Dimensional Analysis

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
BY
P.
W. BRIDGMAN
II
PEOFESSOE OF PHYSICS IN HAEVAED UNIVEESITY
NEW HAVEN
LONDON
:
YALE^ UNIVERSITY PRESS HUMPHEEY MILFOED OXFOED UNIVEESITY PEESS

:
MDCCCCXXII
COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
PEEFACE
substance of the following pages was given as a series of five lectures to the Graduate Conference in Physics of Harvard Univer-
THE
sity in the spring of 1920.
The growing use of the methods of dimensional analysis in technical physics, as well as the importance of the method in theoretical investigations, makes it desirable that every physicist should have this method of analysis at his command. There is, however, nowhere
a systematic exposition of the principles of the method. Perhaps the reason for this lack is the feeling that the subject is so simple that
any formal presentation
is
superfluous. There do, nevertheless, exist
important misconceptions as to the fundamental character of the method and the details of its use. These misconceptions are so wide-
and have so profoundly influenced the character of many speculations, as I shall try to show by many illustrative examples, that I have thought an attempt to remove the misconceptions well
spread,
worth the
effort.
attempted a systematic exposition of the princithe method of dimensional analysis, and have illusples underlying trated the applications with many examples especially chosen to
I have, therefore,
emphasize the points concerning which there is the most common misunderstanding, such as the nature of a dimensional formula, the proper number of fundamental units, and the nature of dimensional constants. In addition to the examples in the text, I have
included at the end a
will be
number
of practise problems, which I hope
found
instructive.
The introductory chapter is addressed to those who already have some acquaintance with the general method. Probably most readers will be of this class. I have tried to show in this chapter by actual examples what are the most important questions in need of discussion.
The reader
to
whom
the subject
is
entirely
new may omit
this
chapter without trouble.

I
am under
ingham on
this subject. I
especial obligation to the papers of Dr. am also much indebted to Mr.
Edgar BuckM. D. Hersey
of the Bureau of Standards, who a number of years ago presented Dr. Buckingham's results to the Conference in a series of lectures.
September, 1920.
497291
CONTENTS
Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter
Introductory II. Dimensional Formulas III. On the Use of Dimensional Formulas in Changing Units
I.
.... ....
PAGE
1
17
28
36
IV. The
Theorem
Y. Dimensional Constants and the Number of Fundamental Units VI. Examples Illustrative of Dimensional Analysis
.......
of
.
....
48
66
VII. Applications
Dimensional Analysis to Model Experiments. Other Engineering
Applications Chapter VIII. Applications to Theoretical Physics
.....
81
88
Problems Index
107
111
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTORY
APPLICATIONS of the methods of dimensional analysis, to simple problems, particularly in mechanics, are made by every student of physics. Let us analyze a few such problems in order to refresh our minds and get before us some of the questions which must be
answered in a critical examination of the processes and assumptions underlying the correct application of the general method. "We consider first the illustrative problem used in nearly every
introduction to this subject, that of the simple pendulum. Our endeavor is to find, without going through a detailed solution of the
problem, certain relations which must be satisfied by the various measurable quantities in which we are interested. The usual proce-
dure
is
as follows.
We first make
list
the answer
may
be supposed to depend;
of all the quantities on which we then write down the
dimensions of these quantities, and then we demand that these quantities be combined into a functional relation in such a way that the
relation remains true
no matter what the
size of the units in
terms
of which the quantities are measured. Now let us try by this method to find how the time of swing of the simple pendulum depends on the variables which determine the
The time of swing may conceivably depend on the length pendulum, on its mass, on the acceleration of gravity, and on the amplitude of swing. Let us write down the dimensions of these various quantities, using for our fundamental system of units mass, length, and time. In the dimensional formulas the symbols of mass, length, and time will be denoted by capital letters, raised to proper
behavior.
of the
powers.
Our
list
of quantities
is
as follows
Name
Time
of Quantity.
Symbol.
t
1
Dimensional Formula.
of swing,
Length of pendulum, Mass of pendulum,

Acceleration of gravity, Angular amplitude of swing,
T L
m
g
6
M
LT~2 No dimensions.
*^ *"*:
1
We
are'
A to find
1
...DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
t
as a function of
still
1,
m,
g,
and
0,
such that the
functional relation
units
is
holds
when
the size of the fundamental
this relation
changed in any way whatever. Suppose that we have foupd and write
Now
the dimensional formulas
show how the various fundamental
units determine the numerical magnitude of the variables. The numerical magnitude of the time of swing depends only on the size
and is not changed when the units of mass or Hence if the equation is to remain true when the units of mass and length are changed in any way whatever, the
of the unit of time, length are changed. quantities inside the functional sign on the right-hand side of the equation must be combined in such a way that together they are also
unchanged when the units of mass and length are changed. In particular, they must be unchanged when the size of the unit of mass alone is changed. Now the size of the unit of mass affects only the magnitude of the quantity m. Hence if m enters the argument of
the function at all, the numerical value of the function will be changed when the size of the fundamental unit of mass is changed, and this change cannot be compensated by any corresponding change in the values of the other quantities, for these are not affected by changes in the size of the unit of mass. Hence the mass cannot enter the functional relation at all. This shows that the
relation reduces to
Now 1 and g must together enter the function in such a way that the numerical magnitude of the argument is unchanged when the size of the unit of length is changed and the unit of time is kept
constant. That is, the change in the numerical value of 1 produced by a change in the size of the unit of length must be exactly compensated by the change produced in g by the same change. The dimensional formula shows that 1 must be divided by g for this to
be accomplished.
We now
have
Now
a change in the size of the fundamental units produces no change in the numerical magnitude of the angular amplitude, because
it is
dimensionless,
it is
and hence
may
enter the
unknown
func-
tion in
any way. But
evident that 1/g must enter the function in
INTRODUCTORY
such a
that the combination has the dimensions of T, since these are the dimensions of t which stands alone on the left-hand
way
see by inspection that 1/g must enter as side of the equation. the square root in order to have the dimensions of T, and the final
We
result is to be written
is subject to no restriction as far as the present analysis where can go. As a matter of fact, we know from elementary mechanics, is very nearly a constant independent of 0, and is approxithat
</>
<
mately equal to
2?r.
question may arise in connection with the dimensions of 0. have said that it is dimensionless, and that its numerical magnitude
does not change
We
when
length, or time are changed. This of course
the size of the fundamental units of mass, is true, but it does not
is uniquely follow that therefore the numerical magnitude of determined, as we see at once from the possibility of measuring in as a degrees or in radians. Are we therefore justified in treating
constant and saying that
it
may
enter the functional relation in any
way whatever? Now let us discuss by the same method of analysis the time of small oscillation of a small drop of liquid under its own surface tension. The drop is to be thought of as entirely outside the gravitational field, and the oscillations refer to periodic changes of figure, as from spherical to ellipsoidal and back. The time of oscillation will evidently depend on the surface tension of the liquid, on the density of the liquid, and on the radius of the undisturbed sphere.
We
have, as before,
of Quantity.
oscillation,
Name
Time of
Symbol.
t
s
Surface tension,
Density of liquid, Radius of drop,
d
r
MT~ MLr
L
We
are to find f such that

t
=f
(s, d,
r)
where
f is
the size
such that this relation holds true numerically whatever of the fundamental units in terms of which t, s, d, and r are
is
exactly the same as for the pendulum must cancel from the right-hand side problem. of the equation. This can occur only if s and d enter through their
It is obvious that
measured. The method
quotient.
Hence
t
= f (s/d,r).
t,
Now
since
does not enter
cannot enter
Hence s/d and
must be combined in such a way that

of r in order to get rid of L.
t
cancels. Since
to the third power, it is obvious that s/d
must
enters s/d be divided by the cube
Hence
f (s/dr3 ).
.
the dimensions of s/dr 3 are T~ 2 The function must be of such a form that these dimensions are converted into T, which are
Now
the dimensions of the left-hand side.

t
Hence the
8
final result is
= Const V dr /s.
the time of oscillation is proportional to the three halves of the radius, to the square root of the density, and inversely power to the square root of the surface tension. This result is checked by
is,
That
experiment. The result was given by Lord Rayleigh as problem 7

in his paper in Nature, 95, 66, 1915.
Now let us stop to ask what we meant when in the beginning we said that the time of oscillation will ''depend" only on the surface
tension, density,
and
radius.
Did we mean that the
results are inde-
pendent of the atomic structure of the liquid, for example ? Everyone will admit that surface tension is due to the forces between the
atoms in the surface layer of the liquid, and will depend in a way too complicated for us at present to exactly express on the shape and constitution of the atoms, and on the nature of the forces between them. If this is true, why should not all the elements which
determine the forces between the atoms also enter our analysis, for they are certainly effective in determining the physical behavior?
"We might justify our procedure by some such answer as this. Although it is true that the behavior is determined by a most complicated system of atomic forces, it will be found that these forces affect the result only in so far as they conspire to determine one property, the surface tension." This implies that if we were to
' '
measure the time of
oscillation of drops of different liquids, differing
INTRODUCTORY
as
we pleased in atomic properties, we would find that all same radius, density, and surface tension, executed the drops of add that the truth of this their oscillations in the same time.
much
as
We
to experiment. But our critic He satisfied. be may ask how we were sure beforemay not even yet hand that among the various properties of the liquids of which the drop might be composed the surface tension was the only property
reply may be checked by an appeal
.affecting the
time of oscillation. It
may seem
quite conceivable to
him that the time of oscillation might depend on the viscosity or compressibility, and if we are compelled to appeal to experiment, of what value is our dimensional analysis? To which we would be forced to reply that we have indeed had a wider experimental experience than our critic, and that there are conditions under
which the time of oscillation does depend on the viscosity or comwill be pressibility in addition to the surface tension, but that it
if the radius of the drop is a point beyond which the compressibility will be found to play an imperceptibly small part, and in the same way if the viscosity of the liquid is made smaller and
found as a matter of experiment that

there
is
made smaller and smaller
smaller, there will also be a point
beyond which any further reduc-
tion of the viscosity will not perceptibly affect the oscillation time.
And we add
assertions,
that
it is
to such conditions as these that our analysis
applies. Instead of appealing to direct
we might,
since our critic
is
experiment to justify our an intelligent critic, appeal
to that generalization
tions of hydrodynamics,
equations to may be neglected beyond certain limiting conditions. We shall thus ultimately be able to satisfy our critic of the correctness of our procedure, but to do
it
from much experiment contained in the equaand show by a detailed application of the the present problem that compressibility and viscosity
requires a considerable back-
ground of physical experience, and the exercise of a discreet judgment. The untutored savage in the bushes would probably not be able to apply the methods of dimensional analysis to this problem and obtain results which would satisfy us. Now let us consider a third problem. Given two bodies of masses m x and m 2 in empty space, revolving about each other in a spherical orbit under their mutual gravitational attraction. We wish to find how the time of revolution depends on the other variables. We make
a
list
of the various quantities as before.
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
Mass of first body, Mass of second body,

Distance of separation,
n^
M M
L
T
r
t
Time of
revolution,
all
These are evidently
the quantities physically involved, because
whenever we compel two bodies of masses 1% and m 2 to describe a circular orbit about each other under their own gravitational attraction in empty space at a distance of separation r, we find that the time of revolution is always the same, no matter what the material
of which the bodies are composed, or their past history, chemical, dynamical, or otherwise. Now let us search for the functional relation, writing,
t=f
We
demand
mental units.
(m^m^r).
that this shall hold irrespective of the size of the fundamoment's examination confuses us, because the
left-hand side involves only the element of time, of the right-hand side do not involve the time at
' '
and the elements

all.
Our
critic at
our elbow now suggests, But you have not included all the elements on which the result depends; it is obvious that you have left out the gravitational constant." "But," say we, "how can this be? The gravitational constant can look out for itself. Nature attends to that for us. It is undeniable that two bodies of the masses m x and
when placed
at a distance r apart always revolve in the

all
same
the physical quantities which can be have included time. varied." But our critic insists, and to oblige him we try the effect
of including the gravitational constant among the variables. call the gravitational constant G; it obviously has the dimensions
We
We
M" L T~ 2
1 3
since
it is
defined by the equation of the force between
two gravitating
bodies, force
= Gm
2
.
"constant" which has
dimensions and therefore changes in numerical magnitude when

the size of the fundamental units changes is called a dimensional now have to find a function such that the following constant.
' ' ' '
We
relation
is satisfied
= f (m m
lt
2,
G,r).
Now
this functional equation is not quite so easy to solve
by inspeclittle
tion as the two previous ones,
and we
shall
have to use a
INTRODUCTORY
function is expressed in the algebra on it. Let us suppose that the form of a sum of products of the arguments. Then we know that if the two sides of the equation are to remain equal no matter how the
fundamental units are changed in magnitude, the dimensions of every one of the product terms on the right-hand side must be the same as those of the left-hand side, that is, the dimensions must be T. Assume that a typical product term is of the form
mf GV
r*.
This must have the dimensions of T. That
is,
MM0
"Writing
5 (M- L T- )vL = T.
1
down
the conditions on the exponents gives
+ /3-y = 3y + =
8
-2y = l
Hence
relation between
The values of a and ft are not uniquely determined, but only a them is fixed. This is as we should expect, because we had only three equations of condition, and four unknown quantities to satisfy them with. The relation between a and ft shows that
and
must enter in the form mT*[

\
??i
m i/
where there
is
is
no
restriction
on the value of
x.
Hence our unknown function
of the
form
f
= 2
A,
G^
mM~
We may
rewrite
f,
where x and
A x may have any arbitrary values. by factoring, in the form

~\ m
But now
AX
\w
(
1 )
if
there
is
no
restriction
on x or
Ax
is
merely an arbitrary function of
m /m
which we write as
<
m i/
J.
Hence our
final result is
^
,
That is, the square of the periodic time is proportional to the cube of the distance of separation, and inversely as the gravitational constant, other things being equal.
"We can, by other argument, find what the nature of the unknown is in one special case. Suppose a very heavy central body, and a satellite so light that the two together revolve approximately about the center of the heavy body. It is obvious that under these conditions the time of revolution is independent of the mass of the
function
</>
satellite,
for if
its
mass
is
doubled, the attractive force
is
also
doubled, and double the force acting on double the mass leaves the acceleration, and so the time of revolution, unaltered. Therefore under these special conditions the unknown function reduces to a constant, if we denote by n^ the mass of the satellite, and the relation becomes
t
= Const
r
.
G*m<
know is verified by the facts of astronomy. Our critic seems, therefore, to have been justified by the results, and we should have included the gravitational constant in the
This relation we
original
list.
We are nevertheless left with

see quite
an uncomfortable feeling
what was the matter with our argument, the we are disturbed and foreboding that at some time in the by future there may perhaps be a dimensional constant which we are not clever enough to think of, and which may not proclaim the
because
we do not
impossibility of neglecting
it in quite such uncompromising tones as the gravitational constant in the example. "We are afraid that in such a case we will get the incorrect answer, and not know it until
a Quebec bridge falls down. Beside the matter of dimensional constants the last problem brings up another question. "Why is it that we had to assume that the un-
known function could be represented
as a
sum of products
of powers
of the independent variables? Certainly there 'are functions in mathematics which cannot be represented in this way. Is nature to
INTRODUCTORY
be arbitrarily restricted to a small part of the functions which one of her own creatures is able to conceive ? Consider now a fourth problem, treated by Lord Rayleigh in
Nature,
definite
vol. 15, 66, 1915.
This
is
a rather famous problem in heat
transfer, treated before Rayleigh
by Boussinesq.
solid body, of
geometrical shape, but variable absolute dimensions, is fixed in a stream of liquid, and maintained at a definite temperature higher than the temperature of the liquid at points remote from the body. It is required to find the rate at which heat is transferred from the body to the liquid. As before, we make a list of the various
quantities involved,
and
their dimensions.
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
Rate of heat transfer, Linear dimension of body,

Velocity of stream,
h
a
HTL
LT"1
Temperature difference, Heat capacity of liquid per

unit volume,
c
liquid,
Thermal conductivity of
This
is
HL~3 Or1 HL-1 T-1 0-1

we have
met, and
the
first
heat problem which
we have
(H),
introduced two
new fundamental
units, a quantity of heat
and a unit of temperature (0). It is to be noticed that the unit of mass does not enter into the dimensional formulas of any of the quantities in this problem. If we desired, we might have introduced it, dispensing with H in so doing. Now, just as in the last example, we suppose that the rate of heat transfer, which is the quantity in which we are interested, is expressed as a sum of products of powers of the arguments, and we write one of the typical terms
Const a a
00
wc
k*.
As before, we write down the conditions on the exponents imposed by the requirement that the dimensions of this product are the same
as those of h.
We
8
shall thus obtain four equations, because there
are four fundamental kinds of unit.
The equations are
p
a
+ = =
c
e
1 condition on exponent of condition on exponent of
H
L T
so one
_|_y_3S_
y
c
o condition on exponent of
1 condition on exponent of quantities
We have five unknown
and only four equations,
10
and
of the unknowns must remain arbitrary. Choose this one to be y, solve the equations in terms of y. This gives
=1-7
Hence the product term above becomes
Const a
0k
\
there
The complete solution is the sum of terms is no restriction on the constant or on
y, so
of this type. As before, that all these terms
together coalesce into a single arbitrary function, giving the result
Hence the
rate of heat transfer
is
difference, but depends on the other quantities in a
proportional to the temperature way not com-
pletely specifiable. Although the form of the function F is not known, nevertheless the form of the argument of the function contains very valuable information. For instance, we are informed that the effect of changing the velocity of the fluid is exactly the same as that of changing its heat capacity. If we double the velocity,
keeping the other variables
fixed,
we
affect the rate of
heat transfer
precisely as we would if we doubled the heat capacity of the liquid, keeping the other variables constant.
This problem, again, is capable of raising many questions. One of these questions has been raised by D. Riabouchinsky in Nature, quote as follows: 95, 591, 1915.
We
rt
In Nature of March 18 Lord Rayleigh gives this formula,

T^X
as four independent quantities. If we suppose only three of these quantities are "really inde' pendent, we obtain a different result. For example, if the temperature is defined as the mean kinetic energy of the molecules, the principle of similitude* allows us only to affirm that
'
"
(Q
),
considering heat, temperature, length, and time

' '
h
*
= ka0F(
-,
yji *a
Bayleigh and other English authors use this name for dimensional analysis.
INTRODUCTORY
That
is,
11
unknown function we should have obtained a function of two arguments. Now a function of two arguments is of course very much
instead of obtaining a result with an
of only one argument,
less restricted in its
character than a function of only one argument.
instance, if the function is of the form suggested in two arguments, it would not follow at all that the effect of changing the velocity is the same as that of changing the heat capacity. Ria-
For
bouchinsky, therefore, makes a real point.

of the
Lord Rayleigh replies to Riabouchinsky as follows on page 644 same volume of Nature.
The question raised by Dr. Riabouchinsky belongs rather to the than the use of the principle of similitude, with which I was mainly concerned. It would be well worthy of further discussion. The conclusion that I gave follows on the basis of the usual Fourier equations for the conduction of heat, in which temperature and heat are regarded as sui generis. It would indeed be a paradox if the further knowledge of the nature of heat afforded us by molecular theory put us in a worse position than before in dealing with a particular problem. The solution would seem to be that the Fourier equations embody something as to the nature of heat and temperature which is ignored in the alternative argument of Dr. Rialogic
bouchinsky.
This reply of Lord Rayleigh is, I think, likely to leave us cold. Of course we do not question the ability of Lord Rayleigh to obtain the correct result by the use of dimensional analysis, but must we have the experience and physical intuition of Lord Rayleigh to
tion of the logic of the
tell
obtain the correct result also ? Might not perhaps a little examinamethod of dimensional analysis enable us to
whether temperature and heat are
* '
' '
really
independent units
or not, and units is ?
what the proper way of choosing our fundamental
Beside the prime question of the proper
number
of units to choose
in writing our dimensional formulas, this problem of heat transfer raises many others also of a more physical nature. For instance, why are we justified in neglecting the density, or the viscosity, or
the compressibility, or the thermal expansion of the liquid, or the absolute temperature? will probably find ourselves able to
We
justify the neglect of all these quantities, but the justification will involve real argument and a considerable physical experience with physical systems of the kind which we have been considering. The
12
problem cannot be solved by the philosopher in his armchair, but the knowledge involved was gathered only by someone at some time soiling his hands with direct contact. Finally, we consider a fifth problem, of somewhat different character. Let us find how the electromagnetic mass of a charge of electricity uniformly distributed throughout a sphere depends on the radius of the sphere and the amount of the charge. The charge is
considered to be in empty space, so that the amount of the charge and the radius of the sphere are the only variables. We apply the method already used. The dimensions of the charge (expressed in electrostatic units) we get from the definition, which states that the numbers measuring the magnitude of two charges shall be such that the force between them is equal to their product divided by the
square of the distance between them. "We accordingly have the

following table.
Name
Charge,
of Quantity.
Symbol.
e
M* L* T'
Radius of sphere,
Electromagnetic mass,
m
m=f
(e,r)
We now write
and try
to find the
form of
f so that this relation is

is
the size of the fundamental units. It
obvious that
independent of T cannot enter
the right-hand side of the equation, since it does not enter the left, and since T enters th right-hand side only through e, e cannot enter. But if e does not enter the right-hand side of the equation,
cannot enter either, because enters only into e. Hence we are left with a contradiction in requirements which -shows that the problem is impossible of solution. But here again our Mephistophelean critic suggests that
we have
left
out a dimensional constant.
We demur
our system is in empty space, and how can empty space require dimensional constants? But our critic insists that empty space does have properties, and when we push him, suggests that light is propagated with a definite and characteristic velocity. So we try again, including the velocity of light, c, of dimensions LT~X
; ,
and now we have
m=f
(e,r,c).
INTRODUCTORY
13
We now
diately,
no longer encounter the previous difficulty, but immewith the help of our experience with more complicated
examples, find the solution to be
m=
This formula
Const
re 8
may
and our
critic is
again justified.
be verified from any book on electrodynamics, We worry over the matter of the
dimensional constant, and ultimately take some comfort on recollecting that c is also the ratio of the electrostatic to the electromagnetic units, but still it is not very clear to us why this ratio should
enter.
on the solutions of the problems above, we are troubled by yet another question. Why is it that an equation which correctly describes a relation between various measurable physical quantities must in its form be independent of the size of the fundamental units? There does not seem to be any necessity for this in
reflecting
On
the nature of the measuring process itself. An equation is a description of a phenomenon, or class of phenomena. It is a statement in
compact form that
if
we operate with a physical phenomenon
in
certain prescribed ways so as to obtain a set of numbers describing the results of the operations, these numbers will satisfy a certain
equation
when
substituted into
it.
For
instance, let us suppose our-
selves in the position of Galileo, trying to determine the
law of
fall-
ing bodies. The material of our observation is bodies available at the surface of the earth.
all
We
the freely falling use as our instru-
ments of measurement a certain unit of length,
let
us say the yard,
and a certain unit of time, let us say the minute. With these instruments we operate on all falling bodies according to definite rules. That is, we obtain all the pairs of numbers we can by associating for any and all of the bodies the distance which it has fallen from rest with the interval of time which has elapsed since it started to fall. And we make a great discovery in the observation that the number expressing the distance of fall of any body, no matter what
its size
or physical properties or the distance it has fallen, is always a fixed constant factor times the square of the number expressing
the corresponding elapsed time. The numbers which we have obtained by measurement to fit into this relationship were obtained
with certain definite sized units, and our description
is
a valid
14
description, and our discovery is an important discovery even under the restriction that distance and time are to be measured with the
same particular units as those which we originally employed. We can write our discovery in the form of an equation
s
= Const
2
.
an inhabitant of some other country, who uses some other of units equally as unscientific as the yard and the minute, system hears of our discovery, and tries our experiments with his measuring instruments.
Now
He
verifies
our
result,
different factor of proportionality in the equation.
except that he must use a That is, the
constant depends on the size of the units used in the measurements, or in other words, is a dimensional constant.
The
verification of our discovery

is
by an inhabitant
of another
reported to us, and we retire to contemplate. We at offer the comment that this is as it should be, and that it length could not well be otherwise. We offer to predict in advance just
country
how
the constant should be changed to fit with any system of measurement, and on being asked for details, make the sophisticated
suggestion that we so change the constant as to exactly neutralize any change in the numbers representing the length or the time, so
that
we
will still
have essentially the same equation as before. In
particular, if
so that the
twice as
as to
is made half as large as originally, number measuring a certain distance of fall is now large as it was formerly, we multiply the constant by 2 so
the unit of length
compensate for the factor 2 by which otherwise the left-hand
side of the equation would be too large. Similarly if the unit of time is made three times as long as formerly, so that the number express-
of its ing the duration of a certain free fall becomes only original value, then we will multiply the constant by 9 to compensate for the factor %, by which otherwise the right-hand side of
the equation would be too small. In other words, we give to the constant the dimensions of plus one in length, and minus two in time, and so obtain a formula valid no matter what the size of the
fundamental
units.
us,
This experience emboldens
much more
and we try its success with other For instance, we make observations complicated systems.
of the height of the tides at our nearest port, using a foot rule to measure the height of the water, 'and a clock graduated in hours as
INTRODUCTORY
15
the time-measuring instrument. As the result of many observations, we find that the height of water may be represented by the formula
= 5 sin 0.5066
t.
write this in a form to which any other observer using any other system of units may also fit his measurements by introducing two dimensional constants into the formula, which takes
the form
We
now
h G!
= 5 sin 0.5066 C
If" 1 ,
2 1,
where C x has the dimensions of

of
and C 2 has the dimensions
T-
1
.
This result immediately suggests a generalization.

