CHEM2 REVISION

ENERGETICS
Enthalpy energy per mole

ENDOTHERMIC
Endothermic describes a reaction in which heat energy is taken in as the reactants change to products; thus the temperature drops The products are less stable than the reactants; they have more energy H = +ve

EXOTHERMIC
Exothermic describes a reaction in which heat energy is released as the reactants change to products; thus the temperature rises The products are more stable; the lower the chemical potential energy of a given chemical species, the more stable it is H = -ve q = mcT ENERGY REQUIRED = MASS HEATED X SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY X TEMPERATURE RISE

Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to heat 1g of a substance by 1K

H = q/mols ENTHALPY CHANGE = ENERGY REQUIRED/MOLES

HESSS LAW
Hesss law states that the enthalpy change for a chemical reaction is the same, whatever route is taken from reactants to products

ENTHALPY OF FORMATION
The energy change when one mole of substance is formed from its elements in their standard state at 298K and 100kPa

ENTHALPY OF COMBUSTION

The energy change when one mole of substance is completely burnt in a plentiful supply of oxygen, under standard conditions of 298K and 100kPa Standard enthalpies of combustion almost always have negative values, as burning a substance in oxygen is almost always exothermic

BOND DISSOCIATION ENTHALPY

The energy required to separate completely the atoms in one mole of covalent bonds

MEAN BOND ENTHALPIES

H = bonds broken bonds made Mean bond enthalpy means the energy that must be put in to break a particular bond. It is the average for the bond in question taken over a range of compounds containing that bond Mean bond enthalpies only give you approximate values for enthalpy changes

KINETICS COLLISION THEORY collision frequency

If a chemical reaction is to take place between two particles, they must collide first The number of collisions between particles per unit time is known as collision frequency

collision energy
Unsuccessful collisions happen when the colliding species do not have enough energy to break the necessary bonds If they do not have sufficient energy, the collision will not result in a chemical reaction The combined energy of the colliding particles is known as the collision energy

MAXWELL-BOLTZMANN DISTRIBUTION
The area under the line is the total number of molecules this stays constant as there are the same number of molecules Only molecules which have energy greater than or equal to the activation energy can react when they collide in the correct orientation

ACTIVATION ENERGY
The minimum energy the colliding particles need in order to react is known as the activation energy Activation energy can be changed by the addition of a catalyst

CATALYSTS
A catalyst is a substance which speeds up a chemical reaction by offering the reactants an alternative reaction pathway that has a lower activation energy, but remains chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF REACTION CONCENTRATION

The greater the concentration of the species, the greater the number of species per unit volume The greater the frequency with which they will collide; collision frequency is increased

PRESSURE
The greater the pressure in a gaseous mixture, the greater the number of species per unit volume

The greater the frequency with which they will collide; collision frequency increases

PARTICLE SIZE
If a sample of a solid is crushed into smaller pieces, the surface area of the solid will increase More of the solid particles are exposed to the other reactants, and there is more likely to be a collision; collision frequency increases

TEMPERATURE COLLISION ENERGY

The particles have greater mean kinetic energy, and so collision energy is increased It follows that an increase in temperature will increase the number of colliding particles with an energy equal to or greater than the activation energy

COLLISION FREQUENCY
At a higher temperature, the molecules have more kinetic energy and are thus moving faster They collide more often, and the collision frequency increases

CATALYSTS
A catalyst is a substance which changes the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being chemically altered at the end of the reaction Catalysts provide an alternative reaction pathway, which has a lower activation energy than the uncatalysed reaction Since the activation energy is reduced, the number of particles which have sufficient energy to react will therefore increase; the fraction of successful collisions increases Effect on collision frequency Decrease particle size (solids only) Increase concentration (liquids and gases) Increase pressure (gases) Increase temperature Add catalyst Increases Effect on collision energy Effect on activation energy No effect Effect on fraction of successful collisions No effect On rate of reaction

