Course of Pure Geometry

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/7
CORNELL
UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
GIFT OF
Professor Max Black
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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924059584445
A COURSE
OF
PURE GEOMETRY
Cambridge University Press

Fetter Lane,
London
Ne'w York
Bombay, Calcutta, Madras
Toronto
Macmillan
Vohyo
Maruzen Company, Ltd
All rights reserved
A COURSE
OF
PURE GEOMETRY
CONTAINING A COMPLETE GEOMETRICAL TREATMENT OF THE PROPERTIES OF THE CONIC SECTIONS
BY
E.
H.
ASKWITH,
D.D.
FORMERLY CHAPLAIN OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY
PRESS
First Edition
1903
1911 Reprinted Second Edition 1917 1921 Reprinted
1926
1931
FEINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
PKEFACE
rriHIS work
is
a revision and enlargement of

in 1903.
my
Course of
Pure Geometry published

former edition in that
it
It differs from the
does not assume any previous knowinitio,
ledge of the Conic Sections, which are here treated ab
on
the basis of the definition of a

in
circle.
them
as the curves of projection of
This
is
not the -starting point of the subject generally
works on Geometrical Conic Sections.
The
curves are
usually defined by
means
of their focus
and directrix property,
and their other properties are evolved therefrom.

focus
Here the
and
directrix property is established as one belonging to

it is
the projections of a circle and
freely used, but the fact

circle
that the
conies
are derived
by projection from a
is
and
therefore possess all its projective properties

in the
kept constantly
mind
of the student.
Many of the
properties of the Conic Sections which can only
be established with great labour from their focus and directrix

property are proved quite simply
directly from the circle.
when the
curves are derived
Nor
is
the method employed here any more diflScult than

it is
the prevalent one, though be covered

indicated
first.
true that certain ground has to
But
this is not very extensive
and I have
(p. xii)
the few articles which a Student should master
before he proceeds to Chapter ix.
Without a certain knowinvolution
ledge
of cross
ratios,
harmonic
section,
and the b3
VI
PREFACE
elementary principles of conical projection no one can follow

the argument here adopted.
But these things are quite
easy,
and the advantage gained by the student who from the beginning sees the Conic Sections whole, as he does when they
are presented to his
mind
as the projections of a circle,
more
than compensates
for
any delay there may be through the short
study of the necessary preliminaries.

E.
H. A,
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
SOME PROPERTIES OF THE TRIANGLE
PAGE
Definitions
1
Orthocentre
Nine-points circle Pedal line
2 3 6
Medians
CHAPTER
Poles and polara
. .
II
SOME PROPERTIES OF CIRCLES
...
VIU
CONTENTS
CHAPTEK V
CBOSS-BATIOS
PAGE
Definition
47
. . .
.
Twenty-four cross-ratios reducible to six Projective property of cross-ratios
48
Equi-oross ranges and pencils mutually projective
50 54
CHAPTER VI
PERSPECTIVE
Definition
58
.
.
Ranges and pencils in perspective nomographic ranges and pencils

Triangles in perspective
.
60
62
64
CHAPTER
Definition
VII
HABMONIC SECTION
and properties of harmonic ranges Harmonic property of pole and polar of circle Harmonic property of quadrilateral and quadrangle
.
....71
.
74
75
CHAPTER
Definition
VIII
INVOLUTION
and
criterion of involution range
Involution projective
Involution properties of the circle
Orthogonal involution
...
80 83 84
85
Pair of orthogonal rays in every involution pencil
CHAPTER IX
THE CONIC SECTIONS
Definitions
90
91
Focus and directrix property

Projective properties
.
92 93
Circle projected into another circle "Focus
and directrix as pole and polar
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
Form
XIII
PAGE
THE HYPERBOLA
of curve
163
Difference of focal distances constant
Tangent and normal
........
. .
'164
164
166 168 169
On
the length'of the conjugate axis
Pair of tangents
Director circle
....
....
The conjugate hyperbola

Asymptotic properties
Conjugate diameters
Circle of curvature
170
171
174
187
CHAPTER XIV
THE EECTANGULAE HYPERBOLA
Conjugate diameters Perpendicular diameters
Eectangular hyperbola circumscribing a triangle
.
192
193
.194
196
Chord and tangent properties
CHAPTER XV
ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION
Principles
201
Fundamental propositions
202
.
, .
The
ellipse as
orthogonal projection of a circle
205
CHAPTER XVI
CROSS-RATIO PROPERTIES OP CONICS
P {ABCD) constant
Pascal's
theorem
. . .
210 214
. . . . . .
Brianchon's theorem
Locus of centres of conies through four points Involution range on a conic
.215 .216
216
CHAPTER XVII
Principles
...
RECIPROCATION
Involution properties of quadrangle and quadrilateral Desargues' theorem and its reciprocal
....
.
220 224
227
CONTENTS
XI PAOE
Reoiprooation applied to conies Special case where the base conic
228
is
a circle
231
Coaxal circles reciprocated into confooal conies
234 236 237
A pair of self-conjugate triangles.

Reciprocal triangles
CHAPTER
Definition of circular points
XVIII
CIRCULAB POINTS. FOCI OP CONICS

242
Analytical point of view
Properties of conies obtained by using circular points
.
The
four foci of a conic

triangles circumscribing a conic
243 244 246

248
Two
Generalising by projection
249
CHAPTER XIX
INVERSION
inversion of line and circle
256
258
. .
.
Inversion of sphere
Inversion of inverse points into inverse points
259
Feuerbach's theorem
262
CHAPTER XX
SIMILARITY OP PIGUBES
nomothetic
figures
...
two
....
.
.
267
Figures directly similar but not homothetio

Circle of similitude for
circles
270
271
Figures inversely similar
272 276
285
Miscellaneous Examples
Index
The student who may be using

proceed to Chapter
this
work as a
first
text book on Geometrical Conic Sections will be able to
IX after
reading the following para-
graphs of the
first
eight chapters:
13 to 16a, 29 to 35, 40 to 45, 48 to 53, 58, 67, 68, 69 to 73, 77 to 87.
CHAPTER
SOME PROPERTIES OF THE TRIAXGLE

1.
(0.)
Definition of terms.
By
lines,
unless otherwise stated, will be
meant
sti-aight
lines.
(6)
The
lines joining the vertices of a triangle to the
middle
points of the opposite sides are called its vied tans.

(c)
By
the circumcircJe of a triangle

its vertices.
is
meant the
circle
passing through
The
centi-e of this circle will
be called the circinncentre of

is
the triangle.
The
triangle
(d)
reader already knows that the cireumcentre
the
point of intereection of the perpendiculars to the sides of the
drawn through
their middle points.
The
incircle of
a triangle
IjTiig
is
is
the circle touching the
sides of the triangle
and
within the triangle.

the incentre of the triangle.
The The
{e)
centre of this circle
incentre
is
the point of intersection of the lines bisecting
the angles of the triangle.
An
ecircle of a triangle is a circle
a triangle and the other two sides produced.

ecircles.
touching one side of There are three
The
centre of an ecircle
ecentre
is
is called
an
ecentre.
An
ajigles.
A. Q.
the point of intersection of the bisector of
one of the
luigles
and of the bisectors of the other two external

(/)
Two
triangles
which are such that the sides and angles
of the one are equal respectively to the sides and angles of the
other will be called congruent.

If
by the notation
ABO be congruent with A'B'O', AABC= AA'B'G'.

:
we
shall express
the fact
2. Proposition. The perpendiculars from the vertices of a triangle on to the opposite sides meet in a point {called the orthocentre) and the distance of each vertex from the ortho;
centre is twice the perpendicular distance
of
the
circumcentre
from
the side opposite to that vertex.
Through the
vertices of the triangle
ABC draw lines parallel

thus formed will be
linear dimensions.
its
to the opposite sides.
The
triangle
A'B'C
similar to the triangle
ABC, and
of double
being the middle points of the sides of A'B'C' the perpendiculars from these points to the sides on
,
Moreover, A, B,
lie will
which they
A, B,
meet
in the circumcentre of A'B'G'.
But these perpendiculars
are also the perpendiculars from
to the opposite sides of the triangle

first
ABC.
proved.
Hence the
part of our proposition
is
SOME PEOPERTIES OF THE TRIANGLE
Now
ABG.
let
be the orthocentre and
the circumeentre of
Draw OD
Then
perpendicular to BG.
since
P is also the circumeentre of the triangle A'B'C,

lines in the
PA
and OD are corresponding A'B'C, ABG.
two similar triangles
Hence
3.
^P is twice
OD.
to
Definition.
It will be convenient
speak of the
perpendiculars from the vertices on to the opposite sides of a

triangle as
the per-pendiculars of the triangle;
and of the
perpendiculars from the circumeentre on to the sides as the

perpendiculai-s
4.
from
The
the circunicentre.
circle
through the middle points of the sides of a triangle passes also through the feet of the perpendiculars of the tnangle and through the middle points of the three lines
joining the orthocentre
to the vertices
Prop.
of the triangle.
Let D, E,
F be
the middle points of the sides of the triangle

its
ABG,
eentre,
L,
M,
the feet of
perpendiculars,
the circum-
P the orthocentre.
Join FD,
DE, FL, LE.
Then
since
E is the circumeentre of ALG,

ZELA^ÊAL.
12
SOME PEOPEETIES OF THE TRIANGLE
And
.-.
for a like reason
z FLA = z FAL. /iFLE==zFAE = z FDE since AFDE is a
parallelogram.
r.L
Similarly
is
on the circumcircle of DEF.

lie
M and iV
on this
circle.
Further the centre of

lines bisecting
this circle lies
on each of the three
DL, EM,
FN at right angles.
is
Therefore the centre of the circle

of OP.
at
U the
in.
middle point
DU and produce it to meet AP X. The two triangles OUT), PUX are easily seen to be congruent, so that UD = VX and XP = OD. Hence X lies on the circle through D, E, F, L, M, N. And since XP = OD = ÂP, X the middle point of AP.
Now join
is
Similarly the circle goes through

of
T and Z, the middle points
5P and
5.
CP.
is
Thus our proposition
proved.
is
The
circle
thus defined
known
as the nine-points circle
of the triangle.
Its radius is half that of the circumcircle, as is

is
obvious from the fact that the nine-points circle

circle of
the circumits linear
DEF, which
is
similar to
ABO
and of half
SOME PROPEETIES OF THE TRIANGLE

dimensions.
Or the same may be seen from our
figure wherein
DX = OA,
It will
for
ODXA
is
a pai-allelogram.
be proved in the chapter on Inversion that the nine-
points circle touches the incircle and the three ecircles of the
triangle.
6.
Prop.
to
produced
If the perpendicular AL of a triangle meet the circumcircle in H, then PL = LH,
ABG be
being
the orthocentre.
Join
BR.
Then Z HBL = Z
HAG in the
same segment
each
is
= z LBP since aAGB.

Thus the
triangles
also their right angles at
the complement of
PBL, HBL have
their angles at
side
equal,
equal,
and the
BL
common.
..PL
7.
= LH.
on the
The feet of the perpendiculars from any point Q circumcircle of a triangle ABG on to the sides of the
Prop.
triangle are collinear.
Let R,
S,
T be the
feet of the perpendiculars as in the figura
Join QA, QB.
QTAS
angles.
is
a cyclic quadrilateral since
and
are right
.:ÂTS = zAQS
= complement = complement = ^BQR
of
of
QAS zQBG
(since
QAG, QBC
are
supplementary)
= Z BTR (since QBRT is cyclic). BTS is a straight line.

.*.
This line
RTS is
called the pedal line of the point Q.

line.
It is
known
also as the
Simson
The converse
If
the feet
of this proposition also holds good, viz.
of the perpendiculars
from a
point
on
to the
sides of a triangle are collinear,

triangle.
lies
on the circumcircle of the
For since
QBRT and QTAS are cyclic, ^BQR=^BTR=aATS=âAQS. Z QBR = z QAS, so that QBCA is cyclic.
SOMK PROPERTIES OF THE TRIANGLE

Prop. The pedal line of 8. P, the orthocentre of the triangle.
bisects the line
joining
to
Join
QP cutting
the pedal line oi
Q'va.
K.
in
Let the perpendicular

Join
AL
meet the circumcircle

line in
H.
QH cutting the pedal
M and BG in N.
Join
PN and
since
QB.
cyclic,
Then
QBRT is
/.
^QRT^zQBT = QHA in same segment = Z HQR since QR is pamllel to AH,

.-.
QM=MR.
.".
is
the middle point of QX.
But
/.
PNL = Z LNH since /\PNL = AHNL

= ZRNM = Z 21 RX.
.'.
PX
is
:
parallel to
:
RT.
Jiy.
.-.
QK KP = QM
..QK = KP.
8
9.

Prop.
The three medians of a triangle meet in a point, a point of trisection of each median, and also of and this point and the orthocentre P. the line joining the circumcentre
is
Let the median
AD
of the triangle
ABC cut OP in
Q.
Then from the

deduce, since
similarity of the triangles
GAP, GDO, we
of
Thus
AP = 20D, that AG = 2GD and PG = 2G0. the median AD cuts OP in G which is a point
OP
in the
also.
trisection of both lines.
Similarly the other medians cut
same point
G,
which
will
be a point of trisection of them
This point
is
called the
median point of the
triangle.
The reader
is
probably, already familiar with this point as the
centroid of the triangle.

10.
Prop.
If AD
be
a median of the triangle ABC, then
A& + AC^ = 2AD' + 2BD\

Draw Then
and
AL perpendicular to
BG.
.
AC' = AB' + BC^- 2BC BL iZ)" = AB^ + BD^ - 2BD BL.

.
B and C are
These equalities include the cases where both the angles acute, and where one of them, B, is obtuse, provided

that
BG
and
BL
be considered to have the same or opposite
signs according as they are in the
same
or opposite directions.
first,
Multiply the second equation by 2 and subtract from the then
.-.
AC^ - 2AD' = BC - AB" - 2BB\ AR' + AG^ = 2AB"- + BG^ - 2BB^ = 2AB' + 2BB\ since BG = 2BD.
is
11.
The
proposition proved in the last article
only a
special case of the following general one
If
be
a point
in the side
BG of
a triangle
ABG such that
BB=-BG,then
n
(n
- 1)AB' + AC^ = n. AB' +

before, if
(l
" ^J
-S^'-
For proceeding as
the equations by n and subtract from the

.
we now multiply the second first we get
of
AG' - n AB' = (1 - n) AB'' + BG^-n. BB\

..in-l)AB' + AG^ = n.AB' + BG''-nQ^BGj
= n.AB'+(l-y]BG\
12.
incircle
Prop. The distances of of a triangle ABG with

s a,sb,s c
the points the sides
of contact of the
from
the vertices
A, B, G are
respectively;
and
the distances
of
the points of contact of the edrcle opposite to
are
s,
c,
10
s

respectively; a,
b, c
being the lengths of the sides opposite
to
A, B,
G and
half
the
sum of them.
ineircle
Let the points of contact of the
be L, M, N.
Then
since
.".
AMÂN,
GL = GM and BL = BN,
t\&
'
AM + BG =
h.a\.i
sum
of the sides =s,
= s a.
Similarly
Next
let
BL = BN=s-b, &.nd GL = GM = sL', M\ N' be the points of contact of

c.
the ecircle
opposite to A.
Then
and
and
CoE.
AN' = AB + BN' = AB + BL' AM'= AG+GM' = AG + GL'. since J.ilf' = îV', 2AN'=AB + AG + BG==2s. ..AN' = s, BL' = BN' = s-c, and GL' = GAI' = s - &. BL' = GL, and thus LL' and BG have
.-.
the same
middle point.
11
EXERCISES
1.
Defining the pedal triangle as that formed by joining the

its
feet of the perpendiculars of a triangle,
has for
its
shew that the pedal triangle incentre the orthocentre of the original triangle, and that
angles are the supplements of twice the angles of the triangle.

