reader
is buttonholed directly, rst cast as a fellow passerby ( Tiens, passant,
regarde: tout passe, 149) and then as an impressionable young girl:
Et dtourne-toi, jeune lle
Qui viens l voir, et prendre lair
Peut-tre, sous lautre guenille,
Percerait la guenille en chair (1736)
This is attacking the false modesty of bourgois averting their gaze from
esh, and, by implication, from the reality of death. The speaker feels
solidarity with the outcasts, and expresses fear indirectly through his
irony.
The fourth and last section nally introduces the eponymous rap-
sode foraine, described in the third person by a more detached and
moderate voice who sketches a portrait of this travelling singer using
the uncomplicated vocabulary and popular turns of phrase she might
use herself. The speaker emphasizes her own concerns such as hunger,
but remains rmly outside (prefacing one remark with sans doute,
referring to her as a) and does not attempt to access her consciousness.
As in Le Mousse, the poets voice is unobtrusive, and there is no
Parisian analysis or amboyant poeticizing. However, the speaker acts
as a guide, glossing the local colour for the general reader by explaining
the rapsodes role. Although he observes her from outside, the way he
adopts her language suggests identication. This is made explicit when
he states that she is a Doppelgnger for the poet:
Si tu la rencontres, Pote,
Avec son vieux sac de soldat:
Cest notre sur donne cest fte
Pour sa pipe, un peu de tabac! (22932)
Although they belong in different worlds, both the poet and the rapsode
have an understanding of human suffering, so there is an underlying
sense of the unity of the human condition. Interestingly, the poets
counterpart, the rapsode, does not perform in the rst person, but
we are told that she sings a traditional complainte and the quality of
her voice is described from outside. Its timbre is determined by the
instrument of a living breathing body: Elle hle comme une plainte,
and a chante comme a respire. This sense of a direct physical process
contrasts with the complex double-voicing of the poem as a whole.
The poem concludes by focusing on a performers human face creuse
(233); this gure contrasts with the disembodied ventriloquist who has
orchestrated the poem as a whole, but both are poets concerned for
humanity.
Each of the four sections has a particular vocal arrangement which
plays on a tension between disparate voices. The voice of the cantique
spirituel (section two) fuses with that of the Breton people, the voice
of the cynical speaker (section three) articulates the injustice of their lot
in terms alien to their own sphere of reference. The cantique spirituel
implies an acceptance of faith, as it shows religion to be in harmony with
humanity (both are awed) but in section three religion is found more
drastically wanting as it is an inadequate explanation for the human
suffering that is witnessed. The peoples invocation of sainte Anne in
the cantique spirituel is full of modest requests, as though people are
resigned to the difculty of life and not asking much of religion. When
this is followed by the spectacle of acute human suffering (reminiscent
of Dantes Inferno) in section three, the implication is that divine
punishment is out of proportion to what is deserved, underlining the
wretchedness of the human condition. Corbire observes the Breton
people through a different optic in each section, and the different
sections represent the same problems from different angles, without
ultimately offering any answer.
Ironic double-voicing is used to refract experience in order to tackle
serious subjects rather than merely to convey a comic distance between
author and characters. There is an underlying unity to the vision
which conveys as much about the human condition as it does about
the particular locality. The particular and physical are used to pose
big spiritual questions. Corbire communicates sympathy for outcasts
but does not subscribe to any established theological system. Unlike
Baudelaire or Hugo, he does not construct a global scheme in which
suffering is assigned a place. His is a poetry of sensations rather than of
ideas, and its fragmented style underlines the impression of a world of
chaotic matter not underpinned by any higher order.
The use of the particular to carry general thoughts is illustrated in
La Fin, a parody of Hugos Oceano Nox, in which Corbire rewrites
Romantic discourse about the sea in a realist mode, only to have this
realism shade rapidly into a visionary style closer to Rimbauds Le
Bateau ivre. La Fin dissects vocabulary rather than merely using it:
Un grain est-ce la mort a? La basse voilure
Battant travers leau! a se dit encombrer
Un coup de mer plomb, puis la haute mture
Fouettant les ots ras et a se dit sombrer. (1114)
Corbire is not content with vague abstractions, and explains what the
poetic euphemisms conceal. This is the nearest he comes to outlining
his own aesthetic, and it is slipped in at the end of the book which has
already put it into practice. He still romanticizes the sailors, but this
is expressed through a compressed language which suggests the brutal
reality of death. It evokes the great unknown by combining elements of
the known:
Quils roulent innis dans les espaces vierges!
Quils roulent verts et nus,
Sans clous et sans sapin, sans couvercle, sans cierges
Laissez-les donc rouler, terriens parvenus! (3942)
La Fin starts by telling us something about a particular world but
ends up applying its precise descriptive style to the universal reality of
death. Corbires language does not aspire to a direct correspondence
between words and things, and anticipates Symbolism in its use of a set
of concrete details to refer to an elusive abstraction.
The poets siding with the sailors against the terriens in this instance
is a rhetorical means of addressing the reader and justifying his cap-
acity to offer insights into death. Poets conventionally have privileged
acquaintance with this realm, but, rather than assuming that the verse
medium gives him the authority to tackle the theme, Corbire prefers
to explore death by speaking through the sailors who undeniably face
it on a daily basis. It is not so much that he is telling us that sailors
live dangerous lives, as that he is using their lives as a way of describing
something beyond the everyday life of his reader. Corbire may not
share the world-viewof the sailors and Breton people, but he shares their
preoccupation with mortality. He rejects poetry which has lost contact
with concrete realities, and his own work combines a strong sense of
elemental forces with a more sophisticated urban self-consciousness.
Irony is not directed against Brittany but is used as a way of tackling
larger themes. The Brittany poems use precision and particularity to
address universal questions. Corbires poetry is not impersonal in the
Parnassian sense of the poem as a beautifully crafted artefact, but he
achieves impersonality by mixing a plurality of modes of presentation
which prevent the reader from identifying a consistent pattern. His
style, like Flauberts, is a way of seeing, and the external world is
ltered through an ironizing consciousness. Corbires incorporation of
oral fragments is the origin of his double-voicing technique, whereby
it is made difcult to pin down the position of the speaker. It also
enables him to refract the outside world through different points of
view and to build up a complex picture. The Brittany poems use
dialogue not only to achieve an effect of realism, but also as a means of
juxtaposing conicting points of view. He compacts a range of material
and sense experience into writing, creating a heteroclite texture. Both the
microscopic precision of the language and the difculty of identifying a
total point of view suggest a fractured vision of the world. The Brittany
poems build up an ironic world-view, by fusing a cynical Parisian voice
with a naive Breton voice. Corbires early poems thus experiment with
the techniques of fragmentation and polyphony which become central
to his ironic aesthetic and are pushed to the limit in his later Paris
poems.
3
Portraits of the Artist: Ironizing Irony
Soxi of Corbires most self-conscious texts are those which represent
artist gures, and these are inextricably linked with the Paris setting.
Whereas his Brittany poems present the poet as a generalized gure of
exile, his Parisian poems dene the artists exclusion more specically as
an effect of the destabilizing quality of urban life and the ux of values in
an industrial age. Some commentators judge the urban poems inferior
to those set in Brittany, and Gustave Kahn even suggests that Corbire,
despite his efforts, did not really capture the spirit of parisianisme.
However, the interest of the poems lies in the way Paris is ltered
through the optic of an outsider, and descriptions of the urban life are
internalized. In the city, appearances are deceptive, and being a poet
involves awareness of the artice of ction and adopting a mask or pose.
The urban environment presents a challenge to the artist struggling to
represent the sensations of speed and noise. Furthermore, artists are
not only struggling to record the city but aware of the difculty of
nding their audience in it, and Corbires poetry explores the changing
relationship between art, money, and power in this period. Much of
his irony articulates the contradictions which arose in the course of
what Bourdieu describes as the autonomization of the cultural eld, the
process by which cultural production gradually established itself as a
domain independent of state institutions, subject to market forces yet
with its own system of symbolic capital.` Les Amours jaunes conveys the
reality of poets struggling to establish themselves in the literary eld,
hesitating over whether to adopt an existing protable literary pose or
whether to risk originality which might bring the advantage of symbolic
value. These poems about art thus need to be located in their cultural
and socio-historical context: a world in which disparate languages and
Il a apport de Bretagne lessentiel de son livre [. . .], il nen a pas apport le
parisianisme quil a tent de toutes ses forces de raliser, Tristan Corbire, 274.
` See Pierre Bourdieu, Les Rgles de lart, Points (Paris: Seuil, 1998).
94 Portraits of the Artist
values collide, in which the artist is disoriented by the changing power
structures that are reshaping his profession.
It is necessary to tackle the theme of art by examining the construction
of artist personae, because the unstable irony makes it difcult to
extrapolate a coherent view of art or the artist by singling out individual
aesthetic statements. Les Amours jaunes is peppered with metapoetic
slogans of a polemic kind, but these are either humorously bafing
or undercut the very notion of art. The introductory poem a?
concludes a litany of contradictory denitions of the book with a typical
pronouncement:
Cest un coup de raccroc, juste ou faux, par hasard
LArt ne me connat pas. Je ne connais pas lArt. (312)
The tone of revolt is clear enough, but it is difcult to pin down
the artists exact aesthetic stance. The multiplication of contradictory
terms like juste and faux suggests that the terminology of evaluation
is meaningless. LArt is capitalized, but the implied respect is ironic,
and the speaker challenges the concept in its institutional sense rather
than expounding an alternative. Given that Corbire left no material
elucidating an aesthetic theory, the reader is tempted to seize on such self-
reexive formulae and read them as fragments of a manifesto. However,
when they are not blatantly self-contradictory, they are undercut by
their context or uttered by unreliable personae. They cannot be taken
at face value, but must be read in relation to the polyphonic texture of
which they are a part. Corbire thus makes it impossible for us to read
any given statement as directly voicing his art potique. He seems to
be making a joke of Art, but his particular art is that of the joke, and
this wilfully anti-intellectual style needs to be approached on its own
terms. His self-reexivity is not to be found in isolated nuggets, but
is articulated through the constant linguistic play, and by the way in
which the poems construct personae.
Particularly in the urban poems, these personae are often identied as
poets, and occasionally as painters. As a result, a better understanding of
Corbires art can be gained fromanalysing his representation of the artist
than from any survey of the metapoetic formulae. A variety of different
communicative strategies are used to present diverse artistic gures:
sometimes an artist is described by a third party, sometimes the speaker is
an artist who addresses the reader directly, sometimes two artists dialogue
with each other, and frequently the discourse of the artist is inhabited
by two voices, which blurs the direct line of communication. Corbires
Portraits of the Artist 95
poems do not present a vague lyric I, allowing the reader to identify
with the speaker, but constantly reveal their subject to be a ctional
construct, by shifting voices between poems, and having speakers allude
to their own artice. As Laforgue indicates when he says of Corbire
tout a cest fait de chic, je pose,` the pose lays bare the workings of
the lyric I, and thus functions as a commentary on poetry itself.
Pose is a word which repeatedly crops up in Corbires poems about
art, and is worth unpacking, as it points to many of the key themes of
this chapter. The word is a product of the Parisian milieu, and one of
the terms associated with the language used by its bohemians, as pop-
ularized by Murger. Corbire describes Paris using specically Parisian
discourses, just as he describes Brittany using language derived from his
fathers novels and La Landelles poetry. Critical studies of Corbires
style have tended to view this bohemian jargon as part of his lexical
extravagance, but his play on terms such as pose, chic, blague, and
celles (his favourites are all variations on the theme of artice) is
a way of addressing aesthetic issues through concrete particulars. The
pose has negative connotations of affectation and artice, particularly
in the social context where it is often synonymous with hypocrisy.
However, Corbire appropriates the term for himself, both to dene his
own poetry, as in A cest navement une impudente pose, and to
attack conventional postures, as in LIncompris couche avec sa pose.
In pitaphe he explicitly plays on its ambivalence:
Ne fut quelquun, ni quelque chose
Son naturel tait la pose.
Pas poseur, posant pour lunique;
Trop naf, tant trop cynique. (425)
Its evaluating force depends on who is using it, but that is never certain
in a dialogic Corbire poem. Like Art in the contradictory metapoetic
He describes the particularities of this eclectic idiomo les tournures apocalyptiques
coudoient le coq- lne, o la rusticit du dicton populaire sallie des priodes
extravagantes sorties du mme moule o Cyrano coulait ses tirades matamores; o le
paradoxe, cet enfant gt de la littrature moderne, traite la raison comme on traite
Cassandre dans les pantomines; o lironie a la violence des acides les plus prompts,
et ladresse de ces tireurs qui font mouche les yeux bands; argot intelligent quoique
inintelligible pour tous ceux qui nen ont pas la clef in Scnes de la vie de bohme, Folio
(Paris: Gallimard, 1988), 42.
Flaubert and the Goncourts often use poseur as a pejorative term.
a, 25. Paris III, 5.
slogans, it is hard to tell whether he revels in the pose or despises it.
Corbire destabilizes the word pose by playing on its evaluating edge.
More importantly, the notion of the pose refers to the generalized
textual strategy of revealing speaking personae to be articial constructs.
The label pose is a clich which resumes a whole persona, and many
of Corbires poems express the poets fear of being dened by such a
supercial tag. He resists xity by presenting a succession of masks and
exposing speakers as impostors. The pose encompasses both sociological
and aesthetic concerns, suggesting simultaneously a social pretence
and an artistic arrangement. Poses of a more social kind, notably
the bohemian dramatization of life, contribute to the realism of his
representation of Paris. Literary poses are used ironically as a way of
exploring the difculty of being original; Corbire vacillates between fear
of repeating the commonplace and delight at inventively renewing well-
worn themes. Although his poetic subjects frequently dene themselves
as poets, as underlined by the witticismJe rime, donc je vis, the pose is
also a device in which problems peculiar to the poet overlap with more
universal existential concerns. The difculty of locating any essential
self beyond the proliferation of masks conveys a generalized crisis of
identity. In an illuminating discussion of Corbires pose in this broader
sense, Marshall Lindsay refuses the conventional reading of the pose
as an ironic laughing mask which hides a tearful face. He argues that
although Les Amours jaunes ont lair tout dabord dune grande parade
o rien nest vrai que le contraire de ce qui est dit, in reality the pose is a
serious quest to afrm the self. It is certainly not possible to recuperate
a real personality from behind the faadethe posing is intrinsic to the
poetic subject, and serves to enact the inner conicts of a troubled self.
Marshall Lindsay rightly points out the performative force of the pose
and links its theatricality to the rhetoric of irony. The poses need to be
considered more specically in terms of the speaking voice, to see how
Corbires dialogic techniques express at once the poets problematic
relationship with the artistic milieu and his inner conicts.
THE ARTI ST I N THE CI TY
Corbire represents Paris very much from the point of view of the
poet. His urban scenes are generally presented either as material to be
Le Pote contumace, 69. Le Temps jaune, 1.
consumed by the artist, or as analogies for the artists situation. Idylle
coupe sketches a panorama of early morning street life, noting the
emergence of a pageant of prostitutes, followed by a pair of artists
rummaging around in search of material for their art. This juxtaposition
suggests a parallel between prostitute and artist, a commonplace analogy
for artists who felt they were compromising their work in order to cater
for the emerging mass public. The commercialization of art is playfully
derided in an attack on the realists:
Ils donnent des noms de fabrique
A la pochade du bon Dieu! (5960)
Indeed, much of the poem is a reworking of commonplaces. Corbire
builds up his picture by recombining key features of the urban poet
topos, which are familiar from Baudelaire. The speaker mocks the
various strategies deployed to make art out of dissonant urban material.
The two artists, le pote du charnier and le peintre chiffonnier, hope
to nd a pearl amongst the manure. If the parallel with Baudelaires
ambition to extract gold from the mud of Paris suggests this is a heroic
endeavour undertaken in testing conditions, the biblical allusion to
pearls before swine (Matthew 7: 6) suggests these artists are unable to
recognize what is of true value. The parodic view of the artists as pigs
is reinforced by the subsequent reference to their snouts. Their hope of
transcending this sordid reality with reverie is also mocked:
Ajoutez une pipe en terre
Dont la spirale fait les cieux
Allez : je plains votre misre,
Vous qui trouvez quon trouve mieux! (458)
The speakers refusal of all these recognizable aesthetic responses eventu-
ally leads him to question his own stance. He had been endeavouring to
defy denition by challenging the positions occupied by others, but the
irony rebounds on him and he reveals that he too is a poet cultivating
a pose:
On veut, aveugle taciturne,
A soi tout seul tre blagueur. (712)
The blagueur was an established Parisian type, whose subversive mock-
ery had quickly become a routine pose, mocked by the Goncourt
See Ch. 2 n. 47 above.
brothers as la rvolte parisienne de la dsillusion, la formule lgre et
gamine du blasphme. The blague constituted an artistic pose with
its own language. In its very inauthenticity, it was a product of its
time, and often rejected as a frustratingly all-pervasive banality, as by
Flaubert: Nous sommes tous des farceurs et des charlatans. Pose, pose,
et blague partout! La crinoline a dvor les fesses, notre sicle est un
sicle de putains, et ce quil y a de moins prostitu, jusqu prsent, ce
sont les prostitues.` Corbire does not aristocratically rise above the
blague indeed his humour is at times reminiscent of it but ghts it
on its own terms by using irony.
Having established a rst-person viewpoint, Idylle coupe then
derides further stereotypical responses from within. It mocks the sensual
Baudelairian experience of the imagination being red by observation:
Il coule une divine amme,
Sous la peau; lon se sent avoir
Je ne sais quoi qui eure lme
Je ne sais mais ne veux savoir. (7780)
The appearance of a Doppelgnger with a gueule dartiste relativizes
the poets pose by implying that he is no isolated ironic outsider, but
one of a multitude of neurs (92). Inspiration turns out to be no
more than an erotic response to a girl in the street. The disparity
between mundane cause and exaggerated ecstasy gradually escalates,
in a grotesque parody of the chance encounter of Baudelaires une
passante. The Doppelgnger is so transxed by the vision that he is
run over by a bus. As a victim of the hazards of trafc, he is a literary
successor to the poet who loses his halo in Baudelaires prose poem
Perte daurole. The speaker in Idylle coupe is echoed in the gures
he observes, and he ironizes both himself and them. He emerges as a
comic gure within the scene, a detached blagueur who derides art but
is unable to step right outside it. The poem is self-conscious both in its
play on existing clichs, and in its description of the urban poet who
watches himself watching.
Clichs and realistic details are reformulated to produce a burlesque
effect, and this is extended to more detailed descriptions of the bohemian
milieu, a world with which Corbire was familiar, since he lived on
Part of the virtuoso ironic description of the blague in Manette Solomon, Folio
(Paris: Gallimard, 1996), 108.
` Correspondance, ii. 518.
its fringes in Paris. Bohemian life was nonetheless well-established as
a stock literary theme, and his representation of it owes much to
novels such as Murgers Scnes de la vie de bohme. The poem Le
Convoi du pauvre addresses the specic circumstances of painters. It
is one of a number to address aesthetic and social questions connected
with the visual arts, building on the preoccupation with the pictorial
identied in the Brittany poems. Specic signs of this interest include
quotations of the slang peculiar to the clan rapin,` as well as technical
art terms. Le Convoi du pauvre fuses mundane realistic details
with bohemian mythology. It plays on a typical scenario of a failed
artist gure hauling a painting rejected from the Salon back up to
his Montmartre home. The canvas is likened to a hearse going to its
nal resting place, and the artists journey to the via dolorosa. This
is both a parodic exaggeration of the Romantic myth of the artist
as martyr, and a travesty of the ascent associated with inspiration.
Named landmarks generate burlesque religious images. For instance,
the epigraph locates the poem in the Rue Notre-Dame-de-Lorette,
but the poem transforms the church into an onlooking streetwalker
laughing at the artist in the lines du piteux enterrement | Rit la Lorette
notre dame (1112). The lorettes were named after this locality,
where they operated, but Corbire playfully inverts the etymology to
suggest the church was named after them. Similarly, the reference to
the martyrs is an implicit reference to the adjacent rue des Martyrs, a
notorious bohemian neighbourhood.
The poem is also realistic in its modes of representation, for it uses
multiple voices to provide contrasting evaluations of the gure of the
failed artist. His exclamations of effort at dragging his painting are
juxtaposed with words of encouragement from his fellows. Despite his
humiliation, he melodramatically declaims Mais mon me est dans
` The ubiquitous chic and celles, terms like plat dpinard meaning a painting
which is too green (Bohme de chic) and guitare meaning banal (Rapsodie du
sourd).
Such as ombre porte and daprs nature in Le Pote contumace. He often uses
these as puns, using their literal as well as gurative meanings, for instance gchant
(pitaphe), manire noire (Fleur dart). Aragon and Bonnin point out that the
much-discussed bte in Dcourageux is a word which has a particular meaning when
used with reference to art (unoriginal), Les Amours jaunes, 233.
The area around the rue des Martyrs was a centre of bohemian activity, and
Corbire was not the rst to joke about the street name; the Goncourts refer to the
rue des Martyrs as ainsi nomme parce quelle est remplie de peintres qui sexposent
volontairement aux btes chaque anne, lpoque de lExposition, Manette Salomon, 84.
la charrette, suggesting he sees himself as a wronged hero. The origin of
the more impersonal voice in stanzas 35 is less certain. For instance,
the third stanza slides from compassion to derision:
Corbillard dur fendre lme.
Vers en bas lattire un aimant;
Et du piteux enterrement
Rit la Lorette notre dame (912)
It is not clear whether the speaker feels either the compassion or the
derision, or is merely reporting both attitudes without subscribing to
either. Cest bien a Splendeur et misre! (13) represents yet another
angle. This glib interjection sounds like a Balzacian opposition being
quoted by an onlooker to explain the spectacle. Praise of the grandeur
then quickly tips into an attack on bohemian proigacy, with a barbed
observation that the elaborate picture frame has not been paid for.
The glimpse of the frame eclipses the painting itself, implying the
artist privileges supercial show. This is reinforced by the theatrical
connotations of trteau, and of fours (slang for a op). The spectacle
in this instance is failureart which might have hoped to immortalize
the transient is on public display as a superuous encumbrance.
The rhetoric of artistic idealism is constantly countered by grim
reality. The dramatic irony is amplied by oxymoron at every twist and
turn, particularly in the statements about art in which the artists voice
fuses with that of his friends:
Oui, camarade, il faut quon sue
Aprs son harnais et son art
Aprs les ailes : le brancard!
Vivre notre mtier a tue (214)
Are they boldly stating their idealism in the face of adversity, or is
the poem mocking them for perversely clinging to deluded ideals? The
artists perspiration may be caused by the weight of the harnais but also
by the past effort of creating son art. Aprs les ailes: le brancard! again
ironically juxtaposes the physical effort of hauling home the rejected
canvas with the inspirational ight which had originally created it.
These parallel lines, linked by the anaphoric Aprs, form a chiastic
structure in which the artwork is framed by the deadly load of the
hearse. The irony is intensied by the phonetic presence of the word
art in both harnais and brancard. The zeugma of Tus lidal et
le rble!, an utterance that seems to originate from the artist himself,
suggests that the artist is ironizing his own ideals, but elsewhere he
seems to cling to delusions of nobility, for which the poem mocks
him. The poem takes up the religious imagery enlisted by artists to
proclaim their consecrated status and uses it against them to mock
their presumption, so the irony cuts both ways. The artist is derided
for using religious imagery to transform his failure into a noble event,
and the poem is simultaneously using religion ironically to demonstrate
the triviality of this episode in relation to the real via dolorosa. The
parodic religious touches may also allude to the fact that impoverished
artists were reduced to turning out paintings of religious subjects to
make money. It uses the particular instance of the Salon system as
an illustration of the problematic relationship between the artist and
his audience. The painters faith in his artistic ideals is threatened, but
in a poem which itself devalues the ideal. The shifts in perspective
do not establish whether the artist is playing the buffoon to laugh off
his failure, or whether the irony is directed at him from an external
standpoint. Polyphony creates a montage of different views of the artist,
and builds uncertainty about his value into the language. The play on
multiple perspectives is part of Corbires realism of representation, and
his indirect rhetorical techniques are used to comment on the artists
environment. In Idylle coupe he reworks the literary clichs of the
modern poet and in Le Convoi du pauvre he sets out the institutional
and economic problems faced by the artist.
BOHEMI AN FI GURES OF FUN
Le Convoi du pauvre builds a whole network of ironic uncertainty
around the problematic term art. Similarly, the word pose, whose
ambivalence was discussed earlier, is not merely a loaded term which
crops up from time to time, but sums up the structuring principle
which characterizes so many of the poems. Corbire constantly plays
on the ambiguity of the monologue form to reveal the artice of poetic
postures. For instance, Bohme de chic stages a lifestyle pose. The
ironist inhabits the bohemian discourse of anti-bourgeois rhetoric and
undercuts it from within. The title is oxymoronic, as bohme is a
byword for spontaneity and freedom, whereas de chic indicates an
automated procedure. Baudelaire denounces it as meaning absence
The painter Anatole in Manette Salomon produces gaudy Chemins-de-croix to
make money, 191.
de modle et de nature, and it is often used pejoratively to mean
representation frommemory using existing devices, with the implication
that it can be produced quickly and requires little skill. The speakers
tone is of spontaneous rebellion, yet the poem reveals this to be an
artice. The recipe-like formula of the title is literalized in the cooking
imagery of the opening quatrain:
Ne moffrez pas un trne!
A moi tout seul je fris,
Drle, en ma sauce jaune
De chic et de mpris. (14)
The yellow sauce is merely dressing for a rather half-baked bohemian.
Fris and mpris are indissolubly linked by the rhyme, conrming
the suspicion that the disenchanted world-view is merely cooked up for
effect. The speaker is a less self-aware version of the blagueur in Idylle
coupe, unaware that his exaggerated revolt verges on the ridiculous.
He rejects the Plate poque rpe (9) and sums it up with the standard
bourgeois accessories, recombined in a surreal image:
Que les bottes vernies
Pleuvent du paradis,
Avec des parapluies
Moi, va-nu-pieds, jen ris! (58)
The superuity belies the value invested in these objects by their
bourgeois owners. The playful use of the clich emphasizes that this
is a comment on anti-bourgeois discourse as much as a direct attack
on this enemy. It recalls Murgers lament about bohemians who risk
failure because they refuse to lower themselves to practical matters:
si vous leur faites observer tranquillement que nous sommes au XIXe
sicle, que la pice de cent sous est Impratrice de lhumanit, et que
les bottes ne tombent pas toutes vernies du ciel, ils vous tournent le
dos et vous appellent bourgeois. Corbires naive bohemian inverts
this sort of bourgeois common sense to turn it against the bourgeoisie.
The burlesque exaggeration, intensied by the transformation of ciel
into paradis and by the humorous rhymes, is directed against the
uvres compltes, ii. 468.
Preface to Scnes de la vie de bohme, 36. This novel was written once Murger
had made his name and achieved bourgeois respectability. Fear of such a fate is another
bohemian clich, which Corbire uses in Dclin, which describes the poet as ni, banal,
clbre.
bourgeois. However, it rebounds on the bohemian himself, who cannot
escape from these clichs. Corbire plays on the stock opposition of
bourgeois stupidity and bohemian fervour, but does not come down on
either side. Indeed, the two sides can only be dened in terms of each
other, since the bohemian is the bourgeois view of the artist. Laforgue
rightly points out Corbires detachment from the bohemians, saying
Il a pris la eur de la Bohme par escapades rentrant ensuite
dans la discipline lointaine ne conservant de la bohme quune eur
nostalgique. In Bohme de chic, the bohemians poverty is wittily
described in bourgeois terms, and his rebellious independence undercut
by the information that his papa subsidizes his life of ostentatious
poverty. Absurdly, the props of poux and haillons have cost money,
and the vagabond denes himself with a coat of arms. Poverty is a
contrived effect and permeated by establishment values. The pose itself
is weary, with the description of the moon as a coin a rather routine
attack on Romantic symbolism. His rebellion is a pose prompted by
signs requesting propriety:
Je pose aux devantures
O je lis; oiiixou
oi iosii ois oiouiis
Roide comme un pendu! (336)
The bohemian is merely acting a rather wooden part that does not
come naturally. He roams around the city professing receptivity, but
his vaporization operates humorously at the level of realistic details and,
unlike Baudelaires sainte prostitution, is not elevated to a mystical
experience. The eroticism verges on the grotesque in lines such as Nous
bandons la gueule (31), which is a play on the heraldic terms bander
and gueules, and in the following:
[Je] me plante sans gne
Dans le plat du hasard,
Comme un couteau sans gaine
Dans un plat dpinard. (3740)
The spinach not only continues the culinary paradigm, but is also a
pejorative term for a painting with too much green. If life is driven by
chance, art is a bad painting, and the speaker enters both enterprises in
a similarly clumsy fashion. The bohemian pose of revolt turns back to
question the self, and Corbire undermines the pose from within rather
than denouncing it openly.
Un jeune qui sen va uses a similar procedure to denounce poetic
poses fromwithin poetry. The ironist inhabitsor is inhabited bythe
pose of the dying Romantic, which is transparent from the beginning:
Oh le printemps! Je voudrais patre!
Cest drle, est-ce pas : Les mourants
Font toujours ouvrir leur fentre,
Jaloux de leur part de printemps! (14)
The poet goes on to reassure his loved one that his death is only a ction,
and envisages the lifestyle that publication would secure. This turns out
to be an ironically bourgeois combination of a well appointed bedroom,
shing expeditions, and new dresses, topped by the bourgeois motto
Pour vivre il faut bien travailler (48). Also included in the wish-list is
the aspiration mourir pour la patrie (43), the title of a popular song.
This ironically elevates his death pose to a patriotic duty, and underlines
the double standards of his career strategy: the successful bourgeois poet
might invoke the songs sentiment as an ideal but would hardly sacrice
his comfortable existence in practice. The poet analyses his own status
as a clich, saying Ce nest mme plus original (68), and lists authors
who have already used the topos, wittily concluding jen ai lus mourir
(89). He lls a poem about dying with mercenary preoccupations, and
death is no more than a theme which goes with the job: Mtier: se
rimer nir (95). The pernicious effect of bourgeois prot-making on
poetry is indirectly suggested through the description of a poet who
treats it as a mtier. The Mtier de mourir (93) can also be read
as an ironic description of the poetic vocation, which is often equated
with a privileged insight into death. By attacking those who exploit
death, Corbire indirectly emphasizes its real importance, and indeed
its spectre haunts Les Amours jaunes.
Corbire is not only a latecomer faced with the weight of tradition, but
is also aware that the poetic tradition is being tainted by the era of high
capitalism. Hugues Laroche points out that Corbire criticizes Lamartine
for parading his sentiment in order to make money, and argues that
Corbire uses the words of others in order to avoid prostituting himself
by giving away anything too close to his own heart.` The pose is
another way of avoiding direct self-revelation. The speaker of Un jeune
` Tristan Corbire, ou les voix de la corbire, 33.
qui sen va is no vague je with whom the audience identies, but has
the contours of a separate persona. Corbire reacts against Romantic
confessional poetry in which the author communicated directly with the
audience, and condently evoked shared experience. The direct lyrical
line of the Romantics used to convey personal themes entailed serving
oneself up for public consumption, but Corbire problematizes this
through his poses.
Death is doubly commodied in Un jeune qui sen va, since the
pose is already a manufactured position, and adopted in this instance
to make money. Poetry is described as commodifying experience,
which is an indirect way of suggesting that self-interest has permeated
all areas of life, since poetry typically represents the last repository
of other values. The ironic lowering of poetry to this level is part
of the realism of the representation of Paris, and the preoccupation
with the money theme is a typically nineteenth-century aspect of Les
Amours jaunes. The pose allows the poet to evoke commercialization
whilst using irony to signal distance from it, and also allows him to
articulate his internal division of the artist and the difculty of being
authentic.
PARI S : DI ALOGUE AND LA CHARGE
DE LA CHARGE
Corbires ironic pose is a sure way of attacking Romantic predecessors,
but is less sure as a means of attacking the ironic blagueurs of Paris. As
Flaubert points out, on ne peut pas faire la charge de la charge elle-
mme.` However, Corbires sequence of sonnets Paris succeeds in
showing the pose as simultaneously ironic and ironized. We have already
seen how irony is used to represent Paris realistically, to examine the
poet frommultiple perspectives, and to reect his internal divisions, and
Paris combines all these techniques. The sequence has a prominent pos-
ition in the metapoetic opening section of Les Amours jaunes, a. By dis-
solving a series of commonplaces into a riot of staccato images, it reworks
the familiar nineteenth-century story of a young poet who comes to Paris
in search of success, struggles to make his name, and ends in disillusioned
failure. The idea of the charlatan adopting poses in order to conquer Paris
` uvres compltes de Gustave Flaubert, viii. La Premire ducation sentimentale, 216.
is familiar, and the opening, Il vint aussi l, shows the story is aware of
itself as a clich both aussi and l presuppose other versions.
The title Paris emphasizes the importance of the urban setting, and
the rst sonnet presents the artist at odds with the city. Paris is described
as a Bazar o rien nest en pierre, which plays on literal and gurative
meanings. Stating that the place is not stone is an indirect way of
saying how full of life it is, whilst simultaneously lamenting the lack
of stone buildingsan echo of the contemporary tendency to lament
the prevalence of plaster faades.`` The emphasis on the superciality of
the urban fabric is amplied by bazar, which refers to the commercial
face of a city rapidly turning into a vast shop window. Corbire hints at
environmental determinism, for the artice of this setting may explain
the inauthenticity of the posing poet. The experience of moving around
the city is evoked in a similarly compressed way:
Courage! On fait queue Un planton
Vous pousse la chane derrire!
Incendie teint, sans lumire;
Des seaux passent, vides ou non. (58)
The queue transmutes into a chain of re-ghters, which combines a
sense of urgency with a suggestion of a crowd (one of the rare instances
when Corbire uses this emerging literary theme). It also recalls the res
of the Commune, a recent memory when the poem was written, and the
evidence of the many buildings burnt down would still have been visible
when Corbire arrived in Paris. This sonnet conveys the poets difculty
in deciphering the shifting bazaar which is Paris, and the subsequent
poems follow the Balzacian model of explaining its mysterious ways and
stripping away illusions.
The rest of the sequence homes in on the bohemian milieu, as two
voices discuss the practical details of becoming a poet. The conversation
takes place in a caf setting. Fromthis point onwards, the communicative
situation is blurred as the narrative unfolds across a dialogue between
two voices, a naive aspiring poet and a more experienced cynic. Despite
the elliptic language, it is not difcult to identify the protagonists as
types engaging in a routine which is familiar from novels (Desgenais
advising Octave in Mussets Confession dun enfant du sicle, or Vautrin
tempting Rastignac in Balzacs Le Pre Goriot). Corbires narrative
`` For instance, Victor Hugo writes in Notre-Dame de Paris: Nos pres avaient un
Paris de pierre; nos ls auront un Paris de pltre, Romans, i. 287. See Philippe Hamon,
Expositions: Littrature et architecture au XIXe sicle (Paris: Corti, 1989), 137.
is conveyed across a series of exclamations, commands and questions,
interspersed with stage instructions. Metaphors are imprinted with
expressive intonation, so lines like L: vivre coups de fouet! perform
the frenzied atmospheres they depict.`` The narrative is a performance in
itself, and the dialogue is a debate about what is to be done in the future
rather than a narration of a past story. The imperatives, the il faut, and
the emphasis on the second person pronoun underline the persuasive
function. The full force of the dense network of images and wordplay
emerges only through the interaction between the two semi-embodied
voices, which represent contradictory aspects of the poet.
Paris II sets up the contrast between the two voices and breaks down
the chaotic setting of Paris I into more specic points of view which
conict with one another. It takes up the sensations of urban activity
from Paris I. Vivre coups de fouet combines literal cracks of the
whip, a realistic detail hinting at trafc in a street scene, with gurative
meanings of excitement or violent criticism. It functions as an objective
correlative for the destructive yet stimulating Parisian life. This looks
like a continuation of the hectic swirl of Paris I, but the unconjugated
innitives suggest longing, so the lifestyle is now viewed through an
optic of subjective aspiration instead of sympathetic detachment. The
language of frenzy turns to thoughts of death, expressed wittily through
the wordplay of se dpasser, et trpasser! (4). The confusion of the
rst poem was a reaction to the physical sensation of moving around the
city, but the divergent points of view now represent contrasting evaluat-
ive perspectives, similar to those in Convoi du pauvre. The lightness of
tone undercuts the poets solemn intensity from within, and the suicidal
tendency parodies the bohemian clich of death as a sign of genius.`
The irony is conrmed when the cynical voice patronizingly interrupts
the petit to propose less melodramatic paths to notoriety:
Non, petit, il faut commencer
Par tre grand simple celle
Pauvre : remuer lor la pelle;
Obscur : un nom tout casser! (58)
The cynical voice uses a cocktail of idealism and cynicism to play on the
hopes of the unknown poet. Pauvre in the rst sonnet expressed pity
`` Paris II, 1.