No effect

Increases

Increases

No effect

No effect

No effect

Increases

Increases Increases No effect

No effect Increases No effect

No effect No effect Decreases

No effect Increases Increases

Increases Increases Increases

EQUILIBRIA DYNAMIC
The forward and reverse reactions are both taking place simultaneously and at the same rate

EQUILIBRIUM
The reactions take place at the same speed; the concentration of all reactants and products remain constant

POSITION OF EQUILIBRIUM
Equilibrium lying to the left means there are more reactants than products Equilibrium lying to the right means there are more products than reactants E.g. in 3H2 + N2 2NH3, when equilibrium lies to the right, there is more NH3 than H2 and N2

LE CHATELI ERS PRINCIPLE

Le Chateliers Principle states that if the conditions of an equilibrium are changed, the position of the equilibrium will move to oppose that change Such constraints can be the addition or removal of one of the reactants or products, a change in pressure, a change in temperature, or the addition of a catalyst For example, if we make it hotter, equilibrium moves to cool it by favouring the endothermic reaction

EFFECTS ON THE POSITION OF EQUILIBRIUM CONCENTRATION

If a reactants concentration in a system is increased, the system will move to the right in order to decrease the concentration of that reactant If the reactants concentration is decreased, the system will move to the left in order to replace that reactant Similarly, if a products concentration is increased then the system will move to the left in and if a products concentration is decreased then the system will move to the right WHEN THE CONCENTRATION OF ONE OF THE SPECIES IS INCREASED, THE SYSTEM WILL MOVE TO REMOVE THAT SPECIES. WHEN THE CONCENTRATION OF ONE OF THE SPECIES IS DECREASED, THE SYSTEM WILL MOVE TO REPLACE THAT SPECIES

TEMPERATURE
If the temperature is raised, the equilibrium moves to cool down by moving in the endothermic direction If the temperature is lowered, the equilibrium favours the exothermic direction to raise the temperature

For example, 3H2 + N2 2NH3, the forward reaction is exothermic, so if the temperature is increased or too high then equilibrium favours the reverse reaction, which is endothermic and breaks down ammonia WHEN THE TEMPERATURE IS INCREASED, THE SYSTEM WILL MOVE IN THE ENDOTHERMIC DIRECTION IN ORDER TO DECREASE THE TEMPERATURE. WHEN THE TEMPERATURE IS DECREASED, THE SYSTEM WILL MOVE IN THE EXOTHERMIC DIRECTION IN ORDER TO INCREASE THE TEMPERATURE

PRESSURE
If pressure is increased, equilibrium moves to reduce it by moving towards the side with fewest gas molecules If pressure is decreased, equilibrium moves to increase it by moving towards the side with most gas molecules If there is the same number of molecules on each side, then equilibrium cannot move WHEN THE PRESSURE IS INCREASED, THE SYSTEM WILL MOVE TO THE SIDE WITH FEWER MOLECULES IN ORDER TO DECREASE THE PRESSURE. WHEN THE PRESSURE IS DECREASED, THE SYSTEM WILL MOVE TO THE SIDE WITH MORE MOLES IN ORDER TO INCREASE THE PRESSURE

CATALYSTS
The addition of a catalyst will have no effect on the position of equilibrium; it will increase the rate of the forward and reverse reactions, but by the same amount - the position of equilibrium will thus be unchanged This means that the addition of a catalyst decreases the activation energy of the forward and reverse reactions by the same amount WHEN A CATALYST IS ADDED, THE RATES OF THE FORWARD AND REVERSE REACTIONS ARE INCREASED BY THE SAME AMOUNT AND THE POSITION OF EQUILIBRIUM IS THUS UNAFFECTED

THE CONTACT PROCESS

Contact process is important in the manufacture of sulphuric acid The most important step is the conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) H forward reaction = exothermic

TEMPERATURE
The forward reaction is exothermic, and so an increase in temperature will decrease the yield of sulphur trioxide; the position of equilibrium is thus favoured by low temperature However, if the temperature is too low, the rate of reaction will be so slow that sulphur trioxide is not produced quickly enough for the reaction to be commercially viable Therefore, the temperature is a compromise