2.
straight line
PQ
is
drawn
parallel to
circumcircle of the triangle
ABC
in the points
the pedal lines of
and Q intersect
meet the shew that on the perpendicular from C

to
AB
F and
Q,
onAB.
3.
Shew
that the pedal lines of three points on the circumcircle
of a triangle form a triangle similar to that formed

points.
by the three
lines of the extremities of a chord of the circuma triangle intersect at a constant angle. Find the locus of the middle point of the choi-d.
4.
The pedal
circle of
5. Given the circumcircle of a triangle and two of its vertices, prove that the loci of its orthocentre, centroid and nine-points centre
are
circles.
6.
The
locus of a point which is such that the

its
sum
of the
is
squares of
sphere.
7.
distances from two given points
is
constant
A',
B',
are three points on the sides
BC, GA,
AB
is
of a
triangle
ABC. Prove
that the circumcentres of the triangles
AB'C,
similar
BC'A', CA'B' are the angular points of a triangle which

to
ABC.
8.
A circle is described
ABC, and
it
concentric with the circumcircle of the
ti'iangle
intercepts chords AÂ^, B^B^,
AB
CA,
respectively; from A^ perpendiculars A^b^,
A^c-^
C\CônBC, CA, are drawn to

of
AB
respectively,
and from A^, B^,

is
B.^,
Cj, Cj similar perpen-
diculars
are drawn.
Shew that the circumcentres

a typical one,
lie
the
six
triangles, of
which Ab^c^
on a
circle concentric
with the nine-points

circle.
9.
circle,
and of radius one-half that
of the original
A
(i)
plane quadrilatei-al
internal diagonals;
points
is divided into four triangles by its shew that the quadrilaterals having for angular the orthooentres and (ii) the circumcentres of the four
12

and if their areas be A, and be that of the quadrilateral, then 2A + Aj = iA^.
line joining the vertex of
is
triangles are similar parallelograms;

^2,
and
10.
Prove that the
a triangle to that
point of the inscribed circle which
farthest from the base passes

circle
through the point of contact of the escribed

11.
with the base.

lines joining the
Given in magnitude and position the
vertex of a triangle to the points in which the inscribed circle and the circle escribed to the base touch the base, construct the triangle.
12.
Prove that when four points A, B,
C,
D lie on a circle,
lie
the
orthocentres of the triangles
BCD, GDA, DAB, ABC

lines of the extremities of
on an
equal
circle.
13.
Prove that the pedal
a diameter
of the circumcircle of a triangle intersect at right angles
on the
nine-points circle.
14. ABC is a triangle, BG meets the circumcircle
its
circumcentre;
OB
perpendicular
to
in K.
Prove that the
line
through
perpendicular to
15.
AK will bisect KP, P being the orthocentre.
circumcircle and one angular point of a and also the lengths of the lines joining this point to the orthocentre and centre of gravity, construct the triangle.
triangle
16.
Having given the
If
AB be divided
any
at
in such a
manner that
l.AO = m.OB,
and
if
P be
b,
point, prove
l.AP^ + m.BP'' = {l + m)OP'' + l.AO^ + m,.BO\

If a,
c
locus of a point
be the lengths of the sides of a triangle ABG, find the P such that a PA? + 6 PB^ + c PC" is constant.
.
13
CHAPTER
II
SOME PROPERTIKS OF OIRCLES

Definition. 13. When two points P and P" lie on the and are on the same radius of a circle whose centre is and their distances from same side of are such that = square of radius, they are called OP OP' the inverse points
.
with respect to the
circle.
The reader can already prove

0, the
for himself that if
a pair of
tangents be drawn from an external point

at right angles to
P to a circle, centre
is
chord joining the points of contact of these tangents
OP, and cuts
OP
in a point
which
is
the
inverse of P.
14.
The
following proposition will give the definition of the

circle
:
polar of a point with respect to a
Prop. The locus of the points of intersection of pairs of tangents drawn at the extremities of chords of a circle, which pass through a fixed point, is a straight line, called the polar of that point, and the point is called the pole of the line.
Let
he
a.
fixed point in the plane of a circle, centre 0.
Draw any chord
QR
of the circle to pass through A.
Let the tangents at Q and
R meet in P.
M.
Draw PL
Let
perpendicular to OA.
OP
cut
QR
at right angles in
14
SOME PEOPEETIES OF CIRCLES
Then
PMLA
.-.
is cyclic.
.".
OL.OA = 0M.OP = square of radius. i is a fixed point, viz. the inverse of A.
Thus the
and cutting
15.
locus of
P is
a straight line perpendicular to
OA,
it
in the inverse point of A.
It is clear from the
above that the polar of an external

of imaginary lines,
us,
point coincides with the chord of contact of the tangents from

that point.
And
if
we introduce the notion
with which Analytical Geometry has furnished

tangents real or imaginary from that point.
we may say
that the polar of a point coincides with the chord of contact of
We may remark
is
here that the polar of a point on the circle
the tangent at that point.
Some
define it
writers define the polar of a point as the chord of
contact of the tangents drawn from that point; others again
by means of
its
harmonic property, which

is
will
be given
in a later chapter.
It
is
unfortunate that this difference of

of opinion that the
treatment prevails. The present writer
method he has here adopted

16.
is
the best.
ike
Prop.
If the polar of A goes through B, then

of
polar
of
B goes through A. Let BL be the polar

Draw
cutting
OA
at right angles in L.
AM at right angles to
OB.
15
Then
OM.OB=OL.OA= sq.
.-.
of radius,
AM
is
the polar of 5,
that
is,
lies
on the polar of B.
Two
points such that the polar of each goes through the
other are called conjugate points.
The reader
will see
for
himself that inverse points with
respect to a circle are a special case of conjugate points.
We leave it as an exercise for the m be two lines such that the pole of of m will lie on
I,
I.
student to prove that

lies
if
on m, then the pole
Two
such lines are called conjugate
lines.
From
the above property for conjugate points
we
see that
the polars of a
number
of collinear points
all
pass through a
lie.
common
if
point, viz. the pole of the line on

&c.,
which they
For
A, B, G, B,
G, &rc.,
the polar of
be points on a line p whose pole is P; since goes through A, B, G, &c., .. the polars of
A, B,
go through P.
We
is
observe that the intersection of the polars of two points
the pole of the line joining them.
16
16a.

Prop.
//
OP
and OQ
is the
be
a pair of conjugate
lines of
circle
is
which meet the polar of

such that each vertex
in
P and
Q, then the triangle
OPQ
pole of the opposite side, and
the centre of the circle is the orthocentre of the triangle.
lies
For the pole of OQ must lie on the polar of 0, and it also on OP, since OP and OQ are conjugate lines. Thus OQ is
Similarly
the polar of P.
OP
is
the polar of Q.
Also the lines joining
the centre to 0, P,
are perpen-
dicular respectively to the polars of those points,
and therefore
G is
the orthocentre of the triangle.

17.
Prop.
If P and Q
is 0,
be
any two points in
the plane
of a
circle
whose centre
:
then
OP OQ =perp. from P
on polar of
perp.
from Q on
polar of P.
Let P' and Q' be the inverse points of which the polars of P and Q pass.
Let the perpendiculars on the polars be
and Q, through
PM and
QN; draw
PT and QR
since each
is
perp. to
Then we have
OQ and OP respectively. OP OP' = OQ OQ',

.
.
the square of the radius, and

cyclic,
OR.OP=OT. OQ since PRQT is

.
OQ'
'"
ÔPOT ^
OQ
OQ'
- OT
PM
OP'
OR
OP'
-OR~QN'
17
Thus the proposition
is
proved.
This
18.
is
known
as Salmon's theorem.
Prop.
ciirles)
two
given,
The locus of points from which the tangents to coplanar circles are equal is a line {called the radical axis
perpendicular
to the line
of the
of
centres.
circles,
Let
PK,
FF
be equal tangents to two
centres
and B.
Draw
Then
and
FL
perp. to
AB.
Join
FA. FB,
AK and BF.
FK' = AF' - AK- = FL^ + AL'- AK\ FF- = FB^- BF- =FL^ + LB^ - BF\ AL" -AK' = LB' - BF\ ..AL^-LB'=AK'- BF\ .'. {AL - LB) {AL + LB) = AK' - BF\
.-.
Thus
if
be the middle point of AB, we have

'20L
.
AB = difference
of sqq. of the radii,
..
is
a fixed point, and the locus of
is
a line perp. to
AB.
A.G.
18

Since points on the
common
chord produced of two inter-
secting circles are such that tangents from

circles are equal,
them
we
see that the radical axis of
to the two two intersecting
circles
goes through their
common
points.
And
introducing
the notion of imaginary points,

axis of
two
circles goes
through their
we may say that the common points,
radical
real or
imaginary.
19.
The
difference
of the squares of the tangents
to
two
coplanar
circles,
from any point
in their plane, varies as the
perpendicular from
Let
centres
PQ
and and jB.
P on their radical axis. PR be the tangents from P

to radical axis
to the circles,
Let
PN be perp.
NL, and
PM
to
^ jB
let
be the middle point of
AB.
Join
PA, PB.
Then
PQ^-PR^ = PA''-AQ''- (PB'- BR') = PA'-PB'-Aq' + BR'= AM' - MB"' - AQ' + BR' = 20M.AB-20L.AB (see = 2AB.LM = 2AB.NP.
18)
SOME PEOPEETIES OF CIECLES

This proves the proposition.
19
We may mention here that some writers use the term "power of a point" with respect to a circle to mean the square of the tangent from the point to the circle.
20.
Prop.
The radical axes of three coplanar circles taken
in pairs meet in a point.
circles
Let the radical axis of the A and in P.
circles
and
meet that
of the
22
20
Then the tangent from
P to
from
circle
= tangent = tangent
..
P to circle A from P to circle B.

B and
G.
P is
on the radical axis of
21.
Coaxal
circles.
system of coplanar
circles
is
such
called
that the radical axis for any pair of

coaxal.
them
is
the same
Clearly such
circles will all
have their centres along the
same straight
line.
Let the common radical axis of a system of coaxal

their line of centres in A.
circles cut
Then the tangents from
to all the circles will be equal.
sides
Let L, L' be two points on the line of centres on opposite are equal in length to the of A, such that AL,
AU
L
tangents from
to the circles;
and
U are
called the limiting
points of the system.
They
are
such that the distance of any point
on the
radical axis from either of
them
is
equal to the length of the
tangent from
to the
system of
circles.

For
radius
if
21
be the centre of one of the
circles
which
is
of
r,
= square of tangent, from P to circle C. The two points L and L' may be regarded as the
circles
centres of
of infinitely small
radius,
which belong to the coaxal

circles
system.
They
are sometimes called the point
of the
system.
The student
each
circle of
will
have no
difficulty in satisfying himself that

is
of the two limiting points one
within and the other without

real only in
the system.
It
must be observed that the limiting points are

intersect,
the case where the system of coaxal circles do not intersect in

real points.
all
For if the circles and thus the tangents from Let

it
will lie within
them
will
be imaginary.
sect in points
be noticed that if two circles of a coaxal system interP and Q, then all the circles of the system pass through P and Q.
22.
Prop.
The limiting
"points
to
of a system of coaxal circles
are inverse points with respect
every circle of the system.
Let C be the centre of one of the circles of the system. Let L and L' be the limiting points of which L' is without the
circle C.
22
Draw tangent L'T

radical axis in F.
to circle
this will
be bisected by the
Draw Then
TN perpendicular to line
of centres.
:
L'A:AN= L'P
.'.
FT,
..l'a=an;
N coincides with L.
points.
Thus the chord

Therefore
23.
of contact of tangents from L' cuts the line
of centres at right angles in L.
and L' are inverse
The student
circle
will find it quite easy to establish the
two
following propositions
Every
circles
passing through the limiting points cuts all the
of the system orthogonally.
A
24.
common
tangent to two circles of a coaxal system subtends
a right angle
at either limiting point.
Common tangents to two

common
cut
circles.
circles.
In general four
coplanar
tangents can be drawn to two
Of
these
two
will
the line joining their centres ex-
ternally; these are called direct
common
tangents.
;
And two
will cut the line joining the centres internally
these are called
transverse
common
tangents.
We
shall
now prove that

and
the
common
tangents of two circles
cut the line joining their centres in two points which divide that
line internally
externally in the ratio of the radii.

line joining the
centres
Let a direct common tangent FQ cut the A and BinO. Join AF, BQ.
23
Then
since
and
are right angles, the triangles
APO,
BQO are
similar,
..AO:BO = AP:BQ.
Similarly, if
P'Q' be a transverse common tangent cutting

of the radii.
for
AB in
We
0',
we can prove ^0': 0'5 = ratio

viz. to
drawing the common and externally at 0' and in the ratio of the radii, and then from and 0' to draw a tangent to either circle this will be also a tangent to the other
tangents,
divide
have thus a simple construction
AB
internally
circle.
If the circles intersect in real points, the tangents from 0'

will
be imaginary.
If one circle lie wholly within the other, the tangents from
both
25.
and 0'
will
be imaginary.
paragraph,
Through the point 0, as defined at the end of the last let a line be drawn cutting the circles in RS and
B,'S' as in the figure.
Consider the triangles
We
have
is
also the angle at
OAR, OBR'. OA:OB = AR:BR', common to both, and each

than a right angle.
of the remaining
angles at
R and R'
is less
Thus the
triangles are similar,
and
OR:OR' = AR:BR',
the ratio of the
radii.
In like manner, by considering the triangles OAS, OBS', in which each of the angles S and *S" is greater than a right angle, we can prove that OS OS' = ratio of radii.
:
24
circle
We thus see that the circle B A by means of the point

of
all
could be constructed from the
from
the points on the circle

radii.
is
by taking the radii vectores A and dividing these in
the ratio of the
On
account of this property
called a centre of similitude

is
of the two circles, and the point
R'
said to correspond to the
point R.
The student can prove

a centre of
26.
for himself in like
manner that 0'
is
similitude.
given law
In order to prove that the locus of a point obeying some is a circle, it is often convenient to make use of the
ideas of the last paragraph.
If
we can prove
a given
that our point
is
such as to divide the
line joining a fixed point
to a varying point Q,
which describes
circle, in
ratio,
then we know that the locus of
must
for a
be a
circle,
which with the circle on which
lies
has
centre of similitude.
triangle
For example, suppose we have given the circumcircle of a and two of its vertices, and we require the locus of the
It
is
nine-points centre.
quite easy to prove that the locus of
the orthocentre
is
circle,
and from
is
this it follows that the
locus of the nine-points centre
circle, since, if
circumcentre (which
describes a circle)
is
given) and
be the the orthocentre (which
and
the nine-points centre,

f/"
U lies
on
OP
its
and
OU =\ OP
therefore the locus of
is
circle,
having
centre in the line joining
to the centre of the circle
on which
lies.
27.
Prop. The
a
locus of a point which moves in
a plane
so
that its distances
from two
circle.
fixed points in that plane are in a
constant ratio is
Let A and B be the two given points. Divide AB internally and externally at C and I) in the given ratio, so that G and D are two points on the locus. Let
P be any other point
on the
locus.
SOME PROPEKTIES OF CIRCLES
26
Then
since
,'.
AP:PB = AC:CB = AD:BD, PC and PB are the internal and external bisectors of the
ÂPB.
.'.
GPD
is
a right angle.
.'.
the locus of
P is
a circle on
GD
as diameter.
Cor.
is
1.
If the point
P be not confined
to a plane, its locus
the sphere on
GD
as diameter.
Cor.
at
2.
If the line
AB be
ratio,
divided internally and externally
C and
D in the
same
and
subtends a right angle, then

external bisectors of
28.
PG
P be any point at which CD and PD are the internal and

centres of similitude
in 25, a circle be
z APB.
00' joining the two and B, as defined
If
on the
it
line
of circles, centres
described,
circle,
follows from 27 that if
be any point on this
GA CB = radius
:
of
circle
radius of
B circle.
The circle on 00'

Its use will
as diameter is called the circle of similitude. be explained in the last chapter, when we treat of
the similarity of figures.
26
EXERCISES
1. If P be any point on a given circle A, the square of the tangent from P to another given circle B varies as the perpendicular distance of P from the radical axis of A and B. 2.
If A, B, of
G
to
be three coaxal
circles,
the tangents
drawn from
any point
3.
4 and B
are in a constant ratio.
If tangents
drawn from a point

the locus of
/* is
P to
two given
circles
B are in a given ratio,

4.
a circle coaxal with
A and A and B.
li A, B,
circle,
other
be any C <fec. be a system of coaxal circles and &c. meet in then the radical axes of A, X; B, X; G,
a point.
5. The square of the line joining one of the limiting points of a coaxal system of circles to a point P on any one of the circles varies as the distance of P from the radical axis. 6.
If
two
circles
is
cut two others orthogonally, the radical axis
of either pair
the line joining the centres of the other pair, and
passes through their limiting points.