whatever, no matter what
its
Any equation form, which correctly reproduces the
results of measurements made with any particular system of units on any physical system, may be thrown into such a form that it will be valid for measurements made with units of different sizes, by the
simple device of introducing as a factor with each observed quantity a dimensional constant of dimensions the reciprocal of those of the
factor beside which it stands, and of such a numerical value that in the original system of units it has the value unity. Of course it may often happen that the form of the equation is
such that two or more of these dimensional constants coalesce into a single factor. The first example above of the falling body is one of
this kind.
The general rule just given would have led to the introduction of two dimensional constants, one with s on the left-hand and the other with
t
2
side of the equation,
of the equation, but by multiplying up, these two into a single constant.
on the right-hand side may be combined
Our query is therefore answered, and we see that every equation can be put in such a form that it holds no matter what the size of the fundamental units, but we are left in a greater quandary than ever with regard to dimensional constants. May there not be new dimensional constants appropriate to every new kind of problem,
and how can we tell beforehand what the dimensional constants will ? If we cannot tell beforehand what dimensional constants enter a problem, how can we hope to apply dimensional analysis? The dimensional situation thus appears even more hopeless than at first,
be
for
we could
see a sort of reason
why
the gravitational constant
should enter the problem of two revolving bodies, and could even
16
catch a glimmer of reasonableness in the entrance of the velocity

of light into the problem of electromagnetic mass, but it is certainly difficult to discover reasonableness or predictableness if
dimensional constants can be used indiscriminately as factors by the
measured quantity. In our consideration of the problems above we have also made one more observation that calls for comment. We have noticed that every dimensional formula of every measurable quantity has always involved the fundamental units as products of powers. Is this necessary, or may there be other kinds of dimensional formulas for quantities measured in other ways, and if so, how will our methods apply to such quantities? To sum up, we have met in this introductory chapter a number of important questions which we must answer before we can hope to use the methods of dimensional analysis with any certainty that our results are correct. These questions are as follows. First and foremost, when do dimensional constants enter, and what is their form? Is it necessary that the dimensional formula of every measured quantity be the product of powers of the fundamental kinds of unit ? What is the meaning of quantities with no dimensions?
side of every
Must the functions
descriptive of
phenomena be
restricted to the
sum
of products of powers of the variables? What kinds of quantity should we choose as the fundamentals in
terms of which to measure the others? In particular, how many kiixds of fundamental units are there ? Is it legitimate to reduce the
number
of fundamental units as far as possible
by the introduction
of definitions in accord with experimental facts? Finally, what is the criterion for neglecting a certain kind of
flow problem,
get,
quantity in any problem, as for example the viscosity in the heat and what is the character of the result which we will
approximate or exact? approximation ?
And
if
approximate,
how good
is
the
CHAPTER
II
DIMENSIONAL FORMULAS
IN the introductory chapter we considered some special problems which raised a number of questions that must be answered before we can hope to really master the method of dimensional analysis. Let us now begin the formal development of the subject, keeping these questions in mind to be answered as we proceed. The purpose of dimensional analysis is to give certain information about the relations which hold between the measurable quantities associated with various phenomena. The advantage of the method is that it is rapid; it enables us to dispense with making a complete analysis of the situation such as would be involved in writing down the equations of motion of a mechanical system, for example, but on the other hand it does not give as complete information as might be obtained by carrying through a detailed analysis. Let us in the first place consider the nature of the relations between the measurable quantities in which we are interested. In dealing with any phenomenon or group of phenomena our method is somewhat as follows. We first measure certain quantities which we have some reason to expect are of importance in describing ê \/ phenomenon. These quantities which we measure are of different kinds, and for each different kind of quantity we have a different rule of operation by which we measure it, that is, associate the quantity with a number. Having obtained a sufficient array of numbers by which the different quantities are measured, we search for relations between these numbers, and if we are skillful and fortunate, we find relations which can be expressed in mathematical form. We are usually interested preeminently in one of the measured quantities and try to find it in terms of the others. Under such conditions we would search for a relation of the form
*i
= f (x ,x ,x
2 3
4,
etc.)
where x 15 x 2
etc.,
of particular kinds of physical quantity.
stand for the numbers which are the measures Thus x x might stand for
18
the number which is the measure of a velocity, x 2 may stand for the number which is the measure of a viscosity, etc. By a sort of shorthand method of statement we may abbreviate thi& long-winded
is a velocity, but of course it really number measures velocity. which a only Now the first observation which we make with regard to a functional relation like the above is that the arguments fall into two groups, depending on the way in which the numbers are obtained
description into saying that x
is not,
but
is
physically. The first group of quantities we call primary quantities. These are the quantities which, according to the particular set of
rules of operation by which we assign numbers characteristic of the phenomenon, are regarded as fundamental and of an irreducible
simplicity. Thus in the ordinary systems of mechanics, the fundamental quantities are taken as mass, length, and time. In any functional relation such as the above, certain arguments of the function may be the numbers which are the measure of certain
lengths, masses, or times.
Such quantities we
will agree to call
primary
tion
quantities.
In the measurement of primary quantities, certain rules of operamust be set up, establishing the physical procedure by which it is possible to measure a length in terms of a particular length which we choose as the unit of length, or a time in terms of a particular
interval of time selected as the standard, or in general, it is characprimary quantities that there are certain rules of proce-
teristic of
dure by which it is possible to measure any primary quantity directly in terms of units of its own kind. Now it will be found that we always make a tacit requirement in selecting the rules of operation by which primary quantities are measured in terms of quantities of their own kind. This requirement for measurement of length,
for example, is that if a new unit of length is chosen let us say half the length of the original unit, then the rules of operation must be such that the number which represents the measure of any particular concrete length in terms of the new unit shall be twice as large
its measure in terms of the original unit. seems to have been given to the methodology of attention Very I do not know whether this characand of measurement, systems teristic of all our systems of measurement has been formulated or
as the
number which was
little
not,
in actual use that
evident on examination of any system of measurement it has these properties. The possession of this involves a most important consequence, which is that the property
but
it is
ratio of the
19
numbers expressing the measures of any two concrete
lengths, for example, is independent of the size of the unit with which they are measured. This consequence is of course at once
obvious, for if
we change
the size of the fundamental unit
by any
factor, by hypothesis we change the measure of every length by the reciprocal of that factor, and so leave unaltered the ratio of the
measures of any two lengths. This means that the ratio of the lengths of any two particular objects has an absolute significance
independent of the
verse form, as our system of
is
size of the units.
This
may
be put into the con-
evident on a minute 's reflection. If
we require
that
measurement of primary kinds of quantity in terms
of units of their
own kind be such that the ratio of the measures of concrete two examples shall be independent of the size of the any of the concrete examples must change measures then the unit,
,
inversely as the size of the unit. Besides primary quantities, there
another group of quantities which we may call secondary quantities. The numerical measures of these are not obtained by some operation which compares them
is
same kind which is accepted method of measurement is more complicated and roundabout. Quantities of the second kind are measured by making
directly with another quantity of the
as the unit, but the
measurements of certain quantities of the first kind associated with the quantity under consideration, and then combining the measurements of the associated primary quantities according to certain rules which give a number that is defined as the measure of the secondary
quantity in question. For example, a velocity as ordinarily defined is a secondary quantity. We obtain its measure by measuring a
length and the time occupied in traversing this length (both of these being primary quantities), and dividing the number measur-
ing the length by the number measuring the time (or dividing the length by the time according to our shorthand method of state-
ment).
there is a certain definite restriction on the rules of operawhich we are at liberty to set up in defining secondary quantities. We make the same requirement that we did for primary quantities, namely, that the ratio of the numbers measuring any two concrete examples of a secondary quantity shall be independent of the size of the fundamental units used in making the required primary measurements. That is, to say that one substance is twice as viscous as another, for example, or that one automobile is traveltion
Now
20
ling three times as rapidly as another, has absolute significance, independent of the size of the fundamental primary units.
This requirement
itself possible.
is
not necessary in order to make measurement
Any rules of operation will serve as the basis of a of measurement system by which numbers may be assigned to in such a that the particular aspect of the phenomephenomena way
non on which we are concentrating attention is uniquely denned by the number in conjunction with the rules of operation. But the requirement that the ratio be constant, or we may say the requirement of the absolute significance of relative magnitude, is essential to all the systems of measurement in scientific use. In particular, it is an absolute requirement if the methods of dimensional analysis
are to be applied to the results of the measurements. Dimensional analysis cannot be applied to systems which do not meet this requirement, and accordingly we consider here only such systems.
It is particularly to be noticed that the line of separation between primary and secondary quantities is not a hard and fast one imposed by natural conditions, but is to a large extent arbitrary, and depends on the particular set of rules of operation which we find
convenient to adopt in defining our system of measurement. For instance, in our ordinary system of mechanics, force is a secondary quantity, and its measure is obtained by multiplying a number
which measures a mass and the number which measures an acceleration (itself a secondary quantity). But physically, force is perfectly well adapted to be used as a primary quantity, since we know what
we mean by saying
that one force
is
processes are known by which force units of its own kind. It is the same
sible to set
twice another, and the physical may be measured in terms of
way with
velocities
it is
pos-
up a physical procedure by which velocities may be added together directly, and which makes it possible to measure velocity in terms of units of its own kind, and so to regard velocity
as a primary quantity. It is perhaps questionable whether all kinds of physical quantity are adapted to be treated, if it should suit our convenience, as primary quantities. Thus it is not at once obvious
whether a physical procedure could be set up by which two viscosities could be compared directly with each other without measuring other kinds of quantity. But this question is not essential to our progress, although of great interest in itself, and need not detain us. The facts are simply these. The assigning of numerical magnitudes to measurable quanti-
ties involves
21
ties fall into
some system of rules of operation such that the quantitwo groups, which we call primary and secondary.
have stated that the requirement of the absolute significance of relative magnitude imposes definite restrictions on the operations by which secondary quantities may be measured in terms of primary
We
Let us formulate this restriction analytically. We call the primary quantities in terms of which the secondary quantity are measured a, ft, y, etc. Measurements of the primary quantities are combined in a certain way to give the measure of the secondary quantity. We represent this combination by the functional symbol f,
quantities.
f (a, /?, y, Now if there ) putting the secondary quantity are- two concrete examples of the secondary quantity, the associated primary quantities have different numerical magnitudes. Let us
.
denote the set associated with the

the subscript
1,
first
and that with the second

)
of the concrete examples by set by the subscript 2.
measure of the first concrete measure of the second. ) /? 2 y 2 We now change the size of the fundamental units. We make the unit in terms of which a is measured 1/xth as large. Then, as we have shown, the number measuring a will be x times as large, or xa. In the same way make the unit measuring /? 1/yth as large, and the measuring number becomes y/?. Since our rule of operation by which the numerical measure of the secondary quantity is obtained from
f (c^,
/? 15
Then
y 1?
will be the
example, and
f (a 2
will be the
the associated primary quantities is independent of the size of the primary units, the number measuring the secondary quantity now becomes f {xa, y/?, The measures of the two concrete exam) of the ples secondary quantity will now be f (xa y^, ) and
.
f (xa 2 ,y/? 2
).
Our requirement of absolute now becomes analytically
significance of relative
magnitude
This relation
is to
.
hold for
all
values of a 1? ft,
a 2 ft,
,
andx,
y, z,
We
desire to solve this equation for the
unknown function
f.
Rewrite in the form

f (**,, yft,
)
= f (xa,, yft, - -
X *<
a "&'
22
Differentiate partially with respect to x.
Use the notation
f x to
first
denote the partial derivative of the function with respect to the argument, etc. Then we obtain
%f
(**!, yft,
----
=o
fi
(xo 2 y/? 2 , ,
-)
Xf
""
Now put
x, y, z, etc., all
equal to
1.
Then we have
>
(/&, ---all
,
(a,, ft,
---- )*
and
,
This
is to
h61d for
/? 2 ,
Hence, holding a 2
---- fast,
a -
values of a^
/3 1?
----
a2
2,
and allowing a x
j8 1?
---- to vary,
we have
dt
gor
JL
==
Const,
T
which integrates
to
df
_ "
Const
~v~>
The factor C is a function of the other variables /?, y, ---The above process may now be repeated, differentiating partially successively with respect to y, z, etc., and integrating. The final
.
result will obviously be

f
=C
constants.
where
a, b, c,
--
and C are
Every secondary quantity, therefore, which satisfies the requirement of the absolute significance of relative magnitude must be expressible as some constant multiplied by arbitrary powers of the
primary
quantities.
ties of this
We have stated that it is only secondary quantikind which are used in scientific measurement, and no
other kind will be considered here.
have now answered one of the questions of the introductory chapter as to why it was that in the dimensional formulas the
We
fundamental units always entered as products of powers. It is obvious that the operations by which a secondary quantity is measured in terms of primary quantities are defined mathematically by the coefficient C, and by the exponents of the powers of
the various primary quantities.
coefficient is
23
simplicity, the
For the sake of
almost always chosen to be unity, although there is no necessity in such a choice. There are systems in use in which the factor is not always chosen as unity. Thus the so-called rational and
the ordinary electrostatic units differ by a factor V^w- Any differences in the numerical coefficient are not important, and are always
vital importance.
easy to deal with, but the exponents of the powers are a matter of The exponent of the power of any particular
is
primary quantity
by
definition the
' '
dimension
' '
of the secondary
quantity in that particular
is the aggreof the various the of exponents primary quantities which are gate involved in the rules of operation by which the secondary quantity
is
The
primary quantity. "dimensional formula" of a secondary quantity
measured. In order to avoid confusion, the exponents are asso-
primary quantities to which they itself written as raised to the power in that belong, symbol being
ciated with the symbols of the
question.
For example, a velocity is measured by definition by dividing a certain length by a certain time (do not forget that this really means dividing the number which is the measure of a certain length by the number which measures a certain time). The exponent of length is therefore plus one, and the exponent of time is minus one, and the dimensional formula of velocity is LT" 1 In the same way a force is defined in the ordinary Newtonian mechanical system as mass times acceleration. The dimensions of force are therefore equal to mass times the dimensions of acceleration. The dimensions of acceleration are obtained from its definition as time rate of change of 2 2 velocity to be LT~ which gives for the dimensions of force MLT~
.
be noticed that the dimensions of any primary quantity are by a simple extension of the definition above merely the dimenIt is to
sional
symbol of the corresponding primary quantity itself. be emphasized that the dimensions of a primary quantity as defined above have no absolute significance whatever, but are defined merely with respect to that aspect of the rules of operation by which we obtain the measuring numbers associated with the physical phenomenon. The dimensional formula need not
It is particularly to
even suggest certain essential aspects of the rules of operation. For example, in the dimensional formula of force as mass times acceleration, the fact is
not suggested that force and acceleration are vectors, and the components of each in the same direction must be com-
24
pared. Furthermore, in our measurements of nature, the rules of operation are in our control to modify as we see fit, and we would
certainly be foolish if we did not modify them to our advantage according to the particular kind of physical system or problem with which we are dealing. shall in the following find many problems
We
in which there
is
an advantage in choosing our system of measure-
our rules of operation, in a particular way for the particular problem. Different systems of measurement may differ as to the kinds of quantity which we find it convenient to regard as fundamental and in terms of which we define the others, or they may even differ in the number of quantities which we choose as fundamental. All will depend on the particular problem, and it is
ment, that
is,
our business to choose the system in the way best adapted to the problem in hand. There is therefore no meaning in saying "the" dimensions of a physical quantity, until we have also specified the system of measurement with respect to which the dimensions are determined. This is not always kept clearly in mind even by those who in other condi-
Mr. Tolman's reasoning is based on the assumption that absolute temperature has the dimensions of energy, and this assumption is not 1 permissible." Tolman, in a reply, admitted the correctness of this position. My position in this matter would be that Mr. Tolman has a right to make the dimensions of temperature the dimensions of energy if it is compatible with the physical facts (as it seems to be)
tions recognize the relative nature of a dimensional formula. example, Buckingham in Phys. Rev. 4, 357, 1914, says:
As
for
"...
and
if it suits his
convenience.
is
This view of the nature of a dimensional formula
directly
and frequently expressed. It is by many considered that a dimensional formula has some " of an ultimate nature esoteric significance connected with the object, and that we are in some way getting at the ultimate nature of things in writing their dimensional formulas. Such a point of view sees something absolute in a dimensional formula and attaches
opposed to one which
is
commonly
held,
' '
a meaning to such phrases as "really" independent, as in Riabouchinsky's comments on Lord Rayleigh's analysis of a certain
problem in heat transfer. For this point of view it becomes important to find the "true" dimensions, and when the "true" dimensions are found,
it is expected that something new will be suggested about the physical properties of the system. To this view it is
25
repugnant that there should be two dimensional formulas for the same physical quantity. Often a reconciliation is sought by the introduction of so-called suppressed dimensions. Such speculations
have been particularly fashionable with regard to the nature of the ether, but so far as I know, no physical discovery has ever followed such speculations; we should not expect there would if the view above is correct. In the appendix of this chapter are given a number of quotations
characteristic of this point of view, or others allied to
it.
26
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER
II
QUOTATIONS ILLUSTRATING VAKIOUS COMMON POINTS OF VIEW WITH REGARD TO THE NATURE OF DIMENSIONAL FORMULAS
R. C. TOLMAN, Phys. Rev. 9 251, 1917. our ideas of the dimensions of a quantity as a shorthand restatement of its definition and hence as an expression of its essential physical nature.
:
W. RUCKER, Phil. Mag. 27 104, 1889. IN the calculation of the dimensions of physical quantities we not infrequently arrive at indeterminate equations in which two or more unknowns are involved. In such cases an assumption has to be made, and in general that selected is that one of the quantities is an abstract number. In other words, the dimensions of that quantity are
A.
:
suppressed.
The dimensions of dependent units which are afterwards deduced from this assumption are evidently artificial, in the sense that they do not necessarily indicate their true relations to length, mass, and time. They may serve to test whether the two sides of an equation
are correct, but they do not indicate the mechanical nature of the derived units to which they are assigned. On this account they are often unintelligible.
W. W. WILLIAMS,
Phil.
That these systems
(i.e.,
Mag. 34 234, 1892. the electrostatic and the electromagnetic)

:
are artificial appears when we consider that each apparently expresses the absolute dimensions of the different quantities, that is, their dimensions only in terms of L, M, and T whereas we should expect that the absolute dimensions of a physical quantity could be expressed in only one way. Thus from the mechanical force between
;
two poles we get
and this, being a qualitative as well as a quantitative relation, involves the dimensional equality of the two sides. ... In this way we get two different absolute dimensions for the same physical quantity, each of which involves a different physical interpretation.
. .
.
The dimensional formula of a physical quantity expresses the numerical dependence of the unit of that quantity upon the fundamental and secondary units from which it is derived, and the indices
of the various units in the formula are termed the dimensions of the
27
quantity with respect to those units. When used in this very restricted sense, the formulae only indicate numerical relations between the various units. It is possible, however, to regard the matter
from a wider point of view, as has been emphasized by Professor Riicker in the paper referred to. The dimensional formulae may be taken as representing the physical identities of the various quantities, as indicating, in fact, how our conceptions of their physical nature (in terms, of course, of other and more fundamental conceptions) are formed, just as the formula of a chemical substance indicates its composition and chemical identity. This is evidently a more comprehensive and fundamental view of the matter, and from this point of view the primitive numerical signification of a dimensional formula as merely a change ratio between units becomes a dependent and secondary consideration. The question then arises, what is the test of the identity of a physical quantity ? Plainly it is the manner in which the unit of that quantity is built up (ultimately) from the fundamental units L, M, and T, and not merely the manner in which its magnitude changes with those units. That the dimensional formulae are regarded from this higher standpoint, that is, regarded as being something more than mere change ratios between units, is shown by the fact that difficulties are felt when the dimensions of two different quantities, e.g., couple and work, happen to be the same.
1 '
' '
S. P.
THOMPSON, Elementary Lessons
in Electricity
and Magnetism,
elec-
p. 352.
It
seems absurd that there should be two different units of
tricity.
R. A. FESSENDEN, Phys. Rev. 10 8, 1900. The difference between the dimensional formula and the qualitative formula or quality of a thing is that, according to the definitions of the writers quoted above, the dimensions "are arbitrary, " are "merely a matter of definition and depend entirely upon the " whilst the quality is an expression of system of units we adopt, the absolute nature, and never varies, no matter what system of units we adopt. For this to be true, no qualities must be suppressed.
:
REFERENCES
(1) R. C.
Tolman, Phys. Rev.
6,
1915, p. 226, footnote.
CHAPTER
III
ON THE USE OF DIMENSIONAL FORMULAS IN CHANGING UNITS