` The story of Chattertons suicide, as told in Vignys play Chatterton, gave this
ambition mythic status.
on the part of the narrator, but is now used more specically to indicate
the poets nancial plight. The cynic appears to be uttering paradoxes,
redening poverty as a positive feature by juxtaposing it with gold, but
this reects the bohemian logic that material suffering is a sign of genius,
a logic that produced what Bourdieu describes as un monde conomique
lenvers, the emerging autonomous eld of art.` Similarly, obscurity
is quite literally a value in this context, since innovation is brought about
by newcomers who are vous dconcerter par leur obscurit .` The
ideological reversal by which unrecognized poets projected themselves
as noble martyrs is here exposed as a simple celle, by which it is
implied that they were making a virtue out of a necessity.
The cynic advocates promoting oneself with a sensational name, but
this strategy quickly degenerates into circus:
Le coller chez les mastroquets,
Et lapprendre des perroquets
Qui le chantent ou qui le sifent (911)
Whistling would remove language fromthe performance altogether, and
Corbires parrot is an interesting variation on the topos of the artist as
prostitute or saltimbanque. It neatly combines overtones of automatized
reproduction with fears that the artist is a mere clown performing at
the behest of an ignorant public. Indeed, the poet of Les Amours jaunes
is haunted by a fear of parotting learnt routines. While scornful of
clich, he is nonetheless fascinated by it, and this paradoxical stance
is something he shares with Flaubert, an author who famously gave a
key role to a parrot in Un cur simple. Corbire takes up the parrot
theme again in Portes et fentres when the poet describes himself
as serinant mes srnades (15). The wordplay associates serinant,
derived from serin (canary), with the serenades so they are reduced to a
parrot-like repetition. Anxiety of inuence nds an outlet in mockery of
tradition. In Paris II, the budding poet is mocked for not recognizing
the dangers of repetition, and misinterprets such strategies as promising
musical purity. The cynic undercuts such hopes by emphasizing that
this is a paradise des dieux souteneurs qui se gient! (14). In an era
characterized by individualism, the godlike poet of Romantic myth is
lowered to the status of a pimp forced to send his shivering Muse on to
the streets, and reduced to st ghting. Art, religion, and prostitution
` Les Rgles de lart, 139. ` Ibid. 393.
are telescoped, but without any of the spirituality which is a component
of Baudelaires sainte prostitution.
Paris III underlines the articiality of the literary pose, by having
the cynical voice summarize the variety of postures open to the budding
poet. The very plurality of options underlines the superciality of each,
and the spontaneous Naf is singled out for a more detailed attack.
A naive voice innocently blunders into the poem with snatches of
the folk song la claire fontaine. This serves as another foil for the
cynical mentor, enabling him to expound an aesthetics of artice and
pessimism, rejecting nature and reducing love to deowering, whereas
the original naive speaker resurfaces to approve the rustic simplicity as
Nature! (12).
Paris IV intensies the clash between the interlocutors:
Jaimais Oh, a nest plus de vente!
Mme il faut payer; dans le tas,
Pioche la femme! Mon amante
Mavais dit : Je noublrais pas (14)
The themes of love, poetry, and money are all collapsed onto each
other. Romantic versifying of love can no longer sell, and love itself
is something that can be bought. The naive speakers fascination with
bohemian orgy in Paris II is now complemented by a melancholy
nostalgia for his provincial origins. The comic exaggeration of the cynic
and the naivety of his interlocutor emerge as equally unappealing, so
neither wins out. The cynic is as limited as the innocent aspiration of
the poet he is mocking. They represent two halves of the divided poet,
in an extension of Baudelaires practice of using different characters to
represent aspects of the fragmented poet.`
The competing points of view become increasingly inextricable. In
Paris V the cynical voice begins to eclipse the naive voice with its
recipe for success. It advocates joining in the vogue for cynicism:
Jette le vin, garde la lie (10). Infect! Ah splendide (13) equates
positive and negative evaluations, eradicating any sense of stable values.
In Paris VI the cynical voice returns to the discourse of frenzy rst
used in Paris II when the naive poet expressed a desire to live
coups de fouet, but this time with even more ironic distance. voh!
Misre: blouir! (2) juxtaposes the orgiastic cry voh with the reality
of misre, which itself is equated with blouir, in a variation on
` In prose poems such as Le Mauvais Vitrier and Les Vocations.
the paradoxical line in Paris II: Pauvre: remuer lor la pelle (7).
The poets progress is charted by a theatrical analogy which extends
across sonnets VI and VII, a performance within an already theatrical
context. The artist parades himself to a derisive audience, and takes
on the aspect of a clown.` Paris VII is a patchwork of traditional
symbols for the poet: Prometheus, the soaring eagle of Romantic
clich, the pelican of Mussets Nuits, and the swan. Prometheus and
the pelican in particular represent the sacricial aspect of the poetic
myth. The multiplication of Promethean gures suggests a crowd and
hence the democratization of art. The pote maudit clich is vastly
overdetermined in these two poems, as expressions of failure are piled
on. The audience throws things at the performer, the fruits secs
do not just signify failure (according to a colloquial expression) but
are mouldering into the bargain, and even the poets swansong is
excruciating. The cynical voice has literally described the path towards
an apothose, yet is saying quite the opposite, that the inevitable
outcome is failure and self-destruction. He is both telling the naive poet
that his idealistic dreams are unrealistic, and pointing out that those he
wishes to emulate have redened apparent failure as success. The poems
show that such martyrdom is not noble but ridiculous and morbid.
Romantic nostalgia for bohemian ideals is countered by the reality of a
market mentality.
Paris VIII opens by indicating the naive gures laughter:
Tu ris. Bien! Fais de lamertume,
Prends le pli, Mphisto blagueur.
De labsinthe! Et ta lvre cume
Dis que cela vient de ton cur. (14)
This could indicate that he is approving this sinister ending as the
glorious death of a genius, or that he has assumed an ironic grimace.
The cynical voice addresses his interlocutor as Mphisto blagueur (2),
so the dreamer has become a likeness of the diabolic mentor. The cynic
initially seemed to be offering an alternative to death but leads back to
this inevitable end (though it is not even clear what sort of a choice is
offered in the nal tercets, or indeed whether it is a choice) so the two
voices echo each other in a cycle of escalating violence. Thematically
they are collapsed on to each other, as well as in language. The cynic
` A topos analysed in Jean Starobinski, Portrait de lartiste en saltimbanque (Geneva:
Skira, 1970).
advocates an aesthetic of impersonality, and simultaneously plays on the
Romantic aesthetic of self-expression:
Fais de toi ton uvre posthume,
Chtre lamour lamour longueur!
Ton poumon cicatris hume
Des miasmes de gloire, vainqueur! (58)
Lamartines metaphor of using ones bres as a lyre is converted into
literal medical terms.` This also deromanticizes the myth of dying for
ones art, as initially expressed by the naive voice. The beginning and
end of the story are collapsed onto each other, and this is emphasized
by the double temporal structure of the sequence: the dialogue stages
the poet embarking on his cynical pose, and at the end he is told to start
practising his pose, which is in effect the beginning of the story.
At rst, irony results from the contrast between the two voices, but
at the end they fuse in a single ironic discourse which juxtaposes lyrical
idealism with medical reality. The bohemian blague reverses values, but
Corbire reverses the reversal by juxtaposing the vocabulary of bohemian
heroism with realistic discourse. As Jonathan Culler points out, irony is
itself a process of signication and also works to undermine other types
of signication.` Corbires irony is particularly hard to pin down, as
he undermines types of signication which are already ironic and full of
reversals. Both the discourse of the blague and the myth of the artist as
noble martyr are responses to social changes, and Corbire problematizes
them both. Conicting norms coincide, and there is no reliable voice to
offer conclusive evaluations. As Janklvitch points out, Lironie [. . .]
organise la concurrence de toutes les valeurs pour navoir pas opter.`
The poet is constantly judged according to norms which are themselves
being undercut. For instance, the poet is instructed on how to t into
the bohemian milieu, but the poems themselves mock this environment.
The sonnets stage the poets struggle to locate himself in a literary scene,
and enact its ferment of bohemian delusion, cut-throat competition,
and aristocratic idealism. This reects the difculty of deciding whether
` Lamartine writes in a preface to his Mditations: Je suis le premier qui ait fait
descendre la posie du Parnasse, et qui ait donn ce quon nommait la Muse, au lieu
dune lyre sept cordes de convention, les bres mmes du cur de lhomme, tronches
et mues par les innombrables frissons de lme et de la nature, Lamartine, Mditations
(Paris: Garnier, 1968), 303.
` Jonathan Culler, The Pursuit of Signs (London: Routledge &Kegan Paul, 1981), 36.
` LIronie, 157.
isolation and obscurity are signs of failure, or proof of a superior art that
an undiscriminating audience is incapable of understanding. Corbire
criticizes the commerciality of the Parisian bazaar yet mocks the muse
for being unable to sell herself. The Paris sonnets are shot through with
all the ambivalence of the nineteenth-century man of letters noted by
Walter Benjamin: he goes to the marketplace as a neur, supposedly
to take a look at it, but in reality to nd a buyer.``
These intersecting views of the artistic world are dramatized by the
dialogue between the two conicting voices. The circular movement of
a sequence that begins and ends with death emphasizes that they are two
halves of a divided subjectivity. Whereas the rst sonnet had reported the
situation from the outside, by the end we see the situation from within.
The naive poet is only present in the many second-person pronouns in
the ironic utterance of the cynic, and his voice has been absorbed into
that of the cynical performer. The Paris sonnets stage the assumption
of the pose and show how the oxymoronic style emerges from two
conicting aspects of the self. The pose is represented by the layering of
different voices. The poet addresses himself in the second person and
commands the posing self to do things as if it were an articial puppet.
This emphasizes the self-division that posing entails, and is also a way
of dramatizing inner conict whilst avoiding introspection.
The Paris sequence also throws doubt on the irony which charac-
terizes the whole book. Since the cynical blagueur advises the ingnu
to cultivate bitter laughter in order to ensure fame and fortune, it is
implied that the rire jaune is faked and forced out of a desire to be
fashionable and to guarantee sales. This is an acknowledgement that the
poet knows he is not the rst to debunk Romanticism, even if elsewhere
he boasts of his iconoclasm. Furthermore, even laughter seems to have
been commodied, which further taints the yellow of the rire jaune,
although the effect is not so much to undermine laughter itself, as to
demonstrate that laughter, like lyricism, cannot escape the all-pervasive
inuence of capitalism. The character of the blagueur mocks his pose
for being contrived, and the overall effect of the poem is to send up the
concept of the blague. The poems thus invite us to laugh at laughter
itself, enacting the very mechanism of the rire jaune. They simultan-
eously question the humour of the whole of Les Amours jaunes, so the
sequence functions as a further framing device for the book.
`` Walter Benjamin, Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet in the Era of High Capitalism,
trans. Harry Zohn (London: New Left Books, 1973), 34.
NAPLES: UNRAVELLI NG THE POSE
Poems representing artist gures are primarily set in Paris, but at the
end of the Raccrocs section there is a group of poems set in Italy
describing a journey which was de rigueur for a man of letters. These
may have been written before the Paris poems, as Corbire made his
journey there in the winter of 186970 before moving to Paris in 1871,
but convey a similar disenchantment. They discredit the Romantic
clichs associated with idealized representations of Italy, and evoke the
difculty of portraying the myth afresh. The densest of these poems,
Veder Napoli poi mori, offers a striking variation on the urban theme,
as it explores the relationship between poet and street scene in a more
intricate way than Idylle coupe. This effect of complexity results from
its elaborate rhetorical situation. A poet describes how his arrival in
Naples degenerates into farce when customs ofcers search his luggage,
and the lazzaroni (Neapolitan vagabonds whose freedom was eulogized
by Romantic poets such as Lamartine and Musset) steal his bag. This
poet persona ironically undercuts clichs of the Italian journey, yet the
poem is simultaneously unravelling his pose. This multi-layered poem
incorporates more perspectives than a conventional linear oral utterance
would permit. Furthermore, it is exceptional in that there are four known
versions in existence.`` A comparison of these variants reveals that
Corbire systematically rendered the rhetorical situation more complex
in the course of composition. Ironic discontinuities were heightened to
explore the contradictions of the artist grappling with the impossibility of
unmediated description. The rst version is a direct linear utterance by a
voice rooted in one place. Irony results from the naive visitor enthusing
over an Italian scene which persistently contradicts his illusions and
interferes with his performance. This spontaneity is attenuated in the
nal version, which is encrusted with details and accumulates puns which
`` Given the lack of material shedding light on the genesis of Les Amours jaunes, it is
fortunate that there are four versions. Three are given in OC and the fourth is transcribed
in the Appendix below. The latter, a manuscript held by the Bibliothque Municipale
de Morlaix, is probably the earliest. It is shorter than the version thought to be the
earliest when reproduced in OC: the manuscript originally published by Martineau in
1904, which is thus probably the second of the four versions. A third version appeared
in La Vie parisienne on 24 May 1873. Although this was after Les Amours jaunes went to
press (17 May 1873), it is only ve quatrains long and looks like an intermediate version
between the manuscript published by Martineau and the text in Les Amours jaunes. The
most elaborate version is that in Les Amours jaunes.
underline the ironic reection. The fragmented voice appears to speak at
different levels and in different times and places simultaneously, and the
layers make it difcult to read as the notation of an oral performance.
The successive changes made to the opening of the poem are partic-
ularly striking in this respect, and show how the rhetorical situation was
made progressively more complex. The Morlaix manuscript begins thus:
Italia salve! (coupons dans lItalie).
The apostrophe roots the speaker geographically, and his monologic
voice responds emotively to the setting, only to undercut with a
more cynical aside: the gurative expression couper dans quelque chose,
originally a gambling term, means to fall into a trap or to be caught out
by something. The second version exacerbates the cynicism by starting
on the derisive note, taking the clich see Naples and die literally:
Ici lon peut mourir, cest Naples, lItalie!
In the third version the speaker distances himself from the clich, by
quoting it in full and then citing himself as living evidence of its
absurdity. He now seems to be in dialogue with an external voice:
Voir Naples et mourir. Moi, jen reviens [. . .].
The nal version dramatizes the witticism still further:
Voir Naples et Fort bien, merci, jen viens.
The joke is no longer addressed directly to the reader by the speaker, but
is incorporated into a scene played out before us. The cynic interrupts a
voice uttering the clich, pointing out that he has returned from Naples
ingoodhealth. Truncating the expressionserves to reinforce its formulaic
nature, as only two words are necessary for it to be instantly recognizable.
The truncation invites the reader to nish the phrase, giving him or her
a sense of cultural superiority, before going on to mock that satisfaction.
The phrase Voir Naples et hangs without being attributable to a
particular speaker, but the poets response to it has the accent of living
speech. It belongs in the discourse of social formality, for it sounds like a
reply to the question comment allez vous?, which has not actually been
posed, although the thematic link between death and health makes the
connection perfectly logical. The speaker is nowfar fromthe Neapolitan
quay, but is instead striking the pose of a seasoned traveller in company.
The clich see Naples and die is inserted into the banal conversation
where it belongs, and such automatic use of language is hence the rst
object of attack. The idealized vision of Italy is directly associated with a
world of social artice, and the joke permits the speaker both to showoff
his own wit and to mock the implied company. This introduction to a
humorous poem invites us to read the whole as an account contrived for
the trivial entertainment of just such a social gathering.` The present
tense of jen viens opens up a gap between the present utterance and the
past events in Italy and makes the performance a self-conscious restaging
of the original experience. The speaker plays on the uncertain distance
between speaking self and travelling self to make it undecidable whether
the poet-tourists naivety is being retrospectively mocked or whether he
is a blas gure who greeted events with knowing irony. He thus covers
his own traces while appearing to expose them, and the idea of the poem
as a notation of an utterance from a particular moment is undercut.
The poem as a whole dramatizes the tension between the poets
foreknowledge and his naivety. It is loaded with references to existing
representations of Italy. The poet alludes to ctional characters, such as
Mme de Stals Corinne and Goethes Mignon, in exclamations which
suggest the disparity between the ideal and reality. The incongruous
juxtaposition of noble literary antecedents and trivial reality is emphas-
ized in later versions by wordplay, since the sound of malle echoes that
of Mme de Stal. This is particularly irreverent given that the sound also
produces the rhyme sale. Her name is given in the second version, but
in Les Amours jaunes merely hovers behind the line as an unverbalized
presence.` Veder Napoli also uses more general clichs such as the
picturesque scenery. The static verblessness of the opening descrip-
tionthe accumulation of blueness with bleu-perruquier, indigo,
ne-moubliez-pas and outremer is the verbal equivalent of a painted
backdrop. The poet is jaded by prior acquaintance with imitations, a
theme which is given a more positive twist in Vsuves et C
ie
, which
shows how representations of Vesuvius lodged in the memory have
personal associations more powerful than the impressions left by a visit
to the volcano itself.
` The version which appeared in La Vie parisienne does not look out of place amidst
the pages of frivolous society articles on the subject of holidays.
` In Calembour et cration potique chez Tristan Corbire, Cahiers de lIroise,
8/1 (Jan. Mar. 1961), 18, Sonnenfeld argues that this wordplay was the inspiration
behind the whole section, in line with his theory that the origin of Corbires poems
was generally a set of sound associations, which were then hidden in the process of
composition. However, the Mme de Stal joke is not included in the Morlaix manuscript
which has more recently come to light, so it seems to have been added and then removed
at an intermediate stage of composition.
The poets monologue in its nal version no longer just sketches
events, but artice pervades at all levels, so even the realistic details
take on a stilted, stagy aspect. Knowledge of existing representations is
projected onto the present, so it seems articial too. The overall texture
is contradictory as Corbire simultaneously points out that reality falls
short of the ideal, mocks the ideal for its stereotypical artice, and
mocks the real by making it as articial as the ideal (the customs ofcers
declaim theatrically). The rst version introduced the customs ofcers
by saying that artists literally forget to declare their luggage, implying
that when overawed one forgets practical details. The last version works
this up into an aesthetic statement that artists forget to describe the
practical details. The customs ofcers are ostensibly brought in as an
incongruous realistic detail, yet at a humorous level they only reinforce
the clichs of Italian beauty:
Mignon! ils ont tout clos mon linge sale
Pour le passer au bleu de lternel printemps! (78)
Mignon, the Goethe character who yearns for her Italian homeland,
has associations of dreamy otherworldliness, which contrast sharply
with the intrusive customs ofcers.` However, double meanings then
project the sanitizing duties of the latter onto the idealized beauty
of Italy. The past participle clos, unexpectedly used intransitively,
describes the humiliating search through his luggage as though this
were a pastoral scene of blossoming owers.` Passer au bleu, meaning
launder, puns on the stereotypical blue sky. Passer au bleu also means
make disappear and thus anticipates the ultimate theft of the luggage.
Corbires rewriting of the poemdemonstrates the importance that such
associative patterns had for him.`
` Her yearning is famously evoked in Goethes poem Kennst du das, Land wo die
Zitronen blhn, to which Corbire makes direct allusion in earlier versions of Veder
Napoli poi mori. In the Morlaix version, the lemons are attributed to Schiller: O caisse
dorangers! (Schiller dit: citronniers). Whether the misattribution is deliberate or not,
the second version omits the name and reworks the citrus joke as: O caisse dorangers
qui sont des citronniers!
` The conjunction of owers, clothes, and sky recalls the beginning of Ronsards
Ode XVII: Mignonne, allons voir si la rose | Qui ce matin avoit desclose | Sa robe de
pourpre au Soleil, uvres completes, Pliade (Paris: Gallimard, 1950), 419.
` In the rst version the verb used for unfolding the washing was effeuill, which
literally denotes the opposite of clos, but its associations of foliage t in with the
adjacent reference to laurels. In later versions the laurels are suppressed and the verb only
appears further on, in the form effeuillant.
The nal version also reports the utterances of the customs ofcers,
which further blur the rhetorical situation:
Ils demandent la main et moi je la leur serre!
Le portrait de ma Belle, avec morbidezza
Passe de mains en mains : linspecteur sanitaire
Lausculte, et me sourit trouvant que cest bien a! (912)
The speaker responds to the customs ofcers words Ils demandent la
main by shaking their hands, a non-verbal communication which is
inspired by a verbal witticism. The idiom for a formal marriage offer is
made to look strange by being taken out of context, as the hand seems
to be disembodied rather than symbolic. This impression is reinforced
when a hand is physically offered in response, a gesture which both
mocks the preciosity of the formula, and contests the customs ofcers.
Wordplay is not just an embellishment after the event, but is projected
back into the original episode. The speaker throws the phrase back at
his tormentors, for he does not answer in the same terms as the request:
rather than giving or refusing his hand, he seizes theirs. The caesura
severs the advance from the retort, in the binary alexandrine so often
used by Corbire for contradictory movements. However, the gesture
could indicate that hands are being shaken over a deal and thus express
acquiescence. The poet simultaneously contradicts their meaning and
accepts their offer, in an ironic double movement. Furthermore, the
expression demander la main was not pertinent, for the bartering is
over nothing so formal as marriage. The hand is further degraded
when the portrait of the travellers lover passe de mains en mains
in an exchange which mimics that of prostitution. The reference to
the sanitary ofcer hints at the reality of regulating such trade, and
further contaminates the notion of cleansing suggested by the laundry
image. The woman features only as a painting, and is thus yet another
representation. Even the actions of the customs ofcers are qualied
with the technical term morbidezza, which refers to delicacy and grace
in a painting. This is burlesque when applied to these coarse gures
rather than the portrait itself, especially as it rhymes with the oral phrase
que cest bien a.
This is a virtuoso play on terms not only of different registers but
which belong in contrasting communicative situations. Morbidezza
is the narrators ourish, which exaggerates the artice of his own
depiction, whilst mocking his tormentors with terms that are apparently
beyond them. Cest bien a is an everyday phrase,` whose force and
meaning are largely determined by its intonation, a quality brought out
in Nathalie Sarrautes play Pour un oui ou pour un non, which hinges on
the misunderstanding caused by a protagonist pausing fractionally too
long between bien and a and thus insinuating an insult into what
should have been an expression of approval. Corbires que amplies
the evaluative force and also makes the rhythm of morbidezza echo
that of que cest bien a exactly. We have already seen how Corbire
establishes parallels between utterances of very different orders, as in
Au vieux Roscoff , but here the technique is put to more sophisticated
use as the full signicance of the pairing only emerges when the
lines are read aloud. Since the italics and context invite the reader to
exaggerate the Italian pronunciation of morbidezza, there is likely to
be a corresponding exaggeration in the rhythm of que cest bien a.
The resultant emphasis on bien will inevitably produce an insulting
pause between bien and a. The more the reader stresses the poets
conceit in morbidezza, the more insulting the slight of que cest bien
a. Thus the more the speaker parades the poets virtuoso style, the
more violently it rebounds on him in the rhyme. Although contrasting
registers are juxtaposed, there is nothing so clear as reported speech or
clearly delineated dialogue here. The contrast between the elevated and
the trivial, when artistic renement is ascribed to the customs ofcers,
is a marker of irony, but it has no clearly dened target. Marriage is
reduced to the level of prostitution, the customs ofcers are mocked for
having delusions of grandeur, and the speakers bombast verges on the
ridiculous. It is impossible to decide whether he is directly quoting his
interlocutors to mock their pretensions, or whether he is describing them
in terms they could not have used in order to reveal their ignorance.
The speaker attacks the clichs of Romanticism by focusing on the
mundane gures normally omitted in idealized portrayals, yet in turn
falls into the trap of mocking them as philistines, only to have the
rhythm turn the mockery back against himself with an added barb in
que cest bien a.
The fourth stanza is another late addition which amplies the speakers
inner division. He actively reects on the disparity between his illusions
and the reality assailing him. The explicit presentation of the mission
which brought him to Naples, and analysis of his encounter with the
` Also used in Le Convoi du Pauvre, 13.
Nathalie Sarraute, Pour un oui un pour un non (Paris: Gallimard, 1982), 47.
customs ofcers, is the nearest the poem comes to directly addressing
the reader:
Je venais pour chanter leur illustre guenille,
Et leur chantage a fait de moi-mme un haillon!
Effeuillant mes faux-cols, lun deux moffre sa lle
Effeuillant le faux-col de mon illusion! (1316)
The poet-tourist explains that he has come to praise the renowned
vagabonds of Naples. In the rst draft the speaker identies with them
at rst sight (Ah voici mes amis, les seigneurs lazzaronis) but the
nal version soberly notes them as a received idea before letting the
elegy y. The poet is indirectly identied with the ragged lazzaroni
because he feels the customs ofcers have treated him like one. He is
not aware that the disparity between his sartorial concerns and their
elemental condition is a source of comedy. The relationship is no
longer one of active identication, but is a parallel suggested through
imagery. The imagery constructs the poet, instead of him being the
lyric source performing it. The rest of the quatrain repeats the substance
of the anecdote in order to interpret it, but it is the underlying
imagery and patterns of wordplay which provide the organic thread
now: laundry which had previously appeared as a humorous metonymic
xture (7) is now made an explicit metaphor for his disillusionment.
The illusions are made light of since they spring from the internal
structure of the word faux-col, with its connotations of triviality
and fakeness. The laundry images ironically build up to the entrance
of the lazzaroni by foreshadowing their dirty raggedness. The verb
effeuiller had in the earliest version featured in the leafy second stanza,
but ends up in a different context here, where its connotations of
denudation echo the rags of the lazzaroni. The effeuillant images of
lines 1516 literally enact the statement Et leur chantage a fait de
moi-mme un haillon. The notion is introduced guratively before
being shown concretely, so again disillusion with the myth is latent
before the lazzaroni appear. It is the very puns showing the Italian
myth to be illusory that also usher in the exaltation of the lazzaroni.
The disparity between the wardrobe vocabulary and the elemental
rags of the lazzaroni underlines the comedy of the pampered poets
preoccupation with his laundry items. The speaker uses puns to show
off his wit at given points, and yet the general undertow in larger
sections of the text escapes the control of even this highly self-conscious
speaking voice.
The speaker does not use a unied tone to argue with an incremental
movement, but the poem is punctuated with abrupt changes in gear, so
that the overall texture verges on a patchwork like that of Paris. This
fragmented surface is more marked in the nal version than in the earlier
drafts. The lyrical outburst of stanzas 57 is ironized from within by
the exaggerated poetic tropes. The opening Naples! uses the direct
invocation of the surroundings which began the rst version of the poem,
but now in the form of speech within speech. A series of oxymoronic
structures glories the sordid laziness of the lazzaroni. The images were
reworked in the course of composition so Des potes aussi, leurs poux
sont leurs couronnes became the more intense Polichinelles-Dieux,
Rois pouilleux sur leurs trnes (19) and Clyso-pompant lazur qui balle
dans leur ciel became the less literal Clyso-pompant lazur qui bille
leur sommeil! (20). The discourse builds to a rhetorical peak in a parodic
simulation of the poet being carried away by his own lyrical excess.
The ight spills over into the eighth stanza, only to be abruptly broken
off with the exclamation Non! cest mon sac! (29). The positioning
of this interruption at the apparent climax heightens its irony. The
poetic performance is rudely interrupted by the invasion of the object
upon whose absence it is centred; narrative time nowsuddenly coincides
with story time and the speaker is forced back into the eyewitness mode
which had dominated the rst version. However, the startling images
belie the immediacy of the exclamation. The language of the poem
appears to be operating independently of the speaker, and strange
puns give a sense of detachment from the world. The image il nage
| Parmi ces asticots, comme un chien crev (2930) is disturbing, as
the grammatical structure makes the bag the centre of interest, yet
it is only because the swarming lazzaroni resemble maggots that the
bag can be described as a dead dog. It is not the verb that drives the
sense, and causality is suppressed. The shift from praising to blaming
the lazzaroni is thrown in, rather than foregrounded as a proposition
in itself, suggesting that such misgivings can never have been far from
the surface. The reversal is all the more incongruous given that only
two lines previously the lazzaroni had been frres adors. The bags
themselves are emblematic of the poets cultural baggage. His false
collars had already been associated with his illusions, and the inertia
of his trunk suggests the dead weight of the ideals which haunt him,
although the paradoxical movement of the trunk in line 32 suggests that
the illusions are slipping away. The surreal effect is compounded by the
cheese image, which not only suggests that the maggots may be vers de
fromage but also plays on the colloquial expression trouver un fromage,
meaning to nd a lucrative situation. The trunk obviously represents a
fromage for the lazzaroni, as they are Italians proting from their mythic
scenery. Once again, poetry is tainted by nancial concerns, a theme
which runs through the Italian poems, notably Le Fils de Lamartine
et Graziella, in which a descendant of Lamartine takes the commercial
exploitation of poetry to industrial levels.
The last stanza sidesteps the question of illusions by playfully moving
to a cosmic level:
Ne ruolze plus a, toi, grand Astre stupide!
Tas de ples voyous grouillant se nourrir;
Ce nest plus le lzard, cest la sangsue vide
Dernier lazzarone moi la [sic] bon Dormir! (336)
Grojnowski suggests that the transguration of the corpse image is
inspired by Baudelaires Une charogne.` The speaker is so saturated
with the poetry he has previously read that his Neapolitan observations
call to mind an entirely alien Baudelairian image, and one which
imports the idea of death. The disproportion between the trivial event
and the portentous exclamation inspired by this intertext compounds
the impression of the poet as a gure of fun, and his metaphysical
terms are humorously undercut by the baldly scientic register. His
tone becomes petulant, and the poem ends with him threatening to
kill a lazzarone, referring to death with the childish euphemism bon
Dormir. The last line sounds like the challenging cry which launches
a game, and in fact represents a witty return to the initial joke. The
rst version ended with the poet telling himself to go to sleep instead
of seeing Naples, which sounds like joining in with the lazzaronis
far-niente, whereas the last version sets him apart from them, rst as a
mock philosopher and then as a child. The poem as a whole is framed
by a circular joke (a familiar pattern in Les Amours jaunes) leading from
voir Naples to bon Dormir.
The poet identies with the lazzaroni in a Baudelairian stance of
observing third parties who echo his own concerns, but this connection
is undercut by their invading his privacy. The poet is not free to exploit
the scene for his own ends, since it ghts back. This dramatic irony was
Corbire was not the rst to make this sort of criticism of Lamartine. Walter
Benjamin gives examples of how Lamartine was accused of agrantly marketing himself
in poetry, in Charles Baudelaire, 32.
` Bibliothque Nationale, Les Plus Beaux Manuscrits des potes franais, 244.
stepped up in the course of composition, for in the last version the poet
invests more in his identication with the lazzaroni before they get their
revenge. Furthermore, the parallel between himself and the lazzaroni is
not negated by their misbehaviour, but persists with the more damning
implication that he is out for personal gain just as much as they are.
Not only does the poet peddle clapped-out idealistic visions, but he is
responsible for commodifying experience. In this poem both parties are
plundering each other.
Veder Napoli poi mori is no account of gradual disillusionment,
because the speaker was disillusioned from the start. The rst version
relied on an opposition between an idealistic poet and a realistic scene.
The nal version is more complex, for the anecdotal framework is
retained but irony permeates the verbal texture at all levels. It does not
just target illusions but ricochets in all directions. The speaker in the
rst version is aware from the start that the whole thing is a sham, yet
retains an air of gullible ingenuity so that he can be repeatedly knocked
down, whereas in the last version he is aware that the whole undertaking
was deluded from the outset. Events only feed his disillusion, yet the
story is told as though at any given moment there might be further
illusions to peel away.
The speaker, although boasting an ironic tone, is frequently undercut
by the language. Imagery and puns are beyond his control and build
up proliferating layers of irony. The pose of the retrospective speaking
poet is superimposed on that of the travelling poet and it is difcult to
hook any given utterance to a particular moment. Corbire repeatedly
prots from the shock effects of undercutting illusions, whilst at the
same time showing that the poet is disillusioned from the start. He
ironizes a gure who is ironically telling a story about an episode
apparently experienced with ironic distance in the rst place. Orality
has become one effect amongst others incorporated into a writerly
text, but is nonetheless powerful enough to suggest the vestiges of a
theatrical performer hovering behind the writing. The speaker is both
a parodied Romantic writer proting from the Italian picturesque and
being mocked by the lazzaroni getting their own back, and is a modern
realist poet who tries to reject clichs, but constantly slips back into
them. The poem is another example of a montage of different kinds
of poet, and an expansion of the paradoxical self-denition trop naf,
tant trop cynique.`
` pitaphe, 45.
THE POET S SELF- DI VI SI ON
Corbire does not merely stage monologues by poet personae, but
frequently evokes artists obliquely or weaves their voices into dense
verbal structures, notably in La Pipe au pote and Le Crapaud. In this
pair of poems the poets personality is difcult to pin down, and he is
also removed from a realistic environment. Whereas Veder Napoli poi
mori uses concrete reality to undercut idealized representations, these
texts humorously depict contradictions in the myth of the poet, drawing
on stock symbolic material but using the realistic technique of multiple
perspectives to transform it.
In Chapter 1 I cited the speaking pipe in La Pipe au pote as an
example of the unreliable je lyrique, and we have seen how many poems
create similar effects without the motivation of devices as transparent as
a speaking pipe. However, I now want to return to La Pipe au pote
and analyse the pipes role more carefully, because this voice must be
read in relation to the whole poem, whose multiple layers convey much
about the condition of the artist. La Pipe au pote rewrites Baudelaires
sonnet La Pipe, collapsing it into an idiosyncratic stanzaic pattern and
developing the humorous potential of its rhetorical situation. Whereas
the Baudelaire poem is spoken by the eponymous pipe, which refers to
its master in tones of neutral respect, Corbires speaking pipe hijacks the
poem and reduces the artist to his dupe. By assuming the grammatical
rst person, his pipe gains the corresponding condence of a Romantic
je lyrique. The pipe mocks the dreaming poet, but the incongruity of
a banal object having such a self-important tone makes it in turn an
object of comedy. Every time the pipe deates the poet, it simultaneously
emphasizes its own ludicrous presumption. In the rst line the pipe
appropriates the capital P and leaves the poet in the lower case. The
capital is restored to the poet only in the penultimate line, and then
only to call him patronizingly mon Pauvre. This both intensies the
derogatory term, and acts as a reminder of the consecrated Pote status he
falls short of, thus underlining the disparity between reality and an ideal.
The old verb piper has the sense of deceive, and the pipe wittily
goes on to present the poets experience as a series of delusions:
Quand ses chimres borgnes
Viennent se heurter son front,
Je fume Et lui, dans son plafond,
Ne peut plus voir les araignes. (36)
Chimres were a popular Romantic image for aspiration vers linni,
but here they are literally one-eyed monsters. The pipe mutilates the
Romantic clich to assert a lucid awareness of the futility of art,
and to display its own wit at the expense of the poet. However, the
comic reworking of the image also vividly suggests the very real horror
of nightmares. The nightmarish description recombines elements of
Baudelaires Spleen poem Quand le ciel bas et lourd:
Quand la terre est change en un cachot humide,
O lEsprance, comme une chauve-souris,
Sen va battant les murs de son aile timide
Et se cognant la tte des plafonds pourris
. . . . . . .
Et quun peuple muet dinfmes araignes
Vient tendre ses lets au fond de nos cerveaux. (58, 1112)
Corbire borrows the tangible images Baudelaire uses to suggest melan-
choly, and singles out the ceiling and spiders fromwhich he conjures the
colloquial expression avoir une araigne dans le plafond, meaning to
have a screw loose. He derides spleen as an object of comedy rather than
lamenting it as a grave afiction. Similarly, lyrical ight is presented as
a vain illusion rather than noble elevation and referred to in the third
person rather than performed in the rst:
Je lui fais un ciel, des nuages,
La mer, le dsert, des mirages;
Il laisse errer l son il mort (79)
The sea, sky, and desert are typical images of a Romantic ailleurs, and
constitute a shorthand for lyricism. Words suggestive of the eternal
are revealed to be part of a cultural code; they are quoted rather
than used with their full weight. The vision is ironically framed by
suspension points, but this truncation simultaneously suggests the
unrealized possibility of a more sustained ight. Dream and reality are
subtly fused, as the clouds of the vision emerge from the literal smoke,
and this sky gives rise to a landscape whose mirages pregure the illusion
that the cloud is a lost lover. There is humour in the poets only relaxing
at the thought of a woman, and the pipe plays up the physical nature
of the response. The dream is hardly mere escapism since it leads to an
evocation of love as absence and loss. Sleep represents a release from the
uvres Compltes, i. 24.
poets Bte, and so is a way of transcending the discomfort of existence,
even if it is only made possible by the articial stimulant of the pipe
(celebration of smoking was a frequent bohemian theme). The pipe both
represents the reality from which the poet is escaping, and also provides
the means of escape. The opposition of reality and ideal is fragmented
through a poem in which nobody actively aspires to an ideal, but it
nonetheless persists as a phantom presence. If the ideal was posited by
the Romantics in response to an inadequate reality, Corbire returns
to the reality to show why the ight was necessary. His description of
sleep as a visual experience condensing the private and the panoramic
is a realistic evocation of dream-work. The poem represents the conict
between the dreamer and the realist, both essential aspects of the poet.