7.
If
from any point on the

is
circle of similitude ( 28) of

circles,
two
given
circles, pairs of
tangents be drawn to both
the angle
between one pair

8.
equal to the angle between the other pair.
The three
circles of similitude of three given circles
taken
in pairs are coaxal.

9. Find a pair of points on a given two given pairs of points.
circle concyclic
with each of
10.
If
any
line
cut two given circles in P,
respectively, prove that the four points in
and Q cut the tangents at P' and Q'

given
circles.
lie
Q and P', Q' which the tangents at on a circle coaxal with the
line PQ is drawn touching at P a circle of a coaxal 11. system of which the limiting points are K, K', and Q is a point on the line on the opposite side of the radical axis to P. Shew that if T, T' be the lengths of the tangents drawn from P to the two concentric circles of which the common centre is Q, and whose radii are
respectively
QK, QK', then
T\T' = PK:PK'.
27
12. is a fixed point on the circumference of a circle C, P any other point on C; the inverse point ^ of P is taken with respect to a fixed circle whose centre is at 0, prove that the locus of is a
straight line.
13.
Three
circles Cj, G^, C, are
such that the chord of inter-
and Cs passes through the centre of Cj, and the chord of intersection of C, and Cj through the centre of Cjj shew that the chord of intersection of C^ and C, passes through the centre of Cj.
section of Cj
li. Three whose centre
circles A, B,
is
are touched externally by a circle

circle
and internally by a
whose centre
is
Q.
Shew
that
axes of A,
15.
PQ passes through the point of B, G taken in pairs.

is
concurrence of the radical
AB
G a circle points of A and B respect to G of the

produced,
a diameter of a circle S, any point on AB or AB whose centre is at 0. A' and B' are the inverse with respect to G. Prove that the pole with polar with respect to <S of the point is the
-4'^'.
middle point of
16. A system of spheres touch a plane at the same point 0, prove that any plane, not through 0, will cut them in a system of coaxal circles.
1 7.
point and
its
polar with respect to a variable circle being
given, prove that the polar of
any other point A passes through a
fixed point B.
A is a given point in the plane of a system of coaxal prove that the polars of A with respect to the circles of the system all pass through a fixed point.
IS.
circles;
28
CHAPTEK
THE USE OF
SIGNS.
III
CONCUERENOE AND
COLLINEARITY
29.
The reader
is
already familiar with the convention of
signs adopted in Trigonometry
and Analytical Geometry
in the
measurement of straight lengths measured along a

direction.
lines.
According to this convention
line
from a point are counted positive
or negative according as they proceed in the one or the other
With
this convention
we
see that, ii
A,B,C
he three points
line,
in a line, then, in whatever order the points occur in the
AB + BG = AG.
If
C lie
in this case
between A and B, BG is of opposite sign to AB, and AB + BG does not give the actual distance travelled
in passing from
final distance
to B,
and then from
to G,
but gives the
reached from A.
From
This
the above equation
we get
BG=ÂG-AB.
an important identity. By means of it we can our lengths to depend on lengths measured from a fixed point in the line. This process it will be convenient to
is
reduce
all
speak of as inserting an origin. Thus,
if
we
insert the origin 0,
AB = OB-OA.
THE USE OF
30.
he
SIGNS.
CONCURRENCE AND COLLINEARITY

the
29
a/iid
Prop. // any other point
M be
middle point of the
line
AB,
in the line, then
20M=0A + 0B.
O
For
since
origin
AM = MB,
we have
by inserting the
OM-OA=OB-OM,
.-.
20M = 0A + 0B.
A number of collinear points are said to form a range. Prop. If A, B, G, D he a range offour points, then AB.CB + BG.AD + CA.BLÔ.
31.
B
we
see that the above
For, inserting the origin A,
=ÂB{AD-AG) + {AG-AB)AD-AG{AB-AB),
and
this is zero.
This
32.
is
an important identity, which we

^1, -B,
shall use later on.
If
be a range of points, and
any point out-
side their line,
we know
that the area of the triangle
GAB is
to
the area of the triangle

bases
OBG
in the ratio of the lengths of the
AB, BG. O
Kow
if
we
ai-e
taking account of the signs of our lengths
AB,
BG
and the
ratio
AB:BG occurs,
we cannot
substitute for this
ratio
A GAB: A OBG unless we ha\e some convention respecting
30
THE USE OF SIGNS
the signs of our areas, whereby the proper sign of
AB BG will
:
be retained
when the
ratio of the areas is substituted for

is
it.
The obvious convention

shall
is
that the area of a triangle
PQR
be accounted positive or negative according as the triangle
to the one or the other side as the contour
PQR is described.
as
Thus
contour
if
the triangle
is to
our
left
hand
we
describe the
PQR, we
shall consider
will
A PQR
to be a positive
mag-
be a negative magnitude, for in describing the contour PRQ the area is on our right hand.
nitude, while
APRQ
With
this convention
we
see that in whatever order the

lie,
points A, B,
occur in the line on which they
AB:BG= AOAB-.AOBG,
or
= AAOB-.ABOG.
It is further clear that with our convention
we may say
AOAB + AOBG = AOAC,

and
A GAB - A OAG= A OCB,

G are
col linear.
remembering always that A, B,

33.
we know that the magnitude of the area of a ÔA. OBsia AOB, and it is sometimes convenient to make use of this value. But if we are comparing the areas GAB, GBG by means of a ratio we cannot substitute
Again,
triangle
GAB
is
^GA.OB sin A OB
and
^GB.GG sin BOG
/BPA ZAPB them unless we have a further convention ot signs whereby the sign and not merely the magnitude of our ratio will be
for
retained.
The obvious convention here again

positive if described in one sense
will be to consider angles and negative in the opposite
sense; this being effective for our purpose, since sin( )= sina;.
CONCURRENCE AND COLLINEARITT
31
In this case = -zBPA. The angle is to be regarded as obtained by the revolution of PB round P from the position PA, and the angle BPA as the revolution oiPA round from the position PB; these are in opposite senses and so of
zAPB
APB
opposite signs.
With
this convention as to the signs of our angles
we may
argue from the figures of 32,
AB _ A AOB _ iOA. OB sin ^lAOB BC~ ABOG~ I OB. 00 sin z BOG

(the lines
OA, OB, 00 being
all
regarded as positive)
sin
ÔA
zAOB
00 'ainz BOO'
In this way the sign of the ratio ^yîs retained in the process
of transformation, since
sin
AB
ZAOB and sin BOG

/.
are of the same or opposite sign according as
AB and BG are
of the same or opposite sign.
The student
useless
will see that our convention
had the area depended instead of on the sine, since

cos
directly
would have been on the cosine of the angle
J.)
=+
cos (A).
34. Test for coUinearity of three points on the sides of a triangle. The following proposition, known as Menelaus' theorem, is
of great importance.
The necessary and
sufficient condition that the points
D, E,
F
G
on the sides of a triangle
ABO
opposite to the vertices
A, B,
respectively should be collinear is
AF.BD.GE = AE CD
.
BF,
regard being
had
to the signs
of these lines.
consider any one of

as the triangle
All these lines are along the sides of the triangle. We shall them to be positive or negative according
is to
our
left or
right respectively as
we
travel
along
it.
32
THE USE OF SIGNS
B, E,
We will first prove F are collinear.
that the above condition
is
necessary, if
Let p,
line
q,
r be the perpendiculars from A, B,

let
(7
on to the
BEF, and
these be accounted positive or negative
according as they are on the one or the other side of the line
BEF.
With
this convention
we have
AK BF
Hence
that
is,

.-.
33
(AF+FF')BF=AF(BF + FF')
.-.FF'Ô,
.'.
..FF'iBF-AF)^0,
F coincides with
is
F'.
Thus our
proposition
completely proved.
of
35. Test for concurrency of lines through the vertices a triangle. The following proposition, known as Ceva's theorem, is
fundamental.
The necessary and
sufficient condition that the lines
AD, BE,
A. G.
34
THE USE OF SIGNS

through the vertices of a triangle should be concurrent is
OF drawn
ABC
to
meet the
opposite sides in D, E,
AF.BD.GE = -AE.GD.BF,
the
same convention of
signs
being
adopted as in the last
proposition.
First let the lines
AD, BE, CF meet
in P.
Then, regard being had to the signs of the areas,
AF _ 'BF"
AAJV_ AAFP _ AAFG-AAFP _ AAPC ABFG~ ABFP~ ABFG- ABFP ~ ABPG' BD ABBA _ ABDP _ ABBA - ABDP ABPA CD~ A GDA ~ A GDP ~ A CD A - A GDP ~ A CPA CE _ ACEB ^ AGEP ^ AGEB-ACEP ^ ACPB AE AAEB~ AAEP' AAEB-AAEP" AAPB' AF.BD.CE _ AAPC ABPA ACPB AE.GD.BF~ AGFA' AAPB' ABPC
' '
= (-l)(-l)(-l) = -l.
Next
such that
let
D, E,
be points on the sides of a triangle
ABC
then
will
AF.BD.CE=--AE.GD.BF. AD, BE, CF be concurrent.
B
Let AD,
D
Q,
C
let
BE meet in
and
CQ meet
AB in F'.
CONCUREENCE AND COLLINEARITY

.'.
35
AF'.BD GE=-AE.GB
.
BF'.
BF'~ BF{AF + FF') BF = (BF + FF') AF. ..FF'{BF-AF} = 0. ..FF' = 0.

.'.
AF _AF '
F' and
is
F coincide.
Hence our proposition

36.
completely proved.
be three points on the sides of a
Prop. If D, E,
F
sin
triangle
ABC opposite to AF.BD.GE AE.GD.BF
A, B,
respectively.
AGF sm BAD sin GBE sin ABE sin GAD sin BGF'
For
BD
GD
positive.
ABAD AGAD
ÂB. AD sin BAD AB sin BAD ^ AG. AD sin GAD 'AG'sinGAD'

AB,
with our convention as to sign, and
AG
being counted
Similarly
AF AG sin AGF ^^ BF'' BG' sin BGF

'
and
GE_
BG
sin
GBE
"
AE^ AB' sin ABE' AF.BD.GE sin CJ^sin BAD sin GBE '''AE.GD.BF~ sin A BE sin GAD sin BCF
.-1
.
36
THE USE OF SIGNS

Cor. The necessary and sufficient condition that be concurrent is
sin
AB, BE,
OF should
sin
A OF sin BAB sin QBE _ ABE sin GAB sin BGF"

A
If
be the point of concurrence
this relation can
be written
in the form
sin
sin
this
ABO sin BOO sin GA = -1. A CO sin GBO sin BA
being easy to remember.

37.
Isogonal conjugates. Two
lines
AB, AB' through
the vertex J. of a triangle which are such that
BAB= Z B' AG {not c GAB')
are called isogonal conjugates.
Prop. If AB, BE, GF he three concurrent lines through a triangle ABG, their isogonal conjugates AB", BE', GF'. will also be concurrent.
the vertices of
For
^. ., , ^'""'^^'^^
sin
BAB _ sin B'AG _ sin GAB'
sin
and
GAB ~ sin B'AB ~ sinBAB" sin ABE' sin GBE ^ÂBE = ^^GBE' sin AGF _ sin BGF' sin BGF~ sin AGF"
CONCUKRENCE AND COLLINEARITy
37
CAD' sin ABE' sin BGF F' sin BAD' sin CBE' sin AG
sin
'
sin
~
..
BAD sin QBE sin A OF = -1.

CAD sin ^jB^ sin Ôi^
sin
AD', BE', CF' are concurrent.
38.
The
isogonal conjugates of the medians of a triangle
are called its symmedians.
Since the medians are concurrent,

also.
the symmedians are concurrent
symmedians
triangle.
intersect
is
called the
The point where the symmedian point of the

medians by the tests of
The student
this chapter (
will see that the concurrence of the
and perpendiculars
of a triangle follows at once

36).
35 and
It
was thought better to prove

first
them by independent methods in the

point.
chapter in order to
bring out other properties of the orthocentre and the median
conclude this chapter by introducing the student to certain lines in the plane of a triangle which are
39.
\\'ill
We
called
by some writers antiparallel
to the sides.
Let
ABC
be a
triangle,
and
points in the sides
38
THE USE OF SIGNS
AB and AC such that ÂDE = ^BCA and therefore also Z AED = Z GBA. The line DE is said to be antiparallel to BC.
It will be seen at once that

lines antiparallel to
DBGE
is
cyclic,
and that
all
BG
are parallel to one another.
It
may be
left as
the symmedian line

lines antiparallel to
an exercise to the student to prove that through A of the triangle ABG bisects all
BG.
EXERCISES
1.
The
The
lines joining the vertices of
a triangle to
its
circumcentre
are isogonal conjugates with the perpendiculars of the triangle.

2.
lines joining the vertices of a triangle to the points of
contact with the opposite sides of the incircle and

respectively concurrent.
3.
ecircles
are
ABC
is
a triangle;
If
AD, BE,
opposite sides.
FD,
BE
AG, BII and respectively, then AG,
OK
GF the perpendiculars on the be drawn perpendicular to EF,

be concurrent.
BR and GK will
The midpoints of the sides BG and GA of the triangle ABG E: the trisecting points nearest B of the sides BG and BA respectively are and K. CK intersects AB in Z, and BL intersects AR in M, and CM intersects BE in N. Prove that iV is a
4.
are
B and
trisecting point of
BE.