WE saw
of
in the last chapter
how
to obtain the dimensional
formula
any quantity in terms of the quantities which we chose by definition to make fundamental. Our method of analysis showed also the
connection between the numerical magnitude of the derived quantity
and the fundamental quantities. Thus if length enters to the first power in the dimensional formula, we saw that the number measuring that quantity is doubled when the unit of length is halved, or the numerical measures are inversely as the size of the unit, raised
power indicated in the dimensional formula. Let us consider a concrete example. What is a velocity of 88 feet per second when expressed in miles per hour ? The dimensional formula of a velocity is LT" 1 Now if our unit of length is made larger in the ratio of a mile to a foot, that is, in the ratio of 5280 to 1, the
to the
.
velocity will be multiplied by the factor 1/5280, because length enters in the dimensional formula to the first power. And similarly, if the unit of time is made larger in the ratio of the hour to the
second, that is, in the ratio of 3600 to 1, the velocity will be multiplied by the factor 3600, because time enters the dimensional formula to the inverse first power. To change from feet per second to
miles per hour we therefore multiply by 3600/5280, and in this 3600/5280, or 60 miles per hour. particular case the result is 88 Now the result of these operations may be much contracted and
simplified in appearance
by a
sort of shorthand.
We write
mile
sec.
1 sec.
_J_ h
88
3600 3600 mile 5280 hour
60^?.
hour
FORMULAS
IN
CHANGING UNITS
29
dimensional
little
reflection, considering the relation of the
formula to the operations by which we obtain the measuring number of any physical quantity, will at once show that this procedure is
any new magnitude in terms of by using the dimensional formula in precisely the same way. This method of use of the dimensional formula is frequently very convenient, and is the simplest and most reliable way of changing units with which I am acquainted. In treating the dimensional formula in this way we have endowed
new
general, and that we may obtain units from the old magnitude
with a certain substantiality, substituting for the dimensional symbol of the fundamental unit the name of the concrete unit
it
it is
employed, and then replacing this concrete unit by another to which physically equivalent. That is, we have treated the dimensional
formula as
a certain
if it
expressed operations actually performed *on physical
entities, as if
we took a certain number of feet and divided them by number of seconds. Of course, we actually do nothing of
is
meaningless to talk of dividing a length by a time; what we actually do is to operate with numbers which are the measthe sort. It
ure of these quantities.

of* statement, if
We may, however, use this shorthand method

treating problems therefore actually
of this sort,
we like, with great advantage in but we must not think that we are
operating with the physical things in any other than a symbolical 1 way. This property of the dimensional formula of giving the change in the numerical magnitude of any concrete example when the size of
the fundamental units
is changed makes possible a certain point of view with regard to the nature of a dimensional formula. This
view has perhaps been expressed at greatest length by James Thomson in B. A. Rep. 1878, 451. His point of view agrees with that taken above in recognizing that it is meaningless to say literally that a
velocity, for instance, is equal to a length divided by a time. We cannot perform algebraic operations on physical lengths, just the same as we can never divide anything by a physical time. James
Thomson would
prefer, instead of saying velocit/
= length/time,
to say at greater length

-
Change
ratio of velocity
Change Change
ratio of length
ratio of time
Of course Thomson would not

allow us to
sion in practise, but after the 'matter
on this long and clumsy expresis once understood, would write a dimensional formula in the accustomed way.
insist
30
This point of view seems perfectly possible, and as far as any it cannot be distinguished from that which I have adopted. However, by regarding the symbols in the dimensional forresults go,
as reminders of the rules of operation which we used physiin cally getting the numerical measure of the quantity, it seems to me that we are retaining a little closer contact with the actual
mula
physics of the situation than when we regard the symbols as representing the factors used in changing from one set of units to another,
which after all is a more or less sophisticated thing to do, and which not our immediate concern when first viewing a phenomenon. Beside the sort of change of unit considered above, in which we change merely the sizes of the fundamental units, there is another sort of change of unit to be considered, in which we pass from one system of measurement to another in which the fundamental units are not only different in size, but different in character. 2 Thus, for example, in our ordinary system of units of Newtonian mechanics we regard mass, length, and time as the fundamental units, but it is well known that we might equally regard force, length, and time
is
as fundamental.
this sort:
We may therefore
we express a
how
shall
kinetic energy of 10
expect to encounter problems of gm cm 2 sec~2
in a system in which the units are the dyne, the cm, There are obviously two problems involved here.
and the sec ? One is to find
the dimensional formula of kinetic energy in terms of force, length, and time, and the other is to find the new value of the numerical
coefficient in that particular system in which the unit of force is the dyne, the unit of length the centimeter, and the unit of time the second.
The transformed dimensional formula
is
obtained easily
if
we
observe the steps by which we pass from one system to the other. The transition is of course to be made in such a way that the two
'.
systems are consistent with each other. Thus if force is equal to mass times acceleration in one system, it is still to be equal to mass times acceleration in the other. If this were not so, we would be concerned
merely with a formal change, and the thing which we might call force in the one system would not correspond to the same physical complex in the other. This relation of force and mass in the two systems is maintained by an application of simple algebra. In the first system we define force as mass times acceleration, and in the second we define mass as force divided by acceleration. Thus in
each system the secondary quantity
is
expressed in terms of the
FORMULAS IN CHANGING UNITS

consistent.
31
fundamental quantities of the system, and the two systems are
The
correct relation between the dimensional formulas in the two
systems is to be maintained simply by writing down the dimensional formulas in the first system, and then inverting these formulas by solving for the quantities which are to be regarded as secondary in
the second system. In the special case considered, the following dimensional formulas
:
we would have
In the first system In the second system
Force
Mass
= MLT~ = FL-1 T
2
.
The transformation of the numerical coefficient is to be done exactly as in the example which we have already considered by treating the dimensional symbols as the names of concrete things, and replacing the one to be eliminated by its value in terms of the one which is to replace it. Thus the complete work associated with
the problem above
is
as follows
Igm (lcm)*_
(i860)'
We
have to find the transformation equation of 1 gm. into terms
of dynes, cm,
and
sec.
Now
1
dyne
^ lcm
9
(1 sec)
Hence
a
sec)
cm
8 8
and substituting
1Q
Igm (1cm)
8
__
1Q
dyne
1
(1 sec)
(1 sec)
cm
(1
cm)
8
(1 sec)
10 dyne cm,
which of course
is a result which we immediately recognize as true. Let us consider the general case in which we are to change from a system of units in which the fundamental quantities are 1; 2 and 3 to a system in which the fundamentals are 2 and 3
X X
.
Y Y We must first have the dimensional formulas of Y Y

,
t,
2,
terms of
at a2
, ,
X X
1?
,
2,
and
X
Y
3.
and a 3 those of
2,
Let us suppose the dimensions t b 1? b 2 and b 3 and those of Y 3 c t c 2 and c 3

,
Y and Y in of Y are
3
,
32
in
X X
lf
2,
and
respectively.
Then
in
any concrete case we may
write
where the C's are numerical coefficients. These equations are to be solved for the X's in terms of the Y's. This may be done conveniently
by taking the logarithm of the equations, giving,

a log
bx
Cj.
X +a log X + b log X + c
t t
log
2 2
X +a log X + b log X + c
2
2
X = log C Y log X = log C Y log X = log C Y

log
3 1
3
x 2
These are algebraic equations in the logarithms, and

solved immediately. The solution for
may
A
be
X is
c8 c3
X =
_L_
'
'
(C a
^_
*
A i
a2 a 3
_^_
'
a8aj
a)
(C 3
lb2bal
3)
In this solution A stands for the determinant of the exponents.

a2
The values of X 2 and X 3 are to be obtained from the value for X x by advancing the letters. Now let us consider an example. It is required to find what a
of 15 tons (mass) miles/hour becomes in that system whose fundamental units are the "2 Horsepower," the "3 ft per
momentum
sec,"
and the "5 ergs." This ought to be sufficiently complicated. Introduce the abbreviations:
Y Y
2 3
for the
for the
"3 ft per sec" "5 ergs."

33000
Y = 2 H.P.
In the
first
X
to
~ - 1mm
~
1 Ib (force) 1 ft
place
we have
change Ibs (force) to Ibs (mass).

Now
a pound force
.
33
is that force which imparts to a mass of one of 32.17 ft/sec 2 an acceleration pound
Hence
1 Ib force
= 32.17
32.17
1 Ib (mass) 1 ft
-r2 (Isec)
and
Y 1= = =
=
or,
66000
x X x
Ib
mass
1 ft
3
1ft
1
(1 sec)' (i sec)
min
3
32.17
66000
i
mi) (^hour dnnnr hour)
ton
^TF
-fa
2.962
10 4
^^
hour
8
writing in the standard form

3.380
10~ 5 Y!
= ton
mi 2 hour- 3
Again
Y
or
3 Â-7
mi
hour
sec
.4889
-.rirW
^5 mi 22 hour
Y = ton
2
3
mi 1 hour" 1
And
again
, ,.1 gin o ergs _ o
v x _
or
(1cm)
_ D 1.103 x lO^tons (6.214 x

(
10- 6 mi)
2
.
(1 sec)'
hour)'
3.622
10 8
Y = tons
3
mi 2 hour~2
We
rewrite these to obtain our system of equations in the stand-
ard form
3.380
.4889
10- Y,
8
3.622
xlO
Y = Y =
2
ton mi 3 hour- 3 ton mi hourton mi 2 hour- 3

1 1 1
We now solve for the ton, mile, and hour in terms of Y Y Y We first find the determinant of the exponents.
1?
2,
and
3.
A
This
is
12-3 01-1
122
__
pleasingly simple.
34
The general scheme of solution above now
gives
3
= = lhour =
ton 1 mile
1
(3.380
(
x
" "
H)- Y,) (.4889

)->
Y )a
(3.622
(
x
"
10 8
3 )'
"
(
+1
)
)+
)'(")'(
= = =
15.16
"
)
or simplifying,
1 ton
1 mile
5.223
1.069
hour
x x X
10 8 10
ia
10 13
Y- Y Y^ Y Y Y,- Y
2
1
And
finally
tons mi
15.16
5.223
x
13
10 ao Y,- a Y, Y,- Y,
1
hour
1.069
x
1
10
3
Y^' Y
= -
1.112
X
><
10 10
Y,,-
L112
10
'
5 ergs
ts/s
which is the answer sought. It is to be noticed that the result involves only two of the new kind of unit instead of three, the "2 H.P. having dropped out. This of course will not in general be the case. It might at first sight appear that we might take advantage of
' '
this fact
and eliminate some of the computation, but on examination
this turns out not to be the case, for each of the numerical factors
connecting the ton, the mile, and the hour with the to be involved in the final result.
new
units
is
seen
There are two things to be noticed in connection with the above transformations. In the first place it is not always possible to pass
there
from a system of one kind of units to a system of another kind, but is a certain relation which must be satisfied. This is merely the
condition that the equations giving one set of units in terms of the other shall have a solution. This condition is the condition that the
transformed equations, after the logarithms have been taken, shall also have a solution, and this is merely the condition that a set of algebraic equations have a solution. This condition is that the determinant of the coefficients of the algebraic equations shall not vanish.
Since the coefficients of the algebraic equations in the logarithms are the exponents of the original dimensional formulas, the condition is that the determinant of the exponents of the dimensional formulas
for one system of units in terms of the other system of units shall not vanish.
In attempting any such transformation as
this,
the
first
thing
is

to find
35
whether it is a possible transformation, by writing down the determinant of the exponents. If this vanishes, the transformation is not possible. This means that one of the new kinds of unit in
terms of which it is desired to build up the new system of measurement is not independent of the others. Thus in the example, if 5 erg as the third unit of the new system we had instead of the chosen the 5 dyne, we would have found that the determinant of the exponents vanishes, and the transformation would not have been
' ' ' '
' '
' '
possible. This is at
once obvious from other considerations. For a
a rate of doing work, and is of the dimensions of the power of a force and a velocity, and the second unit was of the product
horse
is
dimensions of a velocity, so that the proposed third unit, which was of the dimensions of a force, could be obtained by dividing the first
unit by the second, and would therefore not be independent of them. The second observation is that the new system of units to which
we want
are the
to transform our measurement must be one in which there same number of kinds of fundamental unit as in the first
system. If this is not true, we shall find that, except in special cases, there are either too few or too many equations to allow a solution for the new units in terms of the old. In the first case the solution is
indeterminate, and in the second no solution exists.
REFERENCES
(1) D. L. Webster, Sci. 46, 187, 1917. A. Lodge, Nat. 38, 281, 1888.
(2) A. Buchholz,
Ann. Phys.
51, 678, 1916.
CHAPTER IV
THE n THEOREM
IN the second chapter we saw that the dimensional formulas of
all
the quantities with which we shall have to deal are expressible as products of powers of the fundamental quantities. Let us see what
inferences this enables us to draw about the forms of the relations which may hold between the various measurable quantities connected with a natural phenomenon. We also saw in the second chapter that at least sometimes the
functional relation will involve certain so-called dimensional constants as well as measurable quantities. We met two examples of dimensional constants, namely, the gravitational constant, and the velocity of light in empty space, and we assigned dimensional
formulas to these constants.
Now
it is
most important to notice that
these two dimensional constants
had dimensional formulas of the
type proved to be necessary for the measurable quantities, namely,
they were expressible as products of powers of the fundamental quantities. This is no accident, but it is true of all the dimensional
have to deal. The proof can best be given later when we have obtained a little clearer insight into the nature of a dimensional constant. A certain apparent exception, the so-called logarithmic constant, will also be dealt with later. We may remark here, however, that one class of dimensional constant must obviously be of this form. We saw that if we start with an empirical equation which experimentally has been found to be true from measurements with a particular set of units, this equation can be
constants with which
shall
we
made
to hold for all sizes of the units
by the device of introducing
as a factor with each measurable quantity a dimensional constant of dimensions the reciprocal of those of the measured quantity. Since
the dimensions of every measured quantity are products of powers, the dimensions of the reciprocal must also be products of powers, and the theorem is proved for this restricted class of dimensional
constants.
all
We will for the present accept as true the statement that dimensional constants have this type of dimensional formula.
THE H THEOREM
Now
let
37
us suppose that we have a functional relation between certain measured quantities and certain dimensional constants. We shall suppose that the dimensional formulas of all these quantities
are known, including the dimensional constants. We shall furthermore suppose that the functional relation is of such a form that it remains true formally without any change in the form of the function when the size of the fundamental units is changed in any way whatever. An equation of such a form we shall call a "complete" 1 equation. We have seen that it is by no means necessary that an equation should be a complete equation in order to be a correct and
adequate expression of the physical facts, although the contrary statement is almost always made, and is frequently made the basis
of the proof of the principle of dimensional homogeneity of
cal
' ' ' '
physi-
equations. Although every adequate equation is not necessarily complete, we have seen that every adequate equation can be made
complete in a very simple way, so that the assumption of completeness is no essential restriction in our treatment, although it makes
necessary a more careful examination of the question of dimensional
constants.
essential to the treatment,
The assumption of the completeness of the equation is absolutely and in fact dimensional analysis applies
only to this type of equation. It is to be noticed that the changes of fundamental unit contemplated in the complete equation are restricted in a certain sense. We may change only the size of the
fundamental units and not their character. Thus, for example, a complete equation which holds for all changes in the size of the fundamental units as long as these units are units of mass, length, and time, no longer is true, and in fact becomes meaningless in another system of units in which mass, force, length, and time are taken as fundamental.
With this preliminary, let us suppose that we have a complete equation in a certain number of measurable quantities and dimensional constants, valid for a certain system of fundamental units.
Since
we
are concerned only with the dimensional formulas of the
we need not distinguish in our treatment the measurable quantities from the dimensional constants. We will denote the variables by a, /?, y, to n quantities, and suppose
quantities involved,
there
is
a functional relation
38
this expression is that if
The expanded meaning of
we
substitute
into the functional symbol the numbers which are the measures of the quantities a, ft etc., the functional relation will be satisfied.
We
use a interchangeably for the quantity itself and for its numerical measure, as already explained. Now the fact that the equation is a complete equation means that the functional relation continues to
when we substitute into it the numbers which are the measure of the quantities a, ft ---- in a system of measnumerical urement whose fundamental units differ in size from those of the fundamental system in any way whatever. Now we have already
be satisfied
employed a method, making use of the dimensional formulas, for finding how the number measuring a particular quantity changes when the size of the fundamental units changes. This was the subject of the second chapter. Let us call the fundamental units m^ m 2 m 3 etc., to m quantities, and denote by ax a 2 a 3 ---- etc., the
, , ,
, ,
dimensions of
a,
by
ft,
1?
ft>, ft$,
2,
3,
---- etc.,
etc.,
the corresponding dimen-
sions of ft etc., in
m m m
,
respectively.
We now
decrease the size of the fundamental units
m^ m 2
etc.,
by the factors x ly x 2 etc. Then the numerical measures of a, ft etc., in terms of the new units, which we will call a1 /P, etc., are, as
,
proved in Chapter
III,
given by
j8-=x{.xf.
---- ft
Now
it
since the equation

still
<f>
(a
1
,
must
.
hold
is
when
a1
ft
---- =0 is a complete equation, ---- etc., are substituted for a,

) ft,
----
That
or
*(X?1X. ---- a,X?ixf.This equation must hold for

all
-ft
,
---- =
)
,
0.
values of x
x2
etc.
Now
etc.,
differentiate successively partially with respect to
and
after the differentiation put all the x's equal to

:
1.
x x2 Then we
,
,
obtain the following set of equations
THE H THEOREM
39
Consider
now
the
first
of these equations. Introduce
new
inde-
pendent variables
a"
= a%
j_
j_
ft"
ft? i,
etc.
The equation now becomes
+ ^*+ do"
0r/
*+:.. a
3/2"
The solution of this equation is well known, it being a special case covered by Euler's theorem. The solution is the most general homogeneous function of the zeroth order in the variables a", /?",
etc.
Now by
such a function that
a function homogeneous of the zeroth order we mean its numerical value is unchanged when all the
arguments are multiplied by the same constant factor, which may be entirely arbitrary. It follows therefore that the arguments of the homogeneous function must be the original arguments a", ft",
etc.,
grouped in such a way that they are unchanged in value when
of the original arguments are multiplied by any factor, the same for all. Now the analysis of Chapter II applies here immediately. The analysis of that chapter applied to the case of each of the funall
damental units being multiplied by a different arbitrary factor. The case here is a special form of the previous case, since we here
require that the result shall be unchanged when each of the arguments is multiplied by the same arbitrary factor. It follows that the most general way in which the arguments a", ft", etc., can
is as products of powers. If we substitute the special requirements into such a product of powers, we see at once that the sum of the exponents of a", ft", etc., in any such product of
be grouped
powers must be
zero.
Let us write such a product in the form

(a")".
.
(j8")".
Then we have the condition
40
---- etc.,
/?, Substituting the typical product takes the form
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS ---- etc., in now the values of a,
terms of a
It is at
this form, since there are
once obvious that there are n-1 independent products of n quantities a b ---- etc., and these
, ,
are subject to only one restriction. fore, n-1 independent arguments.
The arbitrary function

ai
has, there-
the dimensions of the product a^ fundamental unit m^ Since the dimensions of a in
Consider
now
----
in the
are a l5 the
bi
ai
dimensions of
a!
in
n^
are a x Similarly the dimensions of

.
b -] areb-t.But'the exponents satisfy the condition a so that we see at once that the products which are the arguments of
the arbitrary function must all be dimensionless in n^. The second of the equations A, by precisely the same argument imposes the additional restriction that the arguments of the arbi-
^ inn^ ----- = 0,
/?
trary function be products of the arguments which are dimensionless in In imposing this additional restriction, the number of 2
independent arguments of the arbitrary function
is
diminished
from n
1 to
2.
In the same
way
the remaining equations of
demand
that the
products shall be dimensionless in
m m
3,
4,
etc.,
until finally
we
find
that the products must be dimensionless in all the fundamental units. At the same time, the number of independent products, which
serve as the arguments of the
unknown
function, are cut
down
in
number to n m. Hence we have
the final result. // the equation
<f>
(a,
/?,
y,
----
is to
be a complete equation, the solution has the
form
F(n n ---- )=o

1?
2,
where the n's are the
independent products of the arguments which are dimensionless in the fundamental units. a, /?, The result stated in this form is known as the H theorem, and seems to have been first explicitly stated by Buckingham, 4 although an equivalent result had been used by Jeans, 3 without so explicit a
nm
----
etc.,
statement.
THE H THEOREM
The solution
in the
41
explicitly for
form above may be solved
any
one of the products, giving the equivalent form of result

a
= p**-f*
i
4>(n 2 ,n 3 ,-
-)
is dimensionless. where the x 's are such that a ft~x y~*2 The result in this form embodies the mathematical statement of
the principle of dimensional homogeneity. For the arbitrary funcon the right-hand side is a function of arguments each of which is of zero dimensions, so that every term of the resulting function
tion
must
itself
be dimensionless. Every term of this function
is to
be
multiplied by a term of the same dimensions as the left-hand side of the equation, with the result that every term on the right-hand side has the same dimensions as the left-hand side. The terms may now
be rearranged in any way that we please, but whatever the rearrangement, the dimensions of all terms will remain the same. This
is
of the princifrom of dimensional the view which of homogeneity point ple a dimensional formula as an of the "essential regards expression
known as the principle of dimensional homogeneity. The attempt is often made to give an off-hand proof
physical nature" of a quantity.
Thus
it is
said that an equation
which is an adequate expression of the physical facts must remain true no matter how the fundamental units are changed in size, for a physical relationship cannot be dependent on an arbitrary choice of units, and if the equation is to remain true for all choices of units the dimensions of each term must be the same, for otherwise we would have quantities of different physical natures put equal to each other. For instance, we could not according to this view have a quantity of the dimensions of a length on the one side of an equation equal to a quantity of the dimensions of an area on the other 2 side, for it is absurd that an area should be equal to a length. The criticism of this point of view should be obvious after what has been said about an equation merely being an equation between numbers which are the numerical measures of certain physical
quantities.
to a
<
be most carefully noticed that the work above was subject most important tacit restriction at the very outset. In putting it was tacitly assumed that this is the only rela(a, (3, ) between tion a, ft etc., and that the partial derivatives may
It is to
be computed in the regular way on this assumption. If are connected by other relations than ) (a, ft
</>
a,
ft y, etc.,
0,
then the
42
it is
analysis above does not hold, and the results are no longer true. For not true in general that an equation which is a complete equation, that is, an equation which remains true when the size of the
fundamental units is changed, is dimensionally homogeneous. Such an equation is dimensionally homogeneous of necessity only when there is no other numerical relation between the variables than that defined by the equation itself. Consider as an example a falling body. Let v be its velocity, s the distance of fall, t the time of fall, and g the acceleration of gravity. Now these quantities are related, and there is more than one equation of connection, because both v and s are fixed when t and g are given. The relations connecting 2 these quantities are v gt, and s %gt In the light of the above we would expect that a complete equation connecting v, s, g, and t need not be dimensionally homogeneous. An example can be given
immediately, namely,
+ = gt + y gt
s
2
2
.
This is obviously a complete equation in that it is true and remains true no matter how the fundamental units of length and time are
changed in size. We may, if we please, write from these elements an equation which is very much more unusual and offensive in
appearance, such as
r
.
v
L
sin
S -f
2 gtl sinh(s-*gt
gt cosh (v
gt).
This again is a complete equation; it is not dimensionally homogeneous, and also offends our preconceived notions of what is possible in the way of transcendental functions.
The possibility of equations like those just considered is in itself a refutation of the intuitional method of proof of the principle of
dimensional homogeneity sometimes given.
reminds one of the procedure used in vector analysis, in which three scalar equations may be replaced by a single vector equation. Obviously we may add together any number of complete equations and obtain a result which remains
true.
The equation v
+ s = gt + %gt
And
were
all different, the resulting
provided that the dimensions of the original equations compound equation (complete but
not dimensionally homogeneous) may be decomposed, like the vector equation, into a number of simpler equations, by picking out the
parts with the same dimensions. I do not
know whether
this
method
THE H THEOREM
of throwing the results into
43
to
a compact form can ever be made
yield any practical advantages or not. Let us now return to the first form in which
we put
the result
above, namely,
FCn^n,,Consider the
a typical
-)=0.
"Write
n 's and how they are formed from the variables. n in the form
c,
The
as
a, b,
etc.,
are to be so chosen that this