The pipe is aware that art is a vain illusion, and the dreamer is portrayed
through the optic of the pipe, so his point of view is only presented
indirectly. After the pipe has boasted of nursing the poet by feeding
him delusions, it risks a nal ourish of condent pretension which
humorously undermines its own central role:
Mon Pauvre! la fume est tout.
Sil est vrai que tout est fume (1819)
This speculation activates a further literary intertext, by recalling the
end of Saint-Amants sonnet La Pipe, in which the smoker observes:
Non, je ne trouve point beaucoup de diffrence
De prendre du tabac vivre desprance,
Car lun nest que fume, et lautre nest que vent.
Corbires humour has much in common with that of the seventeenth-
century poem; both use the triviality of smoking to touch lightly
on existential themes. However, Corbires speaking pipe once again
amplies the humour of this conceit. Having paraded its power over
the hapless poet, the pipe has underlined the vanity of art, but at
the very end broadens this argument into a stereotypical meditation
on the transitory and illusory nature of life itself. With this sweeping
statement the pipe in effect undercuts its own much-vaunted author-
ity, for it is as much a part of the all-encompassing tout as the
poet, and therefore itself illusory. This conrms that the pipes per-
formance is insubstantial, and invites us to turn our attention away
from its limited judgements and focus instead on the poem as a
Saint-Amant, uvres potiques, ed. Lon Vrane (Paris: Garnier, 1930), 88.
multi-layered text which superimposes contradictory points of view.
The pipe is a parodic subjective lyric I which asserts its centrality,
but the condent rst person has become dissociated from the gure
of the poet, who is represented within the poem as a rather elusive
gure.
Indeed, it is uncertain what sort of a poet is represented, since the poem
offers no denitive evaluation. As Corbires pipe stridently exaggerates
the manner of its Baudelairian model, it is tempting to view the poet
as a shadow of Baudelaire himself. The progression from tortured
dreams to lyrical ight certainly suggests the double postulation of
spleen and idal. As the pipe is more ironic than Baudelaires, Corbires
tortured insomniac may be a correspondingly more splenetic version
of Baudelaire. On the other hand, the pipes derision suggests the
poet is no more than an escapist dreamer. Is the poet a Romantic
visionary mocked by a short-sightedly prosaic pipe, or a drugged
bohemian presented by a clear-sighted spokesman for the everyday? The
undecidability suggests that there may be a ne line between grand
visions and trivial pipe dreams, and embodies the uncertain nature
of dreams which fuse ction and reality. The paradigm of limited
vision (chimres borgnes, ne peut plus voir, il mort) implies
that the poet persona himself has difculty discriminating, but these
evaluations may also reect the distorted interpretation of the pipe.
The cocksure pipe is a comic protagonist rather than a reliable source
of evaluation, a lyric equivalent to the unreliable narrator. It condes
in the reader behind the poets back, but the poem in turn mocks
the pipe, so we are ironically distanced from both pipe and poet, and
cannot tell where the irony is coming from. Reverie and lucidity have
become more incommensurable than in Baudelaire. This is a non-
intellectual approach to the opposition of real and ideal, which is not
experienced by an individual, but fragmented across the complementary
halves of the poet: the romantic dreamer and the realistic pipe. As
in Insomnie, the poets existential suffering is conveyed through
physical sensations. The poems apparent disorder, underlined by its
unconventional stanzaic structure, carefully orchestrates the hesitation
between dream and reality.
The poets inner division is also dramatized in the anthology piece
Le Crapaud. Its formal and thematic ironies are immediately obvious:
it is a reversed sonnet which likens the poet to a toad in a version of the
Marshall Lindsay sees the poet as sleepy and unproductive, Le Temps jaune, 7.
artist as clown topos. It presents a Baudelairian scene in which the
poet recognizes himself in the debased gure of the toad. The theme
is commonplace in the period but the oblique form of the analogy is
original. The polyphony makes it unclear who is being ironic about
what, or where the poet is to be located between the diverse voices.
The toad image may be memorably vivid, and enhanced by the legend
that Corbire kept a dead toad nailed above his door, but in Le
Crapaud the poet is a more dispersed presence. The poems irony is not
simply an antiphrastic procedure, according to which the toad might be
transformed back into a prince by the act of reading (the fairy tale The
Frog Prince is hovering behind the poem, along with the myth of the
artist as unrecognized genius), but its irony stems from the relationship
between the different voices.
There are in fact four separate voices. The rst is the impersonal
narrator of the opening ve lines, who sets the scene with a description
which is hard to read mimetically, because, as Marshall Lindsay points
out, it is a montage of industrial and Romantic landscape items:
Un chant dans une nuit sans air
La lune plaque en mtal clair
Les dcoupures du vert sombre.
Un chant; comme un cho, tout vif
Enterr, l, sous le massif (15)
The elliptic language obscures both the speaker of the description and
the source of the song, so the music is eerily suspended in the dcor. The
sound takes on a visual quality, since the noun chant xes the music as
a landscape itemas static as air and lune. When the song is pinpointed
with the deictic l, the narrator and audience are simultaneously located
spatially in relation to it, and the objective voice begins to seem more
embodied. These opening lines also describe the second voice: the more
persistently disembodied voice of the toad.
The poem then shifts into a dialogue between the third and fourth
voices, belonging to two lovers. Their conversation centres on the toad,
but makes it no easier to pin down. The man points to the toad
rst with a se tait: Viens, cest l, dans lombre (6). The
Hugos toad in La Lgende des sicles has been cited as a literary antecedent, but
Corbires toad is an object of repulsion rather than an allegorical victim.
Baudelairian identication with a pariah is a stance also used to parodic effect in
Bonne fortune et fortune, Frre et sur jumeaux, and Idylle coupe.
Ren Martineau, Tristan Corbire, 74. Le Temps jaune, 6.
derogative pronoun a refers backwards to the song and also forwards
to the womans cry of recognition, Un crapaud! (7), so the toads
grammatical entrance into the poem, cest l, is as furtive as his lurking
in the shadows. The womans exclamation comes at what would have
been the volta position, as if her cry is responsible for turning the whole
sonnet upside down. The poem breaks down into a staccato dialogue,
in which many of the words are loaded with an intonational force as
strong as that of a and l.
Having named the toad, the woman mechanically repeats the inter-
jection Horreur! (1011) to express her repulsion at the toads
song. The man, who is closer to the narrator, more guardedly refers to
the toad with the oxymoronic metaphors pote tondu, sans aile (9) and
rossignol de la boue (10). The irony cuts two ways, as these formulae
use conventional aesthetic criteria to deride the toad for his degraded
state, yet by referring to this earthbound creature as a poet they undercut
the clich of the poet soaring and singing. The lack of communication
between the two characters reects the internal division of the poet,
and his difculty in meeting his audience, just as the framing poems
Le Pote et la cigale and a? present Les Amours jaunes from two
perspectives to suggest the gap between the poet and his readers.
The last line, Bonsoir ce crapaud-l cest moi, is isolated on the
page and strangely detached fromthe rest of the scene. Although it reads
like a condent statement of identity, it is not clear who is speaking,
or to whom. The utterance is simultaneously a greeting and a farewell,
addressed to both the woman in the poem and the reader of the poem.
Indeed, the voices of the narrator, the two lovers, and the toad are
superimposed on each other. The word crapaud is tainted with the
womans disgust, the deictic l embodies the narrators distance, the
identication implied by cest moi takes up the mans sympathy, and
the line quite literally enacts the earlier description of the toads song as
an echo. The toad is nally given a voice, but it only recycles other voices
from the preceding text. Like the parrots in Paris II, the poet-toad is
only able to copy others and has difculty producing anything new. As
in Paris, the separate voices which had offered conicting perspectives
on the toad are all collapsed onto each other at the end. The effect of
an uncanny voice from beyond is produced by the merging of different
voices and perspectives, rather than from a cosmic setting, although the
echo-like quality of the song, and the sinister juxtaposition of tout vif
andenterr hints at a state betweenlife anddeath. Le Crapaud blurs the
rhetorical situation partly through ellipsis and partly through dialogue.
The artist is not merely represented as being uncertain, but uncertainty
about the artist is folded into the language. Both Le Crapaud and
La Pipe au pote suggest the artists uncertainty about his worth by
showing how difcult it is to evaluate him. Diverse voices are enlisted to
mock the poet, so the poems constitute what Philippe Hamon describes
as a montage des sources et des sphres dvaluation. These poems
use complex rhetorical situations to suggest the inner division of the
artist from an external viewpoint, rather than using introspection. None
of the speakers within the poem understands the poet as a whole, but
the reader provides the external perspective necessary to build an overall
picture of a self-divided subject.
The artist persona is a heightened case of the unsettling subject
characteristic of Les Amours jaunes. The customary hesitations are
compounded by additional uncertainties over whether the poet is
charlatan or hero, incompetent failure or misunderstood genius. By
openly posing, the artist simultaneously accepts the essential unreality
of art and attacks it as clichd artice. Rather than retreating behind an
enigmatic xed surface, like the impassive painted features of Mallarms
pitre or Laforgues Pierrots, he exposes the workings of the pose from a
variety of perspectives. When used with ironic distance, the pose becomes
a means of exploring the contradictions inherent in the condition of the
late nineteenth-century poet. Corbire expresses greater doubt about
the poets value than Baudelaire had done. The reversals and multiple
perspectives make it difcult to tell whether the poets ironically gured
are successful or incompetent, realistic or Romantic. Corbire reworks
familiar nineteenth-century themes, notably the poet as exile, the poet
as prostitute, and the conict between bohemians and bourgeois. With
realistic lucidity he mocks art which claims to offer a spiritual refuge from
the generalized prostitution of the age, yet by refusing to parade his inner
self directly or perform to the masses, he also refuses to participate in
this prostitution. The paradoxical language plays out the contradictory
position of the poet who resists the prevailing ideology, but is too lucid
to seek refuge in an illusory ideal. It is difcult to identify the view of
the poet located by implication between the parodied extremes of real
and ideal. He does not transformreality into a myth or transcend it with
beauty, but makes contradiction his essence, and indirectly conveys
the underlying workings of the new urban society. In analysing the
reasons why artists themselves had difculty distinguishing between the
LIronie littraire, 33.
incompetent failure and the misunderstood genius, Bourdieu alludes
to the extraordinaire incertitude they experienced as a result.` It is
the particularity of this sensation of incertitude that Corbires verse
evokes with great precision. His anti-intellectual poetry conveys the
sensation of uncertainty which plagues the artist, and uses irony to
suggest contradictory values. As Michael Hamburger suggests, he can
tell us more than any other poet of his time about what it was that made
the need for masks so imperative at the end of the Romantic period.`
The realistic technique of multiple perspectives is defamiliarizing in the
lyric poem, but Corbire uses all these strategies to ironize the poet from
within poetry in such a way that irony becomes eminently poetic.
` There is a ne line between lartiste rat, bohme qui prolonge la rvolte adolescente
au-del de la limite socialement assigne and lartiste maudit, victime provisoire de
la raction suscite par la rvolution symbolique quil opre (Les Rgles de lart, 111).
` Michael Hamburger, The Truth of Poetry: Tensions in Modern Poetry fromBaudelaire
to the 1960s (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1969; repr. Harmondsworth: Penguin,
1972), 55.
4
Thought-Feeling: The Language
of Sensation
Coiniiiis is a poetry of sensations rather than ideas, and although
uncertainty is the predominant sensation in Les Amours jaunes, many
poems nonetheless project a strong sense of a consciousness confronting
highly concrete phenomena, whether the body itself or the physical
environment. These sensations frequently represent emotions and ideas
indirectly, as Eliot recognizes when he describes Corbires poetry as a
product of thought-feeling and feeling-thought. This is the hallmark
of metaphysical poetry for Eliot, who argues that where poetry in general
merely xes emotions, metaphysical poetry fuses ideas into emotions.
Corbires ironic language constantly explores the interplay between
thought and feeling, and his distinctive orality plays an instrumental
role in this process. His dialogue sometimes conveys the raw immediacy
of emotion, but he also frequently plays on the intonational ambiguity
of print to suggest detachment. Double-voiced utterances and wordplay
are devices used variously to protect against the rawness of emotions, to
scrutinize and dissect them, and to convey their complexity.
Instead of reaching for the customary abstractions to name thoughts
and feelings, Corbire uses sensory data to evoke experiences which can-
not so easily be labelled. Variations on this technique are widespread in
this period, as many writers were experimenting with ways of expressing
sense perception, following the initiative of Baudelaire and Flaubert,
who, as Fredric Jameson observes, introduced physical sensations into
literature.` Writing in this period is often marked by what Christopher
Prendergast describes as a disarticulation of narrative coherence into a
Varieties of Metaphysical Poetry, 217.
` Fredric Jameson, Baudelaire as Modernist and Postmodernist, in Lyric Poetry:
Beyond New Criticism, ed. Chaviva Hoek and Patricia Parker (Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1985), 24763 (253).
132 Thought-Feeling
ux of pure sensations .` By foregrounding sensation, such writing
diminishes the importance of plot and increases the importance of the
perceiving subject. This aesthetic is taken to an extreme by Verlaine,
who juxtaposes sense impressions to convey a state of mind without
recounting the story which gave rise to it, and even obscures the phys-
ical cause of sensations. Jean-Pierre Richard ascribes what he calls the
fadeur of Verlaines sensations to the fact that they do not refer back
to any concrete origin (sensation being dened as la messagre dun
univers lointain, le signe physique dun object metteur), and notes
that a world in which causes are so uncertain is one which rapidly
loses meaning for the subject. Corbires depiction of sensation, like
Verlaines, is closely linked to a sense of meaninglessness and to an
avoidance of narrative. However, Corbire conveys a stronger sense of
a tangible external world than Verlaine. The combination of impres-
sionism and vivid precision which made Corbires Brittany so palpable
is also applied to the elusive inner life of his subjects, and he depicts
emotions and perceptions using concrete and highly specic imagery
rather than vague abstractions.
Using vivid images to represent the inner life is one way of exteriorizing
the self, and Corbire often reminds us how startling the contents of
the mind can be. However, the impact of this material stems to a
large extent from the innovative way in which form is used to convey
the movements of consciousness. Writers of both novels and poetry
at this time were simultaneously engaged in developing a language for
elusive and transient sense experience, but Corbires particularity was
to handle the material with irony. Formal features, such as indirect
expression, surprising juxtapositions, and non-linear narrative, record
the instability of sensations whilst also functioning as markers of irony.
Irony sometimes involves the intellect undermining sensibility, but
irony is not merely intellectual; Linda Hutcheon points out that it has
an emotive or affective dimension because it involves the attribution
of an evaluative edge. Even when exercised as a means of lucidly
analysing emotions, it can be a way of protecting feelings and indeed of
emphasizing their signicance. Irony also opens up other kinds of gap
between thoughts and feelings. As Eliot points out, Corbire translates
ideas into sensible form, by using objects to carry general thoughts, but
` Christopher Prendergast, Paris and the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge, MA: Black-
well, 1992), 160.
Jean-Pierre Richard, Posie et profondeur, Points (Paris: Seuil, 1955), 166.
Ibid. 1789. Ironys Edge, 37.
Thought-Feeling 133
often insinuates discrepancies between the idea and image, as we saw in
the case of the pustules shaped like eur-de-lis in La Rapsode foraine.
Such formulations highlight the distance between the linguistic play and
the perceived objects, and thereby contribute to a sense of the subjects
alienation from the world. Elsewhere, the ambiguity of irony enhances
the realistic depiction of the subjects inner life, by conveying sensations
of uncertainty and capturing the convolutions of consciousness. Ironic
juxtapositions help to capture the illogical ux of a subjects perceptions,
feelings, and thoughts, and, since irony is not a static trope but a process
of reversal, it conveys the mobility of mental events.
Corbires irony contributes to the strong sense of a particular
personality projected by his verse. This is partly because, as Houston
observes, unusual patterns of imagery convey the special and private
quality of a characters thoughts and feelings. Because general language
is approximate, paradoxically the most ordinary form of expression does
not always give the impression of a real person speaking. Corbires
ironic discourse is far removed from ordinary speech, and his unusual
style helps to suggest the distinct consciousness of his characters. The
sense of a lively persona is heightened by the use of structures akin to
the dramatic monologue. Eliot points out that Corbire, like Donne
and Laforgue, produced monologues in which the pattern is given by
what goes on within the mind, rather than by the exterior events which
provoke the mental activity and play of thought and feeling. Wayne
Booth, for whom irony is a device requiring the reader to reconstruct
hidden meanings, identies dramatic monologues as works in which
the reconstruction of messages or content seems to be for the sake of
revising and completing a picture of the speaker rather than completing
a proposition. Corbires speakers are frequently not conscious of
making an argument to a reader or audience, and he is not inviting
us to interpret the convictions of any given character as a message
in themselves, but using each characters views and values to convey
vividly a personality in a dramatic situation. The section of La Rapsode
foraine which describes the religious festival verges on being a stream
of consciousness, for the scene is depicted by means of the sceptical
onlookers responses. The sense of complexity in such texts arises partly
as a result of the distance between speaker and writer, and Eric Grifths
French Symbolism and the Modernist Movement, 59. Ibid. 1819.
T. S. Eliot, Donne in our time, in A Garland for John Donne, ed. Theodore
Spencer (Gloucester, MA: Smith, 1958), 119 (16).
134 Thought-Feeling
argues that in monologues it is the ctional separation of writer from
speaker of the poem which conducts the thinking of the poem.
The poems, then, convey far more thought than the speakers them-
selves. We have already seen how poems variously expose speakers as
articial constructs and fragment subjects into a plurality of voices. These
are ways of evoking the particularity of a complex divided personality,
but they can also be used to transcend the individual. At one level, ironic
double-voicing is a way of insinuating alien points of view into a stream
of consciousness. At another, the destabilizing and indirect movement
of irony can be seen as a model for the processes of perceiving, feeling,
and thinking. The vacillation which is so characteristic of Les Amours
jaunes is a physical sensation, a mental operation, and an ironic device.
The book sometimes seems to be a self-negating game, but despite
the endless contradictions it has great emotional intensity. It may be
tempting to refer the vacillation to critical notions of impersonality, and
read it as a sign of the subjects disappearance, but vacillation needs to
be understood as a process in itself.
LOVE POEMS: I NTERSUBJECTI VE ENCOUNTERS
Corbieres lovers are acutely aware of the absurdity of their impulses
and gestures, and, in the same way that his verse makes artists into
clowns, so it undercuts the conventional lyric pose of the lover. The
main focus of the love poems is the painful immediacy of unsatisfactory
experience, which is conveyed partly by inverting the usual conventions
of the genre, but above all by the linguistic fragmentation. Descriptions
of amorous experience involve uncomfortable sensations, and bodies are
problematic. Laforgue notes, il ne montre jamais la chair miracle il
ny a pas un sein, une gorge une (p. 36) dans ses vers.` Although
there are more glimpses of esh than Laforgue suggests, these are far
from sensual. Corbire reduces love to a series of eeting encounters,
often with prostitutes, most of which are anticlimaxes of one kind or
another. Sometimes the letdown is expressed via an anecdote, as in
Bonne fortune et fortune, which parodies Baudelaires une passante
by staging a chance encounter between strangers which ends not with a
spiritual connection but with a comic twist: the woman gives the poet
money. The Srnade des Srnades section plays on the stereotypes
The Printed Voice of Victorian Poetry, 214. ` Une tude sur Corbire, 4.
Thought-Feeling 135
of courtship to render thwarted love parodically. The poet receives no
response and his performance is forced inwards to create an oxymoronic
texture which plays out the self-torture of an unrequited lover. The
climax of the sequence, Grand Opra, ironizes the religious metaphors
traditionally used to celebrate womans spirituality and inaccessibility.
The lover serenades a statue of a saint, the ultimate version of a woman
on a pedestal, only to reveal his baser instincts, and to mock these
profane desires. However, showing that the mans pursuit is base is
another way of saying that he is not worthy of the woman on the
pedestal, so there is nostalgia for the idealized position of woman.
Corbire not only mocks male lovers, but also tackles female ste-
reotypes. lternel Madame is a series of attempts to grasp the
elusive nature of woman; the rst two lines alone identify her sucessively
as Mannequin idal, tte-de-turc du leurre, and ternel Fminin.
Corbires love poems rarely simply offer descriptions of a loved one,
nor does he exploit the lyrics potential to perform an act of seduction.
Instead they show the distorting processes of perception, and stage
failed seductions. Interpersonal relationships are compromised by the
dual natures of both parties: women, accused of ckleness and indelity,
are literally two-faced, whilst the poet-lovers are torn by the kind of
obsessive self-awareness described in Chapter 3. The gender oppos-
ition is nonetheless undercut by desexualized descriptions of bodies
and references to castration. Corbires irony is well suited for evoking
communicative breakdowns, encounters between mismatched subjects,
and the impossibility of relationship between the sexes, which was to
become a favourite Decadent and Laforguian theme. His love poems are
frequently a dialogue de sourds between a woman and a poet who fail
to connect, as in Le Novice en partance et sentimental, which depicts
a relationship from the disparate perspectives of a young sailor and his
sweetheart.
Corbire often uses monologue forms to explore the perceptions and
mental processes of lovers. His techniques can be seen particularly clearly
in poems spoken by women, in which the distance between author and
speaker is foregrounded. The eponymous speaker of Femme, like the
pipe in La Pipe au pote, takes over the rst person to describe the
poet from outside, only to reveal her own shortcomings. She presents
herself as confused, and her juxtaposed exclamations verge on a stream
of consciousness. She begins with an excoriating analysis of the poets
worth, with invective recalling the monologue of the poets wife in
Baudelaires Bndiction. She ridicules herself for desiring him as a
136 Thought-Feeling
lover and yet explores ways in which she might handle him. Although
she presents herself as a predatory woman exploiting an impotent poet
(234), she readily admits that she is an unreliable commentator and
that they are both groping in the dark:
Je suis myope, il est vrai Peut-tre quil est louche;
Je lai vu si peu mais si mal. (278)
We see the poet through her eyes, but learn relatively little about her
except that she is trivial and cruel; this is not so much an attempt to
adopt a womans point of view, as a reection of the poets narcissistic
obsession with the way he appears in other peoples thoughts. In
dramatic monologues the source of the pattern is distinct from the
origin of the speech,` and here the poet seems to be patterning the
womans speech to his own ends.
The linked sonnets Pauvre garon and Dclin are also spoken by a
woman. They juxtapose conversational fragments, a technique already
seen in Captaine Ledoux, but here transposed to a more cosmopolitan
setting. The sonnets only show one side of the conversation, which puts
a spotlight on the womans thoughts. She is gossiping about a poet, and
the title, Pauvre garon, sounds like an exclamation summing up her
pitying attitude to him. In the rst two stanzas she reminisces about
how she used to manipulate this poet, a ridiculous gure unaware of his
own feelings, and reveals herself to be cruelly oblivious of the hurt she
may have caused. The conversational texture is ordered by the sonnet,
for her crucial question Est-il mort? falls just after the volta. It is as
though her companion has just broken the news of the poets death
and we hear only her reaction to the revelation. Although the news
sparks little remorse, and gives rise to speculation about the cause of his
premature end, the tercets are darker, and through conjecture she comes
to express self-doubt and to admit that she may have been responsible.
The next poem, Dclin, presents the poet in his successful middle
age, and shows the woman praising his youthful exuberance, only to
lament that he is now boring and successful. If this poem is exploring
an alternative outcome, and the career is the future the Pauvre garon
would have had if he had lived, then maturity is just as much a dead-end
as premature demise. The incompatibility of this couple continues in
a third sonnet, Bonsoir, uttered in a voice close to the poet without
being in the rst person, who replies to the woman in the preceding
` Grifths, The Printed Voice of Victorian Poetry, 214.
Thought-Feeling 137
poems, and opens with an insult aimed directly at her: Et vous viendrez
alors, imbcile caillette. The salutation bonsoir could be a welcome
or a farewell, but here it has the force of a rejection and a departure;
the poet is simultaneously rejecting her belated advances and looking
towards death. Although she spurned him when he was unknown, she
is seeking him out now that he is renowned. In Dclin the woman
rejects the poet as no longer being exciting now that he is famous, but
in Bonsoir he rejects her for being too late, now he has lost interest in
poetry and love.
The sonnet sequence began by smuggling the drama of mortality into
the womans ephemeral gossip, and then considered the poets story
from a variety of perspectives. These conversational fragments have a
novelistic quality, but the story in which they belong is only hinted
at. The shortness of the poems and lack of context make it difcult
to pin down the protagonists. Booth explains that ironic self-portraits
are rare in short poems, since length and variety are needed to provide
corrective crosslights: contrasts of words with deeds, or words spoken
early and words spoken later, or words spoken in soliloquy and words
spoken to other characters, or points of view. One of the reasons
why Corbires poetry is so difcult to read is that these contrasts
often operate within individual words; double-voiced words are spoken
simultaneously earlier and later. He plays not only on double meanings,
but also on the double contexts of words, and thus condenses multiple
perspectives into short texts. These particular poems are not quite part
of the same story, for the mans version is told in the future tense
(resigned, already knowing) and the womans is in the past tense and
looking back. It is as if the story is told from disparate points in time,
and utterances from crucial turning points are telescoped into short
poems. They could represent the poets envisaging hypothetical futures,
as in Paris, pondering whether to die romantically young or live to be
prosaically old, and imagining the womans failure to respond in each
event, in which case the third poem expresses certainty that it will end
badly. The interest between man and woman here fails to coincide in
time, and the separation of male and female points of view into different
poems underlines the failure of communication between the two sexes.
Fleur dart presents the gulf between male and female points of view
in a different way. The man addresses the woman using her language
with critical distance. The speaker has been embittered by a love affair,
138 Thought-Feeling
and evokes the destructiveness of his mistress by ironically describing
her taste in the artistic trimmings of love, such that the meanings are all
double-edged:
Un cur grav dans ta manire noire,
Des traits de canif coups de stylet.
Tout er mon cur porte la boutonnire
Que tu lui taillas, un petit bouquet (36)
Manire noire is a technical term for a sort of engraving, but meta-
phorically it suggests ominous personality traits. Stylet means both an
instrument used for engraving and a weapon, so the cur grav is
both a decorative carving and a gravely wounded organ. Boutonnire
is a button-hole, a surgical term for an incision, and slang for a scar,
so the pain is caused by the innocent gift of a ower but is also a
visceral wound. The duplicity of the womans nature is made explicit
in the order Double femme, va! (12), but Corbire constantly reveals
malevolence in her attention to supercial sophistication, which he
exposes as sentimental clutter. We are given a picture of a woman who
is discriminating in the realm of these trivial details, but who hurts her
lover. He borrows her discourse of renement, but uses it so as to expose
her cruelty. He uses the womans language not to understand her, but
to emphasize how alien her priorities are. Women do not challenge
the boundaries of their suitors personalities but tend to reinforce their
hesitancy and suspicion, and there is rarely any real dialogue between
lovers.
THE CONVOLUTI ONS OF CONSCI OUSNESS
The poems discussed above emphasize the limitations of the subjects
grappling with each other, but the monologue mode can also convey
the complex mental processes of such subjects. The confused male lover
in une camarade uses an exclamatory style which renders experience
as unmediated sensation, as if the emotion can hardly be contained by
ordinary grammar. The lack of syntactic subordination and refusal of
logical movement produce a texture akin to the stream of consciousness.
Pound describes Corbires words as wrenched and knocked out of him
by fatality, by the violence of his feeling. In une camarade, the
speaker plays out the precarious power game between himself and the
Make it New: Essays by Ezra Pound, 182.
Thought-Feeling 139
woman in his own mind, in a kind of internal dialogue. As I pointed out
in Chapter 1, the blurring of male and female voices forces the reader
to work at disentangling them. It is not clear if the speaker is citing or
imagining the camarades utterances, so it is difcult to establish what
has really happened between them, but we get a vivid impression of the
mans confused thoughts.
In the rst quatrain, the movements of his mind are not spelled out,
but only suggested by the juxtaposition of fragmented explanations:
Que me veux-tu donc, femme trois fois lle?
Moi qui te croyais un si bon enfant!
De lamour? Allons : cherche, apporte, pille!
Maimer aussi, toi! moi qui taimais tant. (14)
The speaker begins with an insulting rebuff to a woman who appears
to have made an advance towards him, only to reveal in the second
line that until then he had thought of her rather affectionately as a
harmless companion. However, the fear is not so much of her as of
himself the emphasis on Moi in line 2 suggests he is incredulous that
she should want anything from him. He is deriding himself for having
been deceived by her and simultaneously reproaching her for shattering
his illusions about her. His incredulity is reiterated in line 3 by his
disdainful echo of her invitation to declare his love: De lamour?,
revealing that love is his worst fear. He reacts against this with an even
more violent rebuff, issuing commands to her as if to a dog. He then
abruptly changes tack, and starts begging her to reciprocate his love
in line 4, which presupposes that he does love her. The missing link
between lines 3 and 4 is an admission of his lovehe is unable to declare
himself directly but does so between the lines. It seems that he initially
rejected her advances because he feared declaring his own emotions and
running the risk of rejection himself. None of his statements can be
taken at face value as they contradict each other, quote the interlocutor,
and avoid direct expression of his own true feelings. The succession of
commands could be an ironic quotation of the orders given to him by
the camarade, to attack her authoritarian manner of making demands
on his affections. On the other hand, he could be giving ironic orders
to her, as a way of asserting control, suggesting that he would have
preferred to make the rst move. The command Maimer aussi, toi!
has the same abrupt tone as the preceding orders, but its sense is already
more tender, and this affection then nally softens the tone with moi
qui taimais tant. Although the past tense of aimais suggests that he
140 Thought-Feeling
had loved her before she had given any sign of reciprocating, the past
tense of croyais in line 2 has already suggested that his feelings have
now altered. The voice of this ironic lover runs into conicts with itself
and goes round in circles. Oxymoron is a dynamic process, constantly
giving and retracting, rather than a formulaic opposition between static
poles such as ideal and reality. Irony is a way of lucidly analysing the
sensation of being in love, and expressing ambivalent feelings, but its
sinuous twists get him into deeper complexities. The reective process
itself distorts the spontaneous feelings.
The second quatrain evokes the warmth of the unrequited love,
which retrospectively seems blissful, and the speakers discomfort at the
prospect of a reciprocal relationship:
Oh! je taimais comme un lzard qui ple
Aime le rayon qui cuit son sommeil
LAmour entre nous vient battre de laile :
Eh! quil ste de devant mon soleil! (58)
The speaker, torn between two contradictory desires, hesitates between
an invitation and a warning. Love is an unwanted intrusion which comes
even though he is resisting it. As an elemental sensation, it is a pleasure
akin to basking in the sun, but when it takes the conventional form of a
winged Cupid, it becomes troublesome. Battre de laile means falter
or pass out, so the wordplay leaves a picture of a cherub crashing
in between the two non-lovers. This intruder blocks out the sun, so
Corbires two images for love are competing with each other, opening
up a gap between sensual experience and mythical abstractions. The
imperative of line 8 alludes to a legendary exchange between the cynic
Diogenes and Alexander the Great, in which the philosopher asked the
ruler to move, because he was blocking the sunlight. By incorporating
this allusion, Corbire equates Amour with great power and yet
simultaneously derides it, underlining its ambivalence and suggesting
that personication cannot adequately capture the complexity of the
phenomenon. We have already seen how the poem a? manifests
a suspicion of prefabricated labels applied to art, and here the terms
Amour and aimer come under re, culminating in the paradox Mon
amour, moi, naime pas quon laime (l9). Corbire describes the
sensations associated with love from rst principles rather than referring
instantly to received knowledge.
The fourth stanza denes love by engaging ironically with conven-
tional paraphernalia:
Thought-Feeling 141
Curiosit, bibelot, bricole ?
Cest possible: il est rare et cest son bien
Mais un bibelot cass se recolle;
Et lui, dcoll, ne vaudra plus rien! (1316)
The bibelot is an analogy for love as a ready-made thing, and the
quatrain rejects love as part of the bric-a-brac of cultural heritage. The
last two lines illustrate the difference between love as a trinket which
can always be reassembled, and the fragile speaker, who fears he will be
destroyed by an unhappy love affair. Se recoller literally means to be
stuck back together but also guratively to get back together after an
argument. Corbire is not only using objects from the outside world
to represent the subjects inner life, but referring ironically to worldly
trivia in order to denigrate the womans view of love. The speakers
own aspiration towards something deeper is expressed negatively by
mocking her superciality. Exterior objects hint at the social context
and the surface clutter of Second Empire style. Although this poem
is less urbane than monologues by Laforgue or Eliot, being more
concerned with the elemental connection between two people than with
the constraints of the social order, it still hints at a worldly setting.
By incorporating small fragments of social discourse and glimpses of
objects, Corbire incorporates an effet de rel into his resolutely anti-
mimetic language. Including specic objects also makes for a realistic
representation of subjectivity, because the more particular he makes
the content of consciousness, the more credible is the personality.
The connections between subject and object also have poetic force, as
Baudelaire recognizes when he says that combining le monde extrieur
lartiste et lartiste lui-mme produces a magie suggestive.
The fourth stanza resists the addressees love by arguing that it would
be more original to maintain a platonic relationship:
Va, nenfonons pas la porte entrouverte
Sur un paradis dj trop rendu! (1718)
Enfoncer une porte ouverte is to labour an obvious point, and here the
expression is made into a literal door, behind which lies a garden. This
paradise is dj trop rendu, as the speaker is only too aware that it is a
well-worn topos of love. He is unable to throw himself into unmediated
experience but suffers from a Flaubertian horror of clich, and by going
to great lengths to avoid declaring his love he creates further problems for
142 Thought-Feeling
himself. This poem does not record a discovery of a primal experience of
love, but represents the psychological confusion experienced by a subject
reecting on stereotypical roles and resisting spontaneous action. Excess
consciousness inhibits action, just as for Hamlet. The novelty of the
Corbire poem lies in the expression of psychological hesitation and the
difculty of reconciling what is known with that is felt, which Eliot
identies as the modern mode of metaphysical poetry. Eliot argues that
such poetry shows how philosophy exerts its inuence on the minute
particulars of a poets daily life, his quotidian mind, and especially on
his way of love-making. Here the philosophy of doubt affects the way
the speaker deals with his feelings. The sentimentality of love is ironized,
yet irony is also used to suggest the real complexity of the situation.
The resistance to clich continues with the suggestion that they label
their attachment a friendship:
Appelons cela : lamiti calme;
Puisque lamour veut mettre son hol
Ny croyons pas trop, chre mal-aime
Cest toujours trop vrai ces mensonges-l! (2932)
Reecting on the terminology of affection is itself a clich, found,
for example, in Marivauxs plays, and still topical in the nineteenth
century. Lamiti calme sounds comically euphemistic and we
cannot tell what it is covering upchanging the words is not sufcient
to alter the feelings. The poem enumerates reasons why they should
not become closer than friends, suggesting that love cannot be trusted
as it is often a lie, although a lie that is paradoxically close to the
truth. Cest vrai, ce mensonge? is an ironic conversational way of
indicating to someone that you do not believe them, and Corbire
turns the interjection into a statement of a universal truth. Double
meaning is thematized throughout the poem, in terms such as fard,
attrap, trompais, tromp, and mensonges. Despite these charges
of treachery, nothing really seems to have taken place, or it is not certain
what has happened. The poem concludes by comically reversing the
topos of death caused by an unhappy love affair:
Varieties of Metaphysical Poetry, 215. Ibid. 294.
A frivolous debate about amour versus amiti took place in the pages of La Vie
parisienne in the early 1870s, which included a story where one party is in love but the
other calls it amiti. Lawrence Watson identies the theme of the femme-camarade
in literary works by Laforgue, Verlaine, and Rimbaud, in LHiver qui vient: pome-
manifeste, in James Hiddleston (ed.), Laforgue aujourdhui (Paris: Corti, 1988), 13553
(149).
Thought-Feeling 143
Si nous en mourons ce sera de rire
Moi qui laimais tant ton rire si frais! (356)
This plays on the expression mourir de rire, but, because of the way the
phrase is broken up, we read it in the literal sense of dying. The speaker
then underlines the wistfulness inherent in this joke by indulging in
memories of his affection before it was complicated by reality, the rire
si frais suggests a physical impression of youth and brightness.
une camarade plays on familiar motifs from the discourse of love
to articulate a particular psychological state provoked by an affective
bond, neither of which can easily be summarized by existing categories.