5.
39
are drawn from the orthocentre of a on the bisectors of the angle A, shew that their feet are collinear with the middle point of BG.
If
perpendiculars
triangle
ABC
with the sides BC, CA, letters D, E, with suffixes 1, '2, 3 according as they belong to the ecircle opposite A, B, or C. BE,, GF.^ intersect at P; BE,, GF^ at Q; E^F, and BG at J; I'sZ*! and GA at )'; DÊ^ and AB at Z. Prove that the groups of points A, P, D^, Q; and X, Y, Z are respectively
6.
The points
of contact of the ecircles
AB
of a triangle are respectively denoted
by the
collinear.
7.
Parallel tangents to a circle at
A and B
are cut in the points
G and
AB,
respectively by a tangent to the circle at E.
Prove that
BG
and the
line joining the
middle points of
AE and BE are
BE,
concurrent.
8.
From the angular
points of any triangle

sides in
ABG lines AD,
D, E, F, and making equal angles with the opposite sides measured round the triangle in the same direction. The lines AD, BE, GF form a triangle A'B'G'. Prove that
are
GF
drawn cutting the opposite
A'B.B'G.G'A _ A'C.B' A.G'B _ AE.BF.GD ~ AFTBDTGW ~

9.
BG .GA. AB AD.BE.GF'
Prove
Through the symmedian point

the
sides,
of
a triangle lines are drawn
antipai-allel to each of
cutting the other two sides.
that the six points so obtained are equidistant from the symmedian
point.
[The circle through these six points has been called the cosine from the property, which the student can verify, that the intercepts it makes on the sides are proportional to the cosines of
circle,
the opposite angles.]

10.
Through the symmedian point of a
triangle lines are
drawn
parallel to each of the sides, cutting the other sides.
Prove that the six points so obtained are equidistant from the middle point of
the line joining the
symmedian point
to the circumcentre.
is
[The
circle
through these six points
called the Leinoine circle.
See Laohlan's J/otfenj Pure Geometry,

11.
g 131.]
of a triangle
AD, BE, GF are three concurrent lines through the vertices ABG, meeting the opposite sides in D, E, F. The circle
Z'ii'/'
circumscribing
intersects the sides of
ABG
again in D', E', F'.
Prove that AD', BE',
CF
are concurrent.
40
THE USE OF
12.
SIGNS.
of a triangle
Prove that the tangents to the circumcircle at the vertices meet the opposite sides in three points which are
coUinear.
13. If AD, BE, CF through the vertices of a triangle ABC meeting the opposite sides in D, E, are concurrent, and points D', E', F' be taken in the sides opposite to A, B, C so that BD' and BG, EE' and GA, FF' and AB have respectively the same middle point, then AD', BE', GF' are concurrent.
pendiculars SD, SE,
from the symmedian point S oi a, triangle ABG, perSF be drawn to the sides of the triangle, then will be the median point of the triangle DEF.
14.
If
15.
Prove that the triangles formed by joining the symmedian
point to the vertices of a triangle are in the duplicate ratio of the

sides of the triangle.
16.
The
sides
BG, GA,
AB
:
of a triangle
ABG
are divided
internally by points A', B', C' so that
BA' A'G = GB' B'A = AG' G'B.

:
Also B'C' produced cuts
BG
externally in A".
Prove that
BA":GA" = GA'^:A'B\
41
CHAPTEE IV
PROJECTION
40.
then
if
A'
is
be any point in space, and A any other point, if necessary, meet a given plane vr in A', called the projection of A on the plane tt by means of the
If
VA, produced
vertex V.
It is clear at once that the projection of a straight line
on
a plane
TT
namely the intersection with the plane containing V and the line.
tt is
a straight
line,
of the plane
If the plane through

TT
V and a
certain line be parallel to the

tt
plane, then that line will be projected to infinity on the
plane.
The
line thus obtained
on the
ir
plane
is
called the line
at infinity in that plane.

41. Suppose now we are projecting points in a plane p by means of a vertex V on to another plane tt.
Let a plane through
V parallel to
the plane
tt
cut the plane
in the line
AB.
tt,
This line
this reason
AB will project to infinity on the plane and AB is called the vanishing line on the plane p.
p
and
tt,
for
The vanishing
projection.
line is clearly parallel to the line of inter-
section of the planes
which
is
called the axis of
EDF be an angle in the plane p and let its DF cut the vanishing line AB in E and F, then the angle EDF will project on to the ir plane into an angle of
42.
Now
let
lines
DE
and
magnitude EVF.
42
PROJECTION
VBE intersect the plane tt in the line de. the Then since the plane VEF is parallel to the plane parallel are VDE the plane planes with intersections of these
For
let
the plane
tt,
that
is,
de
is
parallel to
VB.
Similarly df is parallel to VF.
Therefore
Zedf=/.EVF.
Hence we see that any angle in the plane p projects on to the w plane into an angle of magnitude equal to that subtended at V
by the portion of the vanishing line intercepted by the lines containing the angle.
43.
Prop. By a proper
on a plane
choice of the vertex
V of projection,
while two
any given line

magnitude on
p
ir
can
be projected to infinity,
given angles in the plane

to
a plane
are projected into angles of given properly chosen.
Let
AB
be the given
tt
line.
Through
AB
draw any plane

p'.
p'.
Let the plane Let
be taken parallel to the plane

the angles in the plane
/3
EDF, E'B'F' be
p which
are to
be projected into angles of magnitude a and
respectively.
Let E, F, E', F' be on AB.
PROJECTION
43
cii-cles
On EF, E'F'
in the plane p' describe segments of

/S
containing angles equal to a and
respectively.
Let these
segments intersect in V.
Then
a and
/3
if
project to infinity, and
be taken as the vertex of projection, AB will EBF, D' F' into angles of magnitude
respectively ( 42).
Cor.
triangle.
1.
Any
triangle can be projected into
an
equilateral
For
if
we
project two of its angles into angles of 60 the
third angle will project into 60 also, since the
sum
of the
three angles of the triangle in projection

angles.
Cor.
2.
is
equal to two right
Let
pail's
A quadrilateral can be projected into ABCD be the quadrilateral. Let EF

is
tt
square.
be
its
third
diagonal, that
the line joining the intersections of opposite
of sides.
^4
Let
C and
we
BD
intersect in Q.
Now
if
project
EF
to infinity
and at the same time
44
project
PROJECTION
Zs
BAB and BQA
into right angles, the quadrilateral
will be projected into a square.
For the projection of
EF to
infinity, secures that
the prointo
jection shall be a parallelogram; the projection of Z
BAD
a right angle makes this parallelogram rectangular; and the

projection of
square.
44.
/.AQB
into a right angle
makes the rectangle a
It
may happen
is
that one of the lines

parallel to the line
BE, D'E'
in the
to be Suppose that DE is parallel to AB. In this case we must draw a line FV in the plane p so that the angle EFV is the supplement of a. The vertex of projection V will be the intersection of the line FV with the segment of the circle on E' F'.
preceding paragraph
AB which
is
projected to infinity.
If
D'E'
is
also parallel to
intersection of the line i'^F just
F'
V so
45.
drawn that the
AB, then the vertex V will be the now obtained and another line angle E'F' V is the supplement of j8.
circles described
Again the segments of
on EF, E'F' in
the proposition of 43
this case
may
not intersect in any real point. In
an imaginary point, that is to say it is a point but not capable of being presented to the eye in the figure. The notion of imaginary points and lines which we take over from Analytical Geometry into our present subject will be of considerable use.
q,lgebraically significant,
V is
PROJECTION
46. Prop. range of three points other range of three points in space.
45
is
projective with
any
Let A, B,
Join
others not necessarily in the
be three collinear points, and A', B', three same plane with the first three.
A A'.
line
Take any point Fin AA'. Join VB, VO and let them meet a A' in the plane VAC in D and B.
Join BB',
A'
BE drawn through
EC. These
are in one plane, viz. the plane con-
taining the lines
A'C
and A'E.
Let BB', EG' meet in V. Join V'A'. Then by means of the vertex V, A, B, G can be projected into A', B, E; and these by means of the vertex V can be
projected into A', B',
C'.
is
proved.
47. The student must understand that when we speak of one range being projective with another, we do not mean
necessai'ily that the
single projection, but that
one can be projected into the other by a we can pass from one rtinge to the
other by successive projections.
46
PROJECTION
not in general projective with anyother range of four points in space. We shall in the next chapter set forth the condition that must be satisfied to render
A range
oifour points
is
the one projective with the other.
EXERCISES
1. Prove that a system of parallel on to another plane into a system of
lines in lines
a plane p will project through the same point.
2. Two angles such that the lines containing them meet the vanishing line in the same points are projected into angles which are
equal to one another.

3.
Shew Shew
is
that in general three angles can be projected into

a.
angles of the same magnitude

4.
that a triangle can be so projected that any line in
its
plane
projected to infinity while three given concurrent lines

its vertices
through
become the perpendiculars
of the triangle in
the projection.
5.
Explain, illustrating by a figure,
how
q,
it is
that a point
it,
lying on a line
PQ, and
outside the portion
PQ
of
can be pro-
jected into a point r lying between jo and

of
which are the projections
P and
6.
Q.
Any
three points ^j, P^, Gi are taken respectively in the
BG, CA, AB of the triangle ABC; B^G^ and BG intersect in F; Ciî and GA in G; and A,B^ and AB in H. Also FH and BB^ intersect in M, and FQ and GG^ in N. Prove that MG, NH and
sides
BG are
7.
concurrent.
Prove that a triangle can be so projected that three given concurrent lines through its vertices become the medians of the
triangle in the projection.
8.
If AA-i,
the vertices of a triangle
and
if
BBi, GG-i be three concurrent lines drawn through ABG to meet the opposite sides in A^B^G^ B^^G^ meet BG in A^, GÂ^ meet GA in B^, and A^^B^^ meet
AB in
9.
Cj; then A^, B^, G^ will be collinear.
[Project the concurrent lines into medians.]

If a triangle be projected
from one plane on to another the
three points of intersection of corresponding sides are collinear.
47
CHAPTEK V
CROSS-RATIOS
48.
ratio
",
Definition.
_'
.
If
A,
JB,
G, I)
he & range of points, the
AV
0-D
is
called a cross-ratio of the four points,
and
is
conveniently represented by (ABCD), in which the order of the

letters
is
the same as their order in the numerator of the
cross-ratio.
Some writers call cross-ratios anharmonic ratios.' This is however not a fortunate term to use, and it will be best to avoid it. For the term anharmonic means not harmonic, so that an anharmonic ratio should be one that is not harmonic, whereas a cross-ratio may be harmonic, that is to say may be the crossratio of what is called a harmonic range. The student will better appreciate this point when he comes to Chapter Til.
'
'
'
49.
The
essentials of a cross- ratio of a range of four points
both numerator and denominator: {2) that the elements of the denominator are obtained by associating the first and last lettei-s of the numerator
are
:
(1) that each letter occurs once in
together,
J
and the third and second, and in
this particular order.
71
Kn
^^
^'^^
^ cross-ratio but the negative of one, for
'
though not appearing to be a

for
cross-ratio as it
stands,
is
becomes one on reaj-rangement,
it=
p^
..,
that
{BACD).
4!a
CEOSS-EATIOS
Since there are twenty-four permutations of four letters
taken
all
together,
we
see that there are twenty-four cross-ratios
which can be formed with a range of four points.

50.
Prop. The twenty -four

six, all
points are equivalent to
a range of four which can he expressed in terms of

cross-ratios of
of any one of them.
Let
"a
{ABGD) = \.
B
First
we observe
that
if
the letters of a cross-ratio be intercross-ratio is
changed in pairs simultaneously, the
unchanged.
/n^L>.^ = I>G.BA = AB.CD = (ABGB). (DCBA) ^^-^ ^^-^ ,,^^,
Hence we get
(ABGD) = (BADG) = {GDAB) = {DGBA) = X...
(1).
Secondly we observe that a cross-ratio is inverted if we interchange either the first and third letters, or the second and
fourth.
.
{ADGB) = {BGDA) = {GBAD) = {DABG) = A.
(2).
These we have obtained from (1) by interchange of second and fourth letters; the same result is obtained by interchanging the first and third.
Thirdly, since by
31
AB.GD + BC.AD + CA.BD = 0, ^^-^^ GA.BD ^

,
"AD.CB
ÂD.GB~
y_ CA.BD AG.BD ,,^^^, "^-^-ADTCBÂDTBG^-^^^^^^1
CROSS-RATIOS
49
Thus the interchange
of the second and third letters changes

is
into 1
- X.
We may
(1)
by interchanging the
first
remark that the same result and fourth.
obtained
Thus from
and from
{A CBD) =
{BDA G) = {CADB) = {DBGA) = 1 - X
.(S;,
this again
by interchange of second and fourth
letters,
.(4).
{ABBC) = {BCAD) = (CBDA)=^ (DACB) =
-^
i
A,
In these we interchange the second and third

get
letters,
and
{ABBC) = (BAGD) = {GLBA) = (DGAB)

-
=
And now
i-i3r=x^
X
,..
('')'
interchanging the second and fourth
we get
{ACI>B)
= {BI)GA) = (GABD) = {I)BAG) = ^^...(6).
We
And
have thus expressed all the cross-ratios in terms of X. we see that if one cross-ratio of four coUinear points be
first
equal to one cross-i'atio of four other collinear points, then each

of the cross-ratios of the
cross-ratio of the second.
range
is
equal to the corresponding
Two
51.
such i-anges
may be
called equi-cross.
he three separate collinear points
Prop.
If A, B, G
and D,
E other points
in their line such that
{ABGD) = {ABGE),
then
D must
coincide with E.
For since
AB.CD
AB.GE
jDmÂEAJB'
.'.
.:AE.CD=AD.CE. (AD+ DE) GD = AD {GD + BE),

..BE{AB-CB) = 0.
.-.
BE.AC = 0.
..BE = OiovACÔ.
that
is,
B and E coincide.
50
52.
CEOSS-EATIOS
projection on
Prop. A range of four points any plane.
is equi-cross
with
its
Let the range

V\ii\.oA'B'G'D'.
ABGD
be projected by means of the vertex
Then
-ad:gb = aavD-'agvb'''^'''^
AB.GD
ÂVB AGVD
^, ^ , ^^^^ ^^^ * *^" ''^' ^

.
the areas,
^VA.VB sin AVB ^VG.VD sin GVD

I
VA. VD
sin I VG. VBsinGVB' regard being had to the signs of the angles,
AVD
_ sin ^F.B si n CFJ ~ sin 2 FZ) sin' era*
Fig. 1.
Similarly
A'B'.G'D' A'D'.G'B'
sin^'FB'sinO'Fi)'
sin A'
VD'
sin
G'VB"
Now in
all
the cases that arise

sin
sin
sin
A'VB' A'VB'
G'Viy
sin
sin
C'VB'~
sin
AVB sin GVD A VD sin GVB'
CROSS-EATIOS
This
is
51
obvious in
2
sin
fig. 1.
In
sin
fig.
A'VB' =
sin
B'VA,
J.
these angles being supplementary,
= - sin
and
VB,
A'VD' = sin D'VA = - sin A VD.
Fig. 2.
Fig- 3-
Further
sin
sin
and
In
fig.
C VD' = sin GVD, G'VB' = sin GVB.