/?,
is
dimensionless.
etc., gives as there are
Substituting
many
the dimensional symbols of a, equations of condition between a, b,
now
---etc.,
c,
kinds of fundamental unit. The equations are
a2 a
I
+
=
There are equations, each with n terms. solutions of such sets of equations may be
Now
the theory of the
work on algebra. In general, n will conditions there will in general be

tions.
found in any standard be greater than m. Under these
independent
sets of solu-
there will in general be n less products, and the arbitrary function
That
is,
m independent dimensionF
will be a function of
n
If,
variables.
In certain special cases this conclusion will have to be modified. for instance, n m, there will in general be no solution, but there may be in the special case that the determinant of the ex-
ponents
vanishes.
Furthermore, there may be more than n independent solutions should happen that all the m-rowed determinants of the exponents vanish. This, of course, will not very often occur, but we shall meet at least one example later.
if it
44 In the general
case,
m independent solutions, m of the quantities a, b, etc., in n m sets of independent values, and solve for the remaining quantities, thus obtaining n m sets of values which determine n m dimensionless products. Sometimes
where there are n
it is
generally possible to select n any convenient way, assign to them
c,
this is not possible,

etc., to
and the particular
set of the quantities a, b,
c,
which arbitrary values can be assigned cannot be chosen with
complete freedom. This occurs when certain determinants chosen from the array of the exponents vanish. We will not stop here to
develop a general theory, but let the exceptions take care of themselves, as it is always easy to do in any special problem.
It is to be noticed that the
theorem does not contain anything
essentially new, and does not enable us to treat any problems which we could not already have handled by the methods of the introduction. The advantage of the theorem is one of convenience it places the result in a form in which it can be used with little mental effort, and in a form of a good deal of flexibility, so that the results of the
;
dimensional analysis
may
be exhibited in a variety of forms, de-
pending on the variables in which we are particularly interested. In this way it has very -important advantages. The result of this dimensional analysis places no restrictions whatever on the form of the functions by which the results of experiments may be expressed, but the restriction is on the form of the
arguments only. However complicated the function, if it is one which satisfies the fundamental requirements of the theory as developed above, it must be possible to rearrange the terms in such a
way
that
Now
appears as a function of dimensionless arguments only. in using the theorem we are nearly always interested in exit
pressing one of the quantities as a function of the others. This is done by solving the function for the particular dimensionless
product in which the variable in question is located, and then multiplying that dimensionless product (and of course the other
side of the equation as well) by the reciprocal of the other quantities which are associated with it in the dimensionless product. The
on the one side of the equation the variable stands on the other side is a product of certain powers of some of the other variables multiplied into an arbitrary function of the
result is that
alone, while
other dimensionless products. This arbitrary function may be transcendental to the worst degree there is absolutely no restriction on it, but its arguments are dimensionless. This agrees with the result
;
THE H THEOREM
of
45
experience in regard to the nature of the possible functional relations. We have come to expect that any argument which
common
appears under the sign of a transcendental function must be a dimensionless argument. This is usually expressed by saying that it makes no sense to take the hyperbolic sine, for example, of a time, but the only thing of which we can take the sinh is a number. 5 Now although the observation is correct which remarks that the argu-
ments of the sinh functions which appear in our analysis are usually dimensionless, the reason assigned for it is not correct. There is no reason why we should not take the sinh of the number which measures a certain interval of time in hours, any more than we should not take the number which counts the number of apples in a peck. Both operations are equally intelligible, but the restrictions imposed by the II theorem are such that we seldom see written the sinh of a dimensional quantity, and even if we should, it would be possible by
a rearrangement of terms, as already explained, to get rid of the transcendental function of the dimensional argument by coalescing
two or more such functions into a sinh of a single dimensionless argument. Thus it is perfectly correct to write the equation of a falling body in the form
sinh v
= sinh
gt,
is
but no one would do

that obtained
it, because this form 1 by taking the sinh" of both
sides.
more complicated than The equation above
might be rewritten
sinh v cosh gt
in which
cosh v sinh gt
0,
form the rearrangement to get rid of the transcendental function of a dimensional argument is not so immediate, particularly if one is rusty on his trigonometric formulas. But the last
form
that
is
it
will always give the correct result,
perfectly adapted for numerical computation, in the sense and still holds when the
fundamental units is changed. There is a corollary to these remarks about transcendental functions with respect to the exponents of powers. It is obvious that in
size of the
general
we cannot have an exponent which has
dimensions. If such
appears, it is possible to combine it with others in such a way that the dimensionality is lost. But there is absolutely no restriction whatever imposed as to numerical exponents these may be integral,
;
or fractional, or incommensurable. It
is
often felt that the dimen-
46
sional formula of a quantity should not involve the fundamental 6 quantities to fractional powers. This is a part of the view that
regards a dimensional formula as an expression of operations on concrete physical things, and this point of view finds it hard to assign a meaning to the two-thirds power of a time, for example.
But it seems to me just as hard to assign a physical meaning to a minus second power of a time, and the possibility of such exponents
is
admitted by everyone. The II theorem as given contains all the elements of the situation. But in use there is a great deal of flexibility in the choice of the
arguments of the function, as is suggested by the fact that it is possible to choose the independent solutions of a set of algebraic equations in a great number of ways. The way in which the independent solutions are chosen determines the form of the dimensionless products, and the best form for these will depend on the particular problem.
We shall in
chapter
VI
treat a
number
of concrete
examples which
special cases.
will illustrate
how
the products are to be chosen in
REFEEENCES
(1)
E. Buckingham, Phys. Rev.
4, 345,
1914.
(2) Routh.
(3) J.
H. Jeans, Proc. Roy. Soc.
76, 545, 1905.

1,
(4) E. Buckingham, Reference
also Jour.
Wash. Acad.
Sci. 4,
347, 1914.
(5)
E. Buckingham, Ref. 1, page 346. Such expressions as log Q or sin Q do not occur in physical equations for no purely arithmetical operator, except a simple numerical multiplier, can be applied to an operand which is not itself a dimensionless number, because we cannot assign any definite meaning to the result of such an operation.
' '
;
' '
See also in this connection page 266 of the following. (6) S. P. Thompson, Elementary Lessons in Electricity and Magnetism, p. 352. It also seems absurd that the dimensions of a unit of electricity should have fractional powers, since such quantities as and L* are meaningless.
' '
' '
W.
Williams, Phil. Mag. 34, 234, 1892. So long, however, as L, M, and T are fundamental units, we cannot expect fractional powers to occur. Now all dynamical conceptions are built up ultimately in terms of these three
' ' . . .
THE n THEOREM
ideas, mass, length,
cal,
47
and time, and since the process is synthetibuilding up the complex from the simple, it becomes expressed in conformity with the principles of Algebra by integral Obviously if mass, length, and time powers of L, M, and T. are to be ultimate physical conceptions, we cannot give interpretations to fractional powers of L, M, and T, because we cannot analyze the corresponding ideas to anything simpler. We should thus be unable, according to any physical theory, to
.
give interpretations to formulae involving fractional powers of the fundamental units.

' '
CHAPTER V
DIMENSIONAL CONSTANTS AND THE NUMBER OF FUNDAMENTAL UNITS

which we have obtained in the II theorem is in it places on the number of arguments of the The fewer the arguments, the more restricted arbitrary function. the function, and the greater our information about the answer. Thus if the problem is such that there are four variables, and three fundamental kinds of unit, our analysis shows that there is only one dimensionless product, which we can determine, and that some funcessential result
THE
the restriction which
tion of this product is zero. This is equivalent to saying, in this special case, that the product itself is some constant, and we have
complete information as to the nature of the solution, except for the numerical value of the constant. This was the nature of the solution
which we found for the pendulum problem. If it had not been for the dimensional analysis, any conceivable relation between the four arguments might have been possible, and we should have had absolutely no information about the solution. Similarly, if there are two more variables than fundamental kind of quantity, there will be two dimensionless products. The solution is an arbitrary function of these two products put equal to zero, which may be solved for one of the products as a function of the other. This was the case with the heat transfer problem already treated. It certainly gives more information to know that the solution is of this form than merely to know that there is some function of the five variables which vanishes, which was all that we could say before we applied our
analysis.
our advantage, evidently, that the number of arguments which are to be connected by the functional relation should be as
It is to
Now the variables which enter the functional relawhich our analysis has been applied comprise all the variables which can change in numerical magnitude under the conditions
small as possible.
tion to
of the problem. These variables are of two kinds. First are the
DIMENSIONAL CONSTANTS
49
physical variables, which are the measures of certain physical quantities, and which may change in magnitude over the domain to
which our result

quantities
is
to apply.
The numbers measuring

size
these physical
may
also
change when the
of the fundamental units
changes. In the second place, there may be other arguments of the nature of coefficients in the equation which do not change in numerical magnitude when the physical system alone changes, but which
change in magnitude when the size of the fundamental measuring units changes. It is these which we have called dimensional constants.
Now in any
actual case
we
are interested only in the physical
problem, and are interested in finding a relation between the physically variable quantities. The dimensional constants are to be regarded as an evil, to be tolerated only if they make possible more
information about the physical variables. "We thus see that the n theorem applies to the aggregate of physical variables and dimensional constants, whereas we are interested
primarily in the physical variables alone. If the number of dimensional constants is so great that the number of arguments of the arbitrary function allowed by the II theorem is equal to or greater
than the number of physical variables alone, then we are no better off after applying our n theorem than before. Now we have already seen that in the worst possible case the number of dimensional constants cannot exceed the number of physical variables, for any
empirical equation can be made complete by the introduction of a dimensional constant with each physical variable. Furthermore, it is almost always true that the number of physical variables is equal
to or greater
number
than the number of fundamental units. Hence, if the is equal the number of physical the number of dimensionless variables, products is greater than or at most equal to the number of physical variables. In the general case, therefore, the II theorem gives no new information. Hence it
of dimensional constants
is
of the utmost importance to keep
down
to the
minimum
the
num-
ber of dimensional constants used in the equation. When, therefore, shall we expect dimensional constants, and in
any particular problem how

closely related to the
shall
we
are their dimensional formulas?
find what they are, and what The answer to this question is
the
' l
answer to the question of how we shall choose of physical quantities between which we are to search for a relation. have seen that it does not do to merely ask ourselves
list
We
Does the result depend on
this or that physical quantity
' '
for
we
50
have seen in one problem that although the result certainly does "depend" on the action of the atomic forces, yet we do not have to consider the atomic forces in our analysis, and they do not enter
the functional relation.
To answer
the question of
what variables
to include
demands a
background of a great deal of physical experience. If we are to treat a certain problem by the methods of mechanics we must have enough background to be assured that the problem is a problem in mechanics, and involves essentially no elements that are not treatable by the ordinary equations of mechanics. We must know that certain aspects of the problem can be neglected, and that certain others
alone are essential as far as certain features of behavior go.
No
one
would say that in any problem of mechanics the atomic forces are
not essential, but our experience shows that they combine into certain complexes, which may be sufficiently characterized by an
analysis which does not go down to the ultimate component parts, and that the results of our analysis, which disregards many even
essential aspects of the situation, have validity under certain conditions whose restrictions are not irksome. The experience involved in
judgments of this sort reaches so far back that we know almost by instinct whether a problem is suitable for mechanical treatment or
And if the problem is capable of mechanical treatment, we know, by the very definition of what we mean by a mechanical system, what the equations are which the motion of the component parts of the system conform to, and what the form of the equations is. In the same way, we know by instinct whether a system is a
not.
thermodynamic system, or an electrical system, or a chemical system, and in each case, because we know what we mean when we say that a phenomenon is of such or such a nature, we know what are the laws which govern the variations of the system, and the elements which must be considered in formulating the relations between the parts. But a very wide background of experience, extending over many generations, was necessary before we could say that
this particular
group of phenomena
is
mechanical or
electrical, or,
in general, that the
phenomenon
is
physical.
Now my point of view is essentially that precisely the same experience which is demanded to enable us to say whether a system is mechanical or electrical is the experience which is demanded in
will in the first place
order to enable us to make a dimensional analysis. This experience inform us what physical variables to include
in our
list,
51
and will in the second place tell us what dimensional demanded in any particular problem. Let us for the present forget what we know of dimensional analysis and imagine ourselves approaching a new problem. In the first place we decide in the light of the experience of all the ages what the nature of the problem is. Suppose that we decide that it is mechanical. Then we know that the motion of the system is governed by the laws of mechanics, and we know what these laws are. We write down
constants are
are careful to include certain equations of motion of the system. of so that the of all the equations system motion, equations by which
We
we have described
a unique solution. Then
the relations between the parts of the system has we are convinced, because of our past
experience, that we have essentially represented all the elements of the situation, that our equations correspond to the reality at least as
far as certain aspects of the
phenomenon
go,
and the solution of the
equations will correctly represent the behavior of the system which we have thus analyzed. are not disappointed. The fact that our
We
predictions turn out to be verified means merely that we have become masters of a certain group of natural phenomena. Now the astute observer (Fourier 1 was the first astute observer)
notices that the equations by which the relation of the component parts of the system is analyzed are expressed in such a general form
that they remain true
when
the size of the fundamental units
is
changed. For
instance, the equation stating that the force acting on a particular part of our mechanical system is equal to the mass of that part times its acceleration remains true however the size of the
fundamental units is changed, because in every system of units which we use for mechanical purposes, the unit of force is defined so that force has this relation to mass and acceleration. Every one of the fundamental equations of motion is in the same way a complete equation. The final solution is obtained from the equations of motion by a purely mathematical process, which has no relation to the size of the fundamental units. It follows, therefore, in general,
that the final result will also be
tion expressing the final result
in the sense that the equaa complete equation. Dimensional analysis may, therefore, be applied to the results
complete,
is
which we obtain by solving the equations of motion. (We use equations of motion in a general sense, applying to thermodynamic and electrical as well as mechanical systems. ) Now the arguments of the function which we finally obtain by solving the equations of motion
52
can obviously be only those quantities which we put into the original equations of motion, for the mathematical operations can introduce
no new arguments.
In particular, the dimensional constants which enter the final relation are those, and those only, which we had to use in writing down the equations of motion. This is the entire essence of the question of dimensional constants.
stants,
With regard to the dimensional formulas of dimensional conwe may merely appeal to experience with the observation
all such constants are of the form of products of powers of the fundamental quantities. But it is evident on reflection, that any law of nature can be expressed in a form in which the dimensional formulas of the constants are of this type, by the device, already adopted, of introducing dimensional constants as factors with the measured quantities in such a way as to make the equation complete. We will hereafter assume that the equations of motion (which
that
are merely expressions of the laws of nature governing phenomena) are thrown into such a form that the dimensional constants are of
this type
;
this is seen to involve
no real
restriction.
It appears, therefore, that dimensional analysis is essentially of
the nature of an analysis of an analysis. must know enough about the situation to know what the general nature of the problem
is,
We
and what the elements are which would be introduced in writing
the equations determining the motion (in the general sense) of the system. Then, knowing the nature of the elements, we can obtain certain information about the necessary properties of any
relations
down
which can be deduced by mathematical manipulations with the elements. In so far as our knowledge of the underlying
laws of nature is adequate we may have confidence in the result, but the result can have no validity not pertaining to the equations of motion, and is in no way different from all our other knowledge.
The
result is approximate, as the laws of motion are approximate, a

' '
which is imposed by the very nature of knowledge itself. The man applying dimensional analysis is not to ask himself On what quantities does the result depend?" for this question gets nowhere, and is not pertinent. Instead we are to imagine ourselves
restriction
as writing out the equations of motion at least in sufficient detail to be able to enumerate the elements which enter them. It is not neces-
sary to actually write
down
the equations,
still less to
solve them.
53
Dimensional analysis then gives certain information about the

necessary character of the results. It is here of course that the advantage of the method lies, for the results are applicable to sys-
tems so complicated that tions of motion in detail.
it
would not be possible
to write the equa-
It is to be especially noticed that the results of dimensional analysis cannot be applied to any system whose fundamental laws have not yet been formulated in a form independent of the size of
the fundamental units.
For
instance, dimensional analysis
would
certainly not apply to most of the results of biological measurements, although such results may perfectly well have entire physical
validity as descriptions of the phenomena. It
would seem that
at
present biological phenomena can be described in complete equations only with the aid of as many dimensional constants as there are physical variables. In this case, we have seen, dimensional analysis has no information to give. In a certain sense, the mastery of a certain group of natural phenomena and their formulation into
laws
may
be said to be coextensive with the discovery of a restricted
group of dimensional constants adequate to coordinate all the phenomena. Let us apply this view of the nature of dimensional constants to the problem which we have already considered of the electromagnetic mass of a spherical distribution of electricity. This is evidently a problem in electrodynamics, and must be solved by the use of the field equations. These field equations consist of certain mathematical operators operating on certain combinations of the electric and magnetic forces and the velocity of light. In this particular problem we want to solve the equations in such a form as to get the
electromagnetic mass; this is the integral throughout space of a constant times the energy density, which in turn is given by the distribution of the forces, which are determined by the distribution
of the charge. Hence if there is a relation of the form which suspect, the forces will eliminate from the final result. There
we
is,
however, no reason to think that the characteristic constant "c" of the equations will also eliminate from the result, and we must therefore seek for a relation between the total charge, the mass, the
radius, and the constant of the field equations, of light. This relation we have already found,
this particular problem.
which is the velocity and checked against
the results of a detailed solution of the field equations applied to
54
have seen that dimensional constants are going to enter the only in so far as they enter the equations of motion. Now a dimensional constant in an equation of motion is an expression of a physical relation which is so universal as to be characteristic of all the phenomena embraced in the particular group which we are
final result
We
considering. Such a universal physical relation may be treated in two ways. We may leave the dimensional constant in the equations as an explicit statement of the relation, as i^ done in the field equations of electrodynamics, or we may define our fundamental units with this relation in view, thus obtaining a system of units in which the dimensional constant has disappeared but in which the number of units which may be regarded as fundamental has been restricted
in such a way that all units belonging to the system automatically bear the experimental relation to each other. The system of units so obtained is of value only in treating that group of phenomena to
which the law in question applies. Thus it is a result of experience that the mass times the acceleration of a body is proportional to the
force acting upon it. In this statement of the experimental facts there is no restriction whatever upon the units of mass, or length, or time, or force. The factor of proportionality will change in
numerical magnitude whenever any one of the four fundamental units is changed in size. But now, instead of being bothered by a
continually changing factor of proportionality, we may arbitrarily say that this factor shall be unity in all systems which we will consider,
and we
will bring this result about
force in our
is
new system
to be such that the force acting
by defining the unit of on a body
equal to the mass times the acceleration. We have in this way obtained a system of units adapted to dealing with all those physical
systems in which the laws of motion involve a statement of the physical relation between force, mass, and acceleration, but if the
physical system should be such that this relation is not involved in the motion of the system, then we would be unduly restricting
by using the mechanical system of units. These considerations^ as to the possible systems of units answer the question previously raised, as in the fourth problem of the
ourselves
introduction, for example, as to the number of kinds of .units which we shall take as fundamental. The answer depends entirely upon the
particular problem, and will involve the physical relations which are necessary to a complete expression of the motion of the parts.
In any ordinary problem of dynamics, for example, the relation
55
between force and mass and acceleration is essentially involved in the equations of motion. This relation may be brought into the equations either by the use of four fundamental kinds of unit,
force, mass, length,
and
time, with the corresponding dimensional
constant of proportionality, or by using the ordinary mechanical units of mass, length, and time, in which force is defined so that the
experimental relationship is always satisfied, and the dimensional constant has disappeared. In either case the results of the dimensional analysis are the same. For the difference between the number
of fundamental units and the number of variables, which determines the number of arguments of the unknown function, is the same in either case, because when the number of units is augmented by one by including the force, the number of variables is also augmented by one by including the dimensional constant, and the difference remains constant. If, however, the problem were such that the experimental relation between force, mass, and acceleration is not involved in the equations of motion of the system, then the ordinary
less
mechanical units would be inappropriate, because we would obtain information when using them. For we could in this case use four fundamental units without introducing a corresponding dimensional constant into the list of variables, so that the difference be-
tween the number of variables and the units would be less by one when using four than when using three fundamental units, and the arguments of the function would be fewer in number, which is desirable.
We shall meet an example illustrating this point later.

EEFEEENCES
(1) Fourier, Theorie de Chaleur, 160. As dealing with the general question of the proper number of fundamental units may be mentioned
E. Buckingham, Nat. 96, 208, and 396, 1915.
CflAPTER VI
EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATIVE OF DIMENSIONAL

ANALYSIS
LET us
in the first place recapitulate the results of the preceding chapter. Before undertaking a dimensional analysis we are to imagine ourselves as making an analysis to the extent of deciding the nature of the problem, and enumerating the physical variables which
would enter the equations of motion

tions of motion.
(in the general sense)
and
also the dimensional coefficients required in writing
down
the equa-
The dimensions of
all
these variables are then to be
written in terms of the fundamental units. These fundamental units

their
are to be chosen for each particular problem in such a way that number is as large as possible without involving the introduc-
tion of compensating dimensional constants into the equations of motion. The dimensionless products of the variables are then to be
formed in accordance with the II theorem, choosing the products in such a way from the great variety possible that the variables in which we are particularly interested may stand conspicuously by themselves. Having formed the products, the II theorem gives immediately the functional relation. In the following illustrative examples we have particularly to consider the proper number of fundamental units, and the most
convenient
way of choosing the dimensionless products. of dimensional constants we regard as clear.