Indeed, it is not clear what emotion is being expressed, but the sensation
is of discomfort. It makes a joke of the tendency of Western poetry
to focus on unrequited love; the speaker of the poem being surprised
to nd his poetic pose of unacknowledged admirer disrupted by the
woman having announced an interest in him. The poem could be read
as parodying a series of literary stances, the awkward lover adopting
various poses to hide his feelings. On the other hand, there is a strong
sense of two real human beings grappling with each other. As Grifths
says, the dramatic monologue stages with minute vitality the risks and
slips of communication between its characters, but it does so with a
superb reliance on its own ability to run, to manage, such risks and to
convey their signicance.` The poem as a whole tells the reader more
about the situation than the characters trapped within it can see.
Corbires fragmented texture resembles a stream of consciousness,
partly as a result of grammatical irregularities, but also through the
indirect discourse of irony which captures the mobility, contradictions,
and hesitations of consciousness. Techniques such as cutting out pre-
dication and juxtaposing images without specifying their relationship
are a way of avoiding direct statement. The paradoxes and puns stem
from a fascination with the material content of thought. Irony dram-
atizes the subjects scrambled logic, and allows him to be both victim
and torturer. The psychological realism for which Corbire is often
admired results from the way this ironic movement captures what
Baudelaire describes as soubresauts de la conscience.` This is not yet
free verse in which rhythm is psychologically motivated, but Corbire
conveys the mental process from within verse by using irony. Irony says
more by its circuitous route than a direct statement can convey. These
` The Printed Voice of Victorian Poetry, 204.
` Baudelaire, uvres compltes, i. 276.
144 Thought-Feeling
circuitous routes are not necessarily circumlocutions, for Corbire often
compresses indirectness into telegraphic formulae; the rst stanza of
une camarade is short but the number of ironic reversals conveys
much information. Orality gives a sense of immediacy, but oral material
is written in such a way as to disrupt the communicative circuit, and
writerly strategies build ambiguity into the language.
LE POTE CONTUMACE : SELF- PROTECTI VE
I RONI ES
Whereas une camarade showed a speaker going round in circles and
lashing out in order to avoid acting on his love, Le Pote contumace
presents a poet who has been spurned by his lover and exiles himself
to a ruin to mourn his loss.`` Lyric poets are fond of ruins as they
project themes of inwardness and objectify the contrast between past
and present,`` but here the ruin is also a refuge and protective shell.
This long poem uses irony both to subvert a familiar Romantic scenario
and to protect a vulnerable subject. Le Pote contumace stages a poet-
subject who is mocked by the poem, but also actively uses humour as
self-protection. The poem falls into two sections, the rst an objective
journalistic description and the second a monologue by the poet, but
the division between them is not clear-cut, as the exterior voice tries to
penetrate the poets shell with language which verges on the style indirect
libre before giving way to the monologue itself.
The descriptive voice of the rst section gives a vivid panoramic
description of the ruins where the poet is a tenant, showing rst
the milieu and then the inhabitant, parodying the description of the
dilapidated pension Vauquer which opens Le Pre Goriot. The voice of
the realist is a prime target for Corbires irony, as he mocks the pompous
pretensions of that style.` The description of the setting is mildly ironic
in its use of exaggerations and repetitions, such as ancien vieux couvent
(10). The treatment of the poet is more caustic, featuring familiar
`` Contumace is a legal term meaning judgment passed in absence of a defendant,
but in the context of Les Amours jaunes this failure of presence has more existential
implications; this is not just a poet who happens to have been condemned, but the poetic
vocation is itself a punishment and exile.
`` As Philippe Hamon points out in Expositions, 62.
` Philippe Hamon points out that realist texts are serious, and description contrasts
with suspense and romance, as it tends to be undertaken by a detached and knowledgeable
speaker, Introduction lanalyse du descriptif, 41.
Thought-Feeling 145
tactics such as the ironic capitalization of Pote (16) and paradoxes like
Quelque Parisien | De Paris ou dailleurs (2930). The opinions and
prejudices of the locals are noted in a pseudo-documentary fashion:
Les femmes avaient su sans doute par les buses
Quil vivait en concubinage avec des Muses! (278)
However, the omniscient voice gradually moves closer to the poet,
progressively alluding to his inner life:
Quelquefois, vaguement, il se prenait attendre
Attendre quoi le ot monter le ot descendre
Ou lAbsente Qui sait? (502)
The speaker is trying to access the poets thought processes, even if only
to mock the apparent emptiness of his dreams. Qui sait? underlines the
speakers self-conscious objectivity, as though he is reminding himself
that he is a detached narrator who should not speculate about the poets
erotic desires. It is as though the rational voice is trying to mock the
poets musings, but cannot debase him completely, so his dreams are
not negated by the parody. By engaging with these qualities, the speaker
is trying to understand the poet, and the following stanza moves even
closer to describing the poets inner life:
Est-ce quil pouvait, Lui! ntait-il pas pote
Immortel comme un autre? Et dans sa pauvre tte
Dmnage, encor il sentait que les vers
Hexamtres faisaient les cent pas de travers. (614)
The nobility of the poet is undermined by the physical reality of writing,
as in the ironic image of the elevated hexameters mundanely pacing
back and forth in his head. The questions sound as though the speaker
is trying to vocalize the poets thought, and ascribe ambitions to him.
The translation of direct speech into the imperfect tense is close to style
indirect libre but we do not know whether to trust the speaker.
Objectivity gradually shades into identication, and the changeover
from observer to poet takes place gradually in the course of a pivotal
stanza:
Manque de savoir-vivre extrme il survivait
Et manque de savoir-mourir il crivait :
Cest un tre pass de cent Lunes, ma Chre,
En ton cur potique, ltat lgendaire.
Je rime, donc je vis ne crains pas, cest blanc.
Une coquille dhutre en rupture de banc! (6570)
146 Thought-Feeling
The monologue is framed by an explanation that the poet is hovering
between life and death, a lyric theme which is evoked with comic distance
rather than cosmic authority (656). This joke involves multiple use
of the verb vivre: savoir-vivre is taken literally by survivait, so trivial
etiquette is ironically dened as a matter of life and death, which derides
social proprieties and emphasizes the poet as social outsider. Savoir-
vivre is then tweaked to give savoir-mourir, a witticism which reduces
dying to a social grace, whilst insinuating that it is still daunting enough
to scare the poet off committing suicide, and also recalling that suicide
was a voguish act in bohemian circles. The joke is an economical way of
expressing multiple meanings, suggesting the poet is both a marginalized
gure and an intimate acquaintance of death.
The monologue itself is introduced by il crivait. The emphasis on
the act of writing acknowledges that poetic meanings arise from the
ambiguity of the written word. The poet does not assert his rst-person
presence immediately, but begins his speech obliquely in the third
person, by borrowing the melodramatic language of the lover who has
rejected him, epitomized by cent Lunes (67). He sees himself as she
would see him: as a distant memory. He also exaggerates her preciosity,
and shows it to be at odds with her lack of sentiment towards himself.
He derides the stereotypical discourse of love, but also derides himself
for failing at the game he professes to despise. Again, the speakers wit is
directed against social norms, yet he also uses the standards of society to
castigate himself. The humour is directed simultaneously at himself, at
her, and at the social and artistic conventions which connect them both,
so everything is discredited. It is this mechanism of systematic derision
or multidirectional irony which so often evokes the loss of values and
sense of a spiritual void.
Even if the poets words are now given to us in direct speech, his
emotion is still evoked indirectly. Indeed, the rst person treats feelings
just as lightly as the observer had. The poet-subject, who has so far been
mocked for aspiring to be a mythic exile, nowstages himself in the process
of using humour as a tool to tackle an emotional crisis. At the end of the
poem he will openly acknowledge this in the aside Mon cur fait de
lesprit le sot pour se leurrer (166), and showthat he is laughing
at laughter. Irony is a way of pre-empting the mockery of others. Pauline
Newman-Gordon sees Corbires laughter as a means of exercising
lucid control over suffering.` These are the kind of jokes Christopher
` Corbire, Laforgue, Apollinaire ou le rire en pleurs.
Thought-Feeling 147
Prendergast says are at once designed to protect the nervous systemfrom
danger, while at the same time symptomatically declaring it to be at the
very edge of crisis.` Irony does not just deate emotion but intensies it.
This tortured speaker goes on to toy with the very notion of sub-
jecthood with Je rime, donc je vis. The pun on Descartes exposes
the artice of the lyric voice (6970). The poet interprets his own
verse utterance as evidence that he must exist as its origin. He enacts
in reverse the process by which readers interpret the lyric as a direct
expression of a subject, in order to show that this logic is false, and
that the je lyrique is a ctional construct. Cest blanc then dismisses
both art and life as illusory, and the reference to blanks red by a gun
keeps death on the agenda. This lofty speculation is interrupted by the
absurdly concrete oyster shell, a joke explained retrospectively by a pun
on banc. Rupture de ban means breaking an order of exile imposed
as punishment for a crime, and banc de hutres is a bed of oysters,
so the legal discourse of exile introduced by contumace is folded into
an aquatic picture with gastronomic potential. These striking objects,
like the bibelot in une camarade, are used to exteriorize the inner
life, and the effect of the wordplay is to present the self with comic
distance. Corbires humour is highly poetic, rst because it savours the
materiality of language, its sound and its appearance on the page, and
secondly because it is enigmaticit both hides and reveals emotion.
Jokes, like the oyster shell, both protect the inner self and expose its
ruptures. Humour is an indirect way of expressing personal experience,
as the poem plays out the scene of a speaker laughing at himself in order
to exercise lucid control over his suffering for the benet of the reader,
rather than conding directly in him or her.
The poets reection on death is more playful than that of the pseudo-
grave observer, for instance the poet tosses a coin in order to decide
whether or not to commit suicide, in a burlesque reworking of Hamlets
indecision. The style indirect libre section seemed to attribute loftier
ideas to the poet than he has in the rst person. The monologue reveals
no more than the observer, so the poem shrugs us off at each stage. The
outsider seemed to hint that the poet contained hidden depths, but when
the poet is given a voice, he can only make jokes about his own emptiness.
The very structure of the poem builds up layers of self-protection. The
jokes about emptiness have a serious dimension. Cest bien moi, je suis
l mais comme une rature (80) parodically exaggerates the tendency
` Paris and the Nineteenth Century, 148.
148 Thought-Feeling
to associate meagre bodily presence with spirituality.` Rature also
belongs in the paradigm of writing, and suggests the self-aware process
of rewriting rather than spontaneous overow. Furthermore, the full
signicance of this absence can only be gauged by comparing it to the
striking richness of other (mainly uncomfortable) sensations Corbire
describes; the impact of the emptiness depends on its contrast with the
violent sense of presence elsewhere. It is easy to single out terms like
rature as manifestations of the void, but the void is built into the
grammar of each phrase, constantly generating ironies and inexplicable
sensations. This is a love poem which has a metaphysical scope. The
traditional idea of the poet having privileged contact with death is
debased since the poet is a shambling ghost, and the major themes of
death and art are explored indirectly through humour. As in Paria,
Corbire apprehends the metaphysical void in an intensely physical way,
showing what it feels like rather than presenting it as an idea.
I MPRESSI ONI SM AND DREAMS: TOWARDS THE
VI SI ONARY
Le Pote contumace starts out as a parodic portrait of a Romantic poet
and lover and ends up evoking the poets inner life. Elsewhere, Corbire
exploits the subjective quality of speakers private thoughts to explore
heightened states of mind and correspondingly heightened perceptions
of reality. Steam-boat, instead of merely mocking a Romantic pose,
enacts the mental process of idealization (in a far less burlesque fashion
than Grand Opra discussed above) and nostalgia, but undercuts it
with an ironic framework. The speaker regrets the loss of a departed
lover, and his language at rst seems to be that of a sophisticated
passenger on a luxury vessel, but the nal quatrain reveals him to be a
sailor who belongs in the world of the Brittany poems:
Ainsi dchantait sa fortune,
En vigie, au sec, dans sa hune,
Par un soir frais, vers le matin,
Un pilotin. (414)
Like the tourist in Veder Napoli poi mori, this speaker is a montage of
voices, and the poem plays on the disparity between urban pretension
` See Louisa E. Jones, Sad Clowns and Pale Pierrots: Literature and the Popular Comic
Arts in 19th-Century France (Lexington, KY: French Forum, 1984), 1301.
Thought-Feeling 149
and the realities of life at sea.` We have already seen how the voice
resembles that of a realist speaker paraphrasing sentimental lyricism,
and how his irony enhances rather than destroys the feelings. This
double-voicing plays out a delicate balance between emotion and reason
in dealing with loss, and also creates an atmosphere of unreality.
The rst stanza explores the subjective nature of time, this brief
encounter felt like an eternity of pleasure, but the speaker now under-
stands that it was a transitory event:
En fume elle est donc chasse
Lternit, la traverse
Qui t de vous ma sur dun jour,
Ma sur damour! (14)
ternit is a word which belongs in two contexts: it was used in the
heat of the moment to suggest intensity of feeling, and retrospectively
to ironize this misguided euphoria. Even the order of elements is
signicant: the subjective interpretation, ternit, precedes the literal
traverse, which is then further reduced to the objectively quantiable
un jour. Time is then translated into amour, a state of mind which
explains the distorted perception of the preceding lines.
The second quatrain shifts from the temporal to the spatial distance
of this encounter:
L-bas : cette mer incolore
O ce qui fut Toi otte encore
Ici : la terre, ton cueil,
Tertre de deuil! (58)
Since the speaker encountered the woman at sea, she is now inextricably
linked with it in his mind, and the association is literalized by the
description of her remains oating on the sea. Subsequent quatrains
explain that in going ashore to her legitimate lover she was lost to
the speaker, but he represents his subjective loss as objective fact; he
describes the land where she has gone as if she were literally buried
there. The woman is forever bound up with the marine setting, which
only emphasizes the transience of the encounter. She is quite literally
salty from the sea spray: Tes sourcils sals de poudrain | Pendant un
grain! (1920). Corbire rarely shows lovers really engaging with each
other, but here the union is facilitated by environmental conditions, as
the storm mingles air and water. The number of terms used to dene
` A similar technique is used in mon cotre Le Ngrier.
150 Thought-Feeling
the woman: sur, Passagre, ma Peureuse, effronte, and Petite,
suggest she is difcult to pin down, but also makes her contingent
on the particular circumstances. She is redened anew in the context
of each line, being for instance the Peureuse during the storm, and
Petite when she is contrasted with the breadth of the horizon which
he is contemplating. He refers to the woman as une Passagre, which
literally indicates that she was a passenger, but also guratively suggests
that she was only a temporary xture in his life. These factors all
combine to emphasize the eeting quality of their intimacy.
The scene is evoked impressionistically by a succession of sensations
rather than conventional description and emotions: the rocking motion,
the taste of salt, the whipping hair, a glimpse of the horizon. Perceptions
of the woman are blended with notations of the experience of being
at sea, whose specicity suggests a vividly remembered and very real
encounter. However, since each caress reads like an organic extension
of the sailors everyday contact with the elements, it is possible that she
is a gment of his imagination.` Corbire rarely evokes communion
with a woman in such an evocative way, and it is notable that the most
tender moments in Les Amours jaunes are illusory. Where Baudelaires
La Chevelure has a womans hair inspire an imaginary sea voyage, here
the sea conjures up an erotic fantasy. Is the sailor inating a real episode
into a grand passion, or is he daydreaming in his solitude? The ironic
use of quotation (mnelas alludes to Greek mythology, the description
of a seagull skimming the waves parodies a Romantic topos) suggests he
is drawing on ctions and aspiring to mythical roles yet lucidly aware
that they are hollow. Retrospectively, we realize that the memories are
inextricably bound up with the present reality of the sailors night watch
(lines 234 refer to the womans boredom during his longs quarts de
nuit). The ninth stanzas reference to sleep reinforces the suspicions that
the encounter is all a dream, but the vision is all the more alluring for
being insubstantial. The speaker here is not made a gure of fun, but the
poemsuggests that his experience of intimacy, whether imagined or real,
is a mere detail in the grand scheme of things. The individual is caught
in a pattern far greater than himself and the poem conveys not only the
complexity of his mental processes, but also a complex world-viewthe
self is at the mercy of both the physical elements and his own emotions,
and the borderline between dream and reality is a ne one. Unlike other
poems, this one does not mimic dialogue or oral exclamations, but is a
` Elsewhere women are seen in cloud formations, see La Pipe au pote, Bonsoir.
Thought-Feeling 151
lyrical image of mental events, underlining that dramatic monologue is
characterized by the imagination and not the illusion of speech.`
If Steam-boat shows a speaker caught up in a daydream, the sonnet
Duel aux camlias plunges its subject into a nightmare. He nds
himself in an archetypal love triangle and duelling over a woman. The
impressionistic use of language evokes the hesitations of a particular
mind, but his personality is dissolved into a stream of sensations, and
external events are merged with mental description. The speakers per-
spective shifts in the course of the incident, and it only emerges gradually
that he is one of the protagonists in the scene he describes. He begins
in a self-consciously articial style, which is then disrupted by events
themselves, as he realizes that he is trapped in the ght rather than merely
embroidering a description of it. Whilst aunting his artistic control he
had lost control of reality, but when reality strikes home he abandons the
ostentatious virtuoso style and emits a series of fragmented exclamations.
However, despite their apparent disorder these are still highly patterned
at a metaphorical level, so the writers art becomes more apparent only
after the speakers collapse. The poem as a whole is structured by the
classical parallel of love and battle; its oral imagery and duel ritual
coincide in the key term euret, meaning both ower and foil. The
title alludes to the Dumas novel La Dame aux camlias; and the dame
who caused the duel hovers behind the poem as a ghostly presence.
The quatrains are the account of an observer not involved in the
scene, the past tenses implying a retrospective stance:
Jai vu le soleil dur contre les touffes
Ferrailler. Jai vu deux fers soleiller. (12)
The speaker observing the preliminaries of the duel does not describe
what he knows is there, but what he sees is there. Serge Meitinger likens
this technique to that of une camra drgle qui ne cadrerait que des
dtails, mtonymiques ou parfois mtaphoriques de la narration and
emphasizes how this fragmented reporting of perceptions is a way of
conveying strong sensations: Cette vocation exclut le narrateur en tant
que sujet centralisateur du rcit, et se laisse aller au primesaut de la
sensation la plus forte.` However, the narration does not just dissolve
the speaker into a ux of sense experience, but the derangement enacts
the mental process by which the speaker nds words for what he is
` LIronie antiromantique de Tristan Corbire, 545.
152 Thought-Feeling
seeing, and translates sense experience into metaphors. He describes the
participants in the duel as camellias:
Un monsieur en linge arrangeait sa manche;
Blanc, il me semblait un gros camlia;
Une autre eur rose tait sur la branche,
Rose comme Et puis un euret plia. (58)
Although the poems title was a knowing intertextual reference, the
speaker is now playing with the camellia image as if he has just thought
of it himself. He presents phenomena in the order in which they are
perceived, observing rst the colour of the duellists clothes and then the
ower, so we see him in the process of constructing the camellia simile.
The poem began with the condent statement Jai vu, but by line 6 he
more hesitantly says il me semblait, underlining that his perception is
subjective. Having established the oral scheme of his dreamscape, he
remains at the metaphorical level by introducing une autre eur rose.
If this is another camellia, it could represent the second duellist. On
the other hand, it could represent the girl who has caused the duel. The
incompleteness of the simile Rose comme gives the impression that the
speaker is casting around for a suitably rened analogy, emphasizing her
dreamy delicacy, and the likelihood that this is a veiled sexual allusion
introduces a note of humour. The suspension points force the reader
to linger on comme, and the pause enacts the poets struggle to nd
an appropriate image. His reverie is interrupted by the foils sudden
movement, marked by et, at which point reality intrudes. As in Veder
Napoli poi mori, the creative process is interrupted by the very events
the poet is struggling to immortalize. Indeed, the single action of the
poem is condensed into the minimal sidelong phrase et puis un euret
plia, which takes the speaker by surprise. Fleuret, with its double
meaning of ower and foil, is at once benign and highly violent. It
motivates the whole poem, and is situated just before the volta, which
marks a crucial moment in the action, as it is at the volta that the speaker
realizes that he is himself a camellia-duellist.
The tercets chart the aftermath of the blow and the recognition
of its signicance, and the narration shifts into the present tense
and disintegrates into a series of exclamations, establishing the raw
immediacy of the speaking voice:
Je vois rouge Ah oui! cest juste : on sgorge
Un camlia blanc l comme Sa gorge
Un camlia jaune, ici tout mch (911)
Thought-Feeling 153
The deictics l and ici point to nothing that the reader can see, and
their referents are only available to the speaker in the poem, as if he is
struggling to locate himself in time and space. Je vois rouge literally
refers to the speakers anger, but the fragmented syntax draws attention
to the literal meaning of the idiom voir rouge. It is as though the
scene is breaking down into its visual basics, like Rimbauds Nocturne
vulgaire in which Un vert et un bleu trs foncs envahissent limage.``
Corbires speaker describes the colour he sees before interpreting it as a
sign of bloodshed. There is comedy in the juxtaposition of fragments of
polite conversation, such as cest juste, with the violence of sgorge,
heightened by the alliteration of [j]. At this point the full emotional
signicance of events nally sinks in, and the camellia metaphor,
originally representing the opponent, now brings back memories of the
woman who has caused the duel, Un camlia blanc l comme
Sa gorge. An indenite pronoun would normally suggest he is seeing
the white ower for the rst time, but here he is seeing it with new
eyes as an image of the woman. This activates other connotations: the
Dame aux camlias was a courtesan, and in the wake of the novel
camellias became synonymous with the kept woman. The name of
the Dumas heroine derived from her practice of wearing a red or a
white camellia to signal to potential customers whether or not she was
menstruating. The white ower here indicates an idealized vision of the
woman rather than her physical reality. Furthermore, the whiteness of
a womans breasts is traditionally part of poetic praise of her beauty,
and it is convention to liken a womans shoulder or complexion to
a camellia. The purity of this elusive woman is contrasted with the
redness and violence associated with the speaker, as underlined by the
rhyme of sgorge and Sa gorge. This places violence before pleasure,
implying an underlying pessimism about the course of love. The speaker
then observes for the rst time a crushed yellow camellia; the defeated
duellist is represented by a ower whose colour recalls the title of the
book, with all its negative associations. Where line 10 juxtaposed the
white-clad duellist and the white-breasted woman as if in a happily
coordinated embrace, in line 11 the humiliated third party is trampled
underfoot.
The nal tercet explicitly identies the rejected yellow ower with the
speaker, retrospectively clarifying that he was not the pink ower in the
second tercet. To heighten the pathos of his failure, the yellow camellia
`` Rimbaud, uvres, ed. Suzanne Bernard (Paris: Garnier, 1960), 286.
154 Thought-Feeling
is now viewed as a real ower which has fallen from his buttonhole.
Instead of a hallucinatory image, it is merely a disposable sartorial item:
Amour mort, tomb de ma boutonnire.
moi, plaie ouverte et eur printanire!
Camlia vivant, de sang panach! (1214)
However, the apposition Amour mort dissolves the yellow ower
into yet another metaphor, this time for the abstract notion of love
itself. Flowers in poetry are traditionally associated with transience and
therefore death as well as women and love. The plaie ouverte et eur
printanire literally spells out the double meaning of boutonnire as
both a wound and a oral ornament; springs connotations of freshness
make the injury seem all the more cruel. Boutonnire is an opening
which complements the shaft of the euret, implying that the speaker
is emasculated by defeat.`` It is not clear whether the camlia vivant
of the last line is in apposition to the Amour mort or to moi,
so speaker, ower, love, and wound are telescoped togetherfusing
abstract and concrete. There is a brutal contrast between the parallel
constructions Amour mort (the buttonhole camellia and emblem of
love) and Camlia vivant (the speaker who has lost the duel). They
both refer to the subject, and the opposed epithets suggest he is torn
between life and death. He is alive but his love is lost to him in defeat.
The compressed images emphasize the pain of the impossible love,
which feels like a death in life.
Rather than taking the observed detail of the crushed yellow ower
as a starting point and either recounting its story or transforming it
into a symbol, the poem began as a self-conscious piece of art, only
to end with the debris of reality. The beginning of the poem showed
a condent je effortlessly translating events into metaphor, but this
was thrown into disarray by events, and the confusion conveys the
emotional intensity. The poem creates a dreamlike atmosphere, stylizes
thought processes, and transforms pessimism about love into something
more metaphorical. Duel aux camlias, like Steam-boat, plays on the
distance between author and speaker not just to make the subject a gure
of fun, but also to place a personal drama in a broader context. One of
the ways in which dramatic monologues engineer distance between the
`` This hollow/shaft dichotomy is picked up in Fleur dart, discussed above, a sonnet
with which this is paired, and which emphasizes the treacherous nature of the woman
for whom he is ghting. In Fleur dart, the man is again wounded, but it is the woman
who wields the weapon.
Thought-Feeling 155
poet and his lyric persona is irony, but they do more than just reducing
persona to clown. The speaker may merely be trapped, as Grifths
describes the speakers in Brownings monologues: the speaker clutches
on to what he cares for, his speech expresses his own conviction of the
rmness of his grip; the patterning of his speech by the poet shows him
rather to be in the clutches of his own passion.` The complexity of the
overall structure tells us far more than the limited speaker can express.
MULTI - LAYERED MONOLOGUES AND THE
ANTI - I NTELLECTUAL AESTHETI C
In his love poems, Corbire evokes the unmediated confusion of
experience rather than explaining it by means of commonplaces or
analogies. Similar techniques are applied to the experience of creativity
in two important monologues which use sensations to explore the
poets psyche and convey his aesthetic ideas: Dcourageux reects on
the relationship between experience and art, and Rapsodie du sourd
describes the poetic vocation as a physical debilitation.
Dcourageux presents an unproductive artist, beginning with the
paradoxical Ce fut un vrai pote: Il navait pas de chant (1). It is
uncertain whether his silence is the result of superiority, purity, and
perfectionism, or whether he is simply lazy. The rst ve stanzas present
the poet in the third person, and, as in La Pipe au pote, bohemian and
bourgeois points of view are superimposed to cast doubt on his worth.
Admiring phrases like Pur hros, Chercheur infatigable, and grande
me suggest a connoisseur who venerates the artist for sacricing his
life to his art, but these are undercut by suggestions that he is an idle
dreamer:
Songe-creux : bien profond il resta dans son rve;
Sans lui donner la forme en baudruche qui crve,
Sans ouvrir le bonhomme, et se chercher dedans. (57)
Lines 67 sound like a bohemian poet justifying his creative silence by
listing aesthetic strategies to be avoided. First he rejects being inspired
by dreams, because giving them a shape would only deate them
or reveal them to be hot air, and secondly he rejects introspective
confession. The poet thus seems to be rejecting the Romantic view of
156 Thought-Feeling
poetry, yet elsewhere is mocked for subscribing to it. The terms used
are reminiscent of Leconte de Lisles notorious criticism of poets who
persisted in reproducing tired Romantic models. Leconte de Lisle had
accused such writers of being rveurs dimitation,` and Corbires poet
is compared to literary models (pur hros de roman, l.8). Leconte de
Lisle had also argued that the neo-Romantics were despised by la foule
and resistant to travail srieux,` and Corbire echoes these criticisms
by dening the poets work as faire rien (1416) and summing up his
attitude to ordinary mortals thus:
Chercheur infatigable : Ici-bas o lon rame,
Il regardait ramer, du haut de sa grande me,
Fatigu de piti pour ceux qui ramaient bien (1012)
It is as though Corbire is engaging in the literary polemic from
within the medium of verse itself, in preference to issuing a separate
manifesto. Rather than directly attacking or defending the aesthetic of
his poet-persona, he evokes the sensation of uncertainty over his value.
There follows a monologue in which the poet, an idealistic thinker,
gives his own reasons for being unproductive. He begins by attacking
artists he does not wish to emulate (rst those who commodify art and
secondly those who confuse raw inspiration with art) and then goes on
to question the very essence of art itself:
Il disait : naf Ocan! eurettes,
Ne sommes-nous pas l, sans peintres, ni potes!
Quel vitrier a peint! quel aveugle a chant!
Et quel vitrier chante en raclant sa palette.
Ou quel aveugle a peint avec sa clarinette!
Est-ce lart?
Lui resta dans le Sublime Bte
Noyer son orgueil vide et sa virginit. (2935)
The literal message of lines 2930, that art is redundant as it duplicates
reality, is undercut by the ironic excess of simplicity; the repetition of
the reverent , the epithet naf , and the dimininutive eurettes all
suggest that the concept of the natural is bogus. However, non-mimetic
modes of art are then treated with equal derision; lines 315 imply
that the suggestive blending of senses, or synaesthesia, results from use
of inappropriate tools rather than from the artistry of a Swedenborgian
` Prface des Pomes Antiques, in Articles, Prfaces, Discours, 116.
` Ibid. 111.
Thought-Feeling 157
mystic. Angelet says Corbire is here attacking the incoherence of
modern art.` However, it is not clear whether this incoherence is
a source of euphoria or disdain, because the lack of conjunctions
makes it difcult to establish the relationship between these juxtaposed
exclamations. Are the vitrier and the aveugle specic examples of the
peintres and potes or are they a completely different kind of artist?`
Is he mocking their trickery of the senses, or admiring their creative
power? Is the question est-ce lart? uttered by the philistine who fails
to recognize this fusion of forms, or the idealistic artist mocking it as a
cheap trick? As usual, the word art is double-edged. Institutional Art
is condemned, but the linguistic exuberance of this playful synaesthesia
suggests that the artist who views the world as if through the eyes of a
vitrier or a blind person can perceive it anew and create a new kind
of art rooted in sensation. The poet character rejects this aesthetic in
order to remain pure, in the realm of le Sublime Bte. He is hampered
by an excess of both idealism and cynicism, which prevent him from
producing art, but the language of the poem nonetheless puts an anti-
intellectual aesthetic into practice. As a metapoetic formula, Sublime
Bte sounds like a residue of a manifesto, and encompasses both
idealism and cynicism. Christopher Pilling acknowledges the ambiguity
of Sublime Bte in his lively translation of Les Amours jaunes, by
translating it as Sublime Asininity, but also offering the alternative
Foolish Sublimity.` There is an extremely ne line between creation
and vacuity, as there is between greatness and idiocy in art, recalling
Baudelaires afrmation that great poetry is essentiellement bte. The
critical voice in this poem is the cynical side of the artist, the dreamer
is the other side, and the sense of the poem as a whole lies in the
relationship between the voices. Corbire builds up a complex picture of
competing opinions on aesthetic matters. Whereas the Paris sonnets
separate the cynic and the dreamer into separate voices quarrelling with
` The vitrier recalls the ambiguous gure in Baudelaires prose poem Le Mauvais
vitrier and alludes more generally to the uncertain status of this type, hovering between
being artists and being artisans. See Steve Murphy, Le Mauvais vitrier or La crise
du verre, Romanic Review, 81 (1990), 33949 and Richard Burton, Destruction as
Creation: Le Mauvais Vitrier and the Poetics and Politics of Violence, Romanic
Review, 83 (1992), 297322.
` These Jaundiced Loves: A Translation of Tristan Corbires Les Amours jaunes, trans.
Christopher Pilling (Calstock: Peterloo Poets, 1995), 181.
The technique is similar to that of Rimbauds Ce quon dit au pote propos des
eurs, which, as Steve Murphy has pointed out, is a dialogue between a poet of lArt pour
158 Thought-Feeling
each other, Dcourageux fuses the two in a language of sensation. The
indirect discourse of irony here evokes aesthetic ideas, just as in other
poems it evokes emotions.
Rapsodie du sourd is a monologue by another voice which hovers
between the asinine and the sublime. The speaker is literally trapped by
his deafness, which is an inner exile as he is surrounded by people with
whom he cannot communicate. His monologue is prefaced by a brief
introduction in the third person:
Lhomme de lart lui dit : Fort bien, restons-en l.
Le traitement est fait : vous tes sourd. Voil
Comme quoi vous avez lorgane bien perdu. (13)
Lhomme de lart literally denotes a doctor, although in a surreal twist
this medic makes his patient deaf, although there is the possibility that
the patient has perversely asked to be made deaf (line 7 suggests he is
paying for the privilege). The deaf man describes in graphic detail the
sensation of this aural isolation, which is a way of lamenting the artists
isolation. He also shows how the poets awareness that he is ridiculous
only contributes to his torture. His initial response to deafness is relief
at being able to ignore the ridicule, but this quickly degenerates into
hysteria. The intensity of suffering recalls Cris daveugle, but the victim
is more self-aware. As so often in Corbire, the speaker both uses humour
himself, and is made a gure of fun by the poem, describing himself as
a mannequin muet, l banal (13). He describes his suffering from
the outside, looking at himself through the eyes of those he encounters,
such as friends in the street. At rst he is preoccupied by his public
appearance and his relationship with others, but the focus gradually
moves inward, and elemental physical processessuch as excretion
(43), a pounding in the head (478), and heartbeat (51)come to
dominate. He refers to his poetry as discordant nonsense, and the artistry
of the poem originates from outside himself. The writing articulates the
mental processes of the speaker as though he is not in control of them,
which suggests the workings of the unconscious. Although he cannot
hear, he visualizes sounds from the outside world internally:
Va donc, balancier sol affol dans ma tte!
Bats en branle ce bon tam-tam, chaudron fl
Qui rend la voix de femme ainsi quune sonnette (479)
lArt and a bourgeois, and the authors stance can only be deduced as contradicting the
explicit statements of these adversaries, Les Marges du premier Verlaine (Paris: Champion,
2003), 51.
Thought-Feeling 159
The instrument used to produce these sounds in his head is the
woefully inadequate cracked cauldron, which recalls Flauberts La parole
humaine est comme un chaudron fl o nous battons des mlodies
faire danser les ours, quand on voudrait attendrir les toiles.` Like
Flaubert, Corbire expresses a fear of clich, lamenting that sounds lose
their particularity and are reduced to generalized stereotypes such as the
bell-like womans voice. However, in the effort to counteract this loss,
memory and imagination serve to concentrate the experience. Cutting
off sense impressions fromthe outside only heightens awareness of them.
They are examined from the outside and recreated in language. The
deaf man, like the poet, must reproduce sensations in his own idiom,
and uses language to cast a new light on them.
LI TANI E DU SOMMEI L : LI BERATI ON
Corbire is constantly twisting language out of its habitual forms in
order to convey the intensity of sensations, and in Litanie du Sommeil
he takes this aesthetic to an extreme. He pushes language to its limits in
order to convey sensory experience in a visionary way, by extending the
techniques of the other dreamlike poems, such as building uncertainty
into its syntax and verbalizing the mental ux. Irony no longer functions
merely as a corrective device or to represent psychological contradictions,
but its open-endedness acts as a triumphant release. The autonomous
sensations and the polysemy of contradictory language combine to
break down the boundaries between subjects. Many of Corbires
poems use repetition and parallelisms to suggest the obsessions of a
particular mind, and these techniques are taken to a new level in Litanie
du Sommeil, which juxtaposes the preoccupations of a plurality of
different individuals. This is a novel way of using private experience
to express collective concerns, it transcends the individual personality
by using enumeration to convey the sheer multiplicity of humankind,
rather than having a single authoritative voice give his opinion about
what they share.
Litanie du Sommeil is ippantly located by its peritext, Lits divers
Une nuit de jour, which, on a cursory reading, suggests a womanizer
enjoying a hard days night, when in reality it describes the universal
experience of sleep. The extraordinary originality of this poem lies in the
` uvres compltes de Gustave Flaubert, i. Madame Bovary, 220.
160 Thought-Feeling
way language is deployed to evoke the intangible reality of sleep. Andr
Breton was struck by the freedom of Litanie du Sommeil, which he
quoted in support of his assertion that Cest sans doute avec les Amours
jaunes que lautomatisme verbal sinstalle dans la posie franaise.`
Angelet disagrees with Bretons emphasis on automatism and argues
that its disorder is parfaitement logique, voire rhtorique, and that
it amplies traditional devices such as images, the rhyme, oxymoron,
and antithesis in order to create une ralit spirituelle indnissable.
Taking this observation as a starting point, I shall examine in more detail
how the unusual rhetorical structures suggest a spiritual dimension.