PRESSURE

The reaction involves a reduction in the number of gas molecules, and so an increase in pressure will increase the yield of sulphur trioxide. High pressure also favours the rate of reaction, however, the cost of maintaining conditions of high pressure is significant, and this limits the maximum pressure that can be applied

CATALYST
Catalysts increase rate of reaction without affecting position of equilibrium; the reaction therefore takes place in the presence of a V2O5 catalyst, which ceases to be effective at very low temperatures, placing a further constraint on the minimum temperature which can be used Optimum conditions are 400 and a little above atmospheric pressure. Under these conditions, a yield of 98% is achieved

THE HABER-BOSCH PROCESS

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) H forward reaction = exothermic

TEMPERATURE
A lower temperature would lower the reaction rate, slowing it down so that ammonia is not produced quickly enough to be commercially viable, however, if a higher temperature was used, equilibrium would favour the endothermic reaction, which breaks down ammonia Therefore, a compromise temperature is used

PRESSURE
The reaction involves a reduction in the number of gas molecules, and so an increase in pressure will increase the yield of ammonia, and high pressure also favours the rate of reaction A higher pressure is expensive to achieve and difficult to control, but if pressure is decreased, equilibrium will favour the side of the reaction which has the most molecules on, so equilibrium will favour the reverse reaction and ammonia will be broken down

CATALYST
A catalyst of pea-sized lumps of iron is used Catalysts speed up rates of reaction; they do not alter the position of equilibrium, however they do reduce the time taken for equilibrium to be reached Optimum conditions for this reaction are 450C and 200atm; under these conditions a 15% yield is achieved

THE PRODUCTION OF ETHANOL

H2C=CH2(g) + H2O(g) C2H5OH(g) H forward reaction = exothermic

Excess steam is also used to push the equilibrium to the right and ensure all of the ethene is used up A number of other factors must be considered:

Low temperature slows down the reaction rate High temperature can cause the ethane to polymerise High pressure increases the cost of equipment Too much steam dilutes the catalyst

Chosen temperature is 300C and chosen pressure is 65atm, and concentrated phosphoric acid catalyst used Yield achieved is only 5% but reactants can be recycled

PRODUCTION OF METHANOL
CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH(g) H forward reaction = exothermic

Best yield obtained by using low temperature and high pressure Compromise conditions of 230C and 100atm used, and copper catalyst Yield is only 5%, but reactants can be recycled

CARBON NEUTRALITY
A carbon neutral process is one which has no net carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere Methanol and ethanol can both be burnt to release energy; they are very useful fuels as they generally release less polluting gases than hydrocarbon fuels Ethene is made from crude oil; ethanol produced from ethane is non-renewable, & as the combustion of ethanol releases carbon dioxide, this process is therefore not carbon neutral Most carbon monoxide is made by reacting methane or propane with steam, so methanol produced in this way is non-renewable, & as the combustion of methanol releases carbon dioxide, this process is not carbonneutral It is possible to make ethanol by fermentation of glucose; glucose can be made quickly by planting sugar and so the ethanol made in this way can be considered renewable Overall process of growing sugar, fermenting it and burning the ethanol is also a carbon neutral process: 1. 2. 3. Production of glucose: 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 3O2 (6 molecules CO2 absorbed) Fermentation of glucose: C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 (2 molecules CO2 released) Combustion of ethanol: C2H5OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O (2 molecules CO2 released per ethanol)

REDOX REACTIONS
OIL RIG Oxidation Is Loss (of electrons) Reduction Is Gain (of electrons)

OXIDATION NUMBERS
Oxidation numbers (or states) tell you how many electrons an atom has lost or gained Oxidation occurs when the oxidation state of an element increases (becomes more positive) Reduction occurs when the oxidation state of an element decreases (becomes more negative)