As
the
first
The matter
example we
will take the first treated
by Lord Eay-
leigh in Nature* Consider a wave advancing on deep water under the action of gravity. This is evidently, a problem in hydrodynamics,
which is merely mechanics applied to liquids. The equations of mechanics will therefore apply. Now the liquid when displaced from equilibrium is restored by the force of gravity. This will involve the
density of the liquid and the intensity of gravity. Evidently these quantities will enter the equations of motion. No other properties of the liquid, such as the compressibility, will enter, because we
know from a
discussion of the equations of hydrodynamics that such
EXAMPLES OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
57
properties are unimportant for phenomena of this scale of magnitude. Physically, of course, the compressibility affects the result
our analysis will not be valid a but will be approximation only to the extent that the exact, equations of hydrodynamics are valid approximations. There are no dimensional constants entering the equations of hydrodynamics, provided that we use ordinary mechanical units, in which mass,
to a certain extent, so that the result of
and time are fundamental, for the laws of motion have of units through the definition of force. The this^ system equations, of course, are equations between the displacements and
length,
entered
the other elements.
Now
it is
conceivable that
we might
eliminate
the various displacements from the equations, and come out at the end with a relation between the velocity of propagation, the density,
and the intensity of gravity

problem. Let us try
this.
only, analogously to the
pendulum
Write down the variables and their dimensional
formulas, as before.
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
Dimensional Formula.*
Velocity of wave, Density of liquid,
v d
g
LT"1
ML~ 3
LT~2
Accleration of gravity,
We now apply the n theorem. We have three variables, and three fundamental kinds of unit. The difference between these numbers
zero, and therefore, according to the theorem, there are zero dimensionless products. That is, we have made some and mistake^ no relation exists, unless this should be one of those exceptional
is
number
which a product may be formed of fewer than the normal But an examination shows that this is no exception, and there is in fact no dimensionless product. This shows that the suggested elimination was not possible, but that some other elements or combination of elements must enter the final result.. Of
cases in
of factors.
course the detailed analysis wilFgive as the final result a detailed description of the motion of the water, from which we must pick out the wave motion and find its velocity. That is, along with the veloc-
be something characteristic of the wave. The all of the waves need not be the same, particular velocity but may depend on the wave length, for example. Physically, of
ity in the final result there will
course,
we knew
this in the beginning,
and we were stupid only
for
58
purposes of instruction. Our experience with problems of this nature would have led us to search for a relation between the varia-
which we put into the analysis, the velocity, and the wave length. Let us introduce, therefore, into our list of quantities the
bles
wave
length.
Wave
length
We
have now four variables, and the dimensional formulas are
expressed in terms of three fundamental kinds of unit, so that the II theorem leads us to expect the existence of one dimensionless
product, and the result will be that the dimensionless product equal to a constant.
is
The proof of the
theorem
also
showed that one exponent in a
dimensionless product can be assigned arbitrarily. Since we are particularly interested in v, let us choose its exponent as unity, and
write the dimensionless product in the form v d- g-0 A-* Putting this equal to a constant and solving for v, gives for the result
tt
.
Const d a g^
\y.
The dimensions of the factors on the right-hand side must together be the same as that of the velocity, which stands alone on
the left-hand side.
We
solve for the
unknown exponents
of the fac-
tors of the right-hand side. Substitute the dimensional formulas for
the variables
LT-
(ML-
)'
Now
gives
write
down
M, of L, and of T be the same on the two

a
in succession the condition that the exponents of sides of the equation. This
=
1
1
condition on
condition on
M
L
3a
Whence
+ + y= 2 =
/? (3
condition on T.
=
72
J
j
and the
final result is of the
form
v == Const
w-

The
59
velocity of a gravity wave on deep water (the reason the depth did not enter the final result was because we postulated that the water was to be deep) is therefore proportional to the square
root of the
wave length and the
intensity of gravity, or
is
propor-
tional to the velocity acquired
by a body falling freely under gravity through a distance equal to the wave length.
It is to be noticed that the density of the liquid
from the
density
element,
is
final result.
has disappeared This might have been anticipated; if the doubled the gravitational force is also doubled on every
all
and the accelerations and therefore

is
the velocities are
unaltered, because the doubled force mass of every element.
compensated by a doubled
Since the density disappears from the final result we have here a dimensionless product of v, 1, and g only. This is, therefore, a dimensionless product of three variables, expressed in three funda-
mental units. This is in general not possible, but demands some special relation between the dimensional formulas of the variables. We can see in a moment by writing out the product in terms of
the algebraic equations which the exponents must satisfy, that the condition that a dimensionlegs product exist in a number of jterms just equal to the number of
unknown exponents, and then writing
fundamental units ia_that the detenfl 1TlftTit of the exponents in the mrnensionarlbrnmlaôf the factors vanish. This is obviously not restricted to the case of three fundamental units, but applies to any number. Conversely the condition that a particular element shall enter as a factor into a dimensionless product with a number of other factors equal in number to the fundamental units, is that the
determinant of the exponents of the other factors shall not be zero otherwise the other factors by themselves form a dimensionless
;
product into which the factor in which we are interested does not
enter.
pendulum is made k a box of by volume V which is filled with a liquid of density d. The mass of the liquid in the box is acted upon by gravity, and we are required to find an expression for the time of oscillation. As before we make a list of the quantities and their dimensions.
Consider
problem.
elastic
now a second
An
attaching to a weightless spring of elastic constant
60
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
kt
-
Elastic constant (force per unit
displacement), Time of oscillation,
MT~
T L3
Volume
of box, Density of liquid, Acceleration of gravity,
v d
g
ML~
LT~2
The problem is obviously one in ordinary mechanics, so that we are justified in using the mechanical system of units, and there will be no dimensional constant. The variables which we have listed
above are, therefore, the only ones, and are those in terms of which the problem is formulated. Here there are five quantities and three fundamental kinds of unit. There are therefore two dimensionless
products. In the analysis of the last chapter we saw that in finding the dimensionless products we had to solve a system of algebraic
equations. Certain of the solutions could be assigned at pleasure, and the others determined in terms of them. In this particular
problem we are interested especially in t, and let us say k. Then let us choose the exponents of t and k in the dimensionless products as those which are to be assigned at pleasure and in terms of which
the others are to be computed. Now the algebraic theorem showed that there were two linearly independent sets of exponents which
we might
two
simplest.
assign to t
sets in
an
infinite
and k, and that number of ways.

t
it is
possible to choose these
We will try to select the two

to that of
by assignk for the one to the exponent of t and 1 to the exponent of k for the set, and other set. This is certainly a simple couple of pairs, and has the effect of making both t and k appear in only one dimensionless product. "We therefore have to find the two dimensionless products
ing the value 1 to the exponent of
For the present purpose we
will accomplish this
and
tti
d^ 1 gî
k va
d^ 2 g? 2
We have now two sets of algebraic equations for the two sets unknown exponents a 1? ft, y x and a 2 ft, y 2 These equations are
,
.
of
3a 2 Oa 2
-3ft+y + + 0ft-y -2
2 2

The
solutions are
61
Hence the dimensionless products are

and(
and the solution
is
where the function

f is
-,.
undetermined.
is undoubtedly correct as far as it but an examination will show that we can do better, and obtain a form in which there is no undetermined function. This improvement can be effected by increasing the number of funda-
Now
the result so obtained
goes,
mental units.
We
were correct in using the ordinary mechanical
units, for the equations of motion involve the dynamical relation between force, mass, and acceleration. The change is to be made in
a direction at
first
not obvious because

is
the units written down. It
are so accustomed to using evident on reflection, however, that in
we
the equations of motion governing the system no use is made of the fact that the numerical measure of the volume of the box is equal
to the cube of the length of one of its linear dimensions. It is quite
possible to measure volumes physically in terms of a particular volume chosen as unity by cutting up the larger volume into smaller volumes congruent with the unit, and counting the number of
times that the unit
is
be proved that the

of the
is
number
contained in the larger volume. It may then so obtained is proportional to the cube
number measuring one of the linear dimensions. In fact, this method of proof originally adopted by Euclid in dealing with both areas and volumes. After the geometrical fact has been proved, it becomes natural to define the unit volume as that volume which is equal to a cube whose sides are unity, but this definition and restriction are of value only in those problems in which the relation between volume and length enter essentially into the result. Such is not the case here, because the volume of the box is of importance
the
only as determining, in conjunction with the density of the liquid, the mass filling the box. We might perfectly well measure length
62
for this problem in inches, and the volume in quarts, provided, of. course, that we measure density as mass per quart.
Let us then attempt the problem again,
now
taking volume as
an independent unit of
its
own
kind.
Then we
shall
have
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
Elastic constant, Time of oscillation,
k
t
/
>/ '
MT~2
T
Volume
of box, Density of liquid, Acceleration of gravity,
v d
g
^
$
MV"
..
&
LT~
but four fundamental kinds of quanonly one dimensionless product. We are particularly interested in t, so we choose the exponent of t equal to unity, and are required to find the other exponents so that
tity, so
We have now five variables,

that there
is
ka v
d^ g6
is
dimensionless.
solve for the
This problem
inspection, or if
is
so simple that
we can
unknowns by
:
we
prefer, write out the equations, which are
-2a-28 + lrz:0 -7 =
The
solution of this set of equations is
=%, s = -&y = -%,8 = o.

j
The dimensionless product

and the solution
is
is
tk*v-*d-*,
Const
/?
The information embodied in this solution is evidently much greater than in the more noncommittal one obtained with three units. It is seen from the new solution, for example, that the time
of oscillation does not of course, this
depend on the intensity of gravity. Physically, means that gravity is effective only in changing the
position of equilibrium; as gravity increases the weight is pulled down and oscillates about a position nearer the center of
mean

attraction, but the period of oscillation is not
63
was not
at all obvious or necessary
from the
first
changed thereby. It form of the solu-
would be independent of gravity, but that the is not inconsistent with this one is seen by putting solution previous the f of the previous solution equal to a constant times the inverse
tion that the time
square root of the argument,

identical.
when
the two
solutions
become
Instead of increasing the number of fundamental units from three to four, we might have obtained the same result by observing
that the equations of motion are concerned only with the total mass on the end of the string, and hence the volume and the density can affect the result only in so far as they enter through their product,
the mass. According to this method of treatment we would have put v and d together as one quantity, so that we would have been concerned with only four quantities and three fundamental kinds of unit. The result would have been the same as by the method which we adopted. In fact, it will often be found possible by using special knowledge of the problem to obtain in this way more detailed information than would have been possible by the general analysis.
If
we
use the mass as one of the variables, the result assumes the
,
form
t Const Vf and again we have a dimensionless product of fewer than the normal number of terms.
Now
let
us consider a problem illustrating
how
it
is
that the
result is unaffected
time the number
by increasing the number of units if at the same .take the of dimensional constants is increased.
We
same problem as above, except that we now give only the mass on the end of the spring, and do not attempt to analyze the mass into volume times density. The variables will be mass (m), time of oscillation (t), and stiffness of spring (k). "We can omit the intensity of gravity, because we have already seen it to be without effect. In discussing this problem we propose to use five fundamental kinds of unit, which we will choose as mass, length, time, as usual, and in addition force, and velocity. This problem is evidently one in mechanics involving in the statement of the relations between the parts the experimental fact that force is proportional to mass times accleration. Hence in formulating the equations of motion we will have to introduce this proportionality factor, which will appear in
the analysis as a
force,
mass, and
new dimensional constant. This factor is to connect acceleration. But now acceleration must be rede-
64
fined if
will
we are using velocity as now be denned as time rate
a unit of
its
own
kind. Acceleration
the dimensions
VT
1
.
The
of change of velocity, and will have equation of motion thus written will
express a relation between the force and the velocity and the time. But the force is connected with the displacement through the
elastic constant, so that to solve the equations a relation is
needed
fact, of
between displacement, velocity, and time. The experimental
by
course, is that velocity is proportional to the quotient of distance time. The factor of proportionality will appear in the final result
as a dimensional constant.
plete.
We now have
our
list
of quantities com-
They compose three physical
variables,
and two dimensional
constants.
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
t
Time of oscillation, Mass at end of spring,

Stiffness of spring,
m
k
f
M
FL"1
The The
force dimensional constant, velocity dimensional constant,
FM" TV"
1
L- 1
TV
force,
Here F is the dimensional symbol of force measured in units of and V the dimensional symbol of velocity. The dimensional
formulas were obtained by the regular methods, noting only that the stiffness of the spring is defined as the force exerted by the spring per unit displacement of the end.
We
have now to find the dimensionless products involving these
five variables.
We note in the first place that there are five variables,
and five fundamental kinds of quantity, so that in general there would be no dimensionless product. But it may be seen on writing
out that the determinant of the exponents in the dimensional formulas vanishes, so that in this special case there is a dimensionless product with fewer than the normal number of factors. Of
it
course
sion.
we knew
Now,
as before,
that this must be the case from our previous discuswe select t as the quantity in which we are
particularly interested, write the dimensionless product in the form
and write down the condition that the product

gives
is
dimensionless. This
65
= = 7 + 8 + 1 = +y= y +8 =
a
condition on
M
L T
ft
condition on condition on condition on
(3
condition on V.
The solution
is
= -y
2,
= y y = ~y < = -y
2, 2,
is
2.
tm-i k*f-*
and the
final solution
t
v-*,
Const V^-'
This is exactly the same as the solution already obtained, on putting the dimensional constants f and v equal to unity, which of course was their value in the ordinary mechanical system of units.
Although this example gives no new results, it is instructive in showing that any system of fundamental units whatever is allowable, provided only that the dimensional constants required by the special problem are also introduced. We now consider a problem in which it is an advantage to treat
force as a unit of its
own
kind. This
is
the problem of Stokes of a
small sphere falling under gravity in a viscous liquid. The sphere is so small that the motion is everywhere slow, so that there is
nowhere turbulence in the

to deal in this
fluid.
The elements with which we have
problem are the velocity of fall; the density of the of the sphere, the density of the liquid, the the diameter sphere, viscosity of the liquid, and the intensity of gravity. The problem is
evidently one in mechanics, so that if we use the ordinary mechanical units there will be no dimensional constants to introduce. But
we
problem. The motion
notice that the problem is of a very special kind for a mechanical is slow, and the velocity is steady, the forces acting on the sphere and the liquid being everywhere held in equi-
librium by the forces called out by the viscosity of the liquid. That is, although this is a problem involving motion, it is a problem involving unaccelerated motion, and the forces are in equilibrium everywhere. The problem is essentially, therefore, one in statics, and
in solving the problem we need to make no use of the fact that in those cases where there happens to be an acceleration the force is
66
proportional to mass times acceleration. In this problem, therefore, we treat force as its own kind of quantity, and do not have to intro-
duce a compensating dimensional constant. Our analysis of the
problem
is
now
as follows
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
Velocity of fall, Diameter of sphere,
D
dt d2
/*
LT-1 L
Density of sphere, Density of liquid,

Viscosity of liquid, Intensity of gravity,
ML~ ML~3
3
FL~2 T
FM"
The dimensional formula of

its definition
viscosity is obtained directly from as force per unit area per unit velocity gradient. The
intensity of gravity is taken with the dimensions shown, because obviously the equations of motion will not mention the accelerational
aspect of gravitational action, but only the intensity of the force exerted by gravity upon unit mass.
and four fundamental kinds of unit. dimensionless two are, therefore, products. One of them is evident on inspection, and is d 2 /d Now of the remaining quantities we are especially interested in v. We need combine this with only four other quantities to obtain a dimensionless product. We choose D, di, JM, and g, and seek a dimensionless product of the form
six variables,
We now have
There
The exponents are
at once
found
to be
=-2,/T:= -1/8== -1,^ = 1

Hence the dimensionless products are
v
D-2 dr1 n g-1 and
and the
final solution is
The function f is arbitrary, so that we cannot tell how the result depends on the densities of the sphere and the liquid, but we do see that the velocity of fall varies as the square of the diameter of the

sphere, and the intensity of gravity, of the fluid.
67
and inversely
as the viscosity
This problem has of course long been solved by the methods of
hydrodynamics, and the solution
is
See, for example, Millikan, Phys. Rev., 2, 110, 1913.
The exact
solu-
tion
is
obtained from the more general one above by giving

)
as the special value of the function.

this
If
we had solved
is
problem with the ordinary mechanical
units,
defined as mass times acceleration, we should have had 'three instead of two dimensionless products, and the final result
in which force
would have been of the form
d.D
velocity of
In this form we evidently can say nothing about the effect on the any of the elements taken by themselves, since they all occur under the arbitrary functional symbol.
There are many problems in which some specific information about the nature of the physical system enables the information given by dimensional analysis to be supplemented so that a more restricted form of the solution can be obtained than would be pos-
by dimensional analysis alone. There is, of course, no law against combining dimensional analysis with any information at our command.
sible
Let us take as a simple example the discussion of the problem of the bending of a beam. This is a problem in elasticity. Let us endeavor to find how the stiffness of the beam depends on the dimensions of the beam, and any other quantities that may be involved. Now the equations of elasticity are equations of ordinary mechanics. The mechanical system of three fundamental units is indicated.
The equations of elasticity from which the solution is to be obtained will involve the elastic constants of the material. If the material is
two elastic constants, which may be chosen as and the shear modulus. Out analysis may now Young's modulus, run as follows:
isotropic, there will be
68
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
Stiffness (Force/deflection),
S
1
MT~
L L L
Length,
Breadth,
Depth,
b d
Young's modulus, Shear modulus,
E
ju
ML" T~ 2 ML-1 T~ 2
1
There are six variables, and three fundamental kinds of unit. to the general rule there should be three dimensionless products. Three such products can obviously be written
Hence according
down by
inspection,
and are
b/1, d/1,
and
/x/E.
Now
is
in which
none of these dimensionless products contains the quantity S we are particularly interested, and it is evident that there
something peculiar about this problem. It will in fact be found, on going back to the system of algebraic equations on which the solution depends, and writing down the matrix of the coefficients obtained from the exponents in the dimensional formulas, that each of the three rowed determinants formed out of the matrix is zero. This is evident on inspection of the matrix.
100011 l_l_l
1
1
-2
0-2-2
M
This means that in this particular case there are more dimensionless
products than are given by the general rule. That such is the case should have been evident beforehand. In the first place, an inspecand T always enter tion of the dimensional formulas shows that
so that this combination together might , have been treated as a fundamental unit itself, so that there would
in the combination
MT~
have been only two fundamental units instead of three, and four instead of three dimensionless products. In the second place, this is a problem in statics, in which mass and time do not enter into the
results.
in terms of force
is
The dimensions of all the quantities could have been given and length as the fundamental units. This remark the physical equivalent of the analytical observation that M and
occur in the combination
T always
byL).
MT~
(force is
MT~ 2
multiplied

the knowledge that there is product, we can see by inspection that
69
With
still
it is
another dimensionless
S/El,
so that the final solution
is
= Blf
b d /A
7 ? i;
This solution gives no information about the variation of stiffness with the dimensions of the beam. Now it is obvious from elementary
considerations of elasticity, that for slender beams, the stiffness must be approximately proportional to the breadth, other things
being equal, for the boundary conditions are such that the solution for a beam of twice the breadth may be obtained approximately by simply placing beside each other two of the original beams. Hence
f
must be of such a form that If (-,-, 1

\1
f
1
reduces to b
<
E/
-,
\1
).
B/
and the value of

solution
is
must obviously be - <[-,
The
restricted
\l E/
therefore
I'E
The solution now shows that a beam of double the length can be kept of the same stiffness by doubling the depth. The detailed solution of elasticity shows that the ratio of d to 1 enters as the cube, as a
factor of proportionality, so that the stiffness is proportional directly to the cube of the depth, inversely to the cube of the length, directly as the breadth, and to some unknown function of the elastic
constants.
This method of supplementing the results of dimensional analysis by other information will often be found of value. There are numerous examples in Lord Rayleigh's treatments. Rayleigh does not always separate the analysis into a dimensional and another part, but states that a result can be proved by dimensional analysis,
although
it may require supplementing in some such way as above. good example will be found in his treatment of the scattering of
2 by the sky. The result that the scattering varies inversely as the fourth power of the wave length of the incident light is obtained by using in addition to dimensional knowledge the fact that "From
light
W
70
i
what we know of the dynamics of the situation

of scattering particle) and inversely as r observation from scattering particle)."
(ratio of ampli-
tude of incident and scattered light) varies directly as
T (volume
'
(distance of point of
in mechanics, but of not restricted to such problems, but can be applied to any system whose laws can be formulated in a form independent of the size of the fundamental units of measurement. Let us consider, for example, a problem from the kinetic theory
Thus far we have considered only problems

is
course the method
of gases, and find the pressure exerted by a perfect gas. The atoms of the gas in kinetic theory are considered as perfect spheres, completely elastic, and of negligible dimensions compared with their
distance apart. The only constant with dimensions required in determining the behavior of each atom is therefore its mass. The
behavior of the aggregate of atoms is also evidently characterized by the density of the gas or the number of atoms per unit volume. The problem is evidently one of mechanics, and the pressure exerted
by the gas
is
to be
found by computing the change of momentum
per unit time and per unit area of the atoms striking the walls of the enclosure. The mechanical system of units is therefore indicated.
But
in addition to the ordinary mechanical features there is the element of temperature to be considered. How does temperature
the equations of motion of the system? Obviously through the gas constant, which gives the average kinetic energy of each atom as a function of the temperature. Our analysis
enter in writing
of the problem therefore runs as follows
:
down
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
Pressure exerted by gas,
ML"1 T~
Mass of the atom,
m
N
6
M
L~8
Number
of atoms per unit of
volume, Absolute temperature,
Gas constant per atom,
ML
T~2
0"1
"We have here five variables, and four kinds of units. There is, therefore, one dimensionless product. Since p is the quantity in
which we are interested, we choose the exponent of We have to find p
this as unity.

The work of solution
a
is
71
as before.
The values of the exponents are
0,
=-1,
is
= -l, 8 = -l.
,
1 1 1 p N- 0- k-
and the
final solution is
p
That
is,
= Const N k
0.
the pressure is proportional to the gas constant, to the of the gas, and to the absolute temperature, and does not density on the mass of the individual atoms. The formula for presdepend
sure is, of course, one of the first obtained in any discussion of kinetic theory, and differs from the above only in that the numerical value of the constant of proportionality is determined.
problems of the same type, we could, eliminate preferred, temperature as an independent kind of variable and define it as equal to the energy of the atom. This
In
this problem, or in other
if
we
amounts merely to changing the size of the degree, but does not change the ratio of any two temperatures, and is the sort of change of unit which is required according to the fundamental assumptions.
define temperature in this way, the gas constant is of course put equal to unity. We would now have three fundamental units, and four variables. There is of course again only one dimensionless product, and the same result would be obtained as before. Let us go through the work it is instructive.
If
to be
;
we
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
Pressure exerted by gas,
ML" T~2
1
Mass of atom,
m
N
M
L~3
Number
of atoms per unit vol-
ume,
Absolute temperature,
ML
T~2
We now have to find our dimensionless product in a p m N Ov.