The dense verbal texture needs to be examined in the light of
the poems overall structure. Despite being a sprawling succession of
sequences of uneven length, it has a distinct architecture, as shown by
Laroche, who attaches much importance to its symmetry and its position
at the centre of a symmetrical book. Litanie du Sommeil begins and
ends with short sequences in which a disruptive voice asks a bourgeois
ruminant whether he has ever experienced insomnia, and eulogizes its
tortures and wonders. Within this outer frame, the main body of the
poem is a torrent of visionary denitions of sommeil, addressed to
sleep itself. This central section falls into two halves, the rst entirely
in feminine rhymes, the second entirely in masculine rhymes, so the
two are opposed in a monolithic dichotomy, rather than alternating
line by line. In the framing passages addressed to the bourgeois, the
speaker introduces extreme sensations via a series of questions, rather
than simply recounting an experience of them. This injects a sense of
urgency, gives the poem a dialogic quality, and enables the speaker to
avoid specifying who has really had the experience, so sensations take
on a life of their own, independent of any particular subject. While
showing that these sensations are not the preserve of the bourgeois,
whose blunted senses are incapable of such adventure, the speaker is not
openly declaring that he has felt them himself. Is the main apostrophe
to sleep uttered by a deliriously exhausted insomniac in an attempt
to evoke or invoke what eludes him? Serge Meitinger says insomnia is
external to sleep, and so the phenomenon of sleep can be most clearly
seen from the insomniacs perspective. Someone who is fast asleep
cannot articulate the experience in the rst person at the moment it
occurs, but an insomniac is the next best thing, being obsessed by sleep
` Anthologie de lhumour noir, 266. La Potique de Tristan Corbire, 601.
Ibid. 989. Tristan Corbire, ou les voix de la corbire, 814.
Tristan Corbire dans le texte: Une lecture des Amours jaunes, 133.
Thought-Feeling 161
and available to voice it. The poem begins by praising sleep in order to
highlight the horror of insomnia, but ultimately shows insomnia to be an
equally powerful experience, so sleep and insomnia are not diametrically
opposed. Sommeil could mean sleep itself or merely tiredness, which
also blurs the opposition.
Sleep is the second person in this poem, and the speaker builds
up a picture of his elusive addressee through a litany of denitions.
This hysterical show is put on for the benet of the bourgeois, but
the punchline is provided by the voice of sleep itself, which interrupts
the litany in the line Li soxxiii siviiiiaxr xi oir: Tu xas scii
(147). The interjection by sleep renders the overall structure of the
poem comic. The vociferous performance has aroused sleep itself and
thus paradoxically destroyed it. The capitals underline the enormity of
something as intangible as sleep answering back, and also the paradox
that by waking sleep the poet has killed it. This line recongures the
epigraph to the poem, Jai sci le sommeil, itself a quotation from
Macbeth: Macbeth hath murdered sleep. This sort of paradox also
occurs in metaphysical poetry such as Donnes Death thou shalt die.
Colloquially, scier means to bore someone, and scie is a clich or joke,
so sleep seems to be objecting to the poets representation of itself. This
only suggests that sleep is even more fantastic than the poem can ever
express. The drama of sleep itself entering into dialogue with the poem
suggests a contest between the artist and his subject matter. Baudelaire
says Ltude du beau est un duel o lartiste crie de frayeur avant dtre
vaincu, and here it is sleep that cries out, but its extinction is a victory
as it silences the poet. Both poet and insomniac are in combat with the
forces of nature.
Sleep is just one of many voices in this poem, which is a culmination of
the polyphonic aesthetic; the torrent of images, puns, clichs, references
to songs and myths seems to embody the unconscious of the nineteenth
century as a whole. It is as though the epochs hidden life has found a
way of expressing itself, free of a controlling authorial voice. The sense
of a linear vocal performance is largely eclipsed by the dense collage
texture. This poem is even littered with references to other poems in the
From Death be not proud, Divine Meditations, 10, in John Donne, The Complete
English Poems (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), 313.
Le Conteor de lartiste.
Many of the formulations used to describe sleep recall those used at the time to
sum up the nineteenth century. See LInvention du XIXe sicle par lui-mme (littrature,
histoire, socit), ed. Alain Corbin, Pierre Georgel et al. (Paris: Klincksieck, 1999) for a
discussion of the centurys self-awareness.
162 Thought-Feeling
book. It emphasizes the democratic nature of sleep, describing it as
Sommeil. Ciel-de-lit de ceux qui nen ont pas! (16). It is a punning
version of Baudelaires La Mort des pauvres which uses the litany form
to dene death:
Cest un Ange qui tient dans ses doigts magntiques
Le sommeil et le don des rves extatiques,
Et qui refait le lit des gens pauvres et nus;
Cest la gloire des dieux, cest le grenier mystique,
Cest la bourse du pauvre et sa patrie antique,
Cest le portique ouvert sur les Cieux inconnus!`
Corbires Litanie du Sommeil suggests that such cieux inconnus are
intimately bound up with lieux communs, as he plays on clichs and
emphasizes that individual consciousness is shaped by public places and
communal myths. Indeed, the poem as a whole reads like an expansion
of the proverb qui dort dne.
Corbire systematically subverts clichs, by juxtaposing disparate
elements and inserting them into unexpected forms, taking his lack of
syntactic articulation to extremes. The basic mechanism is that each line
offers noun phrases in apposition to the word sommeil, for instance:
Soxxiii Loup-Garou gris! Sommeil Noir de fume!
Soxxiii! Loup de velours, de dentelle embaume! (267)
The nominal style involves frequent genitive constructions. In this
example, the basic noun phrases are genitive phrases in themselves.
Elsewhere the genitive is used to link a particular kind of sleep to
an appropriate sleeper, and the word sommeil is often replaced by
a metaphor, as in Patient Auditeur de lincompris qui cause (48).
Sleep is systematically the positive value in all equations, and often
counterbalances a negative element. Formulae like Contre-poids des
poids faux de lpicier de Sort (101) indicate the fundamental unfairness
of life, whereas others play on paradoxes to suggest the psychological
complexity of the sleepers, as in Suiiaci des profonds! Profondeur
des jocrisses! (76). These elliptic formulae are vivid, but emphasis and
grammatical causality is vague. Profondeur des jocrisses could mean
that sleep is like the hidden depths of simpletons, sleep gives unexpected
depth to simpletons, or that simpletons experience sleep as something
Djeuner de soleil (23), La Rapsode foraine (34), Paria (40), Sonnet posthume
(445), Saint Tupetu de Tu-pe-tu (66), Libert (108), Fminin singulier (122).
` uvres compltes, i. 127.
Thought-Feeling 163
deep (whereas for the wise it is light relief). They simultaneously
give a powerful image and describe an equivalent for sensations such
as relief (Bouiir des forcens, Libert des captifs! (108), or sudden
power (Pays o le muet se rveille prophte, 24). When the genitive
constructions are completely ambiguous there is often a hallucinatory
effect. For instance, Crpuscule ottant de ltre ou ntre pas! (85)
combines a pictorial notation with a Shakespeare quotation. The latter
may be a clich, but it also expresses the ultimate existential crisis. The
signicance of yoking it with the sunset is uncertain; the link between
the drame solaire and Hamlets contemplated death could be purely
analogical, the former being a visual counterpart of the latter. On the
other hand there could be a causal link, if the glory of the sunset is
being given as an answer to the doubter. In a single short line Corbire
telescopes together phrases which are not just uttered by different voices
but are completely different kinds of utterance.
The successive verse paragraphs have discrete thematic preoccupa-
tions, and each could be read as an objective correlative for a particular
realm of experience. The following couplet uses the ambiguous genitive
construction to revisit the question of sexual politics:
Du jeune homme rveur Singulier Fminin!
De la femme rvant pluriel masculin! (1223)
In this instance, the last term in each line represents sleep. The poem
constantly species what sleep brings to different individuals, and here
it brings the illusion of proximity to others. The man dreams of a single
idol whereas the woman fantasizes about a stream of lovers. Whereas
most of the lines in Litanie du Sommeil are syntactically autonomous,
here line 123 is generated by line 122, giving a chain of unreciprocated
love: the young man dreams of a unique woman, without realizing that
she in turn is dreaming of promiscuity.
Other sequences tackle more cosmic concerns. The genitive construc-
tion builds ambiguity into corde-de-pendu de la Plante lourde!
(67). It may seem surprising that sleep is equated with a hangmans
rope, but in popular superstition such a rope brings good luck,` so the
line means that sleep brings relief when the world weighs one down.
However, other more troubling possibilities linger in the background;
it sounds as though the rope has been used to hang the planet (an
image akin to Apollinaires soleil cou coup), as though humanity
` Baudelaire plays on this in La Corde. See also Corbires Pierrot pendu, OC 890.
Zone, 155.
164 Thought-Feeling
were adrift in a cosmic catastrophe clinging to the talismanic rope for
consolation. Either way, sleep is a restorative antidote to the cares of the
world, and yet sinisterly foreshadows death. Corbire suggests that life
is unsatisfactory and limited, and uses sleep as an extended metaphor
to tackle such metaphysical questions whilst remaining grounded in
physical experience and avoiding orthodox theology.
Sleep is systematically the opposite of the yoke which shackles the
life of any particular individual, and for Laroche sleep is reduced to a
fonction dinverseur. Sleep is thus an embodiment of irony, and its
constant negation serves not to undercut but to complement, and thus
it functions as a positive liberation:
Bouiir des forcens, Libert des captifs!
Sabbat du somnambule et Relais des poussifs!
Soxxi! Actif du passif et Passif de lactif !
Pavillon de la Folle et Folle du poncif !
viens changer de patte au cormoran pensif ! (10812)
The kind of reversals already seen in Libert are here taken to new
heights, and the delirium is gradually amplied in the course of this
sequence. It opens with genitive constructions in which complements
are tailored to specic items, whether a concrete noun for a concrete
noun (Bouiir des forcens), or an abstract noun for a concrete
noun (Libert des captifs). These two noun phrases are inversions of
each other, just as there is antithesis within each phrase, so there are
reversals within reversals even within single lines. The contradiction is
stepped up in the subsequent almost nonsensical yokings of opposites.
Effects of particular absurdity occur when an abstract noun is linked
to another, as in Actif du passif et Passif de lactif . Pavillon de
la Folle et Folle du poncif ! is unsettling because each half of the
line proposes a phrase which reverses expectations, but, in contrast to
line 108, the two halves are not even parallel. Furthermore, folle is
repeated in different positions, but with different meanings in each.
Pavillon de la Folle literalizes the idiom folle du logis (imagination)
by substituting an alternative dwelling. Folle du poncif could be a
stereotypical representation of a mad woman, or a woman mad about
clichs, or, in a more abstract extension of the folle du logis, it could
refer to the kind of imaginative reverie which clich induced in Flaubert.
Does sleep transform everyday platitudes into something fantastic, or
Tristan Corbire, ou les voix de la corbire, 87.
Thought-Feeling 165
bring out creativity latent in them? In either case, clichs are a rich
source of wild dreams, and wild dreams need the sheltered state of sleep
in order to occur. Everything is brought up against its contrary, but
the effect is not so much to cancel out opposites as to suggest that
everything contains its opposite, a strategy which conveys all the fertility
of dream logic.
The poem enacts the process of generating paradoxes. Rather than
describing a sleepers dream, the poemforces the reader to work through
the dizzying succession of contradictions, and thus draws attention to
the mechanics of the process. Rather than using verbs to spell out how
sleep affects a sleeper, the poem uses ambiguous nominal phrases to
make sleep an entity in itself. Sensations are not punctual events or
permanent states but solidied as objects in themselves. It is as though
the poem lays bare the unconscious activity of processing banal material
and making unexpected connections which defamiliarize reality. The
verse does not expound a sequence of thoughts, but stages continual
conict between impulses which are never synthesized.
A world-view is built into lines indirectly rather than asserted. Dream
is not a mere abstraction opposed to reality, but is concretized as a
surreal distortion of familiar material. A philosophical awareness of
contingency is linked to the everyday activity of dishwashing:
Tioi-iiiix de lexistence, et Torchon neuf quon passe
Au CAF DE LA VIE, chaque assiette grasse!
Grain dennui qui nous pleut de lennui des espaces! (379)
This is no Romantic mage reporting a grand vision, but just an
insomniac exposing his everyday troubles. The mundane details are
plausible dreammaterial, and, as in a dream, they also suggest something
more than themselves; trivial decor generates metaphysical speculation.
Existential and everyday realms coincide in the name Caf de la Vie,
just as they do in the names of real newspapers:
Voix mortelle qui vibre aux immortelles ondes!
Rveil des chos morts et des choses profondes,
Journal du soir: Tixis, Siicii et Rivui ois oiux xoxois! (513)
At one level the enumeration of journals looks like a patchwork of
everyday bric-a-brac, but the previous two lines create a poetic context
which invites us to consider the titles of the publications as words in
themselves, and activates their latent capacity for portentous resonance.
Just as the mortal voice of line 51 has immortal resonance, so these
ephemeral journals have a hint of eternity. Sleep is thus a transitory
166 Thought-Feeling
physical experience which permits the poet to explore the major themes
of love, death, and art, and gives individuals access to the eternal.
The theme of time runs through this poem, which Marshall Lindsay
describes as vraie posie cosmique, in which le pote veut tout
simplement dtruire le temps. Sleep lies at the interface of the known
and the unknown, being both a relief from life and a foretaste of
death. Corbire plays with the clich that sleep adumbrates death, and
interweaves it with the idea that sleep dees ordinary temporality:
Soxxiii! Autant de pris sur notre ternit!
Tour du cadran blanc! Clou du Mont-de-Pit! (1301)
This paradoxically combines everyday and cosmic views of time. Line
130 is contradictory, for if eternity can be taken in advance it is not
eternity. Sleep takes place in clock time whereas eternity transcends it,
but Corbire measures both on the same scale. Tour du cadran blanc
suggests that we gain time by sleeping. This may refer to the sense
of having undertaken long voyages in a single night, but it may also
refer to eternity. If sleep is like a preview of eternity, the afterlife will
feel like real clock time but it will not be counting down to an end.
The two statements seem to contradict each other but this collapses the
opposition between sleep and afterlife. The pawnshop is again about
borrowing time and echoes the nancial metaphor of autant de pris.
Sleep, like a pawnshop, temporarily alleviates problems. In this vision,
time carries a chibouk (a Turkish pipe with a long stem) and not a scythe
(142), suggesting death is oblivion rather than a brutal severance.
Another line with existential reverberations is the Arc-en-ciel miroit-
ant! Faux du vrai! Vrai du faux! (138). Linking abstractions in a genitive
structure makes it difcult to extrapolate a stable meaning. Faux du
vrai could mean either that sleep is only a distorted image of everyday
reality, or that it is a debased version of a far greater reality. Describing
sleep as Vrai du faux implies that the distorted version might conceal
greater truths than waking life, or that sleep is a more real transcendence
than any illusory notion of eternal life. The line goes round in circles, as
faux du vrai could be the illusion of truth, and vrai du faux the truth
of illusion, but the difference between them is uncertain. It is impossible
to get outside the opposition and decide what is true and what is false,
as they are continually undermining and yet dening each other. The
rainbow is a visible analogy for this shimmering intangibility. The line
Le Temps jaune, 109. Ibid., 75.
Thought-Feeling 167
as a whole indirectly poses the question of whether or not to believe in
an afterlife, and shows that eternity and earthly life inhabit each other
rather than being mutually exclusive opposites. The juxtaposition of
a sensuous image with cerebral paradoxes generates a multiplicity of
meanings and demonstrates how closely feeling and thought are inter-
locked. The paratactic structure renders the texture of the dreaming
experience, whilst the specic terms combined here invite reection on
the universal themes of love, death, belief, and art.
There is something circular about this poem as a whole, as though
sleep is addressing itself. Dreamwork does not normally process sleep
itself, so it is not surprising that it wakes itself up; if one dreams that
one is asleep, one generally wakes up. The humour of Litanie du
Sommeil is a liberating verbal intoxication rather than derision directed
at a particular target, as is appropriate to its democratic principles.
Sensations are detached from the individuals who experience them,
made the focus of the poem, and examined in their own right. The
poem refuses rst-person self-expression, and experiments with the use
of puns and indirect compressed nominal phrases to suggest unconscious
depths. The subject is not an individual but the universal experience
of sleep.
Christopher Prendergast argues that the aesthetic of sensation which
emerged in this period reects in part the dream of a literary phe-
nomenology approximating as closely as possible to the rhythms of the
body, and the use of sleep in Litanie du Sommeil certainly bears this
out. Prendergast laments that this sort of writing speaks of a severance
of the category of sensation from the social, of a tendency to pose
sensory experience as essentially private, beyond the resources of a
shared public discourse. However, in Litanie du Sommeil, Corbire
merges the physical and private experience of sleep with a sense of
the collectivity. He extends his practice of incorporating oral fragments
which convey social interrelationships between speakers, and of using
linguistic discontinuities to signal the shock of the outside world. The
urban environment features strongly in the imagery of Litanie du Som-
meil, and the spasmodic nature of its ow seems to be an effect of the
pace, artice, and uncertainty of modern life. In poems like the Paris
sonnets, Corbire describes the city as a place of fast and uid sensations,
and in Litanie du Sommeil the subject is completely dissolved into
this ux.
Paris and the Nineteenth Century, 160. Ibid. 160.
168 Thought-Feeling
Litanie du Sommeil is an extreme example of the way Corbire exposes
the inner life and unravels it through autonomous objectied images
which are detached from the self. He distils sense experience and gives
it a linguistic life of its own. The techniques used to evoke the content
of consciousness have much in common with those used to describe
the Brittany landscape. For Corbire, sensations are as lapidary as the
granite rocks, and elusive states of mind can be captured in words. He
depicts emotions as concrete things apprehended with all the senses,
rather than as sentiment which is the vague expression of the vague.
Proust says of Baudelaires expression of sentiments: il semble quil ait
fait une peinture extrieure de leur forme, sans sympathiser avec eux,
and Corbire extends this practice. He evokes the very movements of
consciousness as well as its content. Sense experience is detached from
narrative context and also from habitual syntactic structures.
This dissolution of personality had already been anticipated in the
monologues, many of which do not so much stage the subject vacillating
as they displace the vacillation into the linguistic texture. Corbire
changes the relationship between performativity and inwardness, and
makes the inner life a strange object. He uses dramatic techniques
like dialogue both to project the self as a showy communicator and
to convey private dramas. Irony is no longer antiphrasis used to
communicate a message to an audience indirectly, but is a means of
expressing inwardness. Corbire does not represent individuals actively
introspecting, but the introspection takes place at the level of the poem
itself, and the speakers are often not aware of it. When speakers seem to
be blurting out their irritations, the sinuous and layered effects peculiar
to irony reveal far more than they are aware. Sometimes the effect
may be simply to undermine the speaker and point out that he or
she is unreliable. At other times irony may be a way of conducting an
undercover investigation of the underlying ramications of an issue.
The subject may be trapped because he reveals himself to be a buffoon,
or because existence is a bad jokethere is a ne line between comedy
and tragedy.
The monologues, exploration of consciousness, wordplay, and use
of specic concrete content are thus all ways of showing what it feels
like to live with metaphysical uncertainty. Corbires poems contain no
separate thoughts which can simply be lifted out and read as impersonal
Varieties of Metaphysical Poetry, 200.
Marcel Proust, Contre Sainte-Beuve (Paris: Gallimard, 1954), 211.
Thought-Feeling 169
statements, but ideas are conveyed through the evaluative and expressive
orientation of the language. Bakhtin shows that speech embodies a
concrete consciousness, so when the living voice of an integral person
describes an event, the thought of that individual is drawn into [the]
event, becomes itself part of the event and takes on that special quality of
an idea-feeling .` This novelistic synthesis is close to Eliots thought-
feeling. Both Eliot and Bakhtin show that treating subjectivity in this
way results in a very precise style. For Eliot, it is a postulate implicit in
all metaphysical poetry that nothing is ineffable, that the most rareed
feelings can be exact and exactly expressed.` At the level of style,
Corbires precise evocations of sensation both explore the sensuous
particularity of thought and concretize abstract ideas by making them
accessible to the senses. At the level of world-view, Corbire describes the
absence of an ideal as physical discomfort rather than conceptualizing it.
Poems like une camarade show the philosophy of doubt impinging
on the poets actions. Self-consciousness and awareness of the void come
into conict with desire, so there is an ironic disparity between thought
and feeling. Where his contemporary Cros uses humour to mock the
ideal and can then indulge in it as a fantasy, Corbire was more interested
in reconciling poetry with everyday reality. He uses irony to convey what
life feels like when lived with scepticism, and, rather than declaiming
reasons for the loss of belief, he mocks the very scepticism itself. This
is one of the ways in which he anticipates Laforgue, although the later
poets speakers are more aware of the philosophy behind their irony, and
inclined to make statements like mes grandes angoisses mtaphysiques
| Sont passes ltat de chagrins domestiques.
Laforgue ultimately moves into free verse in order to capture uc-
tuating sensations. One of the justications for free verse was that it
was able to create its own rhythmic patterns in order to register the
psychological particularities of an individual consciousness. However,
Corbire builds psychological realisminto the existing structures of verse
itself by using ironys indirection to suggest tangled thought processes,
to set up self-protective layers, and to explore in language things which
could not otherwise be expressed. Sometimes personae make a joke of
their suffering to make the reader laugh with rather than at them, but
` Problems of Dostoevskys Poetics, 1011.
` Varieties of Metaphysical Poetry, 200.
Jules Laforgue, Complainte dune convalescence en mai, 2930, Les Complaintes,
in uvres compltes, ed. Jean-Louis Debauve et al. (Lausanne: Lge dHomme, 1986),
i. 616.
170 Thought-Feeling
the readers laugh is likely to be as ambivalent as the rire jaune of the
persona. The reader is thus made to experience the physical reality of
forced laughter, and since Corbires poetry represents ideas as phys-
ical sensations, it is appropriate that it should provoke a physiological
response. The mechanism of systematic derision or multidirectional
irony which evokes the loss of values is taken to extremes in Litanie du
Sommeil, where it acts as a kind of release. Ironic dramatic structures
contribute to the subtle representation of consciousness, but the richness
of the verse stems largely from its rhetorical surface. Irony and sensa-
tion take on a life of their own and replace narrative and personality.
Sensations, like irony, are not just an intermittent textual feature, but
become themselves structuring principles of the verse.
5
Rondels pour aprs: Circular Suggestion
Tui sprawl of Litanie du Sommeil was one way of liberating poetry
within the constraints of verse, but the nal section of Les Amours jaunes,
the Rondels pour aprs, represents a very different kind of departure.
It comprises six poems experimenting with a traditional verse form,
which proves to be a new form of liberation. Corbire pushes his style
to the limits in these short texts which are very different from the rest
of his work, aptly described by Laforgue as la plus ne, la plus tnue, la
plus pure partie comme art. Rondels pour aprs de nes mauves ples
ligranes dironie sur un ton posthume. They are a discrete sequence,
and marked out by their italic type. Since the rest of Les Amours jaunes
is in roman type punctuated with italicized words, the rondels function
as a ghostly typographic negative of the book. Nothing is known of the
circumstances of their composition, but they are generally assumed to
have been written after the other poems in the published volume Les
Amours jaunes, so it is sometimes argued that they constitute Corbires
last word, and that he might have continued in this vein, had he not
died. However, the handful of poems which he is known to have written
in the short period between the publication of Les Amours jaunes in
1873 and his death in 1875 returned to the more derisive style.` The
uncertain genesis of the texts, combined with their inherent ambiguity,
has made the rondels something of an enigma.
They are frequently eclipsed by the violence of the other poems,
and commentators tend to valorize this elusive quality by saying that
they resist analysis. Those seeking an architecture in Corbires uvre
emphasize their representation of death as a harmonious liberation from
the trials of life that ll the rest of Les Amours jaunes. However, it is
` Paris diurne, Paris nocturne, Petit coucher, and Moi ton amour were hand-
written by Corbire in his personal edition of Les Amours jaunes, and are included
in OC.
172 Rondels pour aprs
difcult to discuss them thematically, as their content is inextricably
bound up in their linguistic form. Laforgue is right to emphasize craft, for
their simplicity is deceptive and their language fraught with ambiguity.
The mysterious atmosphere has tended to divert attention away from
the linguistic inventiveness, which is less aggressive than that of the other
poems. Robert Mitchell praises their visionary qualities, but says they
are overshadowed by the more typical and stylistically interesting pieces
of the rst four sections of Les Amours jaunes.` Their atmosphere needs
to be seen as an effect produced by precise manipulation of language.
Such an approach is implicit in T. S. Eliots brief comments on the
rondels. He pinpoints something essential about Corbires verse when
he denes it as a product of thought-feeling and feeling-thought.
Corbire does not expound ideas which one could paraphrase, but
dissolves them into language such that they can only be sensed. Feeling
is no vague sensuality but an effect of the specic articulation of
languageEliot sees Corbires centre of gravity as the word and the
phrase. One cannot isolate a message, but the meaning is folded into
the language itself. This inseparability of form and content is explicit
in the title of the sequence. Rondels pour aprs yokes a poetic form
with the theme of death, in a formula which exemplies the suggestive
qualities of Corbires language. It blurs temporality by projecting the
rondels which, being an archaic xed form, belong in the past into
the future. It combines levity and seriousness by using the playfully
inconsequent and childlike pour aprs for the serious reality of death.
The rondels are shot through with such complexity, so their verbal
texture requires close examination.
In contrast to more canonical difcult texts, such as Mallarms
sonnets or Nervals Chimres, there exists little interpretative groundwork
on which to base a study of the rondels. Angelet refers to some
devices in the rondels, and Aragon and Bonnins annotated edition
indicates some of the locutions reworked by Corbire. Jean-Pierre
Richards valuable reading of Rondel is the only exploration of a
whole poem. Otherwise, the brief discussions of the rondels refer to a
certain clutch of features, mainly from the refrains. The extraordinary
range of allusions and double meanings packed into these short poems
has until now been overlooked. By analysing their formal structures
` Tristan Corbire, 144. The Varieties of Metaphysical Poetry, 217.
Ibid. La Potique de Tristan Corbire.
Jean-Pierre Richard, Pages Paysages: Microlectures II (Paris: Seuil, 1994), 2138.
Rondels pour aprs 173
and identifying material mainly intertextual references and lexical
informationwhich illuminates their polysemic texture, I aim to show
how their open-endedness represents the culmination of Corbires
aesthetic. Since the movement of the rondels has to be traced through
their language, and the multiplicity of meanings is part of the overall
effect, I shall follow the convolutions of the texts in a series of close
readings. I shall demonstrate how the poems work as a sequence, whilst
basing my reading of each poem on a specic aspect of Corbires poetic
language.
SONNET POSTHUME : THE VOCATI VE
Dors : ce lit est le tien Tu niras plus au ntre.
Qui dort dne. tes dents viendra tout seul le foin.
Dors : on taimera bien Laim cest toujours lAutre
Rve: La plus aime est toujours la plus loin
Dors : on tappellera beau dcrocheur dtoiles!
Chevaucheur de rayons!quand il fera bien noir;
Et lange du plafond, maigre araigne, au soir,
Espoir sur ton front vide ira ler ses toiles.
Museleur de voilette! un baiser sous le voile
Tattend on ne sait o : ferme les yeux pour voir.
Ris : Les premiers honneurs tattendent sous le pole.
On cassera ton nez dun bon coup dencensoir,
Doux fumet ! pour la trogne en eur, pleine de moelle
Dun sacristain trs-bien, avec son teignoir.
In a typically playful twist, the rst poem in the sequence is not a
rondel but a sonnet. Its title is a parodic rewriting of Rondels pour
aprs; the sonnet being a more elevated form than the song-like
rondel, and posthume a solemn version of the childish pour aprs.
Despite being the only one of these poems to use alexandrines, it is
no more rhetorically declamatory than the others. Indeed, it sets up
the oblique rhetorical situation which is used through most of the
sequence and which generates much of its suggestive effect: a speaker
of unspecied identity addresses a second person who is identied as
a child and as a poet. Artist and child were commonly associated
In Rondel (1) and Petit mort pour rire (8) respectively.
in the period, but Corbire complicates the analogy by rendering
his poet-child dead. Rather than being directed at the reader, the
poems stage a monologue directed at this ctional addressee. The
monologue functions as an indirect communication between the author
and the reader, and its obliqueness forces the reader to participate
actively in the process of making sense. The readers role is particularly
signicant, since the audience is explicitly thematized in the texts. The
Rondels pour aprs, like all Corbires poems, project a strong sense
of an expressive speaker, and are thus oriented towards Jakobsons
emotive function of language, which aims a direct expression of the
speakers attitude toward what he is talking about. The speakers
performance is entirely centred on the elusive addressee, so Jakobsons
conative function, which nds its purest grammatical expression in
the vocative and imperative, is also foregrounded. However, it is
difcult to construct a persona behind the speaker (who never says
je), or the addressee, or to dene the nature of their relationship to
each other.
Corbire plays on the vocative to generate irony, for the speakers
voice shifts between echoing the wonder of the child and mocking him,
between offering and denying, or even does both in a single utterance, by
using a reassuring tone to convey a sinister message. The combination of
nurture and mockery was already apparent in La Pipe au pote. In the
rondels it is not certain whether the speaker is knowingly using childlike
language to protect the child from death, or naively describing death in
light-hearted terms. Furthermore, the speaker constructs the addressee
through his monologue, so the two parties exist as a function of each
other. They are two sides of the same persona, and the self is spoken
as much as speaking. Sonnet posthume uses this unusual rhetorical
situation to generate ambiguities and to suggest the poets self-division.
The speakers utterance in the rst quatrain is characterized by
fragmented syntax and double-voicing, two strategies familiar from
Corbires more characteristic poetry. It resembles a patchwork of
fragments of wisdom which do not add up to a total picture, the tone
ranging from cosy domesticity in line 1 to oracular obscurity in line 4.
The rst two lines establish the equivalence between sleep and death
that underpins the sequence as a whole. This familiar topos is conveyed
indirectly, by the parental voice sending a child to bed in line 1. The
imperative also has the sexual overtones of a couple banishing him from
Linguistics and Poetics, 354. Ibid. 355.
their bed, so the poem telescopes the successive stages of life: infancy,
sexual maturity, and death. Resonances of popular culturetu niras
plus au ntre which recalls the popular song Nous nirons plus au
bois, and the command Dors which suggests a lullabyare followed
by a direct citation of the proverb qui dort dne. The practice of
quotation is intimately bound up with the theme of childhood, a period
when much is learnt through repetition and imitation. The proverb qui
dort dne conates two different appetites, suggesting that the more
spiritual sustenance of sleep can assuage physical hunger. The speaker
persuades the child to sleep by promising him pleasure, implying that
his appetite is simultaneously for love and dreams, which are explicitly
associated in line 4. As dne falls at the end of the syntactic segment,
the word is rhythmically foregrounded, and the [i] is lengthened. This
savouring of the vowel is macabre, given the equivocal associations
of dne. It had been a metaphor for sleeping, but the rest of the
line tes dents viendra tout seul le foin is a metonymic extension
of its literal sense of eating, and the teeth a concrete accessory. The
inversion foregrounds dents, which also repeats the [d] sound in a
line dominated by the dental sounds [t] and [d]. This sound patterning
imposes similarity on sleeping and eating, underlining the lexical sense
of the proverb. The proverb also represents eating as an elemental
need rather than the more socialized notion of dining. This animality is
motivated at the verbal level, since the phrase recalls the idiomIl est bte
manger du foin, meaning to be very stupid. The reassuring tone of
the speaker thus conceals an ironic barb, as one of the lines implications
is to mock the dead hay-eater. tes dents viendra tout seul le foin
also has more macabre associations; it recalls the colloquial expression
manger les pissenlits par la racine, and could describe organic matter
in the ground forcing itself into the mouth of the deceased, whose
prominent teeth suggest a deaths head. For all its sinister overtones,
the comforting tone and passive construction of this line nonetheless
offer a nurturing security to the infant. The polarity of cradle and
grave representing the two boundaries of life is a familiar topos, but
Corbire addresses the mystery of what lies beyond earthly existence
in an oblique fashion rather than constructing a Hugolian antithesis.
These two dense lines conate sleeping, love, infancy, and death. In
the rondels such things coexist simultaneously, in contrast to much
Such as Car dans tout berceau | Il germe une tombe, Les Rayons et les Ombres,
XXXIX, uvres potiques, i. 1110.
of Corbires poetry which tends to juxtapose violently contrasting
elements in sequence.
The fragmented syntax of these lines makes it hard to locate the
emphasis or to decide how statements relate to each other, as there
is no subordination. Corbires customary dislocation is nonetheless
smoothed over by the lulling quality of the language. Line 3 rst
reassures the poet-child that if he sleeps he will be loved; Dors: on
taimera bien promises posthumous fame. The more abstract second
part of the line, Laim cest toujours lAutre, is ambiguous, principally
because of the gnomic resonance of lAutre. This suggests some sort
of Doppelgnger, and exacerbates the self-division already suggested by
the form of address. If read as a general instance of the particular
statement on taimera bien (with laim in apposition to tu, and
Autre describing the deceased tu), it gives he who is other will always
be loved. If otherness is identied with death, it means the living always
love someone who is dead and thus other.` However, the phrasing
betrays no indication of emphasis, and the capitalization and roman type
of Autre only accentuate the mystery by giving the term great weight,
and underlining its otherness. Because of its epigrammatic quality it
seems to stand alone, and if read as an autonomous proposition it could
be a statement that loved ones are always alien to the self, no matter
how much they are loved, or one always falls in love with someone
who is different from oneself . It could even give anyone I love is
always in love with someone else, positing an unloved gure who sees
women directing their attentions to other men, unrequited love being a
recurrent theme of Les Amours jaunes.` LAutre, whether it be life after
death, or the beloved, triggers the poetic ight in line 4: Rve: La plus
aime est toujours la plus loin. The generic love of line 3 gives rise to
a more particularly sexual love, but the object of desire is unattainable.
The connection between dreaming and love is ambiguous, for the two
things are separated typographically by a colon, which cannot specify
the causal links between them. The implicit suggestion is that the
aime may be reached by dreaming, which is another incentive for the
addressee to sleep. The poet moves from being the object of love in line
3 to being its subject in line 4. The object is masculine in line 3 and
feminine in line 4, which gives a supercial impression of reciprocity,
but the two loved ones are curiously detached. Aragon and Bonnin nd
` LAutre in Le Pote contumace (85) denotes death.
` LAutre in Le Fils de Lamartine et de Graziella (58) denotes the rival lover.
both line 3 and line 4 ironic, and characterize the love as drisoire, but
it is difcult to pinpoint irony without considering its various possible
directions.
Neither speaker nor addressee is aware of the whole signicance of
what is said, and the resultant ironies are part of the poems signicance
as a communication from poet to reader. Many of Corbires poems
stage self-aware personae, but in the Rondels pour aprs the self-
awareness is transferred to the poem itself. The poet is fragmented into
an innocent child addressed by an observing self, the division recalling
Baudelaires observation: Lhomme de gnie a les nerfs solides; lenfant
les a faibles. Chez lun, la raison a pris une place considrable; chez
lautre, la sensibilit occupe presque tout ltre. Mais le gnie nest
que lenfance retrouve volont. The poems do not naively assume
a childlike voice, but indirectly present a childlike perspective. Eliot
sees the yoking of the child and the poet as a modern analogy to the
metaphysical conceit whose satisfaction [] is due to the disparity
between the idea and the image; so that what might be a cradle song for
a baby becomes an elegy for a man of genius. The conceit suggests a
fundamental division in the self. The use of the second person is a way
of avoiding modes of confession or rhetorical bombast. Things are said
in the second person which could not be said in the rst person, and
these poems could not be rewritten in the rst person. They are not
statements about the world, but a series of apostrophes, imperatives, and
promises, which are a source of ambiguity because, as Jakobson points
out, they are not liable to a truth test.
Another effect of the emphasis on the second person is to blur the
temporality, because the imperatives refer variously to the past and the
future, rather than telling a story which unfolds in a linear fashion. As
the addressee is simultaneously a child and dead, he represents both
the past and future of the poet, and these temporal uncertainties are
reected in the linguistic detail of the poem. The second quatrain
continues the ight begun in line 4, using the fantastic expressions
beau dcrocheur dtoiles and chevaucheur de rayons to show how
the living perceive the dead. Dcrocher les toiles means to attain
something impossible, and Corbire adapts the expression by turning it
Les Amours jaunes, 439. uvres compltes, ii. 690.
The Varieties of Metaphysical Poetry, 219. Linguistics and Poetics, 355.