RULES FOR WORKING OUT OXIDATION STATES

0 = oxidation state of an uncombined element 0 = sum of the oxidation states of elements in an uncharged formula Charge of formula = sum of oxidation states of elements in a charged formula -1 = oxidation state of fluorine in any formula +1 = oxidation state of an alkali metal (group 1) in any formula +2 = oxidation state of an alkaline earth metal (group 2) in any formula -2 = oxidation of oxygen in any formula (unless with fluorine/-1 in peroxides) -1 = oxidation state of halogen (group 7) in metal halides +1 = oxidation state of hydrogen

REDOX REACTION
A redox reaction occurs when two different species in a reaction are being reduced and oxidised simultaneously

ELECTRON HALF EQUATIONS

Half equations show the loss or gain of electrons by a species When magnesium reduces hot copper (II) oxide to copper, the ionic equation for the reaction is: 2+ 2+ Cu + Mg Cu + Mg You can split the ionic equation into two parts and look at it from the point of view of the magnesium and of the copper (II) ions separately. This shows clearly that the magnesium has lost 2e-, and the copper (II) ions have gained them; 2+ Cu + 2e- Cu 2+ Mg Mg + 2e-

HALF EQUATIONS
Any redox reaction is made up of two half reactions: in one of them electrons are being lost (an oxidation process) and in the other one those electrons are being gained (a reduction process)

THE RULES FOR WRITING HALF EQUATIONS

Only one element can gain or lose electrons The half equation must balance for atoms The equation must balance for charge (by adding e- or H+)

If your constructed half equation doesnt satisfy all these rules, rewrite it We can add things to our equations to make everything balance: All you are allowed to add is: Electrons to balance charge Water if you need a source of oxygen (will produce H+) Hydrogen ions (H+) if there are too many oxygens

OXIDISING AND REDUCING AGENTS

The species which is reduced is accepting electrons from the other species and thus causing it to be oxidised thus it is an oxidising agent The species which is oxidised is donating electrons to another species and thus causing it to be reduced it is thus an oxidising agent

DISPROPORTIONATION
Disproportionation is a type of redox reaction in which the oxidation number of some atoms of a particular element increases and that of other atoms of the same element decreases For example: Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HClO(aq) + HCl(aq) In this reaction, the oxidation number of one of the chlorine atoms increases from 0 to +1 and that of the other decreases from 0 to -1

GROUP 7, THE HALOGENS

Each atom in this group has seven valence electrons, so they tend to form diatomic molecules they are thus simple molecular, with weak intermolecular forces between the molecules

MELTING AND BOILING POINTS

Halogen Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine

Melting point/C -220 -101 -7 114

Boiling point/C -188 -35 59 184

The melting and boiling points of the halogens increase steadily down the group. This is due to the increase in strength of the Van der Waals forces of attraction between the molecules, which results from the increasing number of electrons in the molecule and the increasing surface area of the molecule

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a covalent bond. The electronegativity of the halogens decreases down the group Halogen F Cl Br I Electronegativity 4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5

As the number of shells increases, the shielding increases and the electrons in the covalent bond are further from (and more shielded from) the nucleus. Therefore they are less strongly attracted to the nucleus and the electronegativity decreases

THE OXIDISING POWER OF THE HALOGENS

Halide (aq) Cl (aq) Br (aq)

-

Halogen (aq) Cl2(aq)

Br2(aq) Stays yellow solution No reaction

I (aq)

Yellow solution forms (Br2) Cl2 + 2Br Br2 + 2Cl Brown solution forms (I2) Cl2 + 2I I2 + 2I

I2(aq) Stays brown solution No reaction Stays brown solution No reaction

Brown solution forms (I2) Br2 + 2I 2Br + I2

When a halogen acts as an oxidising agent, it gains electrons (taken from the oxidised species) X2 + 2e 2X
-

Down the group it becomes harder to gain an electron because atoms are larger and there is more shielding (due to extra electron shell)