The exponents are
at once
the form
found
to be
a = 0,=-]L, r = --l,
and the solution of the problem
is
Const
6.
72
This solution
is like
the one obtained previously except for the
presence of the gas constant, but since the gas constant in the new system of units is unity, the two solutions are identical, as they
should be.
This procedure can obviously be followed in any problem whose
solution involves the gas constant. Temperature may be either chosen as an independent unit, in which case the gas constant
appears explicitly as a variable, or temperature may be so denned that the gas constant is always unity, and temperature has the dimensions of energy. The same procedure is not incorrect in problems not involving the gas constant in the solution. But if in this class of problem temperature is denned as equal to the kinetic energy of an atom (or more generally equal to the energy of a
degree of freedom) and the gas constant is made equal to unity, the fundamental units are restricted with no compensating advantage, so that although the results are correct as far as temperature
is
proportional to the energy of a degree of freedom, they will not give so much information as might have been obtained by leaving
It is obvious that these
the units less restricted.
remarks apply immediately to the heat
transfer problem of Eayleigh treated in the introductory chapter. Many persons feel an intuitive uncertainty with regard to the
dimensions to be assigned to temperature. This is perhaps because of the feeling that a dimensional formula is a statement of the physical nature of the quantity as contained in the definition. Now
the absolute temperature, as we have used it above, is the thermodynamic absolute temperature, defined with relation to the second
law of thermodynamics.
It is difficult to see
how such a complex
of physical operations as is involved in the use of the second law (such as Kelvin first gave in his definition of absolute temperature)
can be reproduced in a simple dimensional formula. It is, however, evident that measurements of energy, for example, are involved in an application of the second law, so that perhaps in some way the ordinary mechanical units ought to be involved in the dimensional formula. But we have seen that the dimensional formula is concerned only with an exceedingly restricted aspect of the way in which the various physical operations enter the definition, namely with the way in which the numerical measure of a quantity changes when the fundamental units change in magnitude. Now a little reflection shows that any such procedure as that of Lord Kelvin
73
applied to the definition of absolute temperature through the use

of the second law imposes on the number measuring a given concrete temperature no restriction whatever in terms of the units in
which heat or energy, for example, are measured. The size of a degree of thermodynamic temperature may be fixed entirely arbitrarily so that there are any number of degrees between the freezing and the boiling points of water, for example, absolutely without reference to the size of any other unit. We are concerned in the dimensional formula with the definition in terms of the second law
only in so far as this definition
satisfies
the principle of the absolute
significance of relative magnitude, that is, the principle that the ratio of the measures of two concrete examples shall be independent
of the size of the units.
Now
it is
evident that the thermodynamic
definition of absolute temperature does leave the ratio of
any two
concrete temperatures independent of the size of the units. The dimensional formula of temperature, therefore, need contain no
other element* and temperature dimensions.
may
be treated as having
its
own
There
perature.
is
no necessity in using the absolute thermodynamic tem-
for instance, define the number of degrees in a interval as the number of units of length which given temperature the kerosene in a certain capillary projecting from a certain bottle
We might,
of kerosene moves
to another.
when
the bottle
is
brought from one temperature

magnitude, for
is
The temperature
so defined evidently satisfies the prinif
ciple of the absolute significance of relative

size of the unit of
the
cut in half, the number of degrees in every temperature interval is doubled. The advantage of the thermodynamic scale is one of simplicity; in
the kerosene scale the behavior of a perfect gas could not be characterized in terms of a single constant, and the Fourier equations of
length measured along the capillary
heat conduction could not be written, except over a very narrow range, in terms of a single coefficient of thermal conductivity.
Besides the question of the dimensions of temperature, there is one other question connected with the application of dimensional analysis to problems in thermodynamics which is apt to be puzzling
;
this is the
matter of the so-called logarithmic constants. In books on
thermodynamics equations are very common which on first sight do not appear to be complete equations or to be dimensionally homogeneous. These equations often involve constants which cannot change in numerical magnitude by some factor when the size of the
74
fundamental units is changed, but must change by the addition of some term. An example will be found on page 6 of Nernst's Yale lectures on the Applications of Thermodynamics to Chemistry. This
equation
is
:
logC
=C
RT
is
2R
In this equation
stance, A
is
a heat,
a, b,
a concentration of a given gaseous suband c are dimensional coefficients in the

inquire further, except that
usual sense into which

is
we need not
is
a/R
dimensionless, and
this
formula as
it
a constant of integration. It is obvious that stands does not allow the size of the fundamental
i
units to be changed by making the usual sort of changes in the various quantities. But a rearrangement of terms is possible which
throws the formula into the conventional form. If we group together

the terms log C,
a/R
log T,
and
into the single
term
C
log
where
i' is
new
constant,
we evidently have a complete equation

a
in
.
the usual sense of the word, and i' has the dimensions of C T R This sort of rearrangement of terms is always possible if the formula has had a theoretical derivation, as have all the formulas
of these treatises,
and the logarithmic constant appears only

is
as a
formal exception.
The logarithmic constant
met with
so often in
thermodynamic
formulas because in most thermodynamic expressions there is an undetermined constant of integration arising from the fact that
energy, or work, or entropy, or thermodynamic potential has no absolute significance, but is only the difference between two values, and the coordinates of the initial point which fix the origin of
entropy, for example, may be chosen at pleasure. The formulas of thermodynamics also often present a strange appearance in the way that concrete quantities (that is, quantities
with dimensions) appear as the arguments of transcendental functions. Thus on page 5 of the same book of Nernst's, we find the
formula.
dT
75
This comes from an application of Clapeyron's equation to a substance whose vapor obeys the perfect gas law, and the volume of whose vapor is large compared with that of the liquid. In spite of
the appearance of a pressure under the logarithm sign, this equation is seen on examination to be a complete equation, and holds
valid for all sizes of the fundamental units. This
seen on expanding
dT
may
and
at once be
is
which
is
equal to
-pdT
,
therefore
rithm
of zero dimensions in p. Expressions of this sort in which the logais taken of a quantity with dimensions are particularly comin thermodynamics,
mon
perfect gas.
and often arise from the equations of the The occurrence of such logarithmic terms should, it
seems to me, be difficult for those to interpret who like to regard a dimensional formula as expressing a concrete physical operation on
a concrete physical thing. That the occurrence of such expressions
is
not contrary to the
theorem
is
seen from the expanded form,
-p
dT
The
slope of the
curve,
would be one of the variables in which the dimensionless
products are to be expressed, and there is evidently no exception. Our theorem has merely stated that the results are expressible in
terms of dimensionless products; we have no reason to think that the man who derived the formula was accommodating enough to
write the formula so that this would appear without some rearrangement of the terms.
Let us close this chapter of special examples with several

cal examples.
electri-
As
city
the
first
example consider an
electric circuit possessing capait.
and inductance.
An
oscillatory discharge is excited in
How
circuit?
does the period of the discharge depend on the constants of the The solution of this problem is to be obtained from the
detailed equations of the electric circuit, written in the usual form, in electromagnetic units. None of the electrostatic effects of the current, or the interactions
with a magnet, have to be considered in
the equations, which are of the
form
76
Hence in establishing the units fundamental to this equation it is evidently sufficient to consider only three fundamental kinds of quantity, namely, quantity of electricity, time, and energy. Then
current
be defined as quantity per unit time, coefficient of selfsuch a quantity that when multiplied by half the square of the current it gives an energy, and similarly the capacity is such a quantity that it gives an energy when divided into the square of a
is to
is
induction
quantity.
We may now
electricity,
make our usual

Symbol.
q
i
analysis of the problem.
Name of Quantity.
Quantity of
Current,
Coefficient of self-induction,
Q QT" 1
2 2 Q~ T E
L
c
t
Capacity, Periodic time,
Q^"
T
Now
the time of oscillation might conceivably involve the con-
stants of the circuit, and the initial charge of the condenser. That is, we are to look for a relation between q, L, c, and t. Since we are
especially interested in the form
t,
we try
t
to find
a dimensionless product of
L*
c^
i?.
The exponents are
at once
found to be
giving as the solution of the problem

t
= Const
^ c.
This of course is the solution which would be found by actually solving the equations of the circuit, except for the value of the constant coefficient. It is to be noticed that the initial charge does not
enter. This problem is evidently the electrical analogue of the mechanical problem of the simple pendulum. It is perhaps worth noticing again that some knowledge of the nature of the solution is necessary before dimensional analysis can be used to advantage. The Australian bushman, when attacking this
problem for the
first time, might be tempted to look for a relation of the dimensions of a time between the constants of the circuit,
and the instantaneous current, and the instantaneous charge in the condenser. If he had included i in his list of variables, he would have

found that q/i also has the dimensions of a time, and would have been of the form
t
77
his solution
= /L c
L
f (
not incorrect, since it reduces to the form already found on putting f equal to a constant, but it gives less information than the previous form.
which
is
now consider a problem in electrostatics. The conception of medium introduced by Faraday tells us that it is possible to regard the medium as the seat of the essential phenomena in the electrostatic field, and that the condition of the medium at any
"We
the
is uniquely determined by the electric vector at that point. Let us seek for the connection between the space density of energy in the electrostatic field and the intensity of the field. Since this is a
instant
problem in statics, the phenomena can be adequately described in terms of two fundamental units, those of force and length. Furthermore the field equations of electrostatics contain no dimensional constants, so that the velocity of light does not enter the results, as it
did the problem of the mass of the spherical distribution of charge. In terms of the two fundamental units of force and length we may
make our fundamental

charge
is
definitions as follows.
Unit electrostatic
that charge which at distance of unity from an equal in charge empty space exerts on it a force of unity. The electric vector is that vector which when multiplied into the charge gives the
force on the charge.
The
dielectric constant is the ratio of the force
between two charges when in empty space, and when surrounded by the medium in question. The dimensions of dielectric constant
are obviously zero. The dimensions of energy with this system of units are obviously force multiplied by distance.
We now
Name
formulate the problem.
of Quantity.
Symbol.
e
Charge, Field strength,
E
u
Energy
density,
FL~2
We are to seek for a relation between E and u. Generally there would not be a relation between these quantities, because there are two fundamental quantities and two variables. But under the spe-
78
problem a relation
exists,
cial conditions of this
and the
result is
obvious on
inspection to be
= Const E
2
.
found to be %. If instead of the energy density in empty space we had tried to find the energy density inside a ponderable body with dielectric constant e, the above result would have been modified by the appearance of an arbitrary function of the dielectric constant as a factor. Dimensional analysis can give no information as to the form of the
In treatises on electrostatics the constant
is
function.
As a matter
itself.
of fact, the function is equal to the dielectric
constant
This problem is instructive in showing the variety of ways in which it is possible to choose the fundamental units. Since the problem is one which may be reduced to formulation in mechanical
terms (the definitions of electrical quantities are given immediately in terms of mechanical quantities) we might have used the ordinary three units of mechanics as fundamental, and written the dimensional formulas in terms of mass, length, obtained the following formulation.
and
time.
We
would have
Name of Quantity.
Symbol.
e
E
u
Energy
density,
Again we are to seek for a relation between the energy density and the field strength. Now here we have two variables and three kinds of fundamental units, so that again the general rule would allow no dimensionless products, and no relation, but the relation
between the exponents is such that the dimensionless product does exist, and in fact is found to be exactly the same as before. The new formulation in terms of different fundamental units does not change the result, as it should not.
Many persons will object to the dimensional formulas given for these electrostatic quantities on the ground that we arbitrarily put the dielectric constant of empty space equal to unity, whereas we
know nothing about
its nature, and therefore have suppressed certain dimensions which are essential to a complete statement of the
problem. This point of view will of course not be disturbing to the reader of this exposition, who has come to see that there is nothing
79
absolute about dimensions, but -that they may be anything consistent with a set of definitions which agree with the experimental facts. However, let us by actual example carry through this problem,
including the dielectric constant of empty space explicitly as a new kind of fundamental quantity which cannot be expressed in terms of mass, length, and time. Call the dielectric constant of empty
space k, and use the same letter to stand for the quantity itself, and its dimension. Then the unit of electrostatic charge is now defined
by the
relation, force
before as
eE
= Force.
= e /k r
2
2
.
If
we formulate
Field strength is to be defined as the problem in terms of
these fundamentals, the electrostatic field equations will now contain k explicitly, so that the dimensional constant k appears in the
list
of variables.
The formulation of the problem

Symbol.
e
is
now
as follows
Name
of Quantity.
E
u
empty
k k
the terms are
Energy density, Dielectric constant of

space,
We again look for a dimensionless product in which

E,
u,
and
k,
and
find the result to be
u = Const k E 2
This reduces to that previously found on putting k equal to unity, which was the value of k in the previous formulation of the problem. The form above appears somewhat more general than the form
previously obtained in virtue of the factor k, but this factor does not tell us anything more about nature, but merely shows how the
formal expression of the result will change when we change the formulation of the definitions at the basis of our system of equations.
therefore of no advantage to us, our considerations are correct.
The inclusion of the factor k in the result and in the definitions and never can be of advantage,
' ' ' '
is
if
There has been much written on the true dimensions of k, and much speculation about the various physical pictures of the mechanical structure of the ether which follow from one or another
assumption as to the true dimensions, but so far as I am aware, no result has been ever suggested by this method which has led to the discovery of new facts, although it cannot be denied that a num' ' ' '
80
ber of experiments have been suggested by these considerations, as for example those of Lodge on the mechanical properties of the
ether.
KEFEBENCES
(1) Rayleigh, Nat. 95, 66, 1915. (2) Rayleigh, Phil. Mag. 41, 107 and 274, 1871.
of miscellaneous examples will be found treated in a 17, 202, 1916. correct" dimensions to be given to elecSpeculations as to the trical quantities, and deductions as to the properties of the ether are found in the following papers
number
ZS. paper by C. Runge, Phys. "
A.
W.
Riicker, Phil.
Mag.
27, 104, 1889.
W.
Williams, Phil. Mag. 34, 234, 1892. O. Lodge, Phil. Mag. Nov., 1882. Nat. July 19, 1888.
"Modern Views
R. A. K. R. A. C. G. F.
entire.
' '
of Electricity," Appendix.
Fessenden, Phys. Rev. 10, 1 and 83, 1900. Johnson, Phys. ZS. 5, 635, 1904. Crehore, Phys. Rev. 14, 440, 1919. Fitzgerald, Phil. Mag. 27, 323, 1889'. This article
is
quoted
Some attention has lately been called to the question of the dimensions of the electromagnetic units, but the following suggestion seems to have escaped notice. "The electrostatic system of units may be defined as one in which the electric inductive capacity is assumed to have zero dimensions, and the electromagnetic system is one in which the magnetic inductive capacity is assumed to have zero dimensions. Now if we take a system in which the dimensions of both these quantities are the same, and of the dimensions of a slowness, i.e., the inverse of a velocity (T/L), the two systems become identical, as regards dimensions, and differ only by a numerical coefficient, just as centimeters and kilometers do. There seems a naturalness in this result which justifies the
assumption that these inductive capacities are really of the nature of a slowness. It seems possible that they are related to the reciprocal of the square root of the mean energy of turbulence of the ether.
' '
CHAPTER
VII
APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS TO MODEL EXPERIMENTS. OTHER ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

HITHERTO we have applied dimensional analysis to problems which could be solved in other ways, and therefore have been able to check our results. There are, however, in engineering practise a large
number
of problems so complicated that the exact solution is not obtainable. Under these conditions dimensional analysis enables us
to obtain certain information about the
form of the
result
which
could be obtained in practise only by experiments with an impossibly wide variation of the arguments of the unknown function. In
order to apply dimensional analysis we merely have to know what kind of a physical system it is that we are dealing with, and what the variables are which enter the equation we do not even have to
;
write the equations down explicitly, much less solve them. In many cases of this sort, the partial information given by dimensional analysis may be combined with measurements on only a part of the
totality of physical systems covered
all
by the
analysis, so that together
the information needed
is
obtained with
much
less trouble
and
expense than would otherwise be possible. This method is coming to be of more and more importance in technical studies, and has recently received a considerable impetus from the necessities of airplane design. The method has received wide use at the National
Physical Laboratory in England, and at the Bureau of Standards
in this country, and has been described in numerous papers. At the Bureau of Standards Dr. Edgar Buckingham has been largely in-
strumental in putting the results of dimensional analysis into such a form that they may be easily applied, and in making a number
of important applications. The nature of the results obtainable
by
this
method may be
illus-
trated
by a very simple example. Suppose that it is desired to construct a very large and expensive pendulum of accurately predetermined time of swing. Dimensional analysis shows that the time
82
all
of oscillation of the entire system of
pendulums
is
given by the
of
formula
= Const
VVg- Hence
it is
to determine the time
any
determine by experiment only the value of the constant in the equation. The constant may evidently be found by a single experiment on a pendulum of any length whatever. The experimental pendulum may be made as
pendulum whatever,
sufficient to
simple as we please, and by measuring the time of swing of it, the time of swing of the projected large pendulum may be obtained.
The case of the pendulum is especially simple in that no arbitrary function appeared in the result. Now let us consider the more general case which may be complicated by the appearance of an arbitrary function. Suppose that the variables of the problem are denoted by Q 1? Q 2 etc., and that the dimensionless products are found, and that the result is thrown into the form
,
Q,
Q:-Q?>
*(Q?Qf-
-,Q?Qf-
-)
where the arguments of the function and the factor outside embrace all the dimensionless products, so that the result as shown is general. Now in passing from one physical system to another the arbitrary function will in general change in an unknown way, so that little
any useful information could be obtained by indiscriminate model experiments. But if the models are chosen in such a restricted way that all the arguments of the unknown function have the same value for the model as for the full scale example, then the only variable in passing from model to full scale is in the factors outside the functional sign, and the manner of variation of these factors is known from the dimensional analysis. Two systems which are so related to each other that the arguments inside the unknown functional sign are equal numerically
if
are said to be physically similar systems. It is evident. that a model experiment can give valuable information if the model is constructed in such a way that it is physically
similar to the full scale example. The condition of physical similarity involves in general not only conditions on the dimensions of
the model but on all the other physical variables as well. 'As an example let us consider the resistance experienced
by a
body of some definable shape in moving through an infinite mass of fluid. Special cases of this problem are the resistance encountered
by a
projectile,
a falling
by an airplane, by a submarine in deep water, or by raindrop. The problem is evidently one of mechanics, and
APPLICATIONS TO MODEL EXPERIMENTS

involves the equations of hydrodynamics.
83
The conditions are exceedingly complicated, and would be difficult to formulate in precise mathematical terms, but we perhaps may imagine it done by
some
sort of a super-being. The important thing to notice is that no dimensional constants appear in the equation of hydrodynamics if the ordinary mechanical units in terms of mass, length, and time variables.
are used, so that the result will involve only the measurable physical The variables are the resistance to the motion, the velocity
of motion, the shape of the body, which we may suppose specified by some absolute dimension and the ratio to it of certain other
lengths (as, for instance, the shape of an ellipsoid may be specified by the length of the longest axis and the ratio to this axis of the
viscosity,
other axes) and the constants of the fluid, which are its density, and compressibility, the latter of which we may specify
fluid. suppose that gravity does not enter the results, that is, the body is in uniform motion at a constant level, so that no work is done by the gravitational forces.
by giving the velocity of sound in the
We
The formulation of the problem
is
now
as follows.
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
Resistance,
Velocity,
R
v
1
MLT~2
LT^1 L
Absolute dimension,
Density of fluid, Viscosity of fluid,

Velocity of sound in the fluid, Shape factors, fixing shape of
d
p
v'
ML~3 ML^TLT"1
r 2 etc.
,
.
body,
have here six variables, not counting the shape factors, which have may any number depending on the geometrical complexity of the body, so that there are three dimensionless products exclusive of the shape factors, which are already dimensionless. One of these
We
We
three dimensionless products is obvious on inspection, and is v'/v. have to find the other dimensionless products in the way best
adapted to this particular problem. Since we are interested in the resistance to the motion, we choose this as the term with unit
exponent in one of the products, so that we may write the result with R standing alone on the left-hand side of the equation. We find by the methods that we have used so many times that there are two
84
/u,
2 dimensionless products of the forms R v~ 1~ 2 d" 1 and so that the final solution takes the form
v" 1
1" 1
d" 1
R=v
This formula
f (^/v
d, v'/v, r
r2
-)
is so
broad as to cover a wide range of experimental
conditions. If the velocity is low, the problem reduces to one of equilibrium in which the forces on the solid body immersed in the
fluid are held in equilibrium
fluid.
The
resistance does not
by the forces due to the viscosity in the depend on the density of the fluid, nor
Evidently
if
on the velocity of sound in

pear from the above
it.
the density
is to
disap-
argument /u/vld must come outside the functional sign as a factor, and for slow motion the law of resistance takes the form
result, the
Rr=vl/xf
The
cosity, to the velocity,
(r ,r 2
---- ).
resistance at low velocities is therefore proportional to the visand to the linear dimensions, and besides this
depends only on the geometrical shape of the body. We have already special case in the Stoke 's problem of the sphere, in the introductory chapter. For a domain of still higher velocities the density of the fluid plays an important part, since some of the force acting on the body is due to the momentum carried away from the surface of the body
met a
form of eddies (and the momentum carried away obviously depends on the density of the fluid), but the velocity of sound has not yet begun to affect the result, which means that the fluid acts sensibly like an incompressible liquid. This is the realm of velocities of interest in airplane work. Under these conditions the argument v'/v drops out of the function, therefore, and the result
by the
fluid in the
becomes
Let us stop to inquire how the information given by this equation can be used in devising model experiments. What we desire to do is
make a measurement of the resistance encountered by the model under certain conditions, and to infer from this what would be the
to
resistance encountered
by the full size example. It is in the first obvious unknown function must have the same value the that place for the model and the original. This means, since the function is
entirely
unknown, that
all
the arguments
must have the same value

for the model
, ,
85
and the original. r x r 2 etc., must therefore be the same for both, or in other words, the model and the original must be geometrically of the same shape. Furthermore, ju/vld must have the same numerical value for both. If the model experiment is to be performed in air, as it usually is, /A and d are the same for the model and original, so that vl must be the same for model and original. That is, if the model is one-tenth the linear dimensions of the original, then its velocity must be ten times as great as that of the original. Under these conditions the formula shows that the resistance encountered by the model is exactly the same as that encountered by the original. Now this requirement imposes such difficult conditions to meet in practise, demanding velocities in the model of the order of thousands of miles per hour, that it would seem at
sight that we had proved the impossibility of model experiments of this sort. But in practise the function of //./v 1 d turns out to have such special properties that much important information can nevertheless be obtained from the model experiment. If measurements are made on the resistance of the model at various speeds, and the corresponding values of the function calculated 2 2 (that is, if the measured resistances are divided by v 1 d), it will be found that at high values of the velocity the function f approaches asymptotically a constant value. This means that at high velocities
first
the resistance approaches proportionality to the square of the velocity. It is sufficient to carry the experiment on .the model only to
such velocities that the asymptotical value of the function may be found, in order to obtain all the information necessary about the behavior of the full scale example, for obviously we now know that
the resistance is proportional to the square of the velocity, and the model experiment has given the factor of proportionality. The only doubtful point in this proposed procedure is the question as to whether it is possible to reach with the model speeds high enough to give the asymptotic value, and this question is answered by the
actual experiment in the affirmative.
The
fact that at the velocities of actual airplane
work
the- resist-
ance has become proportional to the square of the velocity means, according to the analysis, that the viscosity no longer plays a
dominant part. This means that skin friction has dropped out as an important part of the retarding force, and that all the work of driving the airplane is used in creating eddies in the air. Freedom
from
viscosity
and complete turbulence of motion are seen by the
86
analysis to be the
same thing. This view of the phenomena
is
abun-
by experiment. Let us consider the possibility of making model experiments in some other medium than air. If we choose water as the medium for the model we must so choose the dimensions and the velocity of the
model that
nal.
/x/v
dantly verified
Now
for water
d 1 for the model is equal to p/v d 1 for the origi2 and d is 1, whereas for air is 170 X /x is 10~
//,
.
10~ 6 and d is 1.29 X 10~ 3 Substituting these values shows that vl for the model must be about one-thirteenth of the value for the original. As a factor one-thirteenth is itself about the reduction in size that would be convenient for the model this would mean that
;
the model in water must travel at about the same rate as the original in air. Such high velocities in water are difficult, and there seems
no advantage in using water over the actual procedure that

sible in air.
is
pos-
Consider
that the
now
still
higher velocities, such as those of a projectile,

difficulty in getting out of the
which may be higher than the velocity of sound in the medium, so
medium has
still
way
of the body,
and we have a
the form
different order of effects.
At
these velocities the
viscosity has entirely disappeared
from the
result,
which now takes
R=v
df
(v'/v, ri ,r 2
).
If we are now to make model experiments, it is evident that the model projectile must be of the same shape as the original, and furthermore that v'/v must have the same value for the model and the original. If the model experiment is ,made in air, v' for the model will be the same as for the original, so that v must be the same also. That is, the original and the model must travel at the same speed. Under these conditions the formula shows that the resistance varies as the area of cross section of the projectile. The requirement that the model must travel at the same speed as the original imposes such severe restrictions in practise that model experiments on projectiles are most difficult, and apparently have not yet been successfully made, but all the information has been derived from experi-
ence with actual projectiles. We may try to avoid the difficulty by making the experiment in another medium, such as water. But the velocity of sound in water
is
of the order of five times that in air, so that the conditions would require that the velocity of the model projectile in water should be

five
87
times that of the actual projectile in
air,
an impossible require-
ment.
Besides these applications to model experiments, the results of may be applied in other branches of engineering. At the Bureau of Standards extensive applications have been
dimensional analysis
made
in discussing the performance of various kinds of technical instruments. class of instruments for the same purpose have
certain characteristics in
common
so that
it is
often possible to write
instruments of the particular type. Dimensional analysis gives certain information about what the result of such an analysis must be, so that it is possible to
all
down
a detailed analysis applicable to
make inferences from the behavior of one instrument concerning the behavior of other instruments of somewhat different construction.
is treated at considerable length and a number of are given in Aeronautic Instruments Circular No. 30 of examples the Bureau of Standards, written by Mr. M. D. Hersey.
This subject
BEFEKENCES
Applications of dimensional analysis to subjects of a technical character will be found in the following papers
:
0. Reynolds, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 174, 935, 1883. Rayleigh, Phil. Mag. 34, 59, 1892, and 8, 66, 1904. E. Buckingham, Phys. Rev. 4, 345, 1914. Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Eng. 37, 263, 1915. Engineering, March 13, 1914.
E. Buckingham and J. D. Edwards, Sci. Pap. Bur. Stds. No. 359,