In Hugos elegy for Juliette Drouets young daughter, Claire P., the girls response
to heavenly splendour is to ask Est-ce quil est permis de cueillir des toiles?, which
epitomizes her purity and innocence. Les Contemplations, uvres poetiques, ii. 698.
into a noun phrase and then creating a series of variations on the cosmic
material in the rondels there is a whole series of formulae modelled
on this expression. The genitive structure is inherently ambiguous, for
the relationship between the two nouns is not spelled out as it would
be by a subject and predicate, because there is no tense. For the speaker
to call the poet a dcrocheur dtoiles does not specify whether he
has unhooked stars, or whether he will do so, or whether he is capable
of it, or even whether he is aware of himself as having this role. The
ambiguity of the nominal structure allows all of these possibilities to
coexist. It does not refer to recuperable events which have merely been
described obliquely, but rather indeterminacy is built into the poem,
such that illusion and reality are indistinguishable. The impossibility
of these feats suggests death is a dreamlike fantasy. The grammatical
form of the noun implies that the ephemeral activity of unhooking
stars is undertaken repeatedly so that it has become a xed identity, so
instantaneity and permanence are woven into each other. This is a good
example of the way in which the poem articulates neither the point of
view of the speaker nor that of the addressee; the child seems unaware
of the visionary powers attributed to him, and the ironic speaker is
not describing the vision from the standpoint of a seer. The vocative
orientation of the poem thus makes it possible to conjure images which
exist independently of any subject.
The beau dcrocheur dtoiles and the chevaucheur de rayons are
juxtaposed and linked by their parallel rhythm, the alliteration of [S]
and [r], and the vowel harmony of [e], [O], [] and [@], [o], []. Both
these expressions about mastering light suggest a heavenwards ascent
(often found in poems about death) as well as a Promethean power
and attainment of distant objects. The previous quatrain suggested
desire for a remote love object, and this one characterizes the poet as
a stealer of distant objects, so one is inclined to associate the stars and
rays with the desired feminine gure. Because of the ambiguity of the
genitive phrases, it is uncertain whether such an object is attainable.
These formulae, which stand out as memorable self-contained units,
clash with the prosaic quand il fera bien noir in line 6, which
belongs in a more linear sort of narrative. The signicance of this
juxtaposition is not clear, since the temporal sequence is uncertain.
Lines 56 might imply the poet will take on the fantastic role of
dcrocheur dtoiles when it gets dark, the little word bien suggesting
glee at the darkness. However, they could mean that he will not
be recognized for the luminous pursuits of his lifetime until he is
dead. Darkness is at once a source of creative delight and sinister
oblivion.
Lines 7 and 8 bring out the sinister side of darkness in a concentrated
sequence which is impossible to read as a representation of the real
world. However, the reader has become accustomed to this speakers
polyphony, and in this instance it is possible to pinpoint a specic
intertext. The ceiling, hope, and spiders spinning webs inside the head
all recall Baudelaires Spleen poem Quand le ciel bas et lourd, already
identied as the source of imagery in La Pipe au pote. Baudelaire
uses tangible images to suggest melancholy, so Corbire is borrowing an
already weary representation of the world.` However, it is not only the
intertextual status of these images that prevents them from constituting
a real scene in Sonnet posthume, but also the way in which they
generate each other through self-conscious play. Lange du plafond
demotes the angel, a stock feature of poems about death, from a celestial
to a domestic realm. However, it turns out to have been a metaphor
for the maigre araigne which follows. The image is placed before
the reality, so the imaginary angel takes precedence over the less exotic
spider, emphasizing the strangeness of the juxtaposition. Like lange du
plafond, the maigre araigne constitutes a strong independent unit,
since the [@] of maigre is elided and the two words phonetically bound
by the [r] sound. The spider and the angel each have a life of their own,
yet are both derived from the colloquial expression avoir une araigne
dans le plafond, meaning to have a screwloose.` The initial impression
of the angel and spider as two separate protagonists is not obliterated by
the recognition of this idiom, but persists and enhances the dreamlike
atmosphere. The elision between maigre araigne and au soir then
relocates the spider in the proverb Araigne du matin, chagrin, araigne
du soir, espoir, which imports more positive connotations, although the
subsequent spinning of a web over the dead poet-childs empty forehead
is more ominous. Rather than representing a scene, or being motivated
purely by the Baudelaire intertext, the words generate each other so
the poem has a strong internal logic, a strategy which characterizes the
rondels as a whole.
The relevant passage is cited on p. 124 above.
` Spiders are a familiar part of the dcor of abandonment. Cf. Hugo, Les Mages:
[le doute] Suspend sa toile daraigne | Au crne, plafond du cachot. uvres potiques,
ii. 785.
` Corbire also plays on this idiom in La Pipe au pote (56), and in Le Pote
contumace (934), reducing the poets visionary powers to a less noble derangement.
Line 9, Museleur de voilette! un baiser sous le voile, combines a
number of devices already discussed to create an effect of evocative
density. It echoes the desiring movement of line 4, but rather than
presupposing the unattainability of the love object, it suggests the sen-
suous particularity of an amorous encounter. The nominal structure of
Museleur de voilette suggests a pursuit as impossible as the unhooking
of stars, for the idea of muzzling a hat-veil is paradoxical. Syntactically
it is ambiguous, as the two juxtaposed items have an equivalent force,
so the kiss seems to be an object in its own right rather than an event
requiring two human agents. The baiser sous le voile is mysterious and
yet referred to as if it were a known category of kiss. Indeed, kissing
through a veil is a clich for the combination of innocence and eroti-
cism which characterizes the rst overtures to a lover; Hugo describes
tentative compliments as quelque chose comme le baiser travers le
voile,`` and the image is used to titillating effect by Parnassians, in
lines such as Coppes O les premiers baisers travers la voilette!`` By
changing the adverb from travers to sous, Corbire defamiliarizes
the expression and makes the kiss an object instead of an action. The
pleasurable intimations are underlined by the formal harmonies of the
line; its strong binary structure is reinforced by its rhythm; voilette
echoes voile, and museleur and baiser are linked by the [z] and their
association with the mouth. However, it is also macabre, for voile
suggests a shroud. The repetition of terms for veil marks the centre of
a cluster of terms associated with cloth. Voile rhymes with toile and
thus retrospectively brings out the double meaning of the latter, which
can mean cloth or canvas painting as well as web. The spiders spinning
has produced the delicate feminine voilette, which is then modulated
into the less specic voile, investing the veil with a darker signicance
as it suggests a shroud, this sense being subsequently reinforced by its
rhyme with pole. Associations of sex, death, and religion all coincide
in the potent sign of the veil. The speaker is teasing, for he suggests
that physical pleasure is very close, yet still an impossibility, and there
is a risk that there is nothing behind the veil. Everything points to
this meeting being illusory: the logical impossibility of muzzling a veil,
the grammatical uncertainty over whether muzzling is undertaken, and
the speakers teasing vacillation between offering and retracting. The
`` Les Misrables, in Romans, ii. 390.
`` Coppe, Intimits, II, in uvres de Franc ois Coppe: Posies 18641869 (Paris:
Lemerre, 1870), 96.
veil itself is equivocal: it both conceals and reveals, it is a barrier yet
transparent. However, the dreams are a source of delight, as though
their beauty resides in their very impossibility; as Stendhal said: Le Beau
nest que la promesse du bonheur.`
The kiss is not syntactically anchored until the next line, which denes
it as awaiting the addressee, in yet another promise of pleasure. The
tantalizing sense of tattend is reinforced by the enjambement. This
suspense is amplied by the alluring qualication on ne sait o, which
contradicts the previous assurance that the kiss would be bestowed sous
le voile, and underlines that this location was not to be read mimetically
as a literal site. Having promised the kiss, the speaker reveals it cannot
be pinpointed, arousing the suspicion that it may be illusory. Ferme
les yeux pour voir continues this teasing. The paradoxical notion of
blindness permitting inward vision is an ancient literary topos, and
has received similarly formulaic expression in Jouberts Ferme les yeux
et tu verras.` Corbires injunction has a serious voyant note, yet
it is like a childs game. Line 11 adds to the rewards awaiting the
deceased, with premiers honneurs playing on the expression derniers
honneurs, meaning the last tribute at a funeral, and again subverting
the opposition of beginnings and endings. The rondels are concerned
with the reputation of a poet who will only be appreciated after his
death, so his funeral marks the beginning of this posthumous fame, and
constitutes the rst recognition as well as the last rites. The injunction
Ris at once asks the child to mock the ritual and to rejoice that he is
being celebrated. These honours are identied with the kiss since both
are awaiting the poet, and a sense of ritual is thus superimposed on
the kiss. The pole is the cloth covering the cofn during the funeral,
and also a white veil held over the heads of a couple during a Catholic
marriage ceremony. It functions as what Riffaterre would call a dual
sign,` literally being part of the funereal dcor, but also signifying
a wedding. The themes of love and death are brought together in a
marriage with death.
The last tercet treats the notion of honouring with more acerbic
irony. It mocks the dcor of ritual and negates the value of spiritual
imagery, for the accessories are presented as mere trinkets, and the
cosmic atmosphere is achieved rather through the evocative use of
` Stendhal, De lamour, ed. Henri Martineau (Paris: Garnier, 1959), 40.
` Joseph Joubert, Penses, ed. Paul de Raynal (Paris: Didier, 1864), ii. 26.
` Semiotics of Poetry, 86.
language. It implies that recognition of the poet will not be genuine,
by playing on the expression donner des coups dencensoir, meaning
to praise someone in a way which is exaggerated or actually insults
them.` Humour results from the gurative expression being taken at
face value, so the sexton literally swings his censer at the poets nose.
The interpolation of bon lends the line the solid particularity of an
individuals gesture, rather than it being purely a gurative expression.
There is a childlike naivety in bon and the addition of this little word
gives the whole phrase a particular intonation. It is a qualication used
to indicate an unimportant action undertaken carefully, and even has
a slightly patronizing air, as if addressed to a child. The implication
of carefree thoroughness is ironic here, since the act is simultaneously
defamatory or destructive, having both a gurative and a literal meaning.
The intonation is light-hearted, but there is bitterness at the lack of
appreciation of the poet. This irony continues in lines 13 and 14; for
doux fumet is placed in apposition to the censer. This underlines the
sextons thoughtlessness, showing that he perceives it as the source of
pleasant odours rather than as an implement of destruction. His eshy
nose is well adapted to appreciating this odour, but from the perspective
of the poet this feature only adds insult to injury. The assonance on [ E]
gives the sacristain trs-bien a strong intonational force, which suggests
an evaluative accent. However, it is hard to tell if this is an ironic
speaker quoting an approving comment made by a smug bourgeois, or
a playfully taunting childish voice. The poem ends with the sextons
snuffer which literally suggests an extinction of light, and thus life. Its
gurative meaning of a killjoy aligns him with the bourgeois gures
throughout the rondels who do not understand the poet.
It is tempting to construct a story to explain the rhetorical situation of
the dialogue with the self, and to interpret the poems as the expression
of a self-aware adult addressing the fantastic child in himself, or as the
childlike poet projecting a motherly voice which could comfort him, yet
making it ironic in the knowledge that he is inconsolable. However, the
poem suggests a plurality of such possibilities rather than deciding on
any single one, and evokes simultaneity rather than unfolding a linear
narrative. It seems to have made a journey from the domestic setting of
the bedroom to the nality of the cofn. There is an apparently linear
sequence, and the movement through Dors, Rve, and Ris in the
` This expression was also played on by Hugo in the Prologue to LAnne terrible:
Ce nest pas dencensoirs que le sphinx est camus (30), uvres poetiques, iii. 284.
accented monosyllables at the beginning of the lines suggests some sort
of progression. However, the drama is in the language rather than in
any sort of plot, and the poem constantly makes connections between
moments which one would normally expect to be at opposite ends of a
linear narrative, such as childhood and death. Past, present, and future
are simultaneously present. The poem may ostensibly have progressed
from a childs bed to the cofn, but its internal patterns have suggested
an identity between these things, and thus the journey has in truth been
a circular one. The uctuation between offering and refusing love means
that the poem vacillates between possibility and impossibility without
attaining any goal. The emphasis on the vocative sets the pattern for
the Rondels sequence as a whole. The non-linear structure of Sonnet
posthume pregures the form of the rondels which follow it. It even
aspires towards their form in specic details: the anaphoric repetition of
Dors anticipates their circularity, and the expected contrast between
quatrains and tercets is undercut by the use of only two rhymes in
lines 514. This dissolution is reinforced by the [wa] sound common
to both masculine and feminine rhymesthe all-pervasive childlike
babbling inscribes the theme of the infant at the phonetic level.
RONDEL : EVOCATI ON
Il fait noir, enfant, voleur dtincelles!
Il nest plus de nuits, il nest plus de jours.
Dors en attendant venir toutes celles
Qui disaient : Jamais! Qui disaient : Toujours!
Entends-tu leurs pas? Ils ne sont pas lourds:
Oh! les pieds lgers! lAmour a des ailes
Entends-tu leurs voix? Les caveaux sont sourds.
Dors : Il pse peu, ton faix dimmortelles;
Ils ne viendront plus, tes amis les ours,
Jeter leur pav sur tes demoiselles
The second poem in the sequence slots the system of address established
in Sonnet posthume into the rondel form, which is used to virtuoso
effect. The songlike associations of this xed form enable Corbire
to indulge in sonorous evocations whilst avoiding Romantic grandi-
loquence. The rondel is the form of rondeau current before 1500, and
Corbire plays on its archaic associations without ever descending into
pastiche. The impact of the rondel stems fromits combination of simpli-
city and sophistication, as recognized by Banville, who revived it for the
nineteenth century.` Corbire lengthens the line from the usual light
octosyllables to more reective decasyllables, but retains associations
with the chanson tradition by consistently using a strong 5/5 binary
structure, which is less elevated than the more usual 4/6 pattern. Banville
points out that the rondel s apparent simplicity is achieved by skilful
crafting: tout lart consiste ce que le refrain soit ramen sans effort,
gaiement, naturellement, et chaque fois de facon former comme un
trait nouveau, mettant en lumire un nouvel aspect de la mme ide.`
Corbire modies the classical thirteen-line structure of the rondel as
used by Charles dOrlans (A B b a a b A B a b b a Acapitals
indicating refrain lines). He varies the order of the rhymes, and in the
second stanza repeats only the rst line of the refrain (turning the a b A
B quatrain into an a b A tercet), thereby reducing his rondels to twelve
lines.` This minimizes the effect of contrived wit which often results
from the repetition of two lines, and opens up the rondel for more sug-
gestive effects. Repeating the A line alone has the advantage of appearing
less mechanical, whilst still creating a strong internal pattern. Corbire
also maximizes the poetic potential of the forms restriction to two
rhymes. The poems are constantly recycling elements of themselves, and
these repetitions make for circularity. Repetition is the basis of poetry, as
Gerard Manley Hopkins emphasizes in his succinct denition of verse
as speech wholly or partially repeating the same gure of sound.` This
principle is carried to extremes in the rondel form. The use of only two
rhymes makes the rhyme axis extremely prominent, suggesting vertical
correspondences which cut across the horizontal axis of the syntax. The
refrain lines take on different meanings when they appear in different
contexts, which makes for complexity. In addition to the whole lines
and rhymes determined by the xed form, Corbire repeats grammatical
` Chacun deux forme un tout rhythmique, complet et parfait, et en mme temps
ils ont la grce naive et comme inconsciente des crations quont faites les poques
primitives, Thodore de Banville, Petit Trait de posie franc aise (Paris: Fasquelle, 1899),
185.
` Ibid. 187.
` Charles dOrlanss late rondels repeat only the A line and thus have only 12 lines
(as noted by John Fox in The Lyric Poetry of Charles dOrlans (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1969), 11920) but Corbire seems to be the only successor to experiment with this
variation.
` Quoted by Jakobson in Linguistics and Poetics, 3589.
structures and single words to create dense internal patterns. Repetition
is a way of suggesting meaning through formal organization, rather
than by discursively explaining connections between things, and this
reading of Rondel focuses on its use of rhythm, repetition, and rhyme
to produce evocative effect.
Rondel echoes the alternation of promise and denial established in
Sonnet posthume and plays on the two-rhyme form to set up a series
of oppositions. The oscillation between the positive and the negative is
mirrored by the antithesis of lightness and heaviness. This opposition
is enacted in the rhyme axis, as pointed out by Jean-Pierre Richard, for
the feminine rhymes on [El@] are euphoric terms, whereas the masculine
ones on [ur] are negative.`` Richard brings out the tension between
the lulling reassurance of the formal structures and the disturbing
implications of the sense, referring to the Freudian model of dreamwork
to argue that this disjunction is part of the libidinal drama staged by the
poem. He usefully foregrounds the sexual dimension of the text, but
this eroticism needs to be considered as part of the complex whole.
The refrain, Il fait noir, enfant, voleur dtincelles!, is particularly
dense and suggestive, for it combines an ambiguous nominal struc-
ture with fragmented syntax, and each component is already loaded
with meaning acquired in Sonnet posthume. Il fait noir echoes
teignoir, the nal word of that poem, and the child is now a voleur
dtincelles, a Prometheus. His previous incarnation, as a dcrocheur
dtoiles, suggested that he could condently reach for great things,
but as a voleur dtincelles he becomes a more active gure of revolt
instead of a mere dreamer. Phonetically il fait noir takes up the [war]
sound, and lexically continues the theme of darkness. The initial impact
is therefore that Rondel is describing what follows use of the snuffer. Il
fait noir also recalls the prediction made in Sonnet posthume: Dors:
on tappellera beau dcrocheur dtoiles! | Chevaucheur de rayons!
quand il fera bien noir. If the sonnet implies that the poet will exercise
his fantastic talent once darkness falls, the il fait noir of Rondel must
herald the beginning of this joyful pursuit; but if the sonnet means that
the poets facility with light will only be recognized after his death, it is
a more negative opening. The phrase has the innocence of an everyday
observation, but darkness more abstractly suggests death. It has a chiastic
structure, for the two terms referring to the addressee are anked by two
referring to dark and light. Noir and tincelles thus sketch a primal
`` Microlectures II, 2138.
opposition, but the line does not actively propose an antithesis. Il fait
noir looks like a mere preliminary, but as the line turns on its tail and
offers no further verb, it emerges that it had played an instrumental role.
The circular structure of the refrain makes it a microcosm of the global
structures of the Rondels pour aprs.
In the refrain the speaker indicates to the child the existence of a state
of darkness of unspecied duration, which could be gurative or literal,
and addresses him as a stealer of sparks, which identies no particular
instance of theft, so its temporality is uncertain. The imagery of dark
and light is integral to the tradition of representing death, and the
coexistence of opposites here suggests that death is simultaneously the
obscure unknown and an illumination of new possibilities. The line is
so condensed that there is nothing to suggest a tone of voice; it could
equally be a promise, a challenge, or a threat. The sense may be a joyful
now it is dark/you are dead, so you can start stealing sparks, or it may
be a more sombre you were a stealer of sparks but now it is dark/you are
dead, so that is over, or it may be a reproachful it is dark because you
stole the sparks. It may mean something like as a poet you can conjure
sparks out of the darkness of existence, which is how Angelet reads it.``
It could also give because you stole the sparks you have been punished
with darkness, which is how Jean-Pierre Richard interprets it.` For
Richard, the darkness of il fait noir is equivalent to blindness, and is
a punishment for stealing sparks, which he interprets as a past sexual
transgression. However, this blindness is quite a leap fromthe injunction
ferme les yeux pour voir in Sonnet posthume, which had promised
that closing ones eyes would bring pleasure. Richard recognizes the
ambiguity of il fait noir at the level of the disparity between form
and content, pointing out the tension between its reassuring 3/2/2/3
rhythm and its negative message. He suggests that the contradictory
aspects of the line correspond to two different scenes superimposed on
each other; an earlier scene of sexual transgression and the resulting scene
of punishment. This may be one of the implications of the line, but
Corbire has built indeterminate temporality into the line such that it is
impossible to recuperate a narrative from behind it. The phrase voleur
dtincelles itself fuses ephemerality and permanence, by referring to a
transient act as an enduring condition. It does not specify whether he
has stolen sparks, or whether he will do so, or whether he is capable of
`` La Potique de Tristan Corbire, 70. ` Microlectures II, 27.
it. As a result, the self is constituted by, or at least described in terms of,
a eeting event or passing fantasy.
Line 2 translates the opposition of dark and light into temporal
terms. The negation of night and day undermines both conventional
time divisions and the opposition of dark and light. The rest of the
quatrain introduces the possibility of visitors, returning to the theme
of love initiated in Sonnet posthume. The visitors are represented in
minimal terms, and the readers anticipation of a fuller description enacts
the desiring movement of the poet-child. The voleur dtincelles is told
to wait for the visitors denoted by the pronoun celles, which technically
refers forward to line 4 rather than back to any noun in the foregoing
syntax. However, celles has an antecedent in the rhyme tincelles,
which establishes an equivalence between light and femininity. Given
that the poet is a stealer of sparks, and feminine visitors are equated
with sparks, it is suggested that the poet desires these beings. In line
4 the feminine visitors are dened by their past responses to the poet,
alternately to reject him with Jamais, and to make promises with
Toujours. Like line 2, it has a strong binary structure, underlined by
the 3/2/3/2 rhythm. The quatrain began with an opposition of light
and dark, and shifted towards one of temporality with nuit and jour,
which linked the two sense-systems of chiaroscuro and time, but the
Jamais/Toujours opposition falls squarely within the latter. Richard
points out that the opposition also echoes the [E] and [ur] sounds of
the rhymes.` However, although jamais belongs phonetically with the
euphoric terms, its meaning here is negative. Neither disappointment
nor hope is sustained for long, but each seems already to inhabit the
other. The teasing oscillation between consolation and threat is playful,
reecting the light-hearted attitude of the girls. The poem suggests how
the victims frustration is provoked, by staging the carelessness of those
who played upon his desire. In the context of an emotional attachment,
Jamais and Toujours are loaded terms, so to say them in one breath
is to devalue both, implying that they were uttered thoughtlessly by
the girls. There is nonetheless a tension between this devaluation and
the capitalization of Jamais and Toujours, which invests the words
with importance. The poet reports the girls answers in a stylized form,
summarizing the two possible extremes in archetypal terms, showing
simultaneously that the responses were of little consequence to his
tormentors, but had a deep signicance for him as victim. Jamais and
` Ibid. 30.
toujours look like opposites, but are ambiguous when quoted out of
context like this, for they could also both be expressions of commitment
taken from formulae along the lines of I shall never forget you, I shall
always love you.
Lines 34 evoke memory and anticipation simultaneously: the visit-
ation is awaited, yet the visitors are dened in terms of what they used
to say. The substance of what they said also pertains to temporality
(Jamais, Toujours), and since they spoke in terms of eternity, what
they said long ago has implications for the future. As Richard summar-
izes it, line 3 is an anticipation de souvenirs and line 4 a souvenir
danticipations.` Experience is not idealized, for frustration is insinu-
ated by this perpetual anticipation of things which never materialize. If
Sonnet posthume articulates promises to the poet, Rondel reminds
the poet of past promises which were not fullled. The past is hinted
at indirectly in these lines, as though it cannot be accessed in itself but
its return is inevitable. The reader cannot recuperate a linear sequence
of events from this quatrain, for its message is that past, present, and
future are deeply imbricated in each other.
The tercet gives these elusive feminine creatures some contours,
initially by suggesting their audibility, underlined by the dense sound
patterning. By asking if the addressee can hear themand then explaining
why he cannot, the speaker again arouses the desire of the poet, only
to frustrate it immediately. The question Entends-tu leurs pas? gives
a sense of immediacy, suggesting for once that the object of desire
is close at hand. Lightness is a source of both pleasure and pain;
it makes these creatures sensuously appealing, yet also renders them
inaccessible. LAmour a des ailes, which recalls la plus aime est
toujours la plus loin from Sonnet posthume, is at once a description
of a mythological winged god and a rather bitter comment on the
ckleness of love. In contrast to the uncertainty of the quatrain, the
tercet evokes more tangible features, such as feet or wings, although
these are the parts which permit ight, which emphasizes the volatile
nature of these creatures. The duplicity of love is underlined by the
avoidance of the obvious rhyme of Amour with toujours. Although
Amour belongs phonetically in the heavy rhyme axis, the poem spells
out its lightness with lAmour a des ailes. The theme of lightness is
reected in the levity of the language; line 5 puns on pas, using it
once to mean step and once as a negative particle. The positive and
` Microlectures II, 29.
the negative are closely intertwined, for the negative particle is caught
up in the sound patterning of [p] which links the positive terms of pas
and pieds.
By the time the refrain is repeated at the end of the tercet, it is
clear that the expression voleur dtincelles reects the poets desire to
attain these feminine visitors, but that it is a vain hope. In Corbires
twelve-line version of the rondel form, only the A line of the refrain is
repeated, and the absence of the expected B line conveys a sense of loss,
which is doubled in this instance since the missing B line Il nest plus de
nuits, il nest plus de jours itself expressed absence. Corbires omission
of the B line at this point in the rondel alters the dynamic of the form.
In the traditional model, when two lines are repeated and then nally
one only, attention is focused on the end, as Clive Scott points out: the
rondel ends on a climactically, or anticlimactically, abbreviated version
of the refrain, insistently repeating the a rhyme.` The resonance of the
A line is increased when the B line is omitted; the effect may be either
of wit or expansive suggestivity.` By omitting the B line early, Corbire
instigates this resonance early in the poem. He also amplies another
tendency identied by Clive Scott as being latent in the rondel form:
the B line must be gradually discarded; it is moved from a position
where it founds a stanza, to a position, in the second quatrain, where it
completes a stanza, to a perfect dispensability in the nale.` Corbire
accelerates this process by erasing the B line at the rst opportunity,
allowing it to hover for longer as a ghostly presence. By introducing this
premature loss and reducing the purely conventional witty repetitions,
whilst intensifying repetitions at other levels, Corbire frees the xed
form for the serious issues of life and death.
In the quintil the addressee continues to play a passive role, being
acted upon by a range of others: ton faix dimmortelles, tes amis les
ours, and tes demoiselles. Line 9 is oxymoronic, for faix denotes a
heavy burden, yet the owers are qualied as light. The immortelles
thus embody a new version of the opposition of light and heaviness,
and a number of elements converge on this term. The clustering of [p]
sounds in pse peu recalls the [p] sounds associated with the light-
footed girls of lines 56, and the owers are thus linked phonetically
` Clive Scott, The Poetics of French Verse: Studies in Reading (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1998), 109.
` The nal line should conjure the absent B line, which in turn should have
lexpansion des choses innies, ibid. 121.
` Ibid. 122.
as well as through the theme of lightness to the girls. They connote
both life and death, and are specically qualied as light, which is
in turn inextricably bound up with love. The owers belong by their
rhyme to the light, feminine pole of the poem, bringing out the double
meaning of immortelles, which could denote owers or goddesses. As
owers, the immortelles mediate between life, because they are long-
lasting, and death, because they are often laid on graves. As goddesses,
they echo the feminine visitors of the tercet and associate femininity
with immortality. The polysemy of immortelle permits an incidental
item of decor to insinuate the abstract theme of immortality, which
is central to the rondels; they evoke the afterlife, the memory of the
poet, the ephemerality of love, and the persistence of the past into
the future.
The bears introduced in line 10 are rst dened as amis, as though
they are nursery images being used to comfort the child, but, in a typical
twist, the context rapidly gives them a negative value. The [ur] rhyme
links them with the heavy negative terms and contrasts them to the
feminine visitors. Ours also had the pejorative sense of an unpublished
work in the nineteenth century, and since pav can denote a large book,
the social reality of writing is hinted at. In lines 1011 the speaker
denies danger and thereby indirectly suggests its possibility, again using
a reassuring tone to say something unsettling. This is an intertextual
reference to the La Fontaine fable LOurs et lamateur des jardins, in
which a bear shows his affection for a man by swatting ies away from
his face when he is asleep. He becomes incensed when one lands on
the mans nose, throws a pav at the insect, and inadvertently kills his
friend, the moral being that an ignorant friend is more dangerous than a
wise enemy. Corbire charges the La Fontaine scenario with great density
of meaning by replacing mouches with demoiselles, which signies both
dragonies and young ladies. The latter had already been characterized as
liable to take ight, and Corbire plays on the polysemy of demoiselle to
emphasize their volatility. Two sense-systems coincide in demoiselles,
as in immortelles, for the word simultaneously denotes items from
the natural world and human girls. This recombination of elements
already established in the preceding text is foregrounded phonetically,
for demoiselles combines the [wa] sound from the rhymes of Sonnet
posthume with the [El@] rhyme from this poem. The pain caused by
the inaccessibility of these damsels is exorcised by the rhymes which
constantly return them. The themes of violence and love had already
been combined in Sonnet posthume, as the anticipation of a kiss was
interrupted by the threat of a broken nose. The La Fontaine intertext
tells us that the bear is concerned for the poet, yet causes suffering, and
so it complements the girls who caused suffering but were unconcerned.
In the rondel form, the line that opened the poem also closes it,
so beginnings and endings are collapsed on to each other, and the
repetitions blur temporality. Corbires opening line suggested fantastic
ight and indeterminate temporality, and as the line persistently returns
into the same form without materializing into anything more specic,
it becomes clear that it is inherently unreal. The nal refrain therefore
underlines the absence of the feminine gures. The non-appearance
of ethereal gures who might alleviate the poets suffering recalls
Baudelaires LIrrparable, in which the speaker wishes that real life
had its equivalent to the tre aux ailes de gaze: the fairy who vanquishes
evil at the end of a pantomine (Corbires jamais and toujours also nod
towards the same stanza of that poem). Just as Baudelaire uses a banal
theatrical trick to explore existential anguish, Corbire concocts his own
blend of the trivial and the profound.
DO, L ENFANT, DO : DI SLOCATI ON
Buona vespre! Dors : Ton bout de cierge
On la pos l, puis on est parti.
Cest le chandelier de ton lit dauberge
Tu nauras pas peur seul, pauvre petit?
Du fesse-cahier ne crains plus la verge.
Va! De tveiller point nest si hardi
Buona sera! Dors : Ton bout de cierge
Est mort. Il nest plus, ici, de concierge.
Seuls, le vent du nord, le vent du midi
Viendront balancer un l-de-la-Vierge
Chut! Pour les pieds-plats, ton sol est maudit.
Buona notte! Dors : ton bout de cierge
Having demonstrated his mastery of the musical potential of the
form in Rondel, Corbire proceeds to reintroduce dissonance and
fragmentation in this third poem. It is the most difcult rondel to
link to a single train of thought, and its desolate tone sits ill with
the received view of the rondels being a celebration of harmony nally
attained. Aragon and Bonnin rightly point out that la note dominante
est le manque damour, la solitude. However, it is not merely a vague
evocation of loneliness, but an intricate interweaving of the motifs which
run through the rondels.
The direct allusion to the lullaby Do, do, lenfant, do is a natural
step, given that the previous poems have instructed the child to sleep,
and that the rondel is an inherently song-like form. However, in
Corbires Do, lenfant, do the naive form is shot through with the
macabre. It is striking that a poem parading as a soothing lullaby
should be structured around such a dislocated refrain, which has an
unsettling trochaic rhythm if read with Italian pronunciation. The
accented monosyllable dors proves more unsettling when interpolated
between two disconnected elements than when it initiates a line, as
it had previously done. It seems to have been pushed to the right by
the greeting buona vespre which squats at the line-initial position. The
roman font and Italian language mark it out as an intruder into the
domestic intimacy, but it is actually a stylized version of bonnes vpres,
an archaic or regional equivalent of bonsoir. This fragment of living
social discourse is a hybrid of the quotidian and the literary. Bonsoir
could equally be a greeting or a farewell, and dire bonsoir can be a
euphemism for dying.
The refrain is syntactically linked to neighbouring lines, so not only
does it appear in a different light each time, but its grammatical role
changes. Although its literal meaning is given by its context in each
instance, it nonetheless draws attention to itself as an autonomous
entity, suggesting that multiple possibilities are latent in this particular
combination of words. The relationship between Dors and ton bout de
cierge is not immediately obvious. The candle is only loosely anchored
in this fragmented line, so a range of associations suggest themselves.
It alludes to the custom of the veille funbre, which involves burning
candles by the body of the deceased. It also reworks the traditional topos
of the candle as an image for the passing of time, and hence mortality.
The ironically truncated bout de cierge simultaneously undercuts the
gravity of the conventional image and draws on the weight lent by
its tradition. He evokes the candle as a humble object, rather than
Les Amours jaunes, 443.
as a portentous symbol in the style of Hugos Maintenant que mon
temps dcrot comme un ambeau. Cierge has specically religious
connotations, which are undercut by the prosaic bout de. The more
usual expression, bout de chandelle, is hovering behind it, particularly
as chandelle would echo the rhymes of the previous rondel. Chandelle
is also a slang expression for the penis, so the recurrent theme of sexuality
is latent here.
Line 2 has a childlike simplicity, with the rhythm reinforcing the
binary syntactic pattern, yet l and on are peculiarly unspecic. It
ostensibly reassures the poet that he has been left with a night-light, yet
is telling him that he has been abandoned, without specifying whether
the speaker or a third party is responsible. The bout de cierge suggests
both abandonment and the possibility that it can be left behind as it is no
longer neededit is simultaneously positive and negative. In line 3 the
speaker appears to voice sympathy by calling the child a pauvre petit,
and expressing awareness that he might be lonely, yet then withdraws
and makes any response impossible. The speaker indirectly suggests the
loneliness of the poet by inhabiting the pitying voice of a third party, to
show that the pity is supercial.
Lines 23 evoke the abandonment of the poet, and sound patterning
on [p] links dysphoric terms: pas, peur, and pauvre are inherently
negative, and pos and parti are here associated with abandonment.
The pattern is reinforced by puis and petit, and builds up to a
particular intensity in the second line. Here, the assonance of the
adjacent monosyllabic words peur and seul further emphasizes the
connection between these unpleasant sensations. It is also reinforced
by the rhythm; a number of accents are accumulated very close to
each other on these important words. Adjacent syllables are accented in
seul and pauvre, and the reader is forced to pause, as this is difcult
to articulate. It is uncertain whether both peur and seul should be
stressed, as three accented syllables in succession would bring the line
close to rhythmical breakdown, but syntactically it is an unusual instance.
When reading this line, one is inclined to emphasize peur, expecting
it to be the end of the phrase and positioned before the caesura, but the
qualication which follows, seul, attracts a stronger accent as the syntax
is unexpectedly extended beyond the caesura. The word seul puts peur
in the shade, and draws more attention to itself, as though loneliness
is yet more powerful than fear. The lexical movement of the line is to
Paroles sur la dune, Les Contemplations, uvres potiques, ii. 695.
assert unhappiness by pretending to deny it, and the sound patterning
inscribes this despair by foregrounding the dysphoric elements.
This poemrelies to a considerable extent on the power of juxtaposition
to create meaning; the rst two lines describe the abandonment of
the candle-end, and the third the lonely poet, indirectly suggesting
an equivalence between candle and poet. Bout de suggests a small
remnant of a candle, and pauvre petit suggests a small child. In the
rst line there is a metonymic connection between candle and poet;
the object is assigned to the person by the pronoun ton, but the
relationship becomes more metaphorical as the quatrain progresses, and
the candle-end emerges as an emblem for the poet. The euphemistic
tendency persists in this reluctance to state directly that the child is
dead, these qualities being instead projected onto the candle-end, and
also extends to the veiled references to sexuality. The bout de cierge is
a versatile image, being simultaneously a global metaphor for the poet,
an object in his surroundings, and a phallic symbol.
Line 4, Cest le chandelier de ton lit dauberge, sees a shift in
terminology: the candle-end is replaced by a candlestick. This member
of the candle paradigm is not yet burnt out, connotes festivity, and has
been removed from the realm of life, the lit dauberge, to the unspoken
bed of the grave. This suggests a parallel between the literal and the
gurative bed, just as in Sonnet posthume the bed was simultaneously
a nal resting place, a place to sleep, and the potential scene of
lovemaking. The bed in Do, lenfant, do also has sexual associations,
given the gurative meaning of chandelier, namely a fourth party
exploited by an adulterous woman. The chandelier is a younger man
whose affections she openly encourages, in order to divert her husbands
suspicion from the real affair which she is conducting with someone
else, as in Mussets play Le Chandelier.` This connotation indirectly
alludes to the theme of love, specically the triangle in line 1 of Sonnet
posthume. The auberge represents security,` just as the childs bed
had done, and in death he is distanced from both of these havens. The
speaker has a cosy bedside tone, yet indirectly points out that the child
is far from such safety.
The immediate impression given by the tercet is of radical discontinu-
ity with the quatrain. It repeats the strategy of denying the possibility
` Revived in Paris in 1872.
` Baudelaire frequently uses the image of the auberge as refuge, notably in
LIrrparable: LEsprance qui brille aux carreaux de lAuberge.
of danger, only to suggests its possibility, by introducing the violently
authoritarian fesse-cahier. In the same mould as gratte-papier, fesse-
cahier is literally an archaic derogatory term for a clerk, derived from
the expression fesser le cahier, meaning to write a lot, and means
someone who writes in great haste. The fesse-cahier is an autonomous
gure, an anti-Muse, a threatening authority brandishing a stick to force
the poet to write. However, like the candle-end, it embodies an aspect
of the poet, since writing is as much a part of poetry as is visionary
inspiration. Du fesse-cahier ne crains plus la verge suggests that in the
afterlife poetic ight can be achieved without the painful work of writ-
ing. Fesser means both to smack and to do something quickly. Corbire
exploits both meanings, for not only is the fesse-cahier someone who
writes fast, but the verge is literally gured in this line. Verge has
its own connotations which feed the main currents of the poem. Like
fesser, verge is often used in expressions about disciplining children,
a connotation appropriate to the theme of the child in the rondels, and
also means penis, echoing the double meaning of chandelle. Sexuality
is alluded to through wordplay, and is less idealized than the delicate
insinuations of desire in Rondel. The refrain in the tercet is modied to
buona sera, and the Italian this time has more particular connotations.