THE REDUCING POWER OF THE HALIDES

Halide ClBr-

I-

Product HCl Br2 SO2 HBr HI I2 SO2 S H2S

Observation Steamy fumes Brown fumes Colourless gas Steamy fumes Steamy fumes Purple fumes Colourless gas Yellow solid Gas (bad egg smell)

Reaction type Acid-base Redox Redox Acid-base Acid-base Redox Redox Redox Redox

Equation NaCl + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HCl + 2Br + H2SO4 + 2H Br2 + SO2 + 2H2O + 2Br + H2SO4 + 2H Br2 + SO2 + 2H2O NaBr + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HBr NaI + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HI + 2I + H2SO4 + 2H I2 + SO2 + 2H2O + 2i + H2SO4 + 2H I2 + SO2 + 2H2O + 6I + H2SO4 + 6H 3I2 + 4H2O + S + 8I + H2SO4 + 8H 4I2 + H2S + 4H2O

When a halide ion acts as a reducing agent, it loses electrons (given to the reduced species) 2X X2 + 2e
-

Down the group, it becomes easier to lose an electron because ions are larger and there is more shielding (due to extra electron shell)

TESTS FOR HALIDE IONS

Halide ion FCl-

Action of AgNO3(aq) No precipitate + Ag (aq) + Cl (aq) AgCl(s) white precipitate Ag (aq) + Br (aq) AgCl(s) cream precipitate Ag (aq) + I (aq) AgCl(s) yellow precipitate
+ + -

Action of dilute HNO3(aq) n/a Soluble AgCl(s) + 2NH3(aq) [Ag(NH3)2]+(aq) + Cl-(aq) Insoluble

Br-

I-

Insoluble

Action of concentrated HNO3(aq) n/a Soluble AgCl(s) + 2NH3(aq) + [Ag(NH3)2] (aq) + Cl (aq) Soluble AgBr(s) + 2NH3(aq) + [Ag(NH3)2] (aq) + Br (aq) Insoluble

GROUP 2, THE ALKALINE EARTH METALS

All group 2 elements conduct electricity, because the delocalised electrons are free to move throughout the solid

ATOMIC RADIUS
As you go down the group, the number of shells increases, because each element has an extra filled main level, so atomic radius increases

FIRST IONISATION ENERGY

The atomic radius increases as we go down the group, so the outermost electron is further away from the positive nucleus, and there is more shielding, therefore the first ionisation energy decreases

MELTING POINT
There is a change in crystal structure between Mg and Ca and between Sr and Ba which affects the distance between the ions and thus the strength of the metallic bond Electrostatic attraction decreases due to ionic radius increasing, so the metallic bond strength decreases, and melting point decreases

REACTION OF GROUP 2 ELEMENTS WITH WATER

Since ionisation energies decrease down a group, the electrons are more easily removed from the atoms and the reaction with water becomes increasingly vigorous on descending group 2 The reactions of Mg and Be with water are very slow; as Be(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2 are insoluble in water, the hydroxide formed remains on the surface of the metal, preventing further reaction

M(OH) 2 SOLUBILITY
Solubility increases Mg(OH)2 is sparingly soluble, forming a mildly alkaline solution which is sold as milk of magnesia, an antacid Ca(OH)2 will form up to 0.1 mol dm solution, limewater, used as a test for CO2
-3

MSO 4 SOLUBILITY
Solubility decreases BaSO4 is insoluble; barium meal, shows up as a big white mass on x rays BaCl2(aq) is used as a test for sulphate anions: 2+ BaCl2(s) + H2O(l) Ba (aq) + 2Cl (aq) 2+ 2Ba (aq) + SO4 (aq) BaSO4(s)

EXTRACTION OF METALS EXTRACTING METALS FROM THEIR ORES

Minerals compounds in which metals exist Ore rocks which contain this mineral

THE BEST METHOD TO USE?