AVB,
CVD,
3
sin sin sin sin
A' VB'= sin
C VD' = sin
A'VD' = sin D'VA = - sin Jl VD, C"F5' = sin JSFC = - sin CVB.
(A'B'G'D')
Thus
in each case
= iABGD).
42
62
53.
CROSS-RATIOS
number
of lines in a plane
which meet in a point
are said to form a pencil, and each constituent line of the pencil
is
called a rai/.
V is
called the vertex of the pencil.
Any straight
is
line in the plane cutting the rays of the pencil
called a transversal of the pencil.
From
the last article
we
see that if VP^, VF^, VP^,
VP^
form a pencil and any transversal cut the rays of the pencil in A, B, 0, D, then (ABCD) is constant for that particular pencil
that
is
to say it
is
independent of the particular transversal.
It will be convenient to express this constant cross-ratio
by
the notation
(P,PJ^,P,).
>o
,.v^V'
We
pencil.
easily see that a cross-ratio of the projection of a pencil

is
on to another plane
equal to the cross-ratio of the original
For
let
V{P^, P,, P^, P,) be the
pencil,
the vertex of
projection.
CBOSS-RATIOS
53
Let the
F,
line of intersection of the
p and
tt
planes cut the
rays of the pencil in A, B, G, D, and let
V be the projection of
VP^,
Then
of
VP
and so
on.
A BCD
is
a transversal also of
v'iP,',p,',p,',p:).
.-.
v(pp,p,p,) = (ABGD) =
are
v {p;p,:p:p:).
projective.
54.
We
now in a
he
)
position to set forth the condition that
two ranges of four points should be mutually
Prop.
such
that
projective.
If
ABGD
a range, and A'B'G'D' another range

then
the
{A'B'G'D'
= {ABGD)
two
ranges
are
L....-^^.--^.----
V
Join
AA' and
take any point
F upon
it.
Join YB, VC,
A' in the plane
VD VAD
and
let these lines
meet a
line
through
in P, Q,
R respectively.
F'.
Join PB'. QG' and let these meet in V'R, the latter cutting A'D' in X.
Join V'A', and
54
CROSS-RATIOS
Then {ABGD) = (A'PQR) = (A'B'G'X).

But {ABGB)
= {A'B'G'D')
..{A'B'G'X)
by hypothesis.
= {A'B'G'D').
..
X coincides with D' ( 51).

ABGB can be projected into
Thus, by means of the vertex V,
A'PQR, and
these again by the vertex

is
V into A'B'G'D'
proved.
55.
Def.
iMfo ranges
ABGDE...
axiA
A'B'G'D'E'...
&m
said to be homographic
when a
cross-ratio of
any four points of
the one
is
equal to the corresponding cross-ratio of the four

is
corresponding points of the other. This
conveniently expressed
by the notation
(ABGDE...)
= (A'B'G'UE'...).
The student will have no difficulty in proving by means of 54 that two homographic ranges are mutually projective.
Two
pencils
Q,
V(P,
are
R, S, T...) and
V (P',
Q',
R',
S',
T'
...)
said to be
homographic when a
cross-ratio of the pencil
formed by any four
lines of rays of the
one
is
equal to the
corresponding cross-ratio of the pencil formed by the four corre-
sponding lines or rays of the other.
56.
jective.
Prop.
Two homographic
pencils
are mutually pro-
For
let
two
pencils,
PQR8...,P'Q'R'S'... be any two transversals of the F and the vertices of the pencils.
Let PQ"R"S"... be the be projected
common range into which

0'.
these can
by
vertices
and
Then by means of a vertex iT on

can be projected into
can,
Fthe pencil V{P, Q,R,S...) R", S" ...); and this last pencil by a vertex L on 00', be projected into 0' (P, Q", R", S"...),
(P, Q",
CEOSS-RATIOS
that
is,
55
0' (P', Q',
M on O'V can be projected into V
R\
S'...);
and
this again
by means
of a vertex
(P', Q'. B', S'
...).
We will conclude this chapter with a construction for through a given point in the plane of two given parallel drawing parallel to them, the construction being effected by lines a line
57.
means of the ruler

Let
point at infinity
onli/.
&>'
Aco, A^Q)' be the
two given lines, to and upon them, at which they meet.
being the
Let
P be
B
the given point in the plane of these

line
lines.
Draw any
any point
Join Join
îC to cut the given

it.
lines in
and
C,
and take
upon
PA cutting A^m PB cutting Aica'
in Ai. in B^
and
Aa
in B^.
Join PC.
Let
AiA and B^G meet
in Q.
56
CROSS-EATIOS
Let
QB
meet
GP
in 0.
Let Afi and
AG meet in
D.
FD
shall
be the line required.
For
(AiB,Ga>') =
B (A,B,Geo') = (A^B.Aco) = ^, (A^BÂm) = {BB,PB,) = C (BB^PB,) = (^QPÔ = (^QPî)

= {ABCB).
..
P (A,B,Gm') = P (^5Ci)). PD and Ptu' are in the same line,

.'.
that
is,
PD is parallel to the given lines.
EXERCISES
1.
If
towards A, then
2.
{ABGD) = -\ and B be the G is the other point of

(ABGD)
shall
point of trisection of
trisection of
AD
AD.
Given a range
of three points A, B, G, find a fourth point
on
their line such that
have a given value.
CROSS-RATIOS
3.
57
If the transversal {A, B, 0, D),
ABC
be parallel to OD, one of the rays of
a^pencil
then
0{ABCD)~.
4. 5.
lt(ABGD) = {ABC'D'),
then {ABGG')
= {ABDD').
HA,
B, C,
he
a,
range of four separate points and
{ABGjD) = {ADCB),
then each of these ratios
=1.
Of the cross-ratios of the range formed by the circumcentre, 6. median point, nine-points centre and orthocentre of a triangle, eight are equal to 1, eight to 2, and eight to i.
7.
Any
plane will cut four given planes

is
common
S.
line in four lines
all of which meet in a which are concurrent, and the cross-ratio
of tlie pencil formed by these lines
constant.
to the points
Taking
a,
b,
c,
d to be the distances from
A, B, C,
all in a line with 0,

/i
and
v
/N.=
(a-c?)(6-o),
= (6 d)(c a),
{c
d)(a-h),
made
shew that the six possible cross-ratios up of the points A, B, C, D are

fX.
of the ranges that can be
V
/i
\
V
X
f*.
fl.
58
CHAPTEE YI
PERSPECTIVE
58.
Def.
S,
A
is
figure consisting of an assemblage of points
P, Q, R,
&c.
said to be in perspective with another figure

Q', R', S',
consisting of an assemblage of points P',

lines joining corresponding points, viz.
&c., if the
PP', QQ', RR', &c. are

is
concurrent in a point 0.
perspective.
The point
called the centre
of
It is clear from this definition that a figure when projected on to a plane or surface is in perspective with its projection, the
vertex of projection being the centre of perspective.

It
seems perhaps at
first
sight that in introducing the notion
of perspective
what we So it may be well to compare the two things, with a view to making this point clear.
we have
arrived at nothing further than
already had in projection.
Let
plane
it
may be
then be noticed that two figures which are in the same in perspective, whereas we should not in this case
speak of one figure as the projection of the other.
project it
In projection we have a figure on one plane or surface and by means of a vertex of projection on to another plane or surface, whereas in perspective the thought of the planes or surfaces on which the two figures lie is absent, and all that is
necessary
is
that the lines joining corresponding points should
be concurrent.
So then while two

of
figures each of
it is
which
is
the projection of
the other are in perspective,
not necessarily the case that

is
two figures in perspective each
the projection of the other.
It is clear from our definition of perspective that if 59. two ranges of points be in perspective, then the two lines of the
ranges must be coplanar.
PERSPECTIVE
59
For if A, B, G, &c. are in perspective with A', B', C", &c., and he the centre of perspective, A'B' and are in the same plane, viz. the plane containing the lines OA, OB.
AB
It
is
also clear that ranges in perspective are homographic.
But it is not necessarily the case that two homographic ranges in the same plane are in perspective. The following
proposition will shew under what condition this
60.
is
the case.
be such that the point
Prop. If two homographic ranges in of intersection of their

to itself in the
the
same plane
a point
lines is
corresponding
perspecti ce.
two ranges, then the i-anges are in
A
For
Let
let
(ABODE. ..) = (AB'G'D'E'...).
BCD
0.
BB\
CC
meet in
60
Join
PERSPECTIVE
OD
to cut
AB'
in D".
Then
(AB'G'D')
= (ABGD) = {AB'G'D").
( 51.)
.-.
D' and
D"
coincide.
Thus the line joining any two corresponding points in the two homographic ranges passes through therefore they are
;
in perspective.
'
61.
Two
pencils
r(A,
B, G, D...) and
V (A', B',
G', D'...)
will according to
our definition be in perspective
when
V and
y are in perspective, points in

in
VA
in perspective with points
VA',
points in
VB
in perspective with points in V'B' and
so on.
D^
We can
If two
at once prove the following proposition
pencils in different planes he in perspective they have
a common transversal and are homographic.
Let the pencils be
F {A, B, G, D.
;
.)
and
V (A', B\
;
G',
D'.
.).
coplanar
Let the point of intersection of VA and VA', which are let that of VB, VB' be Q and so on ( 59), be P
PERSPECTIVE
61
in both of the planes of
The
planes.
points P, Q, R, S, &c. each

is,
lie
the pencils, that
they
lie
in the line of intersection of these
Thus the points are
coUinear, and since
r(ABCD...) = {PQRS...)=V'(A'B'G'I)'...),
the two pencils are homographic.
The
line
PQRS... containing the points

is
of intersection of
corresponding rays
called the axis of perspective.
62. According to the definition of perspective given at the beginning of this chapter, two pencils in the same plane are always in perspective, with any point on the line joining their
vertices as centre.
Let the points of intersection of corresponding rays be, as in

the last paragraph, P, Q, R, S, &c.
We
But
cannot
now prove P,
Q,
R,S... to be coUinear, for indeed
they are not so necessarily.

if
the points P, Q, &c. are coUinear, then
we
say that
the pencils are coaxal.

If the pencils are coaxal they are at once seen to be homographic.
63.
It
is
usual with writers on this subject to define two
pencils as in perspective if their corresponding rays intersect in
coUinear points.
The
objection to this
method
is
that you have a different
definition of perspective for different purposes.
We
shall find it conducive to clearness to
keep rigidly to the
definition we have already given, and we shall speak of two
pencils as coaxally in perspective if the intersections of their
corresponding rays are coUinear.
two non-coplanar pencils in perspective are always coaxal; but not so two coplanar pencils.
seen,
As we have
Writers, when they speak of two pencils as in mean what we here call coaxally in perspective.'
'
perspective,
62
PERSPECTIVE
Prop. If two homographic pencils in the same plane 64. have a corresponding ray the same in both, they are coascally in
perspective.
Let the pencils be
V {A, B,
with the
G,
D, &c.) and
V (A, B', C, D', &c.)

/3,
common
ray
V'VA.
Let
VB
8,
V'D' in
and V'B' intersect in and so on.
VC
and V'G' in
y,
VD and
Let y,S meet V'VA in a, and V'B' in Bi and Sj respectively.
let it cut
the rays
VD
and
Then
since the pencils are homographic,
V (ABGD) =
.-.
V (AB'G'B').
= ia^yB,).
B.
(al3yB,)
Therefore S, and Sg coincide with
Thus the
V'B'
lies
intersection of the
corresponding rays
VB
and
on the line ^y.
Similarly the intersection of any two other corresponding

rays lies on this
same
line.
Therefore the pencils are coaxally in perspective.
PERSPECTIVE
63
65. Prop. If ABC..., A'B'C... he two coplanar homographic ranges not having a common corresponding point, then if
two pairs of corresponding points be cross-joined
(e.g.
AB' and
A'B)
all the points
of intersection so obtained are collinear.
Let the
lines of the nuiges intersect in P.
Now
according to our hypothesis
is
not a corresponding
point in the two ranges.

It will be convenient to denote
P by two
different letters,
and
]'"',
according as
we
consider
it
to belong to the
ABC... or
to the A'B'G'... range.
be the point of the A'B'G'... range corresponding to and let Y be the point of the ABC... range corresponding to 1" in the other.
A''
Let
A' in the other,
Then
.-
A' (ABCXY...)
{ABCX ...) = (A'B'C'X'Y'. = A (A'B'C'X'Y'...).

.
.).
These two pencils have a common

the
ai'e
last,
ra_y, viz.
AA', therefore by
proposition the intersections of
theii-
corresponding rays
collinear, îz.
A'B, AB'; A'C,
AC:
A'X, AX'; A'Y, AY';
and
so on.
From
on
is
this it will be seen that the locus of the intersections
of the cross-joins of
and A' with
and
B',
C and
and so
the line
'
Y.
64
PERSPECTIVE
Similarly the cross-joins of any two pairs of corresponding
points will
lie
on X'Y.
This line
ranges.
X'Y
is
called the
homographic axis of the two
This proposition
student.
66.
is
also true if the
two ranges have a common
corresponding point.
The proof
of this
may be
left to
the
this chapter
The student may obtain by proving that if
practice in the
methods of
'
{A,B,C...)&TidV' {A',B',G'...)
be two homographic coplanar pencils not having a corresponding ray, then if we take the intersections of
V'Q',
;
common
VP and and of VQ and V'P' (VP, V'P' and VQ, V'Q' being any two pairs of corresponding lines) and join these, all the lines
thus obtained are concurrent.
It will
be seen when we come to Reciprocation that this

65.
proposition follows at once from that of
TKIANGLES IN PERSPECTIVE
67.
Prop.
the intersections
conversely.
(1)
// the vertices of two triangles are in perspective, of their corresponding sides are collinear, and
Let the triangles be in different planes.

be the centre of perspective of the triangles
Let
ABC,
A'B'C.
Since BG, B'G' are in a plane, viz. the plane containing OB and OG, they will meet. Let be their point of intersection.
Similarly
(in Z).
GA
and G'A'
will
meet
(in F)
and
AB
and A'B'
Now X,
A'B'G'.
T,
Z are
in the planes of both the triangles
ABG,
Therefore they
planes.
lie
on the line of intersection of these
Thus the
first
part of our proposition
is
proved.
PERSPECTIVE
65
such that the inter-
Next
let
the triangles
ABC, A'B'C be
ai-e
sections of corresponding sides (A', Y, Z) are collinear.
Since BO and B'G' meet they the other pairs of sides.
coplanar,
and
similarly for
Thus we have three planes BCG'B', CAA'C, ABB'A',

which
^-i^', l3B',
of
CC
are the lines of intersection.

in a point.
is,
But three planes meet

Therefore
are in perapective.
(2)
A A', BB, CG' are concurrent, that
the triangles
Let the triangles be in the same plane.
First let
them be
in perspective, centre 0.
Let X. Y,
as before.
be the intersections of the corresponding
sides
Project the figure so that

A. G.
XY
is
5
66
PERSPECTIVE
Denote the projections of the

ing small
letters.
different points
by correspond-
We
have now
ob
:
oV
oc
oc'
since he
is is
parallel to h'c'
= oa
oa' since
ca
parallel to c'a.
.'.
ah
is
parallel to ah'.
.. ^^
is
at infinity also,
that
is,
X, y,
z are collinear.
.'.
X,
Y,
are collinear. that the triangles
Next
let
X,
Y,
Z be collinear; we will prove
are in perspective.
Let
Join
AA' and BB' meet
in 0.
OG and
let it
meet
A'C
in C".
Then
..
ABC and A'B'G"
are in perspective.
the intersection of
BG
and B'G"
lies
on the
line
YZ.
But
BG and
..
B'G' meet the line
YZ
in
X by hypothesis.
line,
B'G" and B'G' are in the same

i.e.
G". coincides
with
G'.
Thus
68.
ABG and
A'B'G' are in perspective.

sufficient condition that the
is
Prop.
The necessary and
coplanar triangles
.
.
ABG, A'B'G'
.
.
should he in perspective
.
AB, AB, GA^ GA^ BG, BG, = AG^.AG,.BA,. BA, CB, GB

.
.
PERSPECTIVE
Ai,
J.2
67
being the points in which
A'E and
BG' and
A'G' meet the non-
corresponding side BG,

Bi, B^ being the points in
which
B'A' meet the non-
corresponding side GA,

G-i,
Oj being the points in which G'A'
and G'B' meet
the non-
corresponding side
AB.
First let the triangles be in perspective; let

axis of perspective.
XYZ be
52
the
68
PERSPECTIVE
Then
since
X,
B^, G^ are collinear,
" AG^.BX. CB^ =

.
AB,
OX
BG^
1.
Since T,
G^,
A^ are
collinear,
AY.CA,.BG, AG,.BA,.GY
Since Z, Ai, B^ are collinear,
AB^ GA, BZ " AZ.BA^.GB; = 1.

