Organizational Psychology: Theme: Effective Management of People
Organizational Psychology: Theme: Effective Management of People
Organizational Psychology: Theme: Effective Management of People
Organizational Psychology
Major Objectives Understand, predict, and control (manage) behaviour in the workplace
Organizational Psychology
Micro-level Factors
Motivation Attitudes Stress
Performance
Meso-level Factors
Leadership Group Processes
Employee Behaviour
Macro-level Factors
Organizational Structure Organizational Culture
Employee Wellbeing
Motivation
Overview
What is motivation? What should we look for in a theory of
motivation? What are the dominant theories?
Definition
Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individuals being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration.
Pinder (1998)
Motivation Theory
Questions to be Answered What energizes behaviour? What determines the direction of behaviour? What determines the duration of the behaviour? How can motivation be effectively managed?
Motivation Theory
Theoretical Perspectives Need-Motive-Value Theories Behavioural Theories Cognitive Choice Theories Self-regulation Theories
Note. Theories within these categories each take a different perspective on motivation. Each has its strengths and its weaknesses. Together they provide a more complete picture.
Need-Motive-Value Theories
Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory Alderfers ERG Theory Herzbergs Two-Factor (Hygiene-Motivator)
Theory McClellands Theory of Social Motives Hackman & Oldams Job Characteristics Theory
Need-Motive-Value Theories
Common Assumptions Motivation originates from within We seek out situations that can satisfy our needs To motivate others, we must provide opportunities to satisfy their needs
Need-Motive-Value Theories
Differences Number and nature of basic needs Origin of needs Sequencing and timing of activation Consequences of fulfillment Consequences of frustration
Love
Need for Achievement Need for Power (personal and socialized) Need for Affiliation
High internal motivation High quality performance High satisfaction Low absenteeism & turnover
Common Criticisms
Lack of clarity in defining the need construct
(reflected in disagreements among need theorists) Lack of empirical support (testability?) Descriptive rather than explanatory (Tautological)
Presumed cause NEED Inferred existence BEHAVIOUR
Radical Behaviourism
Major Proponent: B.F. Skinner Principle of Reinforcement
Behaviour is a function of its consequences
Extinction punishment
Radical Behaviourism
Some Key Concepts Contingency
Consequences must be depend on the behaviour Cues that signal when the contingency is in effect Fixed or variable scheduling based on response frequency (ratio) or time (interval) Reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behaviour
Discriminative Stimuli
Scheduling
Shaping
Common Criticisms
Accurate but incomplete
Does not explain what energizes behaviour Does not account for individual differences (e.g., responsiveness to reinforcers) Does not take the role of cognition into account Use of extrinsic rewards (e.g., pay can reduce intrinsic motivation)
Focuses on the use of extrinsic consequences Use of operant conditioning techniques to change
behaviour is unethical
Expectancy Theory
Basic Assumptions 1. Cognition (thought) plays an important role in determining behaviour 2. People often make conscious decisions about how to behave 3. Choices are made to attain pleasure and avoid pain
Perceived likelihood that one has the ability to do something Perceived likelihood that the behaviour will produce various outcomes The value placed on the outcomes
Instrumentality
Valence
Expectancy Theory
Relation to Radical Behaviourism
Similarity
Behaviour is a function of its consequences Perceived contingencies are more important than actual contingencies
Key Difference
Expectancy Theory
Empirical Support Mixed Stronger support in predicting within person choices
than between person differences
Equity Theory
Source: Adams (1965) Basic Assumptions People are motivated to maintain equity in exchange relationships Equity is assessed by making social comparisons Equity Os/Is = Oc/Ic Underpayment Inequity Os/Is < Oc/Ic Overpayment Inequity Os/Is > Oc/Ic
Equity Theory
Reactions to Inequity 1) Tension (anger or guilt) strength varies a function of degree of inequity 2) Attempt to reduce inequity
Equity Theory
Strategies for Reducing Inequity Alter ones own O or I Alter the O or I of the comparison Leave the relationship Change comparison Distort perception of O or I
Behavioural Psychological
Research Strategy
EQUITY CONDITION Underpayment Overpayment Quantity Quality METHOD OF PAYMENT Piece-rate Quantity Quality Quantity Quality Quantity Quality
Hourly Wage
Equity Theory
Summary of Research Findings Findings in underpayment conditions are generally consistent with prediction Findings in overpayment conditions tend to be inconsistent
Equity Theory
Common Criticisms Research largely limited to short-term laboratory studies (although there are some exceptions) Ability to predict reactions to inequity is limited by ambiguities concerning:
Equity Theory
Recent Developments Individual differences in sensitivity to equity norms (Huseman et al., 1987)
Self-Regulation Theories
Social Cognitive Theories Control Theories Goal-Setting Theory
Person
Environment
Self-observation
Control Theories
Example: Carver & Scheier (1981, 1998)
Goal (Standard) Behaviour Performance Feedback Comparator Goal choice Note. Motivation results from a need to reduce discrepancies Negative feedback loop
People assigned difficult and specific goals outperform those assigned easy, no, or ambiguous goals
90 80 70 60
Do best
50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
10 11 12
undesirable competition overemphasis on some aspects of performance and neglect of others (e.g., quantity over quality)
Identify needs that energize behaviour (common human qualities and individual differences) Focuses on environmental effects on behaviour helps to explain direction
Behaviour Theory
Emphasize the role of thought and volition, and the interaction of person and environment