1920.
M. D. Hersey, Jour. Wash. Acad.

Sci.
6,
569, 1916.
Pap. Bur. Stds. No. 331, 1919. Aeronautical Instruments Circulars of the Bureau of Standards, No. 30, 1919, and No. 32, 1918.
W. L. Cowley and H. Levy, Aeronautics in Theory and Experiment, Longmans, Green and Co., 1918, Chap. IV. E. B. Wilson, Aeronautics, John Wiley and Sons, 1920, Chap. XI.
CHAPTER
VIII
APPLICATIONS TO THEORETICAL PHYSICS

THE methods
more important part
of dimensional analysis are worthy of playing a much as a tool in theoretical investigation than has
hitherto been realized.
No
investigator should allow himself to pro-
ceed to the detailed solution of a problem until he has made a dimensional analysis of the nature of the solution which will be
obtained, and convinced himself by appeal to experiment that the points of view embodied in the underlying equations are sound.
Probably one difficulty that has been particularly troublesome in theoretical applications has been the matter of dimensional constants it is in just such theoretical investigations that dimensional
;
constants are most likely to appear, and with no clear conception of the nature of a dimensional constant or when to expect its appearance, hesitancy is natural in applying the method. But after
the discussion of the preceding pages, the matter of dimensional constants should now be readily handled in any special problem.
is
factors of proportionality often also felt to be a disadvantage of the dimensional method, but in many theoretical investigations it is often possible to obtain
The indeterminateness of the numerical
approximate information about the numerical order of magnitude of the results. Our considerations with regard to dimensional analysis show that any numerical coefficients in the final result are the result of mathematical operations performed on the original equations of motion (in the general sense) of the system. Now it is a result of general observation that such mathematical operations usually do not introduce any very large numerical factors, or any very small ones. Any very large or small numbers in our equations almost always are the result of the substitution of the numerical value of some physical quantity, such as the number of atoms in a cubic centimeter, or the electrostatic charge on the electron, or the
velocity of light. Accordingly, if the analysis is carried through with all the physical quantities kept in literal form, we may expect
that the numerical coefficients will not be large or small. This observation may be used conversely. Suppose that
we suspect
89
a connection between certain quantities, but as yet do not know enough of the nature of the physical system to be able to write down the equations of connection, or even to be sure what would be the elements which would enter an equation of connection. We assume that there is a relation between certain quantities, and then by a dimensional analysis find what the form of the relation must be. We
then substitute into the relation the numerical values of the physical quantities, and thus get the numerical value of the unknown
coefficient. If this coefficient is of the
order of unity (which
may
of the order of 10 10 according to our sanguinity) the suspected relation appears as not intrinsically improbable, and we continue to think about the matter to discover what the precise
mean not
relation between the elements
may
be. If,
on the other hand, the
coefficient turns out to be large or small,
we discard
the idea as
improbable.
An exposition of this method, and an interesting example were 1 given by Einstein in the early days of the study of the specific heats of solids and their connection with quantum phenomena. The
question was whether the same forces between the atoms which determine the ordinary elastic behavior of a solid might not also be
the forces concerned in the infra red characteristic optical frequencies. This view evidently had important bearings on our whole conception of the nature of the forces in a solid, and the nature of
optical
in these terms we may regard the solid as an array of atoms regularly spaced at the corners of cubes. In our analysis we shall evidently want to know the mass
their distance apart (or the nunjber per cm 3 ). Furthermore, if our view of the nature of the forces is correct the
and thermal oscillations. For the rough analysis of the problem
of the atoms,
and
nature of the forces between the atoms
is sufficiently
characterized
by an
elastic constant,
which we
will take as the compressibility.
These elements should

characteristic
now
be sufficient to determine the infra red
frequency.
We
make our usual
analysis
of
the
problem.
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
v
Characteristic frequency,
T" 1
Compressibility, Number of atoms per Mass of the atom,
M-1 LT
L~
3
cm
8
,
90
There should be one dimensionless product in these quantities, 2 it is at once found to be k v N* m. The final result is therefore
and
k
"We
stance
= Const v~
N-S
m-
1
.
now
and
22
,
take the numerical values pertaining to some actual subsubstitute in the equation to find the numerical value of
the coefficient.
10~
and
N = 7.5 X
For copper, k
10
22
= 7 X 10~
13
,
7.5
10 12
m = 1.06
the constant 0.18. This
is
Substituting these values gives for of the order of unity, and the point o'f
.
is of course now a matter of history that this point of view is the basis of Debye 's analysis of the specific heat phenomena in a solid, and that it is brilliantly justified by
view
is
thus far justified. It
experiment.
Another example of this sort of argument concerning the magnitude of the constants is given by Jeans. 2 The question was whether
the earth has at any time in its past history passed through a stage of gravitational instability, and whether this instability has had any
actual relation to the course of evolution.
tion
preliminary examina-
by the method of dimensions showed Jeans what must be the
form of the
bility,
radius, elastic constants, etc., at the
and
mean density, of gravitational instathen a substitution of the numerical values for the earth
relation between the variables such as
moment
gave a coefficient of the order of unity. This preliminary examination showed, therefore, that it was quite conceivable that gravita-
might be a factor at some time past or future in the earth 's history, and a more detailed examination of the problem
tional instability
was accordingly undertaken.

with a negative
Consider another application of the same argument, this time result. Let us suppose that we are trying to con-
struct an electrodynamic theory of gravitation, and that we regard the gravitational field as in some way, as yet undiscovered, con-
nected with the properties of the electron, to be deduced by an

field
application of the field equations of electrodynamics. Now in the equations there occurs a dimensional constant c, the ratio of
the electromagnetic and electrostatic units, which is known to be of the dimensions of a velocity, and numerically to be the same as
the velocity of light. In searching for a relation of the sort suspected, we therefore consider as the variables the charge on the electron, the mass of the
91
electron (for charge and mass together characterize the electron), the velocity of light, and the gravitational constant. make the
We
following analysis
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
Gravitational constant,
G
e
Charge on
electron,
Mass of
electron,
m
c
M
LT~*
Velocity of light,
have four variables, and three fundamental units, so that we expect one dimensionless product. This is at once found to be
e~ 2 the velocity of light not entering the hypothetical relation, and the final result taking the significantly simple form
,
We
2
Gm
G=r
Const (e/m) 2
We now substitute
constant.
G=
43
6.658
.
= 2.35 X 10~
numerical values to find the magnitude of the 5.3 X 10 17 so that Const 10~ 8 and e/m
,
The constant
is
up the attempt
tween
to think
seen therefore to be impossibly small, and we give how there might be a relation between these
is
quantities, although the simplicity of the dimensional relation be-
and e/m
arresting.
Identity of dimensional formulas must not be thought, therefore, to indicate an a priori probability of any sort of physical relation.
When
kinds of different physical quantities expressed in terms of a few fundamental units, there cannot help being all sorts of accidental relations between them, and without
there are so
many
further examination
is
real or accidental.
we cannot say whether a dimensional relation Thus the mere fact that the dimensions of the
are those of angular momentum does not justify us in expecting that there is a mechanism to account for the quantum consisting of something or other in rotational motion.
quantum
The converse of the theorem attempted above does

If there
is
hold, however.
a true physical connection between certain quantities, then there is also a dimensional relation. This result may be used
advantage as a tool of exploration. Consider now a problem showing that any true physical relation must also involve a dimensional relation. Suppose that we are tryto
92
ing to build up a theory of thermal conduction, and are searching for a connection between the mechanism of thermal conduction and
mechanism responsible for the ordinary thermodynamic behavior of substances. The thermodynamic behavior may be considered as specified by the compressibility, thermal expansion, specific
the
heat
(all taken per unit volume), and the absolute temperature. If only those aspects of the mechanism which are responsible for the thermodynamic behavior are also effective in determining the
thermal conductivity, then it must be possible to find a dimensional relation between the thermodynamic elements and the thermal conductivity. We have the following formulation of the problem.
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
/x
Thermal conductivity,
Compressibility per unit vol-
ume,
k
A
M~ L4 T
2
Thermal expansion per unit

volume, Specific heat per unit volume, Absolute temperature,
Mr^L 3 ^1
^^
2
are to seek for a dimensionless product in these variables. five variables, and four fundamental kinds of quantity, so that we would expect one dimensionless product. Since /* is the
We
There are
we are particularly interested, we choose it as the of the product with unity for the exponent, write the product in the form
quantity in which
member
exponents in the usual way. We soon however, for it appears that the equations are inconsistent with each other. This we verify by writing down the
and attempt
to solve for the
encounter
difficulties,
determinant of the exponents in the dimensional formulas for k, A, C, and 0. The determinant is found to vanish, which means that the
tion between thermal conductivity and not exist, and the mechanism of the solid
dimensionless product does not exist. Hence the hypothetical relathermodynamic data does
must have other properties
than those
sufficient to
account for the thermodynamic data alone.
We now give a simple discussion of the

a black body.
problem of radiation from much more elaborate discussion has been given by

3
93
Jeans. The paper of Jeans is also interesting because he uses a system of electrical units in which the dielectric constant of empty space is introduced explicitly. It is easy to see on a little examination that he
would have obtained the same
result with a system of

is
units in which the dielectric constant of

unity.
empty space
defined as
Let us now consider a cavity with walls which have absolutely no specific properties of their own, but are perfect reflectors of any
incident radiation. Inside the cavity is a rarefied gas composed of electrons. If the gas is rarefied enough we know from such considerations as those given by Richardson in considering thermionic emission that the electrons function like a perfect gas, the effect of
the space distribution of electrostatic charge being negligible in comparison with the forces due to collisions as gas particles. The
electron gas in the cavity is to be maintained at a temperature 0. The electrons are acted on by two sets of forces; the collisional
forces with the other electrons, which are of the nature of the forces between atoms in ordinary kinetic theory, and the radiational field
in the ether. Since the electrons are continually being accelerated, they are continually radiating, and they are also continually absorb-
ing energy from the radiational field of the ether. The system must eventually come to equilibrium with a certain energy density in the
ether, the electrons possessing at the
same time the kinetic energy appropriate to gas atoms at the temperature of the enclosure. The detailed solution of the problem obviously involves a most com-
plicated piece of statistical analysis, but a dimensional analysis gives much information about the form of the result.
In solving this problem we shall have to use the field equations of electrodynamics, so that the velocity of light will be a dimensional constant in the result. The charge and the mass of the electron must
be considered, the absolute temperature, and the gas constant, because this determines the kinetic energy of motion of the electrons
The number of electrons per cm 3 does not enter, because we know from kinetic theory that the mean velocity of the electrons is independent of their number. The second
as a function of temperature.
law of thermodynamics
enclosure
is
also shows that the energy density in the a function of the temperature, and not of the density
of the electron gas.
Our formulation
of the problem
is
now
as follows
94
Name
of Quantity.
Symbol.
density, Velocity of light,
Energy
u
c
Dimensional Formula. "2 1
ML"
Mass of
electron,
electron,
m
e
6
M
6
Charge of
Absolute temperature,
Gas constant,
The ordinary electrostatic system of units is used. There are here and four fundamental kinds of unit, hence two dimensionless products, unless there should be some special relation between the exponents. Since we are especially interested in u we
six variables
choose this as the
We
The
find in the usual
member of one of the products with unit way that two products are
exponent.
u e 6 k~4
0~ 4 and k
m-1
c~ 2
result therefore takes the
form
6* f
=k
e-6
(k e
m-
c~ 2 ).
We
as yet
know nothing
The argument of the function, however,
of the nature of the arbitrary function. is seen to have a definite
1 physical significance, kflrn" is half the square of the velocity of the electron (k0 being its kinetic energy), so that the argument is onehalf the square of the ratio of the velocity of the electron to the
velocity of light. Now this quantity remains exceedingly small in the practical range of temperature, so that whatever the form of the function, we know that we have a function of a quantity which is
an extension of the reasoning which we employed any coefficients to be met with in dimensional analysis, we may say that the probability is that the numerical value of such a function is sensibly the same as its value for the
always small.
By
for the numerical value of
value zero of the argument, that is, the function may be replaced by a constant for the range of values of the variable met with in
practise.
to be of the
Hence with much plausibility we may expect the form u Const k 4 e-6 0*.
result
is
tion, so that as far as physical variables
the only physical variable on the right-hand side of this equago the result may be written
in the
form
= a P.

This, of course,
is
95
experiment. The result therefore views which led us to the result.
the well-known Stefan 's law, which checks with justifies to a certain extent the
Our argument about
the size of numerical coefficients would lead
us to expect that the constant in the first form of the result could Const k* e"6 the not be too large or too small. That is, if we put a
result should have a certain simplicity of form, such as
might seem to be a plausible result of a mathematical operation. Now Lewis and Adams 4 have called attention to the fact that within the limits of experimental error the constant of Stefan's law may be written in
the
form
a
k 4 /(47re) 6
Although (4
numerical
7r)
is
the original formulation
not an especially small number in the sense of by Einstein of the probability criterion for
be regarded as small con-
coefficients, it is nevertheless to
sidering the size of the exponents of the quantities with which it is associated, and it is undeniable that the result is of such simplicity
|
seems probable that the coefficient may be the result of a mathematical process, and is not merely due to a chance combinathat
it
tion of elements in a dimensionally correct form.
whatever our opinions as to the validity of the argument, the striking character of the result sticks in our minds, and
rate,
At any
we reserve judgment until the final solution is forthcoming, in the same way that the periodic classification of the elements had to be carried along with suspended judgment until the final solution was forthcoming. It may be mentioned that Lorentz and his pupils have tried a detailed analysis on these terms, with unsuccessful results.
The above analysis gives other opportunities for thought. It significant that the quantum h does not enter the result, although
at least in ponderable matter.
is
it
appears to be inseparably connected with the radiation processes,
We
know
that
h enters the formula
for the spectral distribution of energy, and we also know from thermodynamics that the distribution of energy throughout the
spectrum in a cavity such as the above is the same as the distribution in equilibrium with a black body composed of atoms. The spectral distribution in the cavity which we have been considering must therefore involve h. Does this mean that h can be determined
in terms of the electronic constants, the gas constant,
and the con-
96
is
no mechanism with which we are not needed to account for h? Of course Lewis has used Planck's formula for h in terms of a, etc., in order to obtain a numerical value for h in terms of other quantities.
stants of the ether, so that
already familiar
additional example of the application of dimensional analyin theoretical investigations let us examine the possibility of explaining the mechanical behavior of substances on the basis of a
sis
As an
particular form of the law of force between atoms. "We suppose that the law of force can be written in the form
F
and
= A r~ + B r~n
2
and represents an attractive force, and represents a force of repulsion which becomes very intense on close approach of the atoms. The atoms of different substances may differ in mass and in the numerical value of the coefficients A and B, but the exponent n is to be the same for all
A is to be intrinsically negative,
B
is positive,
substances.
We also suppose that the temperature is so high that the
quantum h plays no important part in the distribution of energy among the various degrees of freedom, but that the gas constant is sufficient in determining the distribution. The external variables which may be imposed on the system are the pressure and the temperature. When these are given the volume is also determined, and
other properties. have, therefore, the following list of in terms of which any of the properties of the substance quantities are to be determined.
all the
We
Name of Quantity.
Pressure,
Symbol.
ML-1 T6
Temperature,
Mass of the atom, Gas constant, A (of the law of force), B (of the law of force),
m
k
M
MLT" ^ ML T~ MLn+1 T2
2 3 2
A
B
of the substance
In addition to these we will have whatever particular property is under discussion. In the above list there are six
quantities in terms of four fundamental units. Therefore

list
from
this
of permanent variables there are two dimensionless products. Let us find them. will choose one involving p and not 0, and the
We
97
are the physical variables under other 6 and not p, since p and our control. The products are at once found to be
pA
and
2 _n + -
Bn 1
n -1
A~^2
B5TT2
6.
The existence of these two products already gives us information about the behavior of the body in those cases in which pressure and temperature are not independently variable quantities, as they are
not on the vapor pressure curve, or on the melting curve, or on the curve of equilibrium between two allotropic modifications of the solid. Under these conditions we have
p
where
f is the
A~^* B^7 =
*
n-f
n-1
\
2
lA"^^ B irr k
0/,
same function for
all substances.
and
vary from
substance to substance. Hence this analysis shows that in terms of a new variable p C x for the pressure, and a new variable B C 2 for
temperature, the equations for the equilibrium curves of all substances are the same. These new pressure and temperature variables are obtained by multiplying the ordinary pressure and temperature
by constant
temperature.
factors,
and may be
Van
der Waal's equation
called the reduced pressure and is a particular case of such

all
an equation, which becomes the same for the reduced variables.
substances in terms of
Now
is to
consider any other physical property of the substance which be accounted for in terms of the variables of the analysis above.
have to form another dimensionless product in which it is involved. This dimensionless product may most conveniently be expressed in terms of the quantities m, k, A, and B, since these are
physically invariable for the particular substance. The expression of any physical quantity is always dimensionally possible in terms of these quantities, unless the determinant of the exponents of m, k,
We
A, and
+2, which is alone. Hence
vanishes, and this is seen to vanish only in the case n the trivial case of the force reducing to an attraction
may
call Q,
may
in the general case any physical property, which be expressed in the form
we
(n+2 p A~^~2 B^ A~^
n-1
B5
^k
1
\
0),
98
' (
' '
where the Const may involve m, k, A, and B in any way, but does not involve p or 6. Now if we define Q/Const as the reduced value of Q, then we have the important result that for all substances of this type the equation connecting the reduced value of a quantity
Q with the reduced pressure and temperature is the same. This applies not only to thermodynamic properties, but to all properties which are to be explained in terms of the same structure, such as
thermal conductivity or viscosity.
The values of the
factors
by means of which the measured values
of the physical variables are converted to "reduced" values will for the substance in question, if n enable us to compute A, B, and
can be otherwise determined.
on consideration of the above work that the only assumption which we have made about n is that it is dimensionless, and that we have not used the assumption stated in the beginning that n is the same for all substances. We may therefore drop this assumption, and have the theorem that for all substances whose behavior can be determined in terms of atoms which are characterIt is evident
2 Br~n with no by a mass and a law of force of the form Ar~ restriction on A, B, or n, there is a law of corresponding states for
ized
all
physical properties.
Evidently it would be possible to carry through an analysis like the above in which the external variables p and are replaced by
any other two which might be convenient, such as certain of the thermodynamic potentials, and the same result would have been obtained, unless there should happen to be special relations between the dimensional exponents. Whether there are such special relations
can be easily determined in any special case. Before anyone starts on a detailed development of such a theory of the structure of matter as this, he would make a preliminary
examination to see whether the properties of substances do actually obey such a law of corresponding states, and govern his future
actions accordingly. The value of the advance information obtained in this way is incontestable.
Meslin,
The analysis above reminds one in some particulars of that of 5 but is much more general, in that the analysis of Meslin applied only to the equation of state, and had to assume the existence of
As
or other peculiar points. a final application of dimensional analysis to theoretical

critical,
99
physics we consider the determination of the so-called absolute systems of units.
The units
in ordinary use are ones
whose absolute
size is fixed
in various arbitrary ways, although the relations between the different sorts of units may have a logical ring. Thus the unit of length,
to a
the centimeter, was originally denned as bearing a certain relation quadrant of the earth 's circumference, and the unit of mass is
the mass of a quantity of water occupying the unit volume. There is something entirely arbitrary in selecting the earth and water as the particular substances which are to fix the size of the units.
We have also met in the course of our many examples dimensional

constants. These constants usually are the expression of some proportionality factor which enters into the expression of a law of nature empirically discovered. Such dimensional constants are the
constant of gravitation, the velocity of light, the quantum, the constant of Stefan's law, etc. Now the numerical magnitude of the
in a
dimensional constants depends on the size of the fundamental units way fixed by the dimensional formulas. By varying the size of
the fundamental units, we may vary in any way that we please the numerical magnitude of the dimensional constant. In particular, by
make
assigning the proper magnitudes to the fundamental units we might the numerical magnitudes of certain dimensional constants
Now the dimensional constants are usually the expression of some universal law of nature. If the fundamental units are so chosen in size that the dimensional constants have the value
equal to unity.
unity, then we have determined the size of the units by reference to universal phenomena instead of by reference to such restricted
phenomena
more
fixed temperature, for instance,

significant.
is
as the density of water at atmospheric pressure at some and the units to that extent are
There
no reason why one should be restricted
to dimensional
constants of universal occurrence in fixing the size of the units, but any phenomenon of universal occurrence may be used. Thus the
units
may be so chosen that the charge on the electron is unity. Any system of units fixed in this way by reference to phenomena or relationships of universal occurrence and significance may be
called an absolute system of units. The first system of absolute units was given by Planck 6 in his book on heat radiation. He connected
the particular system which he gave with the quantum, and it might appear from Planck's treatment that before the discovery of the
100
there were not enough, dimensional constants of the proper known to make possible a universal system of units, but not the case. Planck was the first to think of the possibility
quantum
such
is
character
of absolute units, and used the quantum in determining them, but there is no necessary connection with the quantum, as may be seen
in the following discussion.
Let us
now determine from
the dimensional formulas the set of
absolute units given by Planck. To fix this set of units we choose the constant of gravitation, the velocity of light, the quantum, and
the gas constant. "We require that the fundamental units be of such a size that each of these dimensional constants has the value unity
new system. The discussion may be simplified for the present by omitting the gas constant, for this is the only one which involves the unit of temperature, and it is obvious that after the units of mass, length, and time have been fixed, the gas constant may be
in the
made unity by properly choosing the size of the degree. In mining the size of the new units we find it advantageous to
deter-
choose
the form of notation used in the third chapter in changing units. write this as Consider, for example, the constant of gravitation.
We
Constant of gravitation
= G = 6.658 X 10~
gmr1 cm 3 see"2
The value in the new system of units is to be found by substituting in the expression for G the value of the new units in terms of the old. Thus if the new unit of mass is such that it is equal to x gm,
time to z
in the
and the new unit of length is equal to y cm, and the new unit of sec, we shall have as the equation to determine x, y, and z,
is
since the numerical value of the gravitational constant
to be unity
new system
6.658
10~ 8
3 2 gm"1 cm see"
=1
(x
gm)-
(y cm)
(z sec)"
2
.
The other two dimensional constants give the two additional equations needed to determine x, y, and z. These other equations are immediately written down as soon as the dimensional formulas and
the numerical values of the velocity of light known. The equations are
and the quantum are
6.55
cm sec"1 10~ gm cm 2 sec"1

3
27
10 10
= 1 (y cm) = 1 (x gm)
(z sec)"
1 1
.
(y cm)
(z sec)-
This set of three equations
may
be readily solved, and gives x

5.43
101
10~
5
,
= 4.02 X 10~
new new new
33
,
and
is
= 1.34 X 10~
5
43
.
This means
that
the the
the
unit of mass
5.43
unit of length 4.02 1.34 unit of time
X 10~ gm X 10~ cm X 10~ 43 sec.