. .
Taking the product of these we have
AB^.AB^. CA, CA^ BG, BC^.AY. GX .BZ AG, AG^ BA, BA, GB, GB, .AZ.BX.GY
.
.
'
But X,
Y,
Z are
collinear,
' .:
AY.GX .BZ AZ .BX.GY~

. . . .
AB, AB^ GA, GA, BG, BG^ = AG, AG, BA, BA, GB,
. .
GB^.
Next we can shew that

For
it
this condition is sufficient.
renders necessary that
AY.GX.BZ = 1. AZ.BX.GY
.'.
X,Y,Z are
collinear
and the triangles are in perspective.

in perspective with A'B'G',
Cor.
If the triangle
ABG be
and the points A,, A,, B B,,

also
G,, G^
be as defined in the above
proposition, it is clear that the three following triangles
must
be in perspective with ABG,

(1) the triangle (2) (3)

viz.
formed by the lines
A-^B^,
B,G
GÂ,,
-Â,
BzGz, G1A2,
AiBi, B^Gi, G2A2.
PERSPECTIVE
69
EXERCISES
1.
plane;
ABC, A'B'O' are two ranges of three points in the same BC and B'G intersect in î, GA' and G'A in î, and AB'
A^, B^, Cj are collinear.
and A'B in d; prove that

2.
two coplanar triangles in perspective, any line is drawn not in the plane of the triangle ; S and S' are any two points on this line. Prove that the triangle ABG by means of the centre S, and the triangle A' B'G' by means of the centre S', are in perspective with a common triangle.
A' B'G' are
ABG
and
centre 0, through
3.
coaxal, prove
Assuming that two non-coplanar triangles in perspective are by means of Ex. 2 that two coplanar triangles in per-
spective are coaxal also.

4. If ABG, A' B'G' be two triangles in perspective, and if BG' and B'G intersect iu A-^, GA' and G'A in B^, AE and A'B in Ci, then the triangle A^B^G^ will be in perspective with each of the given triangles, and the three triangles will have a common axis of
perspective.
5. When three triangles are in perspective two by two and have the same axis of perspective, their three centres of perspective
are collinear.
6.
The
points
Q and
point
r on
the straight line
Z, and
VB
meets
AB
on the straight line AG, and the meets the straight line AB in in Y; A' is another point on A; XQ meets
2i lie
AD; VQ
AB
in U,
and
XR
meets
AD
in W, prove that
YU, ZW,
AG
are
concurrent.
7.
The necessary and
sufficient
condition that the coplanar

is
triangles
ABC, A'B'G'
should be in perspective
Ah'.Bc'.Ga' = Ac'.Ba'.Gh',
where
A!, B',
a',
b',
c'
denote the sides of the triangle
A'SC
opposite to
C' respectively, and Ab' denotes the perpendicular from
on
to
6'.
in Z.
[Let B'G' and BG meet in X; G'A' and CA in Y; A'B' and are collinear.] The condition given ensures that X, Y,
AB
"
70
8.
PERSPECTIVE
Prove that the necessary and
sufficient condition that the
is
coplanar triangles
sin sin
ABG, A'B'C
sin
should be in perspective
ABC sin ABA' sin BCA' sin BOB' sin GAB' sin GAG'
AGS' sin AG A'
is
GBA'
sin
CBG'
sin
BAG'
sin
BAB'
The
at A',
[This
proved
in
Lachlan's
Modern Pure Geometry.
student has enough resources at his

for himself.
B',
command
The
to establish the test
Let him turn to

to
36 Oor., and take in turn

result
is
if
G' and at the centre of perspective.

is it difficult
easily obtained.
Nor
remember
the student grasps the principle,

principle, that
by which
all
these formulae relating to points on the sides of a
triangle are best kept in
mind
the
is,
of travelling
round the triangle in the two opposite directions, (2) AG, CB, BA.]
9.
(1)
AB, BG, CA,
Two
triangles in plane perspective can be projected into
equilateral triangles.
10.
ABG is
AB
respectively.
Zj/j
a triangle, /j, /j, I, its ecentres opposite to A, B, C meets BG in A^, I^l^ meets GA in B-^ and /iZj
meets
in Cj, prove that A^, B^, Cj are coUinear,
11. If AD, BE, GF and AB', BE', GP' be two sets of concurrent lines drawn through the vertices of a triangle ABG and meeting the opposite sides in D, E, and D', E', F', and if and
EF
E'F' intersect in X,
FD
is
and F'D' in
Y,
and
BE
and D'E' in Z,
ABG, DEF,
then the triangle B'E'F'.
XYZ
in perspective with each of the triangles
[Project the triangle so that
pendiculars in the projection and AB',
AD, BE, GF become the perBE' GF' the medians, and

,
then use Ex.
7.]
71
CHAPTER
Def.
VII
HARMONIC SECTION
69.
Four
if
collinear points
A,B,G,D
1.
are said to form
a harmonic range
{ABGD) = -
We
have in this case
AB.GD AD.GB
.
-1.
thus
AG is
2i
^^ ^ AB-AG ^ AB-AG AD-AG~ AG-AD' harmonic mean between AB and AD.

'''AD
( 50),
Now
all
reverting to the table of the twenty-four cross-ratios of
a range of four points
we
see that if
1
(ABGD) = 1,
then
the following cross-ratios
{ABGD), (BADG), (GDAB), (DGBA), (ADGB), (BCD A), (GBAD), (DABG).
Hence not only
is
^C
a harmonic
mean between
AB
and
AD, but
also
BD is DB
CA
a harmonic
mean between

BA
CB
and BG, and GD.

conjugates to
DGa.ndDA,
We shall then speak of A and G as harmonic B and D, and express the fact symbolically thus iAG,BD) = -l.
72
HARMONIC SECTION
By
this
we mean
that
all
the eight cross-ratios given above,
and in which, it will be observed, A and G are alternate members, and B and D alternate, are equal to 1.
When (AG, BD) = 1 we

harmonic of A,
harmonically at
B
B
sometimes speak of D as the fourth and G or again we say that AG is divided and B, and that BD is so divided at A and C.
;
Or again we may
with respect to
say that
is
harmonically conjugate with
and D.
C,
A pencil P
(A,B,
D)
of four rays
its
is
called
harmonic when
the points of intersection of
rays with a transversal form a
harmonic range.
The student can
easily prove for himself that the internal

lines containing
and external bisectors of any angle form with the it a harmonic pencil.
70.
Prop. If {AG, BD)
= 1,
and
be the
middle point
of AG, then
OB.OD= OG^ = 0A\

A
For since
.'.
{ABGD) = -1,
AB.GD = -AD.
GB.
Insert the origin 0.

.-.
(OB - OA) {OD -0G) = - (OD - OA) (OB -
OG).
But
0A = - OG. ..{0B+ OG) (OD -0G) = - (OD + OG) (OB -
OG).
.-.OB.OD +
OG.OD-OB.OG- OG' = -OD.OB+OG.OD-OB.OG+ 0G\

20B.0D = 20G' OB OD = OG' = AO' = OAK
.-.
.
.-.
Similarly
if 0'
be the middle point of BD,
O'G O'A
.
O'B'
0'D\
is true, viz.
CoE.
that
if
1.
The converse
then (AG,
of the above proposition
ABCD
.
be a range and
the middle point oi

1.
AC
and
00" =
OB OD,
BD) = -
This follows by working the algebra backwards.
HAEMONIC SECTION
Cor.
2.
73
a.
Given three points A,
B,G in
line, to find
a point
D in the line such that (AB, OD) = - 1 we describe a circle AB as diameter, then D is the inverse point of G.
71.
on
Prop. If {A G, BD)
= -l,tke
circle
on
AG
as diameter
will cut orthogonally every circle through
and D.
Let Let
be the middle point of
AC
and therefore the centre
of the circle on
AC.
through
this circle cut aiiy circle
B and D in
P; then
OB.OD=OC'=OP'.
Therefore
OP is a tangent to the circle BPD;
thus the circles
cut orthogonally.
Similarly, of course, the circle on
BD
will cut orthogonally
every circle through
and
he
G.
Cor.
1.
If ABGD
diameter cut
a range, and if the circle on AG as orthogonally some one circle passing through B and
before,
D,then(AG,BD) = -L
For using the same figure as
we have
OB. OD = OP' = OCy {AG,BB) = -l.

.-.
Cor.
2.
If two
circles cut orthogonally,
any diameter of one
is
divided harmonically by the other.
74
72.
HARMONIC SECTION
Prop. If P{AB,GB) = - land APB he a right angle, and PB are the bisectors of the angles between PC
then
PA
and PD.
harmonic pencil
Let any transversal cut the rays in. A, B, G, D.
P
PA, PB, PC,
PB
of the
Then
.
(AB,GD) = -l.
AG .BD _ '''AD.BG~ .:AG:AD = GB:BD.

,.
as
.'.
P lies on the circle on AB as diameter we have by 27 PG PD = GB BD = AG AD. PA and PB are the bisectors of the angle GPD.
: :
:
73. Prop. If on a chord PQ of a circle two conjugate points A, A' with respect to the circle be taken, then
(PQ,AA') = -1.
Draw
which A'
Let
the diameter
lies,
GD
through
to cut the polar of
^, on
in L.
be the centre.
of the polar,
Then by the property
OL.OA = 0G\ .:{GD,LA) = -1. Therefore the circle on GD as diameter (i.e. the given circle) will cut orthogonally every circle through A and L (71). But the circle on A A' as diameter passes through A and L.
AA'
Therefore the given circle cuts orthogonally the circle on &s diameter.
HARMONIC SECTION
75
Q.
But the given
circle passes
through
P and
..(PQ,AA') = -h
This harmonic property of the
circle is of great
importance
and
usefulness.
It
may be
otherwise stated thus
Chords of a
diinded at
circle
through a point
are harmonically
and
at the point of intersection of the chord with
the polar of
A.
the three diagonals
74.
Prop. Sa^h of
of a plane quadri-
lateral is
diinded harmonically by the other two.

lines of the quadrilateral
is,
Let A, BC, CD, DA be the four A, B, C, D, E, F its six vertices, that lines taken in paii-s.
the intereections of
its
Then AC, BB,

Let
EF are its diagonals.
PQR be the triangle formed by its diagonals. Project EF to infinity. Denote the points in the projection
letters.
by corresponding small
Then
(since
y^
= 1,
j being at
= -L
76
Similarly
HARMONIC SECTION
Also
(APCB) = - 1. (FQEB) = B (FQEB) =^{APGB) = -1.
Thus we have proved
iAG,PB) = -l,
Cor.
(BI),PQ)
= -1,
(EF,QB) = -1.
The
circumcircle of
PQB
will cut orthogonally the
three circles described on the three diagonals as diameters.
Note.
that
if
It has
M be the middle point of AB,

(AB, Ma)
been incidentally shewn in the above proof co the poiat at infinity on
the
line,
=-
1.
75.
The harmonic property

is
of the quadrilateral, proved in

It is important
the last article,
of very great importance.
too that at this stage of the subject the student should learn to
take the descriptive 'view of the quadrilateral for in descriptive

' ;
'
geometry,' the quadrilateral
is
not thought of as a closed figure

six points called the vertices
containing an area; but as an assemblage of four lines in a

plane,
which meet in pairs in
and
the three lines joining such of the vertices as are not already
joined by the lines of the quadrilateral are called diagonals.
opposite vertices
By
we mean
two that are not joined by a line of
the quadrilateral.
76.
A quadrilateral is to be distinguished from a quadrangle.

is
quadrangle
to be thought of as
points in a plane which can be joined in pairs
an assemblage of four by six straight
HARMONIC SECTION
lines, called its sides or lines
;
77
sides
two of these
which do not
meet
in a point of the quadrangle are called opposite sides.
And
the intersection of two opposite sides is called a diagonal point. This name is not altogether a good one, but it is suggested by the analogy of the quadrilateral.
Let us illustrate the leading features of a quadrangle by the accompanying figure.
ABGB is the quadx-angle. Its sides are AB, BO, CD, DA, AC and BD. AB and GD, AG and BD, AD and BG are pairs of opposite sides and the points F, Q, R where these intersect are the
diagonal points.
The
triangle
PQR may
be called the diagonal triangle.

of the quadrangle
is
The hai-monic property

monic conjugates with respect
meeting in that point.
that the two
sides of the diagonal triangle at each diagonal point are harto the
two sides of the quadrangle
The student will have no difficulty in seeing that this can be deduced from the hai-monic property of the quadrilateral proved in 74.
On
account of the harmonic property, the diagonal triangle
associated with a quadrangle has been called the harmonic

triangle.
78
HAEMONIC SECTION
EXERCISES
and If be points in two coplanar lines AS, CD, shewand iT project into the middle points of the projections of AB and CD.
1.
If J/
that
it is
possible to project so that
AA^, BB^, GG-i are concurrent lines through the vertices of a B^Ci meets BG in A^; GÂ^ meets GA in B^; A^B^ meets AB in G^; prove that
2.
triangle meeting the opposite sides in A^, B^, Cj.
{BO,A,A,) = -l,
3.
{GA,B,B,) = -1,
(AB, G,C,) = -l.

lines
(as defined in
Prove that the circles described on the Ex. 2) as diameters are coaxal.
AÂ^, B^B^, G^G^
[Take F a point of intersection of circles on AÂ^, B^^B^, and shew that G^G^ subtends a right angle at P. Use Ex. 2 and 27.]
4.
The coUinear points

is
A, D,
are given:
fixed line through C, J'
a fixed point, and
B is
on GE. The lines AE and BD intersect in Q, in E, and the lines BR and .4C in P. Prove that as B moves along GE.
5.
GE is any other any moving point the lines GQ and DE