Will the method be successful? depends on the reactivity of the metal How much do the reactants cost? raw materials vary widely in cost What purity is needed, & is it expensive to achieve? some metals are not useful unless pure, others are useful impure How much energy does the process use? high temperatures and electrolysis use a lot of energy How efficiently, and in what quantity can the metal be made? continuous processes are more efficient than batch processes Are there any environmental concerns? some processes produce a lot of pollutants

REACTIVITY SERIES
Kranky Nasty Cats eat Magpies and All (Carbon) Zebras Feel Snug Personally Hydrogen Cuddling Aging Aunties

SULFIDE ORES
Sulphide ores cannot be converted directly into the metal; instead they must first be converted to the oxide this is achieved by roasting them in air: 2ZnS + 3O2(g) 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g) 2PbS + 3O2(g) 2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g) Large quantity of SO2 produced, so environmental problems of acid rain; can react with CaO to get rid forms gypsum for plaster/ react to make H2SO4

REDUCTION OF METAL OXIDES WITH CARBON

Can be used to extract metals below carbon in the reactivity series cheap and effective method, e.g. iron

EXTRACTION OF IRON FROM HAEMATITE

Iron extracted from its principal ore of haematite by reacting with carbon monoxide in the blast furnace Coke and haematite added continuously to the top of the blast furnace, and hot air blown in the base Coke reacts with oxygen at the base of the furnace to produce CO2 exothermic reaction & keeps furnace hot: C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

CO2 rises up the furnace and reacts with more coke to produce carbon monoxide endothermic reaction: CO2(g) + 2C(s) 2CO(g) Carbon monoxide is a reducing agent and reduces the haematite to iron: Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g) Liquid iron sinks to base of furnace and is tapped off Some haematite reduced directly by carbon: Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g) End up with carbon impurities, but this can be good as it adds to the strength of the iron (steel)

EXTRACTION OF MANGANESE AND COPPER

MnO2(s) + 2CO(g) Mn(l) + 2CO2(g) MnO2(s) + 2C(s) Mn(l) + 2CO(g) CuO(s) + CO(g) Cu(l) + CO2(g) CuO(s) + C(g) Cu(l) + CO(g)

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES

Raw materials very cheap Reaction is exothermic, so less energy is needed to keep the furnace hot Purity of the iron is sufficient for most steel-making purposes Continuous process which means iron can be made more efficiently and consistently

DISADVANTAGES
Use of carbon means CO2 is released (greenhouse gas) Metals higher than carbon in the reactivity series cannot be extracted this way Metals which react to form carbides (titanium and tungsten) cannot be extracted this way Metals that need to be very pure cannot be produced this way as the metal produced always contains significant quantities of carbon

REDUCTION OF OXIDES BY ELECTROLYSIS

Metals which form ionic oxides can be extracted by electrolysis of the metal oxides; as this is expensive it is generally used for metals which are too reactive for extraction by any chemical means, e.g. aluminium Aluminium occurs most predominantly as bauxite, which is an impure form of Al 2O3 Extraction of aluminium takes place in two principal stages: purification and electrolysis of purified Al 2O3 Once the bauxite has been purified, electrolysis can start

Al2O3 has melting point of 2000C, which is too high for electrolysis feasibly; thus dissolved in molten cryolite, Na3AlF6, and solution electrolysed at 900C Oxygen is liberated at the anode (+), which is made of graphite: 2O O2(g) + 4e
2-

Aluminium is liberated at the cathode (-), which is also made of graphite: Al + 3e Al(l) Overall reaction is thus as follows: 2Al2O3 4Al(l) + 3O2(g) The cylinders in the middle of the cell are the anodes, and the sides and base of the container are the cathodes The molten aluminium sinks to the bottom of the cell and can be tapped off Oxygen liberated at the anode reacts with the graphite electrode, which burns slowly and must therefore by replaced regularly: C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
3+ -

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES

Continuous process, so is efficient and consistent Makes the metal in pure form

DISADVANTAGES
Cost of melting the aluminium and supplying the energy for electrolysis is very high Only works for ionic oxides