As buona sera follows the dismissal va it recalls the well-known scene
fromRossinis Il Barbiere di Siviglia in which the lovers sing buona sera
to send an unwanted third party to bed. This has obvious parallels with
the scenario of Corbires child being dispatched to its resting place.
The operatic allusion follows snatches of popular songs and lullabies,
reminding us of the rondels origin as a sung form and producing a
texture which has something in common with Rimbauds aesthetic as
summarized in Une Saison en Enfer: Jaimais [les] contes de fes, petits
livres denfance, opras vieux, refrains niais, rhythmes nafs.
The syntax runs on between the tercet and the quintil, so ton bout
de cierge is given the abrupt predicate est mort. This is an immense
textual shock, as a whole range of Corbires signifying techniques
are mobilized simultaneously. First, he is playing on the metaphorical
value of the candle-end: its close link to the poet-child means that
it refers to the death of the addressee. The phonetic parallel between
mort and dors reinforces the equivalence between death and sleep
which has been a subtext. Secondly, the startling lexical directness of
est mort is emphasized through the formal havoc wrought by the
Dlires, i, Alchimie du Verbe, uvres, 228.
enjambement. Thirdly, the surprise is underlined by our expectation
that a conventional rondel would repeat the rst two lines of the
quatrain at this point. We would expect it to continue On la pos
l, puis on est parti. As in Rondel, a statement of absence and loss is
discarded at the rst repetition of the refrain. Fourthly, Ton bout de
cierge | est mort is an intertextual reference to Ma chandelle est morte
in Au clair de la lune, so the chandelle maintains its unverbalized
presence in the text, and the sexual overtones of Au clair de la lune
are echoed in the Corbire poem. Alluding to the popular song also
mobilizes a latent connection between the candle-end and the writing
implement. Au clair de la lune associates the pen and the candle,
writing and re:
Prte-moi ta plume
Pour crire un mot.
Ma chandelle est morte
Je nai plus de feu.
Corbiere suppresses the metonymic links in order to combine these
elements at a metaphorical level. The bout de cierge in Do, lenfant,
do is a play on bout de chandelle, but the commonplace expression
bout de crayon is also hovering behind it. The implied verbal phrase
Fesser le cahier evokes violent contact with paper, and if fesser is
an image for writing, the verge is thus equivalent to a pen. The
candle and writing are also associated by formal parallels: the word
fesse-cahier echoes the chandelier, for they both occur at the same
position in consecutive lines, have the same rhythm, and both contain
the [j] sound followed by the [e] sound which is accented on the
fth syllable. The [j] sound is also found in cierge, again linking a
candle word. These sounds stand out, because they pervade the poem
in a more generalized sound pattern; appearing in veiller, concierge,
viendront, vierge, and pieds. The candle is established as a phallic
symbol and then associated with the writing implement, so there is
an implied link between the phallus and the pen. The pen is never
explicitly represented but is implied by all these connections; writing
never occurs in isolation, but is inseparable from the realities of death,
violence, and sexuality. In the rondels, Corbire subtly suggests ways
This is borne out by other instances of play upon bout de crayon: Mon bout
de crayon, cest ma lyre (Un jeune qui sen va, 7), and un bout de plume doie
(Dcourageux, 27).
in which all these things are inextricably bound up with one another.
The poem is so discontinuous at a propositional level that it forces
the reader to seek these oblique connections. The statement that the
candle is dead suggests the impossibility of writing and love, as much
as it does the literal death of the addressee. The direct reference to
the previously unnameable death is chilling, but this is mitigated by
its being a quotation from Au clair de la lune, which belongs in the
childlike register.
The seismic shock of the rejet est mort represents a culmination
of the dense patterning of the foregoing text, and the quintil goes on
to emphasize emptiness and loneliness by juxtaposing disparate items
drawn from the abandoned house topos. They build up a barren paysage
dme, and yet the absence and ethereality have a certain positivity. The
lack of a concierge suggests that the realm of death is not a kingdom
with an angel at the gateway, but is rather a state which can only
be evoked indirectly through images such as the wind and gossamer,
which might best be described by Eliots term objective correlative.
The gossamer is left over from the webs of Sonnet posthume, which
had been spun over the addressees empty forehead. They had thus
already been associated with internal emptiness, but also with hope, and
now suggest both insubstantiality and persistence, a combination which
amounts to transcendence.
Like many of the rondels, this poem brings us back to earth at the
end by referring to the coarse bourgeois. Religious imagery is again
inverted, since the poets burial-ground is cursed in the eyes of the
pieds-plats. The nal return of the refrain has a new variation; the
greeting good night marks the end of the evening, whereas the previous
two had suggested its beginning, implying that there has been temporal
progression. The line nonetheless tails off into uncertainty, for it ends
with suspension points and there is no subsequent syntax to anchor
the bout de cierge. The suspended candle-end reminds us of all the
meaning it has accreted in the course of the poem, and the fact that
it marks the end suggests some sort of impotence or failure. Clive
Scott points out that often refrains have the haunting inexorability of a
destiny which must have its way despite the poets attempt to establish
an alternative and Do, lenfant, do is the only rondel which makes a
drama out of this possibility.
T. S. Eliot, Selected Essays (London: Faber, 1951), 145.
Clive Scott, French Verse-Art: A Study (Cambridge University Press, 1980), 1578.
MI RLI TON : RENEWAL
Dors damour, mchant ferreur de cigales!
Dans le chiendent qui te couvrira
La cigale aussi pour toi chantera,
Joyeuse avec ses petites cymbales.
La rose aura des pleurs matinales;
Et le muguet blanc fait un joli drap
Dors damour, mchant ferreur de cigales.
Pleureuses en troupeau passeront les rafales
La Muse camarde ici posera,
Sur ta bouche noire encore elle aura
Ces rimes qui vont aux moelles des ples
Dors damour, mchant ferreur de cigales.
This rondel marks a new departure in a number of ways. It recombines
elements of the preceding texts to conjure a pastoral setting which plays
on the pathetic fallacy, and is then modulated into another stereotypical
scene: the encounter between poet and muse. The poem renews familiar
motifs to produce a strong internal development, building to a moment
of textual high drama which gives the sequence new impetus.
The pathetic fallacy is reassuringly familiar after the dislocations of
Do, lenfant, do, although it is tinged with irony because the speaker
describes nature as weeping whilst hardly striking the tone of a mourner.
The opening recapitulates the imperative mood from the end of Do,
lenfant, do, but in a gentler tone. The monosyllable dors, which
had been abrupt in Do, lenfant, do, is absorbed into the musical
dors damour of the new refrain. The phrase is ambiguous because the
connection between sleep and love is not spelled out, but the alliteration
on [d] and [r] binds them into a strong unit, which is a compressed
version of lines 34 of Sonnet posthume. The apostrophe ferreur de
cigales! is derived from the expression ferrer des cigales, meaning to
waste ones time doing something useless or absurd. The noun phrase
guratively suggests that the dead poet has an indolent existence, and
literally suggests that he can shoe, or pin down, cicadas. Since cicadas
are insects, the poet must have great power if he can accomplish this
fantastical task. The poemthen fully animates the semi-gurative cicada,
which becomes a singing creature in line 3. The cicada generates the
rest of the quatrain, for line 2 is an adverbial phrase locating it in the
chiendent covering the poet. Chiendent literally denotes a tenacious
weed, and guratively means an obstacle or trouble. Its signicance here
is coloured by intratextual resonances: being light vegetation burying the
poet, it recalls the immortelles in Rondel and hay in Sonnet posthume.
The poet shifts from being the subject in the refrain to being the
object of the singing cicada in line 3. The reader is tempted to see
the cicada as a metaphor for the poet, for the image of the cicada as
singer is not novel. However, although it is placed in two different
subject positions, neither coincides with that of the poet. The text
stages the poets struggle in relation to what the cicada represents, for
the expression ferreur de cigales implies that the poet is striving to
master the cicada, either because he wishes to render its song more
dissonant, or because he himself wishes to be as musical as the insect.
The juxtaposition of the cicada and cymbals is not unmotivated, because
cymbalin is an adjective used to describe sounds reminiscent of the
cicada. The cymbals are the product of the ferreurs shoeing activity, as if
the verbal play of the rst line has summoned up this magical musician.
The tercet continues the playfully precious imagery. Line 5 reworks
the commonplaces une rose de larmes and rose matinale such that
dew is made to cry rather than merely resembling tears. Nature is
personied to the point of ridicule, showing that it is a mere conceit to
suggest it is crying for the dead poet. The future tense emphasizes that
the pathetic fallacy is a predictable trick, rather than something observed
afresh as in a Romantic poem. Line 6 attacks the clichd whiteness of
lilies, with the pointed banality of joli, but just as the imagery verges
on the tawdry, the lily is likened to a drap, which reintroduces a more
macabre note. Because of the equivalence between bed and grave in
the rondels, a sheet immediately suggests a shroud. White is the colour
of a sheet, and also of the pole in Sonnet posthume (traditionally
white for a child and black for an adult). The overtones of death in
drap motivate the return of the refrain, in which sleep now has a more
sinister sense.
Line 8 stands out as a lone alexandrine which pays solemn tribute
to the poet. The repetition of the [] and [z] sounds gives a droning
effect, echoing the reference to sleep in the preceding line. The [r]
sound of pleureuses recurs in troupeau, passeront, and rafales,
Expectations are similarly subverted in Le Pote et la Cigale (OC 703), a parody of
La Fontaines La Cigale et la fourmi, in which the singing cicada represents the woman
Marcelle rather than the poet.
giving the line great acoustic cohesion. The incongruity of this rolling
alexandrine being stranded in a humble context makes for gentle irony.
Pleureuses suggests an emotion diametrically opposed to Joyeuse,
and the contrast between these two words is foregrounded by their
morphological identity and identical line-initial positions. Their order
of appearance charts a shift from delight to sorrow, as the mood of
the poem spirals downwards. The severing of this alexandrine from
the quintil visually marks the point at which the Rondels pour aprs
sequence begins to experiment with increasingly free variations on the
xed form of the rondel.
The disruption of the form also underscores the major thematic shift
which underpins this particular poem; lines 912 leave nature, to focus
on culture, and are correspondingly darker. The Muse camarde is
poised between nature and art, since poser could mean to land like
a buttery or to pose as an artists model. The noun, la camarde,
denotes death (because she has no nose), but here it is used as an epithet
meaning pug-nosed. This indicates an irreverent attitude towards the
muse, yet also establishes a parallel between her and the poet whose nose
was broken in Sonnet posthume. Since both the muse and death are
feminine allegorical gures, the two are conated in a single person: the
quatrain fuses the themes of death and art, and adds a hint of eroticism
with the encounter between muse and poet in lines 1011.
The emphasis on the mouth eroticizes the transfer of rhymes, par-
ticularly as it recalls the baiser sous le voile promised in the sonnet;
Mirliton could be read as the materialization of this kiss. The themes
of sexuality and poetry coincide in the mouth, and the idea of kissing
the muse is not new. Mussets Nuit de mai opens with a request from
the muse: Pote, prends ton luth et me donne un baiser. Who will kiss
whom is actively debated in the Musset poem, but Corbires syntax
renders the exchange ambiguous. Lines 910 literally state that the muse
is claiming rhymes from the poets mouth, yet the metrical structure
breaks up the syntax to suggest that she is giving them to him. One
is inclined to visualize the muse putting rhymes in the poets mouth,
in conformity with her traditional role. However, the muse is the true
recipient of ces rimes; the apparently incidental line 10 explains that
she will obtain the rhymes from the poet. Although posera literally
means will alight and aura will obtain, poser more habitually conveys
depositing something, so the muse seems to be the subject of both lines
yet doing opposite things in them. Lines 9 and 10 are competing with
each other to explain the origin of ces rimes. This confusion is similar
to that of the baiser sous le voile passage of Sonnet posthume. Key
scenes in the rondels resist graphical reconstruction, forcing the reader
to consider their sense at a less representational level.
If Sonnet posthume had suggested a marriage of the poet and death
beneath the pole, there is here an eroticized encounter between the
poet and the muse-death. The Rondels pour aprs could be read as a
poetic manifestation of the gurative expressions pouser la camarde
and baiser la camarde, meaning to die. This quatrain represents a new
conguration of the three central elements already combined in various
ways in the rondels: love, death, and art. The climactic nature of this
can only be appreciated if the rondels are read as a sequence. Mirliton
juxtaposes two apparently disparate sections in a single short poem,
forcing one to read them in relation to each other. The juxtaposition
is therefore a source of meaning; it suggests that nature and culture are
interlocked in the experience of death. The development of the poem
is underlined by the refrain appearing increasingly macabre with each
recurrence.
PETI T MORT POUR RI RE : LEVI TY
Va vite, lger peigneur de comtes!
Les herbes au vent seront tes cheveux;
De ton oeil bant jailliront les feux
Follets, prisonniers dans les pauvres ttes
Les eurs de tombeau quon nomme Amourettes
Foisonneront plein ton rire terreux
Et les myosotis, ces eurs doubliettes
Ne fais pas le lourd : cercueils de potes
Pour les croque-morts sont de simples jeux,
Botes violon qui sonnent le creux
Ils te croiront mort Les bourgeois sont btes
Va vite, lger peigneur de comtes!
After the sombre ending of Mirliton, Petit mort pour rire introduces
a lighter note. The wit which characterizes the sequence as a whole
is explicitly thematized in this poem, which is generated from a series
of puns. The title plays on the expression petit mot pour rire, in
which the apparently harmless mot has been replaced by the loaded
term mort, by a process which Freud describes as condensation
accompanied by slight modication. The laughter of the dead is a
conventional topos (line 6 represents the usual rictus of the deaths
head), but Corbire folds the humour into the language itself. The
physical reality of death is dissolved into a play on words, which is one
way of summing up the project of the rondels as a whole. Their linguistic
medium is continually foregrounded, and wordplay is used not merely
to trivialize their message, but as a way of suggesting complexity. As
Mitchell indicates, the title means that death is regarded as a slight event
without the usual solemnity. However, by associating laughter with
death, the juxtaposition also gives laughter a serious function. Wordplay
is neither supercial comedy nor a mask for underlying seriousness,
but is an integral part of the existential drama. The title Petit mort
pour rire thematizes the strategy Corbire uses throughout, akin to
Eliots alliance of levity and seriousness (by which the seriousness is
intensied). Since the four elements of the title have all previously
appeared separately in the rondels, the ostensibly slight expression draws
on the weight of accumulated meaning.
The refrain, Va vite, lger peigneur de comtes!, is motivated by
a play on the word comte, derived from the Greek, which literally
means star with hair. Corbire is often praised for this ingenuity,
but the play is as much intertextual as etymological; the comparison
of comet and hair is a literary commonplace, and the ery comet
brings out the erotic quality of streaming hair.` Corbires comet is
personied by being combed, but otherwise retains its cosmic distance,
and this by now familiar combination of the domestic and the celestial,
of possibility and impossibility, gives the image its fantastic quality.
Lger explicitly verbalizes the lightness of the poet, already valorized in
Rondel. Lightness functions at various levels: physical weightlessness,
verbal levity, and existential optimism. Physical lightness makes possible
the poets ight, and the playful language insists on the importance of
not taking life or death too seriously. What has not been noted is that the
command va vite is borrowed from the fantastic ballad Lenore by the
German Romantic poet Brger, which was much admired and imitated
by French Romantics, and whose themes are echoed in the rondels. Its
refrain Hurrah! die Toten reiten schnell! was translated by Nerval as
Sigmund Freud, Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious, trans. James Strachey
(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1991), 57.
Tristan Corbire, 99. Selected Essays, 296.
` Cf. Chniers Salut, belle nuit and Cross Scherzo.
Hourra! Les morts vont vite` The poem superimposes death and
marriage, as it describes how a dead soldier appears on horseback to
claimhis bride and carries her off on a frenzied ight towards the nuptial
bed which is their tomb. Although les morts vont vite describes the
headlong gallop, it has acquired a proverbial sense that the dead are
quickly forgotten, and Corbire plays on both connotations.
The quatrain expands the conceit of the refrain, by reworking the
topos of the dead human body returning to nature, the emphasis on
lightness and abundance suggesting it is a liberation. In the opening
line the poet is a comber of comets, but in line 2 his own hair is the
subject, transformed into grass and blown in the wind, as if he has
become part of the comets celestial realm. This line not only describes
the poets blending with the natural world at the level of the represented,
but the displacement of the hair from object to subject suggests this
blurring at the level of representation too. The hair and grass recall the
gossamer of Do, lenfant, do, and suggest the persistence of the poet in
some essential form. The word order does not reect the chronological
sequence of events, for the grass that he will become syntactically
precedes the hair that he has had, blurring the temporality. Lines 34
give a more macabre vision of the bodily remains, but the parallel sound
patterns on [ A] and [ O] around the middle of lines 2 and 3 suggest
continuity between the ethereal image and the more earthbound one.
The latter also has its intangibility, evoking will-o-the-wisp bursting
out of the eye sockets. Enjambement emphasizes this overow, and
severs the phrase feu follets so its components regain their individual
meanings. Mitchell suggests that the res represent genius and intensity,
which shoot out of the poets head, but remain shut in the heads of
ordinary people. Pauvres ttes contrast with the poets head, which
is brimming with imagination. Indeed, the poet has transcended bodily
limits, for he is dispersed into nature and communing with comets.
The tercet continues to dissolve the poet into nature, and extends
it with a pun on Amourettes. The juxtaposition of owers and grave
` Gottfried August Brger, Smtliche Werke (Munich: Carl Hanser, 1987), 186;
Grard de Nerval, Posies allemandes [1840] in Pomes dOutre-Rhin, ed. Jean-Yves
Masson (Paris: Grasset, 1996) 1337. Corbire quotes the famous refrain exactly in Le
Pote contumace: A-t-il donc oubli comme les morts vont vite (53). Brgers text is
based on a popular ballad, variations of which were sung throughout Europe, including
Brittany. Thodore Hersart de la Villemarqus 1839 collection of Breton songs, Barzaz
Breiz, includes a version entitled Le Frre de lait.
Tristan Corbire, 148.
recalls the immortelles of Rondel. Like the immortelles, Amourettes
is a term in which several sense-systems coincide. Although they are
referred to as if they had a symbolic value explaining why they are laid
on the grave (quon nomme implies a reference to some cultural code),
they have no such signicance. Technically, amourettes refers to grasses
(echoing chiendent), but is also a popular term for various owers
including the lily (echoing Mirliton). The words signicance lies in its
second meaning: a passing love affair. The paradigms of vegetation and
love which run through the rondels thus coincide in this word. Love is
once again linked with transience, both because an amourette denotes
an ephemeral attachment and because it is placed in the context of a
grave. The refrain is not repeated at the end of the tercet, and, in its
place, more owers are introduced. This loss of the A line underlines
the ongoing theme of emptiness and continues the dissolution of the
rondel form initiated in Mirliton. The departure from the pattern is
emphasized by the fact that the line resembles an adjunct; it is not
technically an independent proposition, beginning with et and lacking
a predicate, so the forget-me-nots are adrift in the syntax. Forget-me-
nots link ora and love, since they are also known as herbes damour,
but are best known for symbolizing faithful memory. Here, the formula
eurs doubliettes playfully inverts this, by referring to forgetfulness. It
literally signies a prisoners cell, recalling the reference to prisonniers
in line 4. Figuratively, oubliettes means any place where things can be
secreted, and this is a good description of the memory. The expression
eurs doubliettes thus suggests that remembering and forgetting are
not mutually exclusive. The parallel between this construction and the
eurs de tombeau indirectly suggests a connection between the tomb
and memory, death and the past.
The wordplay of Ne fais pas le lourd launches a more metaphysical
evocation of absence in the quintil. It recalls the reference to the feminine
visitors of Rondel whose steps ne sont pas lourds, implying that the
poet may now attain them if he too becomes light. Lourd literally means
physically heavy, but also serious, ominous, clumsy, stupid, and coarse.
The poet is thus urged to be light in all senses: in his physical presence,
in his use of language, and in his attitude to metaphysical questions.
The association of imprisonment and nature recalls Hugos line Tous ces sombres
cachots quon appelle les eurs, a poetic image generated by the idea that punished souls
may be reincarnated as more lowly forms of life, in Ce que dit la bouche dombre, Les
Contemplations, uvres potiques, ii. 820.
Lourd is not usually used as a noun so it arrests our attention, yet ne fais
pas le lourd is thrown in as if it were a ready-made expression. It plays
on several colloquial expressions that are meaningful in the context.
Faire le mort means to pretend to be dead, tying in with the implication
in line 11 that he is not really dead. Faire le sourd means to pretend to
be deaf, feeding the recurrent theme of audibility. Like the title, ne fais
pas le lourd uses a verbal trick to make an existential comment.
Much of the wordplay so far has centred on the words that rhyme
on [Et@] and cercueils de potes in line 8 is no exception. The phrase
consists of almost the same sounds as peigneur de comtes, so this is a
masterly reinforced rhyme. The sounds of the euphoric expression have
been recombined to produce a more sinister one. The vowel sounds are
identical and in the same order: [E], [], [@], [O], [E], and [@]. Five
consonants are common to both expressions but in a different order: [p],
[r], [d], [k], and [t], and [J] is phonetically close to [nj]. The same set
of phonemes is tinkered with to generate both a wonderful entity and a
sinister object, suggesting an identity between these apparent opposites,
and thus that death is both positive and negative.
Making literal the practical side of the burial ritual generates a further
series of jokes in the quintil. Having been described with verbal levity
in the title, the poets corpse is now represented as physically light, for
poets cofns are easy to carry. They are then characterized as Botes
violon qui sonnent le creux. Bote violon is a popular expression for a
cofn and sonner le creux means literally to make a hollow sound, and
guratively to lack interest and value, and to be absurd. The line thus
brings together two paradigms which run through the rondels: sonority
(recalling in particular Les caveaux sont sourds from Rondel) and
btise. However, line 11, Ils te croiront mort Les bourgeois sont
btes , makes clear that the bourgeois are the real fools, implying that
they were wrong to think him dead. The lightness of the cofn has been
taken to its logical extreme here. At rst it was described as light because
levity in all its senses was privileged, but the literal interpretation of a
light cofn would be that it is empty, and that it did not contain a
dead poet. The dismissive tone of simples jeux, and suggestion that the
poets death is meaningless, are an expression of the view of those who
are burying him. Corbire ironically incorporates their view into the
poem, only to undercut it in line 11 by showing that the lightness they
see as his absurdity is in fact his strength. For the bourgeois, lightness
literally means an empty cofn, whereas for the poet it means fantastic
ight. The poet is dead to the bourgeois, yet in reality lives on both
in an afterlife and in his poems. The concluding line brings back the
refrain with its euphoric tone, underlining the sense of triumph that
life is continuing into death. Lightness may be emptiness, but it is also
fullness at another level. The poem threatened to take a sinister turn
with the mention of cofns, but ultimately the poet evades the cofn
and has the last laugh.
MALE- FLEURETTE : FI NALI TY
Ici reviendra la eurette blme
Dont les renouveaux sont toujours passs
Dans les curs ouverts, sur les os tasss,
Une folle brise, un beau jour, la sme
On crache dessus; on limite mme,
Pour en effrayer les gens trs-senss
Ici reviendra la eurette blme.
Oh! ne craignez pas son humble anathme
Pour vos ventres mrs, Cucurbitacs!
Elle connat bien tous ses trpasss!
Et quand elle tue, elle sait quon laime
Cest la male-eur, la eur de bohme.
Ici reviendra la eurette blme.
The last rondel integrates the diverse strands of the Rondels pour
aprs in a forceful assertion that the poet will have the last word. The
oxymoronic ower of the title (which plays on Baudelaires Fleurs du
Mal ) represents the poets posthumous existence in various ways. The
ower as image for the poet is the culmination of a gradual encroachment
of vegetation. The rst three poems included isolated specimens of ora,
whereas Mirliton had a full pastoral setting, and Petit mort pour rire
showed the poet metamorphosing into organic material. In Male-
eurette the ower is a metaphor in which the recurring motifs of the
sequence all converge. Angelet says that the key to the owers meaning
is its name, which is suppressed in order to give une aura suggestive
de vague et dimmatriel. However, the suggestiveness of the ower
stems from a plurality of specic connotations, rather than a vague aura.
It is a versatile image because, according to cultural conventions, it can
La Potique de Tristan Corbire, 83.
represent a dead person, a poem, a woman, a poetic genius, transience,
and immortality. It thus encompasses the major themes of poetry,
all of which are woven into the rondels. Love and death had already
coincided in the immortelles and the Amourettes, and the Male-eurette
plays a similar role on a grander scale. The ower reintegrates at a
metaphorical level the divisions which the previous rondels had exposed
in the poet. The preceding poems had suggested self-division through
the complex rhetorical situation, with its je/tu opposition of speaker
and child, but Male-eurette breaks this pattern, being the rst poem
in the sequence to use the third person. The poets divisions are now
objectied in the ower image, and art is presented as a completed
artefact, whereas in the preceding poems it had been a process.
The lexical sense of the refrain is to afrm that the ower will return,
and it quite literally returns every six lines when the refrain is repeated.
Ici refers to the page itself, such that the ower represents the poem
as well as its dead author, playing on the clich of owers representing
poems. This rondel is a version of the art outlives the transient artist
topos. The word reviendra contains within itself both past and future,
and the quatrain embroils this further, in a particularly knotted example
of the temporal uncertainty already observed in preceding rondels. The
refrain uses the future tense to assert that the ower will return, yet
line 2 seems to contradict this by saying that its renewals have already
passed. Furthermore, line 2 is oxymoronic when read in isolation.
Renouveaux are new beginnings, and the parallel between reviendra
and renouveaux, which occupy identical positions in successive lines,
seems to inscribe the possibility of cyclical renewal. However, passs
suggests decline and endings, although it is in itself ambiguous. As an
adjective, it would mean faded, echoing blme in the refrain. As a
verb it could mean that the ower is dead, or suggest that the owers
renaissance seems always to have already happened rather than ever being
a vibrant fact of the present. These negative implications of passs deny
the possibility of novelty, although the refrain and renouveaux assured
perpetuity. However, if the syntax is read as running on into line 3,
passs may be part of the construction passs dans, which would give it a
less negative force. The multiple possibilities offered by passs make the
syntax of lines 24 ambiguous, as it is not clear whether line 3 is going
backwards or forwards. If passs is part of a construction only nished
As shown in Philip Knight, Flower Poetics in Nineteenth-Century France (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1986).
in line 3, the open hearts and piles of bones must be its object, whereas
if passs had marked the end of a syntactic unit, the hearts and bones
must be adverbial phrases which modify the deferred verb sme. In a
sense, the two readings amount to the same thing, because either way
the ower nds its target, so the doubleness of the syntax underlines the
owers tenacity. The way in which the open hearts and piles of bones
are juxtaposed resembles an antithesis, yet, to use Empsons terms, it is
not clear in virtue of what they are to be opposed. It suggests that the
poet has equal dominion over the realms of life and death, thus blurring
this opposition anew.
The tercet shows audience reaction to the fragile ower, reprising
the Romantic theme of imagination versus the poverty of real life. The
rondels systematically oppose poet and bourgeois, and include a lexical
group which relates to the social reality of the poets position (ours,
pav, fesse-cahier, pieds-plats, cigale, les bourgeois sont btes).
Male-eurette brings these together and articulates the theme more
explicitly. Indeed, it suggests that the mysterious voice from beyond the
grave is a histrionic bohemian like the speaker of Bohme de chic or
Paris, and like those voices, exposes its own artice. Line 12 explicitly
locates the ower in the bohemian milieu, emphasizing that it is a far
from pastoral image. However, the self-mockery is complemented by
an underlying seriousness; the ower is rooted in the margins rather
than standing up as a spokesman for humanity, which reects the
overall tendency of the rondels to disguise themselves as ephemeral and
inconsequential whilst indirectly exploring fundamental preoccupations
of the human condition.
The poem progressively magnies the force of the ower, so in the
quintil it becomes an active troublemaker who violently assaults the
bourgeois, caricatural gures dened by their stomachs and labelled
Cucurbitacs (a technical term for melons which denotes stupid by
analogy). These adversaries are ostensibly being told that they have
nothing to fear, but throughout the rondels such reassurances serve to
insinuate the possibility of danger, and this irony is now directed at the
bourgeois rather than at the self. The threat is underlined by the rhyme
of Cucurbitacs with trpasss, which explicitly verbalizes death, so
the curse is revealed to be less anodine than initially suggested. The
nominalization of trpasss makes line 9 indeterminate, by refusing
William Empson, Seven Types of Ambiguity (London: Chatto and Windus, 1930;
repr. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1995), 41.
to spell out the connection between the poet and his trpasss with a
verb. It suggests that the poet-ower may have killed them, in which
case he is no longer merely subject to death but is himself a killer. The
interpolation of bien injects a note of naivety, arousing the suspicion
that his acquaintance with these dead people may be a euphemism for
intimacy. This suspicion is conrmed in line 11, which introduces the
theme of love. Love and death have been constantly brought together
in the rondels, but the links had previously been merely by association,
whereas line 11 blatantly lines up tue and aime on the syntagmatic
axis. The ower is personied as a femme fatale gure in a play on the
topos of woman as ower. Elle sait quon laime is a more forceful
version of on taimera bien from Sonnet posthume. The readers
appreciation of the poet is described in terms of sexual love. The
murderous stance of the ower is vaunted in a tone of levity, as if the
ower were aware of itself as an image for the dead poet and playing up
to its role by boasting of its deadliness.
The refrain does not return in line 12 as expected, so the reader is
given the impression that Corbires deathly rondel has succeeded in
extinguishing the A as well as the B line of the refrain. However, the
readers expectation is belatedly fullled, as the refrain is monumental-
ized in an isolated thirteenth line. In any case, line 12 essentially gives
the same content as the refrain, referring to the ower in utter cond-
ence that it cannot dissolve away, unlike so much else in these poems.
The assertiveness of the last two lines thus gives a satisfactory sense of
closure at the performative level, although there is no facile resolution
of the proliferating meaning or the vacillations between positivity and
negativity. The refrain is technically a very direct statement, yet it is
highly suggestive because so much meaning has accrued around it in
the course of the poem. It simultaneously encapsulates the totality of
the rondels, calls a halt to the circular repetitions, and tells us that the
story is not yet over.
The last line is a reprisal of the rst, but its future tense is superseded
as the ower is literally present on the page of the book. Clive Scott
points out that Rondels have a habit of turning apparent repetition into
real progression. And as they do so, they not only oust the B line, but
transformthe A line into a superseded echo, into a call already answered,
into an affectionate memory. Where the refrains of the other rondels
sounded like posthumous echoes of past naivety when repeated in
The Poetics of French Verse, 125.
the last lineeach poem having gradually revealed an initial euphoric
exclamation to be either illusory or more sinister than it had originally
seemedthe refrain of Male-eurette is superseded in that the reader
can see that it has been immortalized in a work of art. The progression
in Male-eurette occurs at the level of the artistic performance, and
this is also true of the Rondels pour aprs as a whole. The sequence
does not chart a progression in the sense of resolving the mystery of
life and death. Rather, it suggests the possibility of eternal repetitions,
and builds up to an afrmation that art can create a pattern out of this
endless mutation. At a formal level there is a gradual movement away
from fragmented immediacy towards artistic control. This is partly a
result of the cumulative effect of the repetitions; the sequence starts
by disguising itself as ephemeral and inconsequential, but a pattern
gradually emerges, as indirect connections between diverse elements are
brought out, such that every one is overdetermined by the end. The
nal retreat from the cosmic realm to the nite reality of the work of
art is a gesture of Romantic irony by a lucid artist pointing out that
art is merely a ction. Nonetheless, signalling the limits of the work
of art is a way of transcending them. As in Rimbauds Illuminations,
the marvellous ights are glimpsed as transient possibilities, and the
concentrated nature of the visions adds to their suggestive power.
The artistic self-awareness which is openly paraded in Male-eurette
had in fact been driving the cycle from the very start. In conclusion,
I shall draw together some of the threads which run through the
Rondels pour aprs, in order to underline how it functions as a
sequence. The simplicity of the rondels is carefully engineered and they
are linked by a complex pattern of formal echoes and metaphorical
links. Their drama is not played out in a linear narrative; although
the sequence incorporates key scenes from the drama of death (funeral,
decomposition, mourning, afterlife, and posthumous reputation), these
are not in a realistic chronological order or causally connected. Shifts in
tense seem to mark a forward movement; for instance the progression
from quand il fera bien noir in Sonnet posthume to il fait noir in
Rondel suggests that darkness has fallen. However, such advances are
illusory, for subsequent poems refer to death in the future tense. Death
is constantly impending rather than a resting place which is reached. At
a metaphorical level, the poems seem to chart the poets fusion with the
universe, but such linearity is overridden by the dominant patterns of
circularity and repetition.
Repetition has various effects, a fundamental one being to suggest
identity between things that are different, in a ne illustration of
Jakobsons principle that similarity superimposed on contiguity imparts
to poetry its throughgoing symbolic, multiplex, polysemantic essence.
The overall drive of the rondels is to establish equivalence between
opposites such as life and death, partly through imagery yoking dissimilar
things. However, repetition at the level of the non-signifying aspects
of languagemetre, rhymes, and refrainplays an important role in
this blurring of habitual oppositions. It is a major source of ambiguity,
as illustrated by Jean Cohen, who shows that repetition in poetry
undermines the parallelism between sound and sense which is the basis
of communication. For instance, verse poets introduce metrical breaks
at xed intervals rather than whenever a unit of syntax is concluded,
with the result that the sound no longer matches the sense. Rhymes
repeat sounds at regular intervals so there is ressemblance de sons l
o il ny a pas ressemblance de sens.` For Cohen, prose is essentially
linear and verse cyclical,` but he says le message potique est la
fois vers et prose. Une partie de ses lments composants assure le
retour, tandis quune autre assure la linarit normale du discours.
However, the rondels achieve a dense poetic effect by imposing the
principle of circularity on even the most linear elements. As well as
repeating sounds and words, the texts constantly recycle commands
(notably dors), grammatical constructions (notably the genitives such
as voleur dtincelles), antitheses, images, and themes.
Formal repetitions serve to underline the recycling of themes, many
of which in themselves concern recurrence. For instance, the oscilla-
tion between anticipating and remembering rhymes is analogous to the
represented uctuations between promise and memory. An effect of
repeating thematic elements is to insert them in a variety of contexts.
The rondels are a complex suggestive system in which certain core
elements are recombined in different permutations. These elements
are the central topoi of love, death, and art; and elemental opposi-
tions such as light and dark, lightness and heaviness, optimism and
pessimism. Instead of expounding on these themes, the texts fragment
them, so they appear as a series of alternating ickers. Each element
therefore brushes against the others in a variety of circumstances, so
Linguistics and Poetics, 370.
Jean Cohen, Structure du langage potique (Paris: Flammarion, 1966).
` Ibid. 10. ` Ibid. Ibid. 100.
the dislocation permits interpenetration of disparate things, and sug-
gests interconnections between them, in contrast to the disjunction
of Corbires other poems. The emphasis is on the shifting relations
between things rather than on the things themselves. The poems are
able to operate at this allusive level and remain comprehensible because
they use poetic commonplaces, such as the association between sleep
and death.
Rather than combining elements at a purely abstract level, the texts
play on the associations of more particular elements of the natural world,
such as owers. The playful combination of abstract and concrete has
more in common with Renaissance poetry than with Romanticism.
Corbire also uses the sensuous particularity of things to suggest more
intangible notions, in the manner of Eliots objective correlative. Such
techniques bear out Eliots assertion that Corbire, like Laforgue, has the
essential quality of transmuting ideas into sensations, of transforming
an observation into a state of mind. The effect of these strategies is
that the texts refer to concrete things without allowing them to form
a picture. The poems are foregrounded as verbal constructs, and their
internal patterns mean that each element is vastly overdetermined, so
they are more than mere rapprochements arbitraires pour exprimer
linexprimable.