P is
a fixed point
From any
point
M in the
side
BG
of a triangle
ABG lines
drawn parallel to AG and AB respectively, and meeting AB and AG in B' and C". The lines BG' and GB' intersect in P, and AP intersects B'G' in M'. Prove that M'B' M'G' = MB MG.
MB' and MG'
are
of harmonic conjugates {DU), {EE'), (FF') are 6. Pairs respectively taken on the sides BG, GA, AB of a triangle ABC with respect to the pairs of points (BG), (GA), (AB). Prove that
the corresponding sides of the triangles

so on.
on the sides of the triangle ABG, namely
BEF and JD'E'F' intersect EF and E'F' on BG, and
VB', VG' bisect the internal angles formed any point Fto the angular points of the triangle ABG; and A' lies on BG, B' on GA, C" on AB. Also A", B", G" are harmonic conjugates of A', B' C" with respect to B and G, G and A, A and B. Prove that A", B", G" are coUinear.
7.
The
lines VA',
by the
lines joining
BBi, GGi are the perpendiculars of a triangle ABG; in G^; is the' middle point of line joining A to the orthocentre; G-^X and BB-^ meet in T. Prove that G^T is
8.
AA-^,
Aj^Bi
meets
AB
perpendicular to BG.
HARMONIC SECTION
79
9. j1 is a fixed point without a given circle and P a variable point on the circumference. The line at right angles to
AF
AF
meets in
F the
Q
the locus of
10.
tangent at P. If the rectangle is a straight line.
FAPQ
be completed
A
two
A-^,
line is
drawn cutting two
non-intersecting circles; find
a construction determining two points on this line such that each is the point of intersection of the polars of the other point with respect
to the
11.
circles.
B^, Ci are points
on the
sides of a triangle
ABC opposite
to A, B, C.
A,, B^, Cj are points on the sides such that A^, A^ are
harmonic conjugates with B and C; î, B^ with C and A; G^, Cj with A and B. If A^, B^, C^ are collinear, then must AA^, BB^, CCi be concurrent.
BBi, CGi are concurrent lines through the vertices of B^C^ meets BC in A^, CÂ-^ meets CA in B^, A^B^ meets AB in C^. Prove that the circles on AÂ^, B^B^, GiC^ as diameters all cut the circumcircle of ABC orthogonally, and have their centres in the same straight line.
12.
AAj^,
a triangle
ABO.
[Compare Ex.
If
xi
3.]
the B be conjugate points of a circle and 13. to the circle are of middle point of AB, the tangents from
and
length
MA.
14. If a system of circles have the same pair of points conjugate for each circle of the system, then the radical axes of the
circles,
taken in
pairs, are concurrent.
15. If a system of circles have a the system must be a coaxal one.

16. circles
common
pair of inverse points
any point in their plane; shew that the chord of contact of tangents drawn from ^1 to any one of the circles will pass through the other extremity of the diameter through A of the
is
and and A
0' are the
limiting points of a system of coaxal
circle
A 00'.
80
CHAPTER
VIII
INVOLUTION
77.
Definition.
If
be a point on a line on -which

C, Ci;
lie
pairs of points A,
A^
B, Bi
&c. such that
OA.OA, = OB.OB, = OC.OG^ =

the pairs of points are said to be in Involution.
points, such as
= k,
Two
associated
and A^, are

is
called conjugates;
'
and sometimes
each of two conjugates
called the
mate' of the other.
The point
is
called the Centre of the involution.

K^
B,
C A K
Ai
Ci
If
h,
the constant of the involution, be positive, then two

lie
conjugate points
two
real
points K,
is
on the same side of 0, and there will be K' on the line on opposite sides of
such that each

OK'' = OK'^ = h.
its
own mate
in the involution
that is
These points
K and K' are
called the
douUe
points of the involution.

It is important to observe that
is
not the mate of
K'
that
is
why we
write
It is clear that
points.
K' and not K-^. {AA-i, KK') = 1, and
so for all the pairs of
If k be negative, two conjugate points will

sides of 0, and the double points are
lie
on opposite
now
imaginary.
GGi, &c. as diameters
If circles be described on
AA^, BB^,
they will form a coaxal system, whose axis cuts the line on
which the points
lie
in 0.
INVOLUTION
81
K and K' are the limiting points of this coaxal system.

Note
also that for every pair of points, eaeh point is inverse
to the other with respect to the circle on
KK'
as diameter..
It is clear that an involution is completely determined wherr. two pairs of points are known, or, what is equivalent, one pair of points and one double point, or the two double points.
We
pairs
must now proceed
to establish the criterion that three
of points on the
same
line
may
belong to the same
involution.
78.
Prop.
B,
The necessary and
sufficient
condition
that
pair of points
G, G^ should belong to the involution
determined by
A, A^
-Bi is
{ABGA,) = {A,B,G,A).
First
we
will
shew that
this condition is necessary.
Suppose
G and
its
.-.
Gx do belong to the involution.

constant.
.
Let
be
its centre and k
OA.OAx = OB OB, = OC. OC, = k. AB.OAx _ {OB-OA){OAx-OC^ .n.. .^ (AJ^L^,) - ^^^ ,CB~(OA,-OA) (OB - 00)
.
k k
'ob~'oaJ
(_k
\oa~wJ
/
k_\
k \
[OA 'OAj [oWr OGJ (OB, - OA,) ( OA - OCQ _ A,Bx Ci^ _ , , n r îOA-OA,)(OBx-OGx}~ AxA .CxBr^^
'
4\
'
^-
Thus the condition

[A more
is
necessary.
pui-ely geometrical proof of this

pai-agi-aph.]
theorem
will
be
given in the next
Next the above condition

For
let
is sufficient.
(ABCA,) = (A,B,i\A)
and let G' be the mate of A, A,; B.B,.
in the involution determined
by
82
.-.
INVOLUTION
(ABCA,) = (A,B,G'A).
.'.
.'.(A,B,C,A) = (A,B,G'A).
Gi and G' coincide.
is
Hence the proposition

Cob.
1.
established.
;
If A,
Ai
B, B^; G, G^
D,
D^ belong
to the
same
involution
(ABGD)^{A,B,G,D,).
Cor.
2.
If
K, K' be the double points
of the involution
{AA^KK') = {AÂKK')
79.
follows.
and {ABKA^) = (A^B^KA).

part of the above theorem as
We may prove
the
first
If the three pairs of points belong to the
same
involution,
( 77).
the circles on AAi, BB^, GG^ as diameters will be coaxal
Let
P be a point of intersection
of these circles.
right angles
Then the angles APA^, BPB^, GPG^ are

therefore
and
P(ABGA,)=^P(A,B,G,A). ..(ABGA,) = {A,B,G,A).

The
still
circles
may
not cut in real points. But the proposition
holds on the principle of continuity adopted from Analysis.
80.
The
proposition
we have
just proved
iS'
of the very
greatest importance.
INVOLUTION
The
critet'ion that three
83
pairs of points belong to the same
involution is that a ci'oss-ratio
one takei'
from each
pair,
should be equal
to the
with three of the points, mate of any one of the three corresponding cross-ratio formed by the
formed
the
and
mates of these four points.

It does
letters
not of course matter in what order we write the
provided that they correspond in the cross-ratios.
We
could have had
or
{AA,C,B)
All that
is
= {A,ACB,).
essential is that of the four letters used ia the
cross-ratio, three
should form one letter of each pair.
81.
Prop.
let
A
*4i;
range of
pointjs in involution projects into
range in involution.
For
^,
B, Bi; G, Ci be an involution and let the
projections be denoted b}- corresponding small letters.
Then
But
and
(
(ABCA,) = (A,B,G,A).
(ABCA,)
= (abca,)
5iCi J, )
.".
= (aifciCio). {abcui) (aibiCiO).

c,
c'l
.*.
a, Oi', b, bii
form an iQvolution.
Note.
The centre
of an involution does not project into
the centre of the involution obtained by projection; but the double points do project into double points.
82.
We
rays
Involution Pencil. now see that if we have a pencil consisting of pairs of
VF, VP'] VQ, VQ'; VB, VR' kc.

such that any transvei-sal cuts these in
p;\ii-s
of points
A, A,; B,B^; G,G^kc.

forming an involution, then every transversal
so.
will cut the pencil
Such a pencil
will
be called a Fcncil
in Involution or
simply
an Involution Pencil.
62
84
INVOLUTION
The double lines of the involution pencil are the lines through on which the double points of the involutions formed by
lie.
different transversals
Note that the double lines are harmonic conjugates with

any pair of conjugate
rays.
lines
VD and VD' he the double involution which VA, an to VAi belong, then VD and of YD' are a pair of conjugate lines for the involution whose double
From
this fact it results that if
lines are
VA, VA^.
83.
We
shall postpone until a later chapter,
when we come
circle
to deal with
Reciprocation, the
involution properties of the
quadrangle and quadrilateral, and pass now to those of the
which are of great importance.

of
We
shall
make
considerable use
them when we come

84.
to treat of the Conic Sections.
Involution properties of the circle.

Pairs of points conjugate for a circle which lie along in involution of which the double points are
Prop.
a
line
form a range
the points of intersection of the line with the circle.
Let Let
P and
Q be
a pair of conjugate points on the line

I.
I.
be the pole of
Thus
is
OPQ
is
a self-conjugate triangle, and
its
orthocentre
at C, the centre of the circle
(16
a).
Let
GK be
the perpendicular from
on
I.
Then
PK .KQ = EO .KG. .\KP. KQ = OK.KG.
INVOLUTION
85
is
Thus
real or
circle.
and Q belong to an involution whose centre

is
K,
and whose constant
OK
A A
KG.
Its double points are
thus
imaginary according as
PQ
does or does not cut the
If
PQ
cut the circle in
and B, then
OK KG = KA' = KB',
.
thus
tion.
we
see that
and
are the double points ot the involu-
It is obvious too that
and
must be the double points
since each is its
own
conjugate.
is
The
following proposition, which

is
the reciprocal of the
foregoing,
easily
deduced from
it.
Prop.
lines are the
Pairs of conjugate
lines
for a
circle,
which pass
through a point
form an involution tangents from the point.

lines
pencil of which the double
will meet the through a point which form an involution range, the double points of which are the points in which the
For pairs of conjugate
polar of
in pairs of conjugate points,
polar of
cuts the circle.

pairs
of conjugate
lines
Hence the
through
form an
is
involution pencil, the double lines of which are the lines joining
to the points in
which
its
polar cuts the circle, that
the
tangents from 0.
If
85.
be within the
circle
the double lines are not
real.
Orthogonal pencil in Involution.

an involution pencil
is
special case of
that in which each
of the pairs of lines contains a right angle.
That such a pencil is in involution is clear from the second theorem of 8-i, for pairs of lines at right angles at a point are conjugate diameters for any circle having its centre at that
point.
But we can also see that pairs of orthogonal lines VP, FPj VQ, VQi kc. are in involution, by taking any transversal t to cut these in A, A^; B, B^ kc. and drawing the perpendicular VO on to t then OA. 0A, = -0V'=0B. OB^.
;
86
INVOLUTION
Thus the
Hence
pairs
of points belong to an
involution with
imaginary double points.

pairs of orthogonal lines at a point form a pencil in
involution with imaginary double lines.
Such an involution Note that
is
called an orthogonal involution.
this property
may
give us a test whether three If they can
pairs of lines through a point form an involution.
be projected so that the angles contained by each pair become right angles, they must be in involution.
Prop. In every involution pencil there is one pair of 86. rays mutually at right angles, nor can there he more than one
such pair unless the involution pencil he an orthogonal one.
Let
be the vertex of the pencil in involution.

I,
Take any transversal

constant of this involution.
and
let
be the centre of the

it,
involution range which the pencil
makes on
and
let
k be the
Join OP, and take a point P' in
OP
such that
OP
OP' =
h.
and P' will be on the same or opposite according as k is positive or negative.

Bisect
Thus
sides of
PP'
line
I
in in
M
C
and draw
il/G at right angles to
PP'
to
meet the
Describe a circle with centre
C and radius GP
or
GP'
to cut
Im A
and A^.
points
The
and
J.,
.
are mates in the involution on
for
OA
OA^ =
OP
OP' =
k.
INVOLUTION
Also the angle APA-i being in a semicircle
is
87
a right angle.
Hence the involution

mutually at right angles.
pencil has the pair of rays
PA
and PA^
In the special case where
is
the middle point of PP',
G and
coincide.
In the case where
PO
is
perpendicular to
I,
the line through

is
M, the middle point

L, and the point
line
of
PP\
I
perpendicular to
PP'
it is
parallel to
through
rays, for
PO and the which are the pair of orthogonal and the point at infinity along I are mates of the
G
is
at infinity.
In this case
parallel to
involution range on
I.
Thus every involution

If the pencil have
pencil has one pair of orthogonal rays.
more than one pair of rays at right angles, then all the pairs must be at right angles, since two pairs of rays completely determine an involution pencil.
87.
involution,
Prop. An involution pencil projects into a pencil in and any involution can be projected into an orthogonal
the pairs of rays of an involution pencil at
involution.
For
let
in the
plane meet the line of intersection of the

Bi',
p and
tt
planes in
A, All B,
C, Ci &c.
and
let
0' be the projection of 0.

is
Then A, A^; B, Bi]

.'.
G, Cj
&c.
an involution range. an involution.
0' (A, Ji
B, Bi; G, G^ &c.)
is
Again, as
right angles,
we can project two angles in the p plane into we may choose two angles between two pairs of
88
INVOLUTION
rays of an involution to be so projected.

projection
It
Then the
pencil in the
must be an orthogonal
one.
may be remarked
too that at the
project the involution pencil into

project any line to infinity (| 43).
same time that we an orthogonal one we can
involution has no real double an involution pencil is to be projected into an orthogonal one, then the pencil thus projected should not have real double lines, if the projection is to be a real one.
lines, it is clear
Note.
As an orthogonal
that
if
An
involution pencil with real double lines can only be
projected into an orthogonal one by means of an imaginary
vertex of projection.
stated
The reader will understand by comparing what with 43 that the two circles determining V
do not intersect in real points,
if
is
here
in that
article
the double points of the
involution range which the involution pencil in the

intercepts on the vanishing line be
real, as
plane
if
they are
the
involution pencil have real double lines.
EXERCISES
1.
Any
transversal
is
cut by a system of coaxal circles in pairs
of points which are in involution, and the double points of the

involution are concyclic with the limiting points of the system of
circles.
2.
If
X, K' be the double points of an involution to which
A,
Aj-, 3.
B, Bi belong; then A, B^; A^, B; K, K' are in involution.