REDUCTION OF METAL HALIDES WITH MORE REACTIVE METALS

In many cases carbon cannot be used to reduce the metal oxide to the metal as the metal reacts with carbon to form the carbide instead, e.g. tungsten and titanium TiO2(s) + 3C(s) TiC(s) + 2CO(g) 2WO3(s) + 9C(s) W2C3(s) + 6CO(g) A reactive metal could be reacted with the oxide, such as Mg: TiO2(s) + 2Mg(s) Ti(s) + 2MgO(s) However, it is very difficult to achieve pure titanium by method as the magnesium forms an alloy with the titanium Possible to avoid this problem by first converting the ore to the chloride, and then reducing the chloride with Mg or Na

EXTRACTION OF TITANIUM

TiO2 heated in a stream of chlorine, in the presence of coke, to produce TiCl4: TiO2(s) + 2C(s) + 2Cl2(g) TiCl4(g) + 2CO(g) TiCl4 is covalent and volatile, and can be separated from other products by fractional distillation The Ti is extracted from its chloride by reduction with Mg or Na: TiCl4(g) + 2Mg(l) Ti(s) + 2MgCl2(l) TiCl4(g) + 4Na(l) Ti(s) + 4NaCl(l) Reactions are exothermic and keep vessel at very high temperature Process is known as the Kroll process Inert atmosphere of argon used to prevent Mg or Na reacting with oxygen

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES

Produces very pure titanium

DISADVANTAGES
Batch process so Ti is not produced continuously also adds to the cost of the process Na/Mg are expensive Energy costs very high

Due to the high cost of the process, Ti not widely used, despite its useful properties; steel is used instead unless the special properties of Ti are specifically needed

REDUCTION OF METAL OXIDES WITH HYDROGEN

Hydrogen can also be used as a reducing agent, and is the main method for the extraction of tungsten from its oxide

EXTRACTION OF TUNGSTEN
Tungsten is reacted with hydrogen gas at a high temperature: WO3 + 3H2 W + 3H2O

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES

Produces very pure tungsten Hydrogen is a cheap reagent

DISADVANTAGES
Energy costs are high Using a flammable gas such as hydrogen at high temperature is very dangerous H2 comes from breaking down CH4, which is a fossil fuel

RECYCLING REASONS FOR RECYCLING

Recycling generally uses less energy than extraction Mines and quarries are unsightly The extraction process produces polluting gases like SO 2 and CO2 Disposing of scrap metal is difficult Most scrap metal contains a high % of the desired metal, so the process can be quite efficient

PROBLEMS WITH RECYCLING

Collection of scrap metal scrap needs collecting from wherever it is used, and there are costs involved with this Removing the desired metal from the rest of the scrap once collected, the desired metal needs to be separated from the other metals, and unless the metal is magnetic, this needs to be done manually Purifying the desired metal once separated, the metal needs to be returned to the purity required for it to be useful, and there are costs involved with this

METHODS OF RECYCLING ALUMINIUM

Most of the recycled aluminium is from drinks cans and foil The cans are collected at recycling points The cans are shredded and the paint removed The metal is melted down into large ingots The ingots are rolled into sheet metal, from which more cans are cut out

IRON
Most of the recycled iron is from old trains etc., and so the collection is done by specialist metal reclaiming companies due to their size The objects are cut into a manageable size Iron is separated from other metals using a large magnet Scrap is melted and purified in the Basic Oxygen Process

The purity required for the commercial use of titanium and tungsten means that recycling is not commercially viable

USING SCRAP IRON TO EXTRACT COPPER

A recent low-energy innovation for extracting copper is to convert copper compounds into aqueous form and react them with scrap iron Copper ores are converted into solutions containing Cu2+ ions using dilute H2SO4 and a specialised bacterium The copper ions are then reduced to copper using scrap iron: 2+ 2+ Cu (aq) + Fe(s) Cu(s) + Fe (aq)

ADVANTAGES
Uses very little energy (although energy would have been used to make the iron) Works on very low grade ores, including copper mining waste Iron is much cheaper than copper