33
all is plain sailing, and there can be no question with regard to what has been done. The attempt is sometimes made to go
So far
farther and see some absolute significance in the size of the units
thus determined, looking on them as in some way characteristic of a mechanism which is involved in the constants entering the definition.
Thus Eddington 7 says: "There are three fundamental
con-
stants of nature which stand out preeminently, the velocity of light, the constant of gravitation, and the quantum. From these we can
10~ 33 cm. There are construct a unit of length whose value is 4 other natural units of length, the radii of the positive and negative charges, but these are of an altogether higher order of magnitude.
"With the possible exception of Osborne Reynold's theory of matter, no theory has attempted to reach such fine grainedness. But it is
' evident that this length must be the key to some essential structure. Speculations such as these arouse no sympathetic vibration in the
'
convert to
my somewhat materialistic
new
exposition.
The mere
fact that
the dimensional formulas of the three constants used was such as to
allow a determination of the
units in the
to be the only fact of significance here,
and
this
way proposed seems cannot be of much
significance, because the chances are that
any combination of three
dimensional constants chosen at random would allow the same procedure. Until some essential connection is discovered between the
mechanisms which are accountable for the gravitational constant, the velocity of light, and the quantum, it would seem that no significance whatever should be attached to the particular size of the units
defined in this way, beyond the fact that the size of such units determined by phenomena of universal occurrence.
is
Let us
now
continue with our deduction of the absolute units,

this
16
and introduce the gas constant. For

Gas constant
we have
the equation
2
= k = 2.06 X 10~
1
gm cm2 see"
2
0" 1
2
(xgm) (ysec) (zsec)~
(wfl)-
1
.
x, y,
and
tion to determine w.
z are already determined, so that this is a single equa10 32 This means The value found is 2.37
102
that the
new degree must
be equal to 2.37
10 32 ordinary Centi-
grade degrees. In the wildest speculations of the astrophysicists no such temperature has ever been suggested, yet would Professor Eddington maintain that this temperature must be the key to some funda-
mental cosmic phenomenon?

It must now be evident that it is possible to get up systems of absolute units in a great number of ways, depending on the universal constants or phenomena whose numerical values it is desired to
simplify. "With in general is the
there will
any particular selection of constants, the method same as that in the particular case above. In general be four fundamental kinds of unit, if we want to restrict
ourselves to the electrostatic system of measuring electrical charges, and define the magnitude of the charge in such a way that the force
between two charges
is
equal to their product divided by the square
of the distance between them, or if we do not restrict ourselves to the electrostatic system, there may be five fundamental kinds of quantity.
There seems to be nothing essential in the number five, which merely arises because we usually find it convenient to use the mechanical system of units in which the constant of proportionality between force and the product of mass and acceleration is always kept fixed at unity. The convenience of this system is perhaps more obvious in the case of mechanical phenomena, because of the universality of their occurrence. But if temperature effects were as univeras familiar to us, we would also insist that we always deal with that system of units in which the gas constant has the only fixed value unity.
sal
and
Having, therefore, fixed the number of fundamental units which convenient, and having chosen the numerical constants whose values we wish to simplify, we proceed as above. It is evident that it will in general be necessary to assign as many constants as there are fundamental units, for otherwise there will not be enough equations to give the unknowns. Thus above, we fixed four con-
we deem
quantum, and gas constant, and we had four fundamental kinds of units. Now it is important to notice that four algebraic equations in four unknowns do not always have a solution, but the coefficients must satisfy a certain
stants, gravitational, velocity of light,
condition. This condition
is,
when applied
to the dimensional for-
mulas into which the unknowns enter, that the determinant of the exponents must not vanish. In general, a four-rowed determinant

selected at
103
case of of the
the determinants obtained
random would not be expected to vanish. In the from the dimensional formulas
is
not the case, however, because the dimensional formulas are nearly all of them of considerable simplicity, and the exponents are nearly always small integers. It very often
constants of nature this
happens that the determinant of the exponents of four constants chosen at random vanishes, and the proposed scheme for determining the absolute units turns out to be impossible. The vanishing of the determinant means that all the quantities are not dimensionally independent, so that we really have not four but a smaller number of independent quantities in terms of which to determine the unknowns. For instance, we have found that the gravitational constant dimensionally has the same formula as the square of the ratio of the charge to the mass of the electron. This means that we could not set up a system of absolute units in which the gravitational constant, the charge on the electron, and the mass of the electron were all equal to unity. Now let us write down some of the important constants of nature and see what are the possibilities in the
way
of determining systems of absolute units.
Gravitation constant, Velocity of light,
G
c
6.658
3
10" 8
1 3 gm" cm
sec~ 2
10 10
cm sec"1
10" 27 gm-cm 2 sec" 1 10" 16 gm cm 2 see" 2
15
1
Quantum, Gas constant,

Stefan constant, First spectral constant,
h k
a
C
a'
X X 7.60 X 10~ gm cm" 0.353 X gm. cm sec~

6.547
2.058
see"
C- 1 C- 4
Second spectral constant,
1.431
cm C
15
1
1
Rydberg
constant, Charge of the electron, Mass of the electron,
R
e
N Avogadro number, Second Avogadro number, N'

Some
X 10 sec" 4.774 X 10" 10 gm' cm* sec8.8 X 10~ gm 6.06 X 10 gm" 7.29 X 10 gm" cm~ sec
3.290
28
23 15
1
1
of the quantities in the above list require comment. The a0 4 where u is Stefan constant "a" is defined by the relation u
the energy density in the hohlraum in equilibrium with the walls at temperature 0. The first and second spectral constants are the
constants in the formula
Cr*l
-1-1
-vp-ij
104
ber
its
for the distribution of energy in the spectrum. The Avogadro numis denned as the number of molecules per gm molecule, and
dimensions
may be
obtained from the formula for
it
N=
(no. of
molecules per gm) (mass of molecule / mass of hydrogen molecule). Its dimensions are evidently the reciprocal of a mass, and the
is merely the reciprocal of the mass of the hydrogen molecule. The second Avogadro number N' is denned as the number of molecules per cm 3 in a perfect gas at unit temperature and at unit pressure. We know that this number is independent of
numerical value
the particular gas, and is therefore suited to be a universal constant. 1 1 Its dimensions are evidently those of vol" pressure" temp, and the numerical value may be found at once in terms of the other
constants.
We have now a list of twelve dimensional constants in terms of which to define an absolute system of units. Since these constants are defined in that system in which there are four fundamental kinds of unit, in general any four of the twelve would sufiice for
determining the absolute system of units, but the relations are so simple that there are a large number of cases in which the determinant of the exponents vanishes, and the choice is not possible. For 2 instance, C has dimensionally the same formula as he so that no set of four into which C, h, and c all enter is a possible set. k has the
,
k, c, h, and a' is not possible. N' has the dimensions of k" 1 so that no set of four into which both k and N' enter is possible. The examples might be continued further. The moral is that it is not safe to try for a set of absolute units in
, ,
dimensions of cha'" 1 so that the set
terms of any particular group of constants until one is assured that the choice is possible. For instance, one set that might seem quite
fundamental turns out
to be impossible. It is not possible so to
choose the magnitudes of the units that the velocity of light, the quantum, the charge on the electron, and the gas constant all have the value unity.
By way of contrast, certain sets which are possible may be mentioned. It will be found that the determinant of the exponents of
the following does not vanish; G,
c,
h,
k; G,
c,
e,
k; N,
c,
h,
k;
N,
c, e, k.
If one has certain criteria of taste which

list
make
certain of the above
of quantities objectionable as universal constants, somewhat startling results may be obtained. Let us decline to consider the
quantities R, m, N,
and
N'. There remain G,
c, h, k, a,
C,
a',
and
e.

Now
that
it
105
found that the last seven of these have the property not possible to choose any four of them whose exponential determinant does not vanish. Hence any set of four quantities in
will be
it is
terms of which the absolute system of units is to be determined, if selected from the above list of eight, must include the gravitational constant. This fact is what has made possible Tolman's Principle of
me that it is not possible to ascribe any significance to the fact that there exist these relations between the
Similitude. 8 It seems to
various dimensional constants, but it must be regarded as an entirely fortuitous result due to the limited number of elements of which the
dimensional formulas are composed, and their relative simplicity. Another interesting speculation on the nature of the absolute
units requires comment. G. N. Lewis 4 has stated it to be his conviction that any set of absolute units will be found to bear a simple numerical relation to any other possible set of absolute units. The
view at present is not to be found in accurate results of measurement, but is rather quasi-mystical any in its character. This point of view led Lewis to notice the remarkably simple relation between the Stefan constant and the electronic
justification of this point of
charge and the gas constant, but so far as I know it has not been fruitful in other directions, and I have already indicated another possible significance of the simplicity of the relation.
Now
let
us examine this hypothesis~of Lewis's with a numerical

already found the magnitude of the fundamental
example.
We have
what
units which would give the value unity to the gravitational constant, the velocity of light, the quantum, and the gas constant. Let
us
all
now
find
the velocity of light, the gas constant,
equal to
would make the gravitational constant, and the charge on the electron unity. The work is exactly the same in detail as before,
size units
and it is not necessary to write out the equations found that the following units are required.
again. It will be
New New New New
unit of mass, unit of length, unit of time, unit of temperature,
X 10~ gm 1.368 X 10~ 34 cm 4.56 X 10~ sec 8.07 X 10 30 C

1.849
6
45
Now the
will be
ratio of all these units to the ones previously determined
found to be 1/29.36. On the face of it, 29.36 does not appear to be a particularly simple number, but on examining the way in which it came into the formulas, it will be found that 29.36 is the
106
TT
(
approximate value of 4
) \ 15 /
,
and
this
somewhat complicated
numerical expression came from Planck 's relation between Stefan 's constant and the spectral radiation constants. In fact, using Lewis's
value for
a,
Planck's formula for h becomes
It would seem that there will be considerable hesitation in calling a numerical coefficient of this form "simple." If this is simple, it is hard to see what the criterion of numerical simplicity is, and Lewis's principle, at least as a heuristic principle, becomes of ex9 ceedingly doubtful value. Lewis 's own feeling is that the coefficient in the above form cannot be regarded as simple, and the fact that it
is presumptive evidence that the formula as given by Planck can be regarded only as an approximation, and that sometime a more rigorous theory will be possible in which the number which is at present within the experimental error equal to 29.36 will be
cannot
expressed in a
way which
will appeal to everyone as simple as
made
up of simple integers and TT'S. The justification of such speculations is thus for the future. The spirit of such speculations is evidently opposed to the spirit of this
which
exposition, and we are for the present secure in our point of view sees nothing mystical or esoteric in dimensional analysis.
BEFERENCES
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) p. 175. (7)
A. Einstein, Ann. Phys. 35, 686, 1911. H. Jeans, Trans. Roy. Soc. 201 (A), 157, 1903. J. H. Jeans, Proc. Roy. Soc. 76, 545, 1905. G. N. Lewis and E. Q. Adams, Phys. Rev. 3, 92, 1914.
J.
Meslin, C. R. 116, 135, 1893. M. Planck, Heat Radiation, English translation
by Masius,
Soc.,
A.
S.
Eddington, Report on Gravitation, Lon. Phys.

3,
1918, p. 91. (8) R. C. Tolman, Phys. Rev.

(9)
244, 1914.
Private communication from Lewis.
PROBLEMS
RT, has the value 0.08207 gas constant in the equation pv the pressure p is expressed in atmospheres, the volume v is the volume in liters of 1 gm mol, and T is absolute Centigrade degrees. What is when p is expressed in dynes/cm 2 and v is in cm3 ? 2 2. The thermal conductivity of copper is 0.92 cal. per cm per sec per 1 per cm temperature gradient. What is it in B.T.U. per hour per square foot for a temperature gradient of 1 Fahrenheit per foot? (This last is the engineering unit.) 2 3. If the numerical value of e /ch is 0.001161 in terms of the gm, is in its value terms of the ton, mile, and hour? and what cm, sec, e is the charge of the electron in E.S.U., c is the velocity of light in empty space, and h is Planck's quantum of action. 4. The thrust exerted by an air propeller varies with the number of revolutions per second and the speed of advance along the axis of revolution. Show that the critical speed of advance at which the thrust vanishes is proportional to the number of revolutions per second. 5. Show that the acceleration toward the center of a particle 2 moving uniformly in a circle of radius r is Const v /r. 6. Show that the time of transverse vibration of a heavy stretched
1.
THE
when
wire
7.
is
Const
length
(linear density /tension )*.

is
The time of longitudinal vibration of a bar
Const
length
(volume density /elastic constant)*. 8. The velocity of sound in a liquid is Const
(density/modulus
of compressibility)'. 9. Given that the twist per unit length of a cylinder varies inversely as the elastic constant, or as the moment of the applied force, prove that it also varies inversely as the fourth power of the diameter. 10. There is a certain critical speed of rotation at which a mass of incompressible gravitating fluid becomes unstable. Prove that the angular velocity at instability is independent of the diameter and proportional to the square root of the density. 11. There is a certain size at which a solid non-rotating gravitating sphere becomes unstable under its own gravitation. Prove that the radius of instability varies directly as the square root of the elastic constant and inversely as the density. 12. Given that the velocity of advance of waves in shallow water is independent of the wave length, show that it varies directly as the square root of the depth. 13. The velocity of capillary waves varies directly as the square
108
root of the surface tension, and inversely as the square root of the wave length and the density. 14. A mass attached to a massless spring experiences a damping force proportional to its velocity. The mass is subjected to a periodic
force. Show that the amplitude of vibration in the steady state is proportional to the force. 15. The time of contact of two equal spheres on impact is proportional to their radius. Given further that the time varies inversely as the fifth root of the relative velocity of approach, show that it varies as the 2/5th power of the density, and inversely as the 2/5th power of the elastic constant. 16. The specific heat of a perfect gas (whose atoms are character-
ized
ture.
by
their
mass only)
is
independent of pressure and tempera-
17. Show that if a gas is considered as an assemblage of molecules of finite size exerting no mutual forces on each other except when in collision the viscosity is independent of the pressure and is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature. 18. Show that if the thermal conductivity of the gas of problem 17 is independent of the pressure it is also proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature. 19. periodic change of temperature is impressed on one face of a half-infinite solid. Show that the velocity of propagation of the disturbance into the solid is directly as the square root of the frequency, and the wave length is inversely as the square root of the frequency. The disturbance sinks to 1/eth of its initial value in a number of wave lengths which is independent of the frequency and the thermal constants of the material. 20. long thin wire is immersed in a medium by which its external surface is maintained at a constant temperature. Heat is supplied to the wire by an alternating current of telephonic frequency at the rate Q coswt per unit volume. Show that the amplitude of the periodic fluctuation of the average temperature of the wire is of the form r= Q d 2 /k f ( w c d 2 /k), where d is the diameter of the wire, k the thermal conductivity, and c the heat capacity per unit volume. If the wire is thin, show by a consideration of the numerical values of k and c for metals that is independent of o> and c and assumes the approximate form 6 Const Q d 2 /k. 21. The internal energy of a fixed quantity of a perfect gas, reckoned from Abs. and pressure, is independent of the pressure and proportional to the absolute temperature. Hence the internal energy reckoned from an arbitrary temperature and pressure as the initial point is independent of pressure and proportional to the excess of the absolute temperature over that of the initial point. 22. may not the argument of problem 21 be applied to the entropy of a fixed amount of a perfect gas ? 23. T. W. Richards, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc. 37, 1915, finds empirically the following relation for different chemical elements
Why
PROBLEMS
ft
109
0.00021
A/D
1 - 26
(T m
50)
atomic weight,
where 8
= -(]
is
the compressibility,
A is the
is the density, T m the melting temperature on the absolute Centigrade scale. What is the minimum number of dimensional constants required to make this a complete equation, and what are their dimensions ? 24. Show that the strength of the magnetic field about a magnetic doublet varies inversely as the cube of the distance, and directly as
of the doublet. are the dimensions of the dielectric constant of empty space in the electromagnetic system of units ? What is its numerical value ? 26. What are the dimensions of the magnetic permeability of empty space in the electrostatic system of units ? What is its numeri-
the
moment
25.
What
cal value?
27. Given a half -infinite conducting medium in the plane surface of which an alternating current sheet is induced. Show that the velocity of propagation of the disturbance into the medium varies as the square root of the specific resistance divided by the periodic time, and the extinction distance varies as the square root of the product of specific resistance and the periodic time. 28. Show that the self-induction of a linear circuit is proportional to the linear dimensions. 29. sinusoidal E.M.F. is applied to one end of an electrical line with distributed resistance, capacity, and inductance. Show that the velocity of propagation of the disturbance is inversely proportional, and the attenuation constant is directly proportional to the square root of the capacity per unit length. 30. An electron is projected with velocity v through a magnetic field at right angles to its velocity. Given that the radius of curvature of its path is directly proportional to its velocity, show that the radius of curvature is also proportional to the mass of the electron, and inversely proportional to the field and the charge. 31. In all electrodynamical problems into whose solution the velocity of light enters, the unit of time may be so defined that the velocity of light is unity, and two fundamental units, of mass and time, suffice. Write the dimensions of the various electric and magnetic quantities in terms of these units. Obtain the formula for the mass of an electron in terms of its mass and radius. Problems the also be solved with constant gravitational involving only may the units of mass and length as fundamental. Discuss the formula for the mass of the electron with gravitational units. 32. The Rydberg constant (of the dimensions of a frequency) derived by Bohr 's argument for a hydrogen atom is of the form 3 Const are the mass and the charge of the e*/h where e and and h is Planck's quantum of action. electron,
N=
INDEX
Absolute significance of relative magnitude, 20, 21. Absolute units, 99-106.
Equations of motion, 52. Euler's theorem, 39.

Falling sphere, 65-67, 84.
Adams,
95, 106.
Airplane, 84, 85.
Angle, dimensions of,
3.
Faraday, 77. Fessenden, 27, 80.

Fitzgerald, 80.
Atomic forces, 4, 96. Avogadro's number, 103.

Boussinesq, 9. Buchholz, 35.
Fourier, 51, 55. Fractional exponents, 46, 47.
Gas constant,
87.
71, 72, 100, 101, 103.
Buckingham, 24, 40, 46, 55, 81, Bureau of Standards, 81, 87.
Gravitating bodies, 5. Gravitation constant, 6, 90, 100, 103. Gravitational instability, 90.
Change ratio, 29. Changing units, 28-35. Complete equation, 37.

Corresponding states, 97-98. Cowley, 87.
Crehore, 80.
Gravity wave, 56-59.
Heat
transfer, 9, 72.
Hersey, 87.
Infra red frequency, 89.

Instruments, 87.
Debye, 90. Determinant of exponents, 34, 43, 59,

68, 103.
Jeans, 40, 46, 90, 93, 106.
Johnson, 80.
Dielectric constant, 78.
Dimension, 23. Dimensional constant, 14, 15, 36, 52,

64.
Levy, 87.
Lewis, 95, 96, 105, 106.
Dimensional formulas, 23, 24. Dimensional homogeneity, 41. Dimensionless products, 40, 43.
Lodge, A., 35. Lodge, O., 80. Logarithmic constant, 36, 73-75.
Lorentz, 95.
Meslin, 98, 106.
Drop of
liquid, 3.
Eddington, 101, 106. Edwards, 87.

Einstein, 89, 95, 106. Elastic pendulum, 59-65.
Millikan, 67.
Models, 82, 85, 86.
Electromagnetic mass, 12, 53.

Electronic charge, 103. Electronic mass, 103.
National Physical Laboratory, 81. Nernst, 74. Number of fundamental units, 11, 24,
Energy
density, 77-79.
Numerical
48, 54, 55, 61, 63, 66, 68. coefficients, 88-90.
112
Pendulum,
1, 81.
INDEX
Scattering of sky light, 69.
Physical relations, 91, 92.

,Pi theorem, 36-47, 40, 49, 57, 75. Planck, 96, 99, 100, 106.
Secondary quantities, 19-20, 22,

Spectral constants, 103.
Stefan, 95, 103, 105, 106. Stiffness of beam, 67-69.
Stokes, 65, 84.
23.
Pressure of gas, 70-71.
Primary
Principle
10.
quantities, 18-20, 23.
of
Similitude,
Eayleigh's,
Temperature, dimensions
's,
of, 10-11, 24,
Principle of Similitude, Tolman Product of powers, 8, 22, 39.

Projectile, 86.
91, 95, 99, 100, 103.
105.
71, 72, 73.
Thermal conductivity,
Thomson, James, Thompson, S. P.,
29.
92.
27, 46.
electric circuit, 76.
Quantum,
Time constant of
Tolman,
Eadiation from black body, 93.

Eayleigh,
80, 87.
4, 9, 10, 11, 24, 56, 69, 72,
24, 26, 27, 105, 106.
Transcendental functions, 42, 44, 45.
"True"
dimensions, 24, 79.
Eeduced variable,
86.
97, 98.
Eesistance to submerged motion, 82-
Ultimate rational units, 105. Uniqueness of dimensions, 25, 26.

Velocity of light, 12, 53, 100, 103.
Eeynolds, 87, 101.
Eiabouchinsky, 10, 11, 24.

Eichardson, 93.
Eouth, 46.
Eiicker, 26, 80.
Webster, 35.
Williams, 26, 46, 80.
103.
Eydberg constant,
Wilson, 87.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
CM WHICH BORRO\
81978
FEB
Jil
1988
18
BERKELEY LIBRARIES
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PEOFESSOE OF PHYSICS IN HAEVAED UNIVEESITY

YALE^ UNIVERSITY PRESS HUMPHEEY MILFOED OXFOED UNIVEESITY PEESS

COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS

sity in the spring of 1920.

any formal presentation

superfluous. There do, nevertheless, exist

of practise problems, which I hope

new may omit

chapter without trouble.

especial obligation to the papers of Dr. am also much indebted to Mr.

Edgar BuckM. D. Hersey

Dimensional Analysis to Model Experiments. Other Engineering

Applications Chapter VIII. Applications to Theoretical Physics

of all the quantities on which we then write down the

no matter what the

size of the units in

Length of pendulum, Mass of pendulum,

such that the

the size of the fundamental

the dimensional formulas

show how the various fundamental

any way. But

evident that 1/g must enter the function in

length, or time are changed. This of course

constant and saying that

enter the functional relation in any

Density of liquid, Radius of drop,

are to find f such that

measured. The method

does not enter

Hence s/d and

must be combined in such a way that

to the third power, it is obvious that s/d

enters s/d be divided by the cube

the dimensions of the left-hand side.

experiment. The result was given by Lord Rayleigh as problem 7

Did we mean that the

results are inde-

measure the time of

oscillation of drops of different liquids, differing

reply may be checked by an appeal

found as a matter of experiment that

made smaller and smaller

smaller, there will also be a point

beyond which any further reduc-

to such conditions as these that our analysis

applies. Instead of appealing to direct

since our critic

experiment to justify our an intelligent critic, appeal

requires a considerable back-

of the various quantities as before.

Mass of first body, Mass of second body,

These are evidently

the quantities physically involved, because

and the elements

at a distance r apart always revolve in the

defined by the equation of the force between

"constant" which has

dimensions and therefore changes in numerical magnitude when