However, this necessity is combined with a suggestive indeterminacy,
resulting from the pervasive irony of the poems. The self-division
enacted in the use of the second person makes for inherent irony, as the
speaker ostensibly addresses the poet from a distance and mocks him,
yet indirectly exalts him. Ambiguity results from the shifting stance of
the speaker, who sometimes retreats so far fromthe addressee as to adopt
the point of view of the bourgeois. The disparity between what is said
and the way it is said makes for complexity; sinister messages are veiled
as cosy reassurances to suggest an ambivalent view of death. Serious
concerns, like death, are treated lightly, but this is a way of expressing
them without giving way to emotional outpourings or high-sounding
meditation. The ironic alternation between offering and denying is
frequently telescoped into a single utterance, the speaker offering love
yet showing its impossibility. The poems enact an oscillation between
delight and despair, so they avoid falling into either extreme. The
formal balance of this oscillation is in itself a source of delight in
the poems. Their transcendence stems from this harmony rather than
Selected Essays, 290. Angelet, La Potique de Tristan Corbire, 65.
from the offered content, which is why it has an intangible quality.
Uncertainty also results from the way temporal uncertainty is built into
constructions. The insistence on nouns, suppression of verbs, and use of
juxtapositions that do not specify causal links between things, makes it
impossible to determine grammatically whether things have happened,
will happen, or might happen. When tenses are used, they rarely serve
to pin down a singular event. This thematic co-presence of past and
future is reected in the circular movement of the rondel form itself.
Such techniques of suggestion produce the effect of an elusive
atmosphere. Corbire has found a way of representing sensations without
having to pin themto a time or place, so they are simultaneously history,
fantasy, and future possibilities. Contradictory elements such as life and
death are collapsed on to each other to give a sense of simultaneity.
However, this suggestiveness is not mere haziness, but is produced by an
accumulation of specic details. Individual images, such as the voleur
dtincelles, are startling as units in themselves, bearing out Eliots point
that suggestiveness is the aura around a bright clear centre, [] you
cannot have the aura alone. Suggesting possibilities without having
to pin them to a time or place is an ideal strategy for representing
the afterlife, which is after all the great unknown, simultaneously a
prospect of horror and liberation. Corbire reinvigorates the traditional
theme of death by locating this uncertainty in the language itself.
Describing death in terms of life is a Romantic commonplace, but
the novelty of the rondels is to suggest this indirectly. Corbire refuses
to elevate the eternal poetic themes into abstractions, but rather than
deriding them or describing their sordid face as he does elsewhere, he
folds their improprieties into the language. Death is presented as a
childlike dream, as though the dead poet were still haunted by infantile
fantasies. The poems approach fundamental existential preoccupations
playfully, suggesting that the major literary themes amount to infantile
impulses and sensations. Far from trivializing these things, the emphasis
on distinct details underlines their immediacy. The poems suggest the
possibility of eternity through formal repetition, rather than explicitly
articulating it, for although things are forever dissolving away and never
pinned down, they nonetheless return relentlessly, as if the uncertainties
of human life are stretched out for all eternity. Transient events become
part of a continuing state of affairs, and it is in this nal irreducibility
of key elements that the poems project the impression of perpetuity.
Selected Essays, 300.
The sense of continuity is produced by the continual recurrence of
things, rather than anything ever being sustained. The nature of death
is suggested indirectly through the series of fragmented utterances,
rather than proclaimed by a Hugolian voice aware that it is offering
cosmic insights. The poems combine vaporisation and centralisation
du Moi, by suggesting at once cosmic aspirations and the poets inner
life. Their status as a ctional utterance to the dead self means that the
poet is at once very close to death and distanced from it. The elliptical
laim, cest toujours lAutre, from Sonnet posthume, had suggested
that death was alien, and the poems go on to explore the tension between
its familiarity and its unfamiliarity, by recombining established motifs
in novel ways. The light inconsequentiality of the tone implies that what
is being described is habitual, which only emphasizes the novelty.
The poems suggest transcendence, and, as this is an intangible notion,
it is appropriate that it should be insinuated, through the lightness of
tone, the ethereal images, the sense of indeterminacy, and the formal
patterns, rather than presented as something one could locate in time
and space, or stated outright as a positive value. It is touched in so lightly
that it is barely possible to equate it with death. By addressing a dead
poet-child, the rondels establish an equivalence between death, poetry,
and childhood, and suggest that transcendence is common to all three.
They show a state shared by children, poets, and the dead, as much as
they represent death in the terms of the other two. The connections
are more important than the individual things in themselves, and these
diverse aspects of reality coincide in the poet. He is both supremely
aware of mortality, as Un jeune qui sen va pithily points out (Mtier :
se rimer nir! | Cest une affaire dhabitude), and childlike in his
fantasy and innocence. The rondels reconcile these two characteristics of
the poet.
However, the ground covered by the poems is not merely euphor-
ic, but incorporates the negative realities of suffering and loneliness.
These are insinuated rather than stridently proclaimed, avoiding both
Romantic introspection and the violent self-irony of some of Corbires
other poems. There is constant vacillation between optimism and pess-
imism, which also frequently coexist at any given moment, so neither
ultimately gains the upper hand. The harmony projected by the rondels
results from the pleasure of the oscillation between alternatives, rather
than from happiness ultimately achieved. Nothing is arrived at, but the
Baudelaire, uvres compltes, i. 676.
meaning of the poems lies in their journey rather than their goal. The
violent contradictions which mark Corbires other work are attenuated
in the rondels; the to and fro movement between proposing and under-
cutting has become the rhythmic movement of the childs cradle rocking
to the music of a lullaby. This is a poetry of sensations rather than ideas;
it makes the unsayable aspects of death, childhood, or poetic vision tan-
gible through an obscure language, rather than offering them as explicit
content. The rondels represent the culmination of his work as they use
all the techniques from his other poems, such as the strong sense of a
speaking voice, irony, dislocation, lexical indeterminacy, and wordplay,
in the most sophisticated way. However, these are transposed into a
different key, and superimposed on the framework of the circular rondel
form which, as Clive Scott says, like all two-rhyme forms, is probably
best suited to the presentation of a static, if deepening experience.
Their magie suggestive results from evocative ambiguity rather than
from derisive incongruity.
French Verse-Art, 158. Baudelaire, uvres compltes, ii. 598.
Conclusion
Tuis study has traced the increasingly complex ironic techniques used
by Corbire. His style is based on vocal multi-layering, which is
used variously to build up a kaleidoscopic picture of the world, to
expose speakers as comic personae, and to evoke the convolutions of
consciousness. Complex rhetorical situations are used to convey self-
division, and this aesthetic culminates in the rondels. Irony is generated
by a wide range of variations on the writerreader relationship, such as
insinuating a distance between author and speaker, or using multiple
voices which force the reader to question who is speaking. This is an
indirect way of expressing personal experience, since poems play out
comic scenes for the benet of the reader, rather than conding directly
in him or her. Sometimes speakers laugh at themselves in order to
exercise lucid control over their suffering, but these shows of rire jaune
can hardly be described as hilarious, so the readers laugh is likely to be
just as hollow as that of the speaker in the poems, and he or she is made
to participate in the ambivalent laughter. However, speakers are often
also being parodied by the poem they are apparently uttering, and the
readers uncertainty over whether to laugh at or with the personae is a
source of discomfort.
It is the combination of these strategies which makes it so difcult
to decide what sort of a book Les Amours jaunes is. It can be seen as
both a cry of despair and a gleeful liberation, simultaneously destructive
and creative. On the one hand, the seemingly innite regress of ironies
risks depriving laughter of its vitality and giving it a negative ring,
but on the other hand, when positive and negative judgements cancel
each other out and it is difcult to identify the target of irony, its
aggressive edge is reduced. When irony is directed at irony itself, it
produces effects of absurdity and acts as a release from suffering. In
the rondels the serious subject of death becomes a childlike game;
humour and poetry are both forms of verbal intoxication which unite
Conclusion 217
the author and reader in laughing at death. Les Amours jaunes may
dwell on disenchantment and impotence, but these negative themes
are expressed in richly multivalent forms. The poetry literally recounts
failures in communication, but its irony communicates indirectly at
another level. Readings which overemphasize the drive towards silence
focus on the literal content, and overlook the way form is used to
convey the sensuous particularity of failure and doubt. To dwell on
the failure is to take his multifaceted verse too literally. Equally, to
accept proclamations within the poetry that it is not art or that its main
feat is to debunk Romanticism (when it was hardly the rst to do so,
and indeed the Romantics themselves initiated the disintegration) is
to fall into the trap of taking Corbire at face value. His verse in fact
constantly undermines its own assertions, and forces us to think about
how the poet wants to be seen. It obliges readers not only to ask who
is speaking in the poems, but also to watch themselves in the process
of reading and to scrutinize their own practice. By provoking such
self-consciousness, Corbire forces the audience to undergo the kind of
self-division described in the poetry.
Eliot observed that Corbires poetry was limited by its focus on
personal feelings, but it is this very use of a wilfully idiosyncratic
standpoint which serves to defamiliarize a whole spectrum of universal
themes. Ideas are dislocated into particular sensations, and signicance
is displaced into connotations, interjections, and evaluative accents. To
deduce general thoughts the reader must grapple with textual details and
consider relationships between them. Personality is fragmented across a
plurality of different voices rather than being channelled into a unied
monologue. Speakers are shown in the process of discovering meanings
rather than presenting completed thoughts, or poems at times seem
to be discovering meanings through their speakers. This is not to say
that the subject vanishes altogether, but rather that it is folded into
the language and explored obliquely. Personality is something more
intangible than merely the sum of what a speaker can say about himself.
The rondels could be pinned down as a description of the unconscious
or the afterlife, but what their condensed language really conveys is
the vast territory that exceeds the unied personality. Irony constantly
transcends self-denigration; although posing personae are often reduced
to gures of fun, many poems more subtly show subjects to be at the
T. S. Eliot, Donne in our Time, in A Garland for John Donne, ed. Theodore
Spencer (Gloucester, MA: Smith, 1958), 15.
218 Conclusion
mercy of forces beyond their control, and thus explore the interplay
between the inner self and the outer world. Inner and outer worlds also
coincide in individual words, as double-voiced utterances bring together
disparate languages, with speakers using the discourse of others against
themselves or their own against others.
This practice of irony is inextricably linked to its cultural context, and
Corbires poetry registers the individuals response to socio-historical
change. For instance, speakers often attack themselves using the terms of
society, and then attack society, so the two cancel each other out. Capital
is degraded in order to valorize poetry as a repository of spiritual values,
but money is simultaneously used to taint art and love, suggesting that
nothing is immune to the ravages of capitalism. Irony cuts both ways, so
that everything is discredited. This double-edged mechanism evokes the
void both internally and externally, and makes it impossible to identify a
coherent value system. Corbire even ironizes the ironic discourses of his
time, whether the bohemian blague or Baudelairian verse. If we step back
and consider the book as a product of its time, it looks like an attempt
to craft a kind of meta-irony, which simultaneously points out the
impossibility of such a project. Indeed, part of Corbires originality is
to have shown that the culture of modernity was so saturated with irony
that it was impossible to get outside it, even by retreating to lyric poetry.
The invasion of irony does not of course destroy verse, but rather
reinvigorates it, and permits Corbire to free poetry from traditional
diction without resorting to free verse or prose. Flaubert escaped the
pohtique` by writing prose whose artistry would rival that of poetry,
but Corbires ickering use of voice breaks the mould of poetry within
verse itself. Baudelaire fused irony with feeling in order to increase
the gravity of poetry, rather than merely undercutting it, and Corbire
takes this practice to a new level. When he parodies Baudelaire, as
in La Pipe au pote, he creates a dense texture which insinuates
more queasy uncertainties than the original. Corbires concerns are
similar to Baudelaires, but articulated as staccato tics and spasms rather
than monumentalized. Corbire attacks the aesthetic of poetry more
comprehensively than his predecessor; he moves further away from
ideals of beauty and introduces greater tonal variation, playing more
on the ambiguity of intonation in writing. He may be dismissed as a
footnote to Baudelaire and forerunner of Laforgue, but he is a crucial
link in the conversational-ironic tradition of Symbolism, which is
` Correspondance, ii. 332.
Conclusion 219
often overshadowed by the serious-aesthetic tradition represented by
Mallarm. This imbalance needs to be corrected, for late nineteenth-
century conversational irony has its own prehistory and a far-reaching
legacy in the twentieth century.
The very term irony often gives rise to critical generalities, and it
seems at times to engulf all that is literary. In this study I have not
attempted to redene irony, but have pinpointed its workings in a
highly particular corpus of verse, in which it permits self-derision, self-
protection, and ultimately liberation, all of which regenerate the lyric
poem. Irony parodies the coherent Romantic subject, but in the process
creates new ludic forms appropriate for the fragmented modern subject.
Irony can be used to assert aggressive superiority, and lyricism can be
used to assert the centrality of the self, but Corbires oblique poetry
undercuts both kinds of authority.
Appendix: An early draft of Veder Napoli poi
mori
Tuis text is transcribed with the permission of the Bibliothque Municipale de
Morlaix. Text of this version is not available in any of the published editions of
Les Amours jaunes. Corbires characteristic handwriting comprises numerous
underlinings and words written with a marked forwards or backwards slant.
These idiosyncrasies are also apparent in the few letters which have survived
from his adult years, and are not easily transcribed by conventional typography.
I have simply italicized the underlinings.
Vedere Napoli morire!
Italia salve! (Coupons dans lItalie)
O caisse dorangers! (Schiller dit: citronniers)
Ah! sur ton sein, lartiste en tous genres oublie
De dclarer sa malle. Ah, voici les douaniers!
O Dante, homme aux lauriers, quont-ils fait de ma malle?
Lasciate speranza! Mes cigares, dedans!
O Mignon! Ils ont effeuill mon linge sale,
Pour le passer au bleu de lternel printems!
Ah voici mes amis, les seigneurs lazzarones
Riches dun doux ventre au soleil,
Des potes aussi, leurs poux sont leurs couronnes,
Clyso-pompant lazur qui baille dans leur ciel.
Et leur far-niente! non! cest encor ma malle,
Non, cest mon sac-de nuit, qu trente, ils ont crev,
Ils grouillent l-dessus comme poux sur la gale,
Ils ne lemportent pas, pur se muove!
Ah! ne les dore plus, va, grand soleil splendide!
Las de pales voyous. a cherche se nourrir.
Ce nest plus le lzard, cest la sangsue vide,
. . . . . . . .
Va, pote, ne pas voir Naples et dormir.
A photographic reproduction can be found in Bibliothque Nationale, Les Plus
Beaux Manuscrits des potes franais (Paris: Laffont, 1991), 26, but the transcription
offered there is of the nal version which appeared in Les Amours jaunes.
Bibliography
THE WORKS OF CORBIRE
Les Amours jaunes (Paris: Glady, 1873).
Casino des Trpasss, LAmricaine: Proses prsentes par E. Drougard (Algiers:
Charlot, 1941).
Les Amours jaunes (Paris: Le Club francais du livre, 1950).
Les Amours jaunes, ed. Yves-Grard le Dantec (Paris: Gallimard, 1953).
uvres compltes, ed. Pierre-Olivier Walzer, in Charles Cros, Tristan Corbire:
uvres compltes, Pliade (Paris: Gallimard, 1970).
Les Amours jaunes, ed. Jean-Louis Lalanne, Posie (Paris: Gallimard, 1973).
Les Amours jaunes, ed. Elisabeth Aragon and Claude Bonnin (Toulouse: Presses
Universitaires du Mirail, 1992).
Armor, Gens de mer, ed. Gilles Plazy (Spzet: Coop Breizh, 2002).
Les Amours jaunes, ed. Christian Angelet, Poche (Paris: Librairie Gnrale
Francaise, 2003).
TRANSLATIONS OF CORBIRE
Daii, Pirii, Wry-Blue Loves: Les Amours jaunes and Other Poems (London:
Anvil, 2005).
Piiiixc, Cuiisroiuii, These Jaundiced Loves: A Translation of Tristan
Corbires Les Amours jaunes (Calstock: Peterloo Poets, 1995).
Sxiirox, Ronix, The Dark Window (Oxford University Press, 1962).
Waixii, Vai, The Centenary Corbire: Poems and Prose of Tristan Corbire
(Cheadle Hulme: Carcanet, 1974).
BOOKS AND ARTICLES ON CORBIRE
Axciiir, Cuiisriax, La Potique de Tristan Corbire (Brussels: Palais des
Acadmies, 1961).
propos dune source de Tristan Corbire, in Handelingen van het
XXVIe Filologencongres. Gent, 2931 maart 1967 (Zellik: Secretariat van de
Vlaamse Filologencongressen, 1968), 22837.
Anon., Les Amours jaunes, La Renaissance artistique et littraire, 2/38 (26 Oct.
1873), 304.
222 Bibliography
Anon., Les Amours jaunes, par Tristan Corbire, LArt universel (1 Nov. 1873).
Aiacox, Eiisaniru, Tristan Corbire et ses voix, in Voix de lcrivain: Mlanges
offerts Guy Sagnes, ed. Jean-Louis Cabans (Toulouse: Presses Universitaires
du Mirail, 1996), 179200.
Bociioio, Giovaxxi, Corbire e le sue maschere (Urbino: Quattro Venti, 1984).
Buicu, Fiaxcis F., Tristan Corbire: LOriginalit des Amours jaunes et leur
inuence sur T. S. Eliot (Paris: Nizet, 1970).
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le concernant (Paris: Nizet, 1975).
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ans aprs la naissance du pote (Bibliothque Municipale de Morlaix, 1996).
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1985).
Dinauvi, Jiax-Louis, Autour de la publication des Amours jaunes, La Nouvelle
Tour de feu, 1113 (1985), 5577.
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(1985), 1259.
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2717.
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Books and Articles on Corbire 223
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224 Bibliography
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Index
Abastado, Claude 26
Agulhon, Maurice 36
Albouy, Pierre 14 n. 11
Album zutique 12 n. 3
Alexander the Great 140
alexandrines 767, 117, 173, 199200
Angelet, Christian 4, 60, 64, 67, 157,
160, 172, 186, 206, 212
Apollinaire
Zone 163
Aragon, Elisabeth 5, 6, 61 n. 24, 99 n.
14, 1767, 192
audience 22, 24, 26, 46, 51, 101, 105,
110, 128, 133, 168, 174, 208; see
also reader, money
Bakhtin, Mikhail 5, 6, 301, 43,
656, 67, 75, 169
Balzac, Honorde 100
Le Pre Goriot 106, 144
Bandelier, Danielle 7 n. 37
Banville, Thodore de
Odes funambulesques 12
Petit Trait de posie franc aise
184
Barbey dAurevilly 15
Barthes, Roland 50, 63
Baudelaire, Charles 9, 1314, 16 n.
26, 74, 97, 1013, 131, 141, 157,
168, 177, 21415, 218
Les Fleurs du Mal 12, 15, 206
une passante 98, 134
Bndiction 135
Une charogne 121
La Chevelure 150
Harmonie du soir 59
LIrrparable 191, 194 n. 43
La Mort des pauvres 162
La Pipe 46, 123
Spleen (Quand le ciel bas et
lourd) 124, 179
Le Spleen de Paris 50, 143
Le Conteor de lartiste 161
La Corde 163
Le Mauvais vitrier 109, 157 n.
38
Perte daurole 98
Les Vocations 109
Bellos, David 37
Benjamin, Walter 112, 121
Bertrand, Jean-Pierre 7 n. 38
biography 4, 5, 1921, 24, 30, 51, 54
la blague 978, 102, 105, 11112,
218
bohemians
Corbire as bohemian 20, 26, 103;
see also pose
language of 95, 101, 111, 218
milieu of 98103; see also Paris
representation of 96, 99103,
1067, 109, 1256, 12930,
146, 155, 208
Booth, Wayne C. 6, 289, 30, 345,
41, 49, 133, 137
Borel, Ptrus 14
Botticelli, Sandro 37
Bourdieu, Pierre 93, 108, 130
bourgeois 24, 32, 89, 53 n. 5, 1014,
129, 155, 1601, 208
Breton, Andr
Anthologie de lhumour noir 16,
19 n. 31, 160
Brittany 1516, 202, 524, 6775,
834
Breton language 53
Breton folklore 612
Brizeux, Auguste 53
Browning, Robert 155
Burch, Francis F. 3 n. 9, 4 nn. 14 and
15, 8 n., 55 n.
Burton, Richard 157 n. 38
B urger, Gottfried August
Lenore 202
capitalization 25, 46, 123, 145, 161,
176, 187
caricature 60
carnivalesque 19, 302
Charles dOrlans 184
Charles-Wurtz, Ludmila 14 n. 11
Chnier, Andr 202 n. 52
Christianity 8390, 99, 101, 108
232 Index
clichs 20, 31, 34, 358, 40, 48, 53,
86, 98, 1014, 11415, 122,
1412, 159, 1615, 166, 207
of Romantic verse 323, 49, 58, 91,
1034, 108, 110, 113, 118,
1248, 150; see also quotation,
pose
clown 110, 127, 155
Cohen, Jean 211
Commune 106
Coppe, Francois 180
Corbire, douard 19, 73, 95
Le Ngrier 23
Les Pilotes de LIroise 23
Corbire, Tristan
la douce amie 18
la mmoire de Zulma 32, 40
lternel Madame 18, 135
ma jument souris 18
mon cotre Le Ngrier 72, 149 n.
Aprs la pluie 48
une camarade 43, 13844, 169
Aurora 73
Au vieux Roscoff 69, 118
Bambine 60, 65
Bohme de chic 32, 99 n. 13,
1014, 208
Bonne fortune et fortune 12 n. 2,
127, 134
Bonsoir 1367, 150 n.
Le Bossu Bitor 31, 55, 57, 59, 64,
68, 70, 73, 7683
C a? 18, 47, 65, 94, 128
Captaine Ledoux 63, 66, 68
La Cigale et le Pote 22, 268,
42
Le Convoi du Pauvre 99101,
107, 118 n. 39
Le Crapaud 123, 1269
Cris daveugle 16 n. 22, 701
Dclin 102, 1367
Dcourageux 99 n. 14, 1558,
196 n.
Djeuner de soleil 162 n. 51
Do, lenfant, do 1918, 203
Le Douanier 74
Duel aux camlias 18, 1515
pitaphe 18, 20, 2931, 33, 40,
94, 99 n. 14, 122 n.
Fminin singulier 18, 162 n. 51
Femme 31, 135
Le Fils de Lamartine et de
Graziella 12, 121, 176
La Fin 18, 58, 91
Fleur dart 18, 99 n. 14, 1378,
154 n.
Frre et sur jumeaux 127
La Goutte 18, 58, 645
Grand Opra 135, 148
Idylle coupe 978, 101, 102,
127
Insomnie 126
Un jeune qui sen va 1045, 196,
214
Laisser-courre 36
Lettre du Mexique 66
Libert 3540, 162 n. 51, 164
Litanie du Sommeil 17, 20,
15968, 1701
Male-eurette 20610
Matelots 56, 60, 63, 65
Mirliton 198201, 204, 206
Moi ton amour 171
Le Mousse 66, 89
Nature morte 602, 71, 83
Le Naufrageur 58, 712
Le Novice en partance et
sentimental 556, 65, 70, 135
Ode au Dperrier 16
Parade 22 n. 35
Paria 345, 39, 40, 148, 162 n. 51
Paris 18, 95, 10512, 120, 128,
137, 157, 167, 208
Paris diurne 17 n. 27, 171
Paris nocturne 17 n. 27, 171
La Pastorale de Conlie 17, 59,
889
Pauvre garcon 136
Paysage mauvais 17, 602, 68
Petit coucher 171
Petit mort pour rire 173, 2016
Le Phare 73
Pierrot pendu 163
La Pipe au pote 12 n. 2, 46,
1236, 129, 135, 150 n., 155,
174, 179, 218
Le Pote contumace 14 n. 14, 30,
96, 99 n. 14, 1448, 176,
179 n. 21, 203
Le Pote et la Cigale 226, 42,
128, 199 n.
Portes et fentres 108
Pudentiane 18
La Rapsode foraine et le Pardon de
Sainte-Anne 53, 56, 67, 70,
8390, 133, 162 n. 51
Index 233
Rapsodie du Sourd 312, 99 n. 13,
155, 1589
Le Rngat 734
Un riche en Bretagne 53
Rondel 172, 173, 18391, 195,
196, 199, 202, 204, 210
Saint Tupetu de tu-pe-tu 84 n.,
162 n. 51
1 Sonnet avec la manire de sen
server 13
Sonnet posthume 162 n. 51,
17383, 185, 1878, 191, 194,
197, 1989, 201, 20910, 214
Steam-boat 48, 14851, 154
Veder Napoli poi mori 11323,
148, 152, 220
Vsuves et C
ie
, 49, 59, 115
Corbin, Alain 161
Crashaw, Richard 87 n. 60
Cros, Charles 45, 169, 202 n. 52
Le Coffret de Santal 12
Culler, Jonathan 21, 111
Dale, Peter 2 n. 8
Dansel, Michel 8 n.
Dante, Alighieri 90
Davies, Margaret 7 n. 37
Debauve, Jean-Louis 3 nn. 10 and 11,
16 n. 23
Decadence 135
Delacroix, Eugne
La Libert guidant le people 37
Descartes, Ren 147
description 38, 52, 5562, 67, 6970,
77, 81, 83, 115, 127, 144
difculty 6, 137
Diogenes 140
Dobay Rifelj, Carol de 63 n. 28
Donne, John 133, 161, 217
Dostoevsky, Fyodor 44
double-voicing 26, 28, 50, 67, 90, 92,
131, 134, 137, 149, 174, 218
dramatic monologue 11, 445, 133,
136, 143, 151, 1545
dream 46, 1236, 155, 1657, 176,
213
Dumas, Alexandre
La Dame aux camellias 151, 153
criture artiste 55, 61
Eliot, T. S. 4, 44
Donne in our time 133, 217
Selected Essays 197, 202, 212, 213
The Varieties of Metaphysical
Poetry 85, 87, 131, 142,
1689, 172, 177
Empson, William 8, 208
epigraph 18, 68, 161
nerie 98
Flaubert, Gustave 21, 501, 55, 70,
92, 95 n. 5, 131, 164
Correspondance 20, 83, 98, 218
Un cur simple 108
Lducation sentimentale 367
Madame Bovary 159
La Premire ducation
sentimentale 105
The Flying Dutchman 76
framing 1718, 223, 28, 112, 121,
128, 160
free verse 143, 169, 218
Fox, John 184 n. 30
Freeman, Mike 37 n. 61
Freud, Sigmund 185, 202
Furst, Lilian R. 7
Gambetta, Lon 59
Gautier, Thophile 54, 55, 56, 81
Gricault, Thodore
Le Radeau de la Mduse 59
Gleize, Jean-Marie 5, 14 n. 15, 62 n.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 11516
Goncourt, Edmond and Jules 24, 61,
95 n. 5
Journal 55
Manette Salomon 55, 978, 99 n.
15, 101
Genette, Grard 23, 64, 77
grands rhtoriqueurs 87
Grifths, Eric 445, 1334, 136, 143,
151, 155
Grojnowski, Daniel 45, 121
Hamburger, Michael 130
Hamon, Philippe 2, 6, 49, 50, 56, 58
n. 17, 67 n., 68, 106 n., 129, 144
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 34
Hersart de la Villemarqu, Thodore
Barzaz Breiz 203 n. 53
Herschberg-Pierrot, Anne 49 n. 88
Hiddleston, J. A. 142 n. 19
Holmes, Anne 7 n. 38
Hopkins, Gerald Manley 184
Hosek, Chaviva 131 n. 2
234 Index
Houston, John Porter 7, 26, 42, 70 n.
44, 88, 133
Howe, Elizabeth A. 45 n. 82
Hugo, Victor 14, 20, 67, 74, 82, 90,
214
LAnne terrible 182 n.
Les Contemplations 19, 29, 46
Ce que dit la bouche
dombre 204 n.
Claire P. 177 n. 18
Les Mages 179
Paroles sur la dune 193
Pasteurs et troupeaux 58
La Lgende des Sicles 37, 79, 127 n.
47
Les Pauvres Gens 63
Les Misrables 180
Notre-Dame de Paris 24 n., 86 n.,
106 n.
Les Rayons et Les Ombres 175
Oceano Nox 91
Les Travailleurs de la mer 56
Hutcheon, Linda 30, 42, 49, 132
Huysmans, J.-K.
rebours 1 n. 3, 61 n. 22
Hyacinthe du Pontavice de Heussey
Le Phare 73
ideology 50, 67, 129
impersonality 13, 14, 44, 54, 56, 70,
92, 111, 127, 134
inspiration 1214, 22, 25, 100,
195
intonation 435, 63, 70, 118, 128,
182, 186
irony, theories of 2831, 335, 38,
41, 445, 4850, 1323; see also
mask, persona, pose, quotation,
wit
italics 118, 171
Italian 192, 195
Italy 36
Vesuvius 49, 115
Naples 11322
Jacob, Max 56
Jakobson, Roman 43, 45, 174, 177,
184 n. 31, 211
Jameson, Fredric 131
Janklvitch, Vladimir 6, 22, 34, 41,
111
je lyrique 31, 33, 457, 95, 123, 126,
147
Jones, Louisa E. 149
Joubert, Joseph 181
Kahn, Gustave 7, 93
Knight, Philip 207 n.
La Fontaine, Jean de
La Cigale et la fourmi 235, 199
LOurs et lamateur des
jardins 1901
Laforgue, Jules 7, 54, 55
Les Complaintes 3, 4, 169
Une tude sur Corbire 3, 4, 9,
334, 43, 45, 52, 58, 767, 95,
103, 134, 1712
La Landelle, Guillaume Joseph G.
de 73, 95
Lamartine, Alphonse de 20, 40, 104,
113, 121
Mditations 111
Laroche, Hugues 5, 14 n. 15, 1718,
104, 160, 164
Lautramont, Comte de
Les Chants du Maldoror 12
Le Chanu, Fabienne 8 n.
Le Dantec, Yves-Grard 16 n. 24
Levi, Ida 17 n. 26
liberty 3440
Lindsay, Marshall 4, 16 n. 26, 54, 96,
126 n., 127, 166
Leconte de Lisle, Charles Marie 14
Preface to Pomes antiques 13, 156
love poems 9, 15, 323, 43, 48,
13448, 155
lullaby 69, 175, 192, 195, 215
lyric I, see je lyrique
Macfarlane, Keith H. 4
Maclean, Marie 50
Mallarm, Stphane 1, 3, 13, 14, 129,
172, 219
Marcelle 16, 17, 227, 42, 199 n.
Marivaux, Pierre Carlet de Chamblain
de 142
Martineau, Ren 4, 16 n. 24, 19 n. 31,
113 n., 127
mask 301, 33, 41, 456, 93, 96, 130,
202
Meitinger, Serge 5, 14 n. 15, 18, 151,
160
Mends, Catulle
La Lgende du Parnasse
contemporain 13
Index 235
Mrime, Prosper
Tamango 66 n. 33
metaphysical poetry 85, 87, 131, 142,
161; see also Eliot
Mitchell, Robert L. 5, 172, 202, 203
Modernists 2, 6
modernity 1, 51, 55, 218
money 267, 32, 70, 93, 1025,
1089, 112, 1212, 134, 218
Montmartre 99
Morlaix 27 n., 11316, 220
Mostrailles, L.-G 4 n. 14
Mourgues, Odette de 87 n. 60
Murger, Henry
Scnes de la vie de bohme 95, 99, 102
Murphy, Steve 157 n. 38
muse 23, 25, 27, 40, 108, 112, 198,
2001
Musset, 14, 26, 73
Le Chandelier 194
Confession dun enfant du sicle 106,
113
Nuit de mai 200
Nakaji, Yoshikazu 7 n. 37
narrative verse 7683
Naturalists 55, 64
Nerval, Grard de
Les Chimres 172
Posies allemandes 2023
New Criticism 44
Newman-Gordon, Pauline 4, 146
Nouveau, Germain 12
Novalis, Baron Friedrich von
Hardenberg 34
novel 7, 39, 44, 51, 56, 77
orality 425, 634; see also speech
originality 13, 96, 159, 218
painters 99101, 1567
Salon 99, 101
pardon 57, 84
Paris 1516, 202, 524, 929,
10513
Parnassians 1314, 92
parody
of Baudelaire 12, 46, 98
of La Fontaine 236
of Malherbe 16
Persius 47
persona 246, 446, 946, 105, 129,
133
pictorial techniques 55, 5763, 6871
Pilling, Christopher 2 n. 8, 157
Poe, Edgar Allan 12, 13 n. 6, 14
polyphony 4151, 65, 101, 127, 161
pose 45, 54, 93, 957, 101, 1036,
10922, 129
Pound, Ezra 1, 2, 4, 54, 56, 72, 138
Powell, Kirsten H. 24 n.
Prendergast, Christopher 1312,
1467, 167
Prometheus 110, 178, 185
prose 7, 11, 43, 767, 211, 218
prostitution
artist as prostitute 27, 1034, 108,
11718, 129
lles de joie 31
lorettes 99
prostitutes 367, 978
Proust, Marcel
Contre Sainte-Beuve 168
punctuation 43, 68, 70, 81; see also
capitalization, suspension points,
typography
puns 31, 33, 68, 119, 147
quotation 44, 48, 68, 812, 118, 139,
150, 161, 175, 197
Rabat, Dominique 2 n. 5
Ramsey, Warren 54
Rannou, Pascal 53
religion 15, 84, 135, 180, 197; see also
Christianity
reviews 34, 13
Richard, Jean-Pierre 132, 172, 1858
Richepin, Jean 45
Ricks, Christopher, 2 n. 8, 8
Riffaterre, Michael 8, 38, 56 n. 63, 62,
181
Rimbaud, Arthur 1, 3, 7, 12, 142 n. 19
Le Bateau ivre 91
Ce quon dit au pote propos des
eurs 13, 157
Illuminations 210
Nocturne vulgaire 153
Lettre du voyant 2
Une Saison en enfer 7, 195
le rire jaune 11, 170, 216
Romanticism 30, 10912, 130,
21214, 217, 219
Romantic poetry 1114, 267, 42,
46, 76, 78, 105, 123, 1556;
see also je lyrique
236 Index
rondel form 1839, 1912, 1967,
200, 204, 2089, 213
Ronsard, Pierre de 116 n. 37
Rossini, Gioacchino
Il Barbiere di Siviglia 195
Rousse, Joseph
La Posie bretonne au XIXe sicle
73 n.
sailors 15, 20, 54, 647, 726,
7982, 91, 148
Saint-Amant, M.-A. Girard 87 n. 60
La Pipe 125
Sainte-Beuve, Charles-Augustin
Vies, Posies et Penses de Joseph
Delorme 20
Sarraute, Nathalie
Pour un oui un pour un non 118
Schiller, Friedrich von 116 n. 36
Scott, Clive 189, 197, 209, 215
Scott, David H. T. 61, 68
Sebeok, Thomas 43 n. 74
Shakespeare, William
Hamlet 142, 147, 163
Macbeth 161
Skelton, Robin 2 n. 8
song 11, 25, 73, 74
popular song 67, 104, 109, 1278,
161, 175, 1834, 195
complainte 70, 90
Au clair de la lune 1967, 199
Sonnenfeld, Albert 4, 15, 16, 21, 54,
75, 115 n. 35
sonnet form 61, 66, 10512, 126, 173
volta 127, 136, 152
speech 415, 47, 69, 72, 77, 120, 133,
155
direct 80, 146; see also dialogue,
quotation
indirect 51, 75; see also
double-voicing, style indirect
libre
popular 63, 66
Spencer, Theodor 133 n. 9
Sperber, Dan 48
spleen 21, 41, 124, 126
Sta el, Anne-Louise Germaine, Mme de
Corinne 115
Stallybrass, Peter 32
Starobinski, Jean 110 n.
Steiner, George 6
Stendhal
De lamour 181
La Chartreuse de Parme 39
style indirect libre 144, 145, 147
Sue, Eugne 23
Surrealists 2
Symbolism 1, 91, 218
suspension points 77, 124, 152,
197
Todorov, Tzvetan 75 n. 49
Turnell, G. M. 75
typography 25, 43
italics 81
roman type 171, 176, 192
Valry, Paul 42
Vaucelle, M. de 3 n. 10
Venus 37, 40
Verlaine, Paul 12, 13, 45, 61, 88, 132,
142 n. 19
Potes maudits 34, 15
La Vie Parisienne 113 n., 115 n. 34,
142 n. 19
Vigny, Alfred de 15 n. 16,
Chatterton 107 n. 24
visionary effects 10, 56, 67, 69, 701,
91, 159, 178, 195
Volosinov, V. N. 43
Walzer, P.-O. 16 n. 24, 22 n. 35
Watson, Lawrence 142 n. 19
Warner, Val 2 n. 8
Williams, Heather 53
Wilson, Edmund
Axels Castle 1, 42
wit 28, 29, 33, 467, 858, 119, 146,
184, 189, 201
women 135, 1378, 14950, 163
Zola, mile 24 n.

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