If the
angles, they
must be the
double lines of a pencil in involution be at right bisectors of the angles between each pair of
conjugate rays.
4.
The corresponding
sides
BG, B'C
&c. of
two
triangles
ABC,
and
in plane perspective intersect in P, Q, AA', BE, GO' respectively intersect the line
A'B'C
respectively; in
PQR
F,
Q',
E.
Prove that the range (BE, QQ', RB') forms an
involution.
EXERCISES
89
5. The centre of the circunicircle of the triangle formed by the three diagonals of a quadrilateral lies on the radical axis of the
system of
6.
circles
on the three diagonals.
quadrilateral
if each of two pairs of opposite vertices of a conjugate with regard to a circle, the third pair is also; and that the circle is one of a coaxal system of which the line
Shew that
is
of collinearity of the middle points of the diagonals

-axis.
7.
is
the radical
The two
pairs of tangents
drawn from a point
to
two
circles,
and
the two lines joining the point to their centres of similitude,
form an involution.
8.
Prove
thiit
there are two points in the plane of a given
triangle such that the distances of each from the vertices of the
triangle are in a given ratio.
Prove also that the
line joining these
points passes through the circumcentre of the triangle.
90
CHAPTEE IX
THE CONIC SECTIONS
88.
Definitions.
The Conic
Sections (or Conies, as they
are frequently called) are the curves of conical, or vertical, projection of a circle on to a plane other than its own.
They are
then the plane sections of a cone having a circular base. It is not necessary that the cone should be a right circular one, that
is,
that
its
vertex should
lie
on the
line
through the centre of
the circular base and at right angles to

to the base are circles), the sections of
89.
it.
So long as the cone
has a circular base (and consequently too

it
all its sections parallel
are called conic sections.
The
conic sections are classified according to the relation

If the vanishing
is
of the vanishing line to the projected circle.

line
touches the
if
circle,
the curve of projection
called a
parabola;
curve
circle
is
the vanishing line does not meet the
circle,
the
called
an
ellipse;
and
is
if
the vanishLag line cuts the
the curve of projection
called a hyperbola.
In other words a parabola

circular base,
is
the section of a cone, having a

line joining the vertex
by a plane
parallel to a generating line of the

is
cone.
By
a 'generating line'
meant a
of the cone to a point on the circumference of the circle which
forms
its base.
An
ellipse is
plane parallel to
a section of the cone by a plane such that the it through the vertex cuts the plane of the
it.
base in a line external to
hyperbola
parallel plane
is a section of the cone by a plane such that the through the vertex cuts the base of the cone.
THE CONIC SECTIONS
91
The curves are illustrated by the following figure and it should be observed that the hyperbola consists of two branches, and that to obtain both these branches the cone must be prolonged on both sides of
its vertex.
90.
Focus and
directrix property.
Every conic
section, or projection of a circle, possesses, as
we
shall presently shew, this property,
namely that
it is
the locus
in the
of a point in a plane such that its distance from a fixed point in
the plane bears to
its
distance from a fixed
line, also
plane, a constant ratio.
The
is
fixed point is called the focus of
and the constant be proved later that the eccentricity ratio the is unity, less. than unity, or greater than unity, according as the
the conic, the fixed line
eccentricity.
called the directrLr,
It will
conic
is
a parabola, an
ellipse,
or a hyperbola.
92
91.
THE CONIC SECTIONS

Text books on Geometrical Conic Sections usually take
the focus and directrix property of the curves as the definition

of them, and develop their properties therefrom, ignoring for
the purpose of this development the fact that every conic

section,
is all
even when defined by
its
focus
and
directrix property,
regretted.
This is to be For many of the properties which can only be evolved with great labour from the focus and directrix property
circle.
the while the projection of some
are proved with great ease

projections of a circle.
when the
conies are regarded as the
We
shall in the
next chapter shew how
easy
it
is
to prove
that plane curves having the focus and
directrix property are the projections of
circle.
92.
Projective properties.
conic sections, being the projections of a circle
The
must
possess all the projective properties of the circle.
They will be such that no straight line in their plane (1) can meet them in more than two points, and from points which
are the projections of such points in the plane of the circle as
lie
without the
will
circle,
two and only two tangents can be drawn,

circle.
which
(2)
be the projection of the tangents to the

'
The
'
conic sections will clearly have the pole and polar
property
of the circle.
That
is,
the locus of the intersections
of tangents at the extremities of chords through a given point

will
be a
line,
the point and line being called in relation to one
another pole and polar. The polar of a point from which tangents
the points of contact of the tangents.
'
can be drawn to the curve will be the same as the line through This line is often called
the chord of contact,' but strictly speaking the chord
is
only
is
that portion of the line intercepted by the curve.
The
polar
unlimited in length.
(3)
If the polar of a point
then the polar of
B must
A for a conic goes through B, go through A. Two such points are

I
called conjugate points.

(4)
Also
I'
if
the pole of a line
lie
on another line
I',
the
pole of
lines.
will lie
on
I,
two such
lines
being called conjugate
THE CONIC SECTIONS

(5)
93
obtains for the circle

cross-ratios
(6)
of the pole and polar which must hold also for the conic sections since are unaltered by projection.
As an
involution range projects into a range also in
involution, pairs of conjugate points for a conic which lie along
a line will form an involution range whose double points will be

the points
(if
any) in which the line cuts the curve.
Similarly pairs of conjugate lines through a point will (7) form an involution pencil whose double lines are the tangents (if any) from the point.
93.
Circle projected into another circle.

of projection of a circle
is
The curve
another
circle.
under certain conditions
Prop.
If
in the curve of projection of a circle the pairs of
P which is the projection of the pole of the vanishing line form an orthogonal involution, then the curve is a circle having its centre at P.
conjugate lines through the point
For since the polar of P is the line at infinity, the tangents at the extremities of any chord through P meet at infinity. But since the involution pencil formed by the pairs of conjugate lines through P is an orthogonal one, these tangents must meet on a line through P perpendicular to the chord. Hence the
tangents at the extremities of the chord are at right angles
to
it.
Thus the curve has the property that the tangent

point of
it is
at every
perpendicular to the radius joining the point to P.

is
That
is,
the curve
a circle with
as centre.
circle
Cob.
circle
it
can he projected into another
with any
point within
projected into the centre.
For we have only to project the polai- of the point to infinity and the involution pencil formed by the conjugate lines through it into an orthogonal involution. Note. The point to be projected into the centre needs to be within the circle if the projection is to be a real one (see
Note
to 87).
94
94.
THE CONIC SECTIONS
Focus and directrix as pole and polar.

If in
the plane
Prop.
there exist
of the curve of projection of a
circle
a point
such that the involution pencil formed by
the conjugate lines through

its
is
an orthogonal
one, then
S and
polar are focus and directrix for the curve.
Let
P and
Q be any two
points on the curve, and let the
tangents at them meet in T.
Join
ST
cutting
PQ
in R,
and
let
PQ
meet the polar of

the polar
in F.
Join SF, and draw
PM,
QN perpendicular to
ofS.
Then
ST is
the polar of F, for the polar of
goes through
since that of
goes through F, and
it
also goes
through
since the polar of

.'.
T goes through F. SF and ST are conjugate

lines at
lines.
But by hypothesis -the conjugate

involution.
form an orthogonal
.-.TSF is a right angle.
And by
the harmonic property of the pole and polar
(FR,PQ) = -1.
.-.
ST and SF are
the bisectors of the angle
PSQ
( 72).
.-.SP -.SQ^FP-.FQ
= PM QN (by .:SP:PM = SQ:QN.

:
similar triangles).
THE CONIC SECTIONS

Thus the
ratio of the distance of points
95
S to
its
their distance from the polar of
is
constant, that
on the curve from is S and
polar are focus and directrix for the curve.
Note.
infinity
If the polar of S should happen to be the line at then the curve of projection is a circle ( 93).
We may here remark that the circle may be considered to have the focus and directrix property, the focus being at the
centre,
is
and the
directrix the line at infinitj'.

circle to
The
eccentricity
the ratio of the radius of the

tlie circle
the infinite distance of

infinity.
the points on
95.
from the line at
Parallel chords.
Before
we go on
to establish the focus

circle,
of the curves of projection of a
and directrix property which we shall do by

one point S,
shewing that
involution,
for all of
them there
exists at least
the pairs of conjugate lines through which form an orthogonal
we
/?i
will establish
a very important general proposition
about parallel chords.
Prop.
any conic
the locus of the
section (or curve of projection of a circle) middle points of a system of parallel chords is
straight line,
and
the tangents at the points tuhere this line meets
the curve are parallel to the chords.
Moreover
the tangents at the extremities
chords will intersect on the line which
is the
of each of the parallel locus of the middle
points of the chords, and every line parallel to the chords and in the plane of the curve is conjugate tvith this line containing the
middle points.
Let QQ' be one of the chords of the system and J/ its middle
point.
The chords may be considered

infinity
as concurrent in
a point
R at
line:
which is and we have
the projection of a point r on the vanishing
(QQ',ME) = -1.
.-.
(gq',mr)
r.
= -l,
that
is HI is
on the polar of
Thus
points J/
as the locus of the points

is
is
line,
that of the
so too.
96
THE CONIC SECTIONS

Let
let
be a point in which this locus meets the curve, and he the projection of p, then as the tangent at p goes through r that at P must go through that is the tangent at
P is parallel to
those at
QQ'.
r,
r,
Further as the tangents at q and q meet on the polar of Q and Q' will meet on the projection of the polar of
is
that
on the
line
which
is
the locus of the middle points of
the chords.
Also every line through r will have its pole on the polar of r, and therefore every line through R in the plane of the conic will have its pole on the line PM, that is, every line parallel to
the chords
is
conjugate with the locus of their middle points.
is
is
In other words, the polar of every point on the line which the locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords
a line parallel to the chords.
96.
We
are
Focus and directrix property established. now in a position to establish the focus and directrix
property of the conic sections, defined as the projections of a circle. shall take the parabola, ellipse and hyperbola
We
separately,
and in each case prove a preliminary proposition
respecting their axes of symmetry.
Prop.
the vanishing line in its plane)
parabola (or the projection of a circle touched hy has an axis of syminetry which
is at infinity.
meets the curve in two points one of which
THE CONIC SECTIONS

Let the vanishing
line touch the circle in w.
97
In the plane through V, the vertex of projection, and the vanishing line draw Vr at right angles to Va, meeting the vanishing line in r. Draw the other tangent ra to the circle.
Now r is the pole of aa, and therefore if pp' be any chord which produced passes through r and which cuts am in n then
{pp', nr)
= 1.
Thus, using corresponding capital letters in the projection,
and remembering that mm will project into a right angle since rm subtends a right angle at V, we shall have a chord PP' at so that right angles to AD. and cutting it at
{PP',NR) = -1.
But
is
at infinity.
all
.-.
PN = NP'.
AD
are bisected
Thus
the chords perpendicular to

is
by
it,
and the curve
therefore symmetrical about this line, which is
called the axis of the parabola.
The axis meets the curve in the point A, called the and in the point D which is at infinity.
vertex,
As raa
projects into a right angle (for
rw subtends a right
angle at F) the tangent at
is
at right angles to the axis.

fl.
Finally the curve touches the line at infinity at
parabola (or projection of a circle touched Prop. 97. by the vanishing line) has the focus and directrix property, and
the eccentricity of
A. G.
tlie
curve
is unity.
98
Let
it
THE CONIC SECTIONS
P be any point
on the curve of projection.
Let
PNP'
be the chord through P, perpendicular to the axis, and cutting

in
K
at
The tangents
line of the axis
P and P'
will intersect in a point
T on
the
( 95).
Then
as
T is
is
the pole of
PP'
(TN,An,) = -l.
.-.
as fl
at infinity,
TA =AN.
draw
Now
YS
Let
let the tangent at
at right angles to
P meet that at -4 in F and PF to meet the axis in 8.
polar of S will be at right angles to the axis ( 95). cutting the axis in X, the tangent at P in Z, and be the line through P parallel to the axis in M.
The
it
XM
Join SP, SZ.
Now
as
is
the pole of
XM
ATF<Sf= APF^, and
(XS,
XA
= AS,
and as
An) = -1. = TA AN ê have TS = XN= MP.

1,
But TT: = TS PS.
YP=TA:AN=
that
is
so that
Thus
PS = PM,
is
equidistant from
S and
j^he
polar of S.
THE CONIC SECTIONS

Further, since
99
ST is
equal and
pai-allel to
PM and SP = PM,
Z
SPMT is a rhombus and PT bisects the angle SPM. Thus A SPZ = A MPZ, and ^ ZSP = Z ^MP = a right
Now Z is
jS
the pole of SP, for the polar of
Z must
go through
since
(since that of
goes through Z) and through
ZP is
a tangent at P.
Hence SZ and
SP
are conjugate lines for the curve, and
they are at right angles. So also are
ST
and the
line
through
at right angles to
it ( 95).
Therefore the involution pencil formed by the pairs of con-
jugate lines through

polar
is
an orthogonal one. Thus

is
S and
its
XM
are focus and directrix for the curve

is
( 94),
and the
eccentricity
98.
SP
PM which
unity.
circle
circle
Prop.
vanishing line in
its
The projection of a plane is either a
not
met hy
the
or a closed curve
having two aês of symmetry, mutually pe^'pendicular, on which are intercepted hy the curve chords of unequal length.
Let
be the pole of the vanishing
line.
Let pp' be any chord through

...;Then
c of the circle.
its intersection
pp
is
divided harmonically at c and

c.
with the polar of
72
100
THE CONIC SECTIONS
Using corresponding capital letters in the projection, we shall have that the chord PP' through G is divided harmonically at C and its intersection with the polar of C, which is the line at
infinity.
..PG=GP'.
is
Thus every chord through G

reason the point
bisected at G.
is
called the centre of the curve,
For this and the
chords through
it
are called diameters.

at the extremities of
The tangents
for
any diameter are

is
parallel,
circle
line.
the tangents at the extremities of chords of the

c
through
meet
in the polar of
c,
which
the vanishing
First suppose that the involution pencil formed

of conjugate lines through
by the
pairs
is
an orthogonal one; then the
curve
is
a circle (93).
involution pencil
is
Next suppose that the

lines
not an orthogonal
one; then there must be one and only one pair of conjugate
through
mutually at right angles
( 86).
Let the curve intercept on these
lines chords
Draw
the chords
PQ
and
in
respectively cutting
them
PR perpendicular N and M, and let fi

AA' and
and
BB'.
A A' and BB'. to A A' and BB'

and
fl'
be the
points at infinity on the lines of
Then
as
D,' is
the pole of
A A',
PQ passes
through
XI',
(PQ,Nn')=-i.
.\PN = JSfQ.
Similarly
PM = MR.
is
Thus the curve
symmetrical about each of the two lines
AGA', BGB', which are called the axes. We shall now shew that A A' and BB' cannot be equal. Let the tangents at A and B meet in K, then GAKB is a rectangle, and GK bisects AB. But GK bisects the chord through G parallel to AB, for
every chord through
is
bisected at G.
Hence
GK and the
( 95).
line
through
parallel to
AB
are con-
jugate lines
THE CONIC SECTIONS But these

thus
if
101
lines
GA
and
is
GB
would be at right angles if GA = GB. And were equal the involution pencil formed by
the pairs of conjugate lines through
G would
be an orthogonal
one
which
contrary to hypothesis.
Hence
A A'
and BB' cannot be
equal.
We
AA'
is
shall suppose
called the
A A' to he the greater of the two. major axis and the minor aads.
Then
BR
Prop. An ellipse (or curve of projection, other than a of a circle not met by the vanishing line in its plane) has the focus and directrix property and the eccentricity of the curve
99.
circle,
is less
than unity.
projection
of
is
Assuming that the shewn in 98 two axes

the greater.
not a circle we have as
symmetry AA',
BR of which AA' is
describe a circle
With centre
cutting the major axis in
and radius equal to S and jS".

S'
ai-e
GA
The
polai-s of
S and
perpendicular to
AA'
( 95).
Let these be
the tangent at
XF and
and
X'F', cutting
A A'
in
X and X' and

F
goes
is
.B in J"
F
/S
Now
tangent.
..
since the polar of
goes through F, that of
through S; but the polar of
goes through B, since
FB
SB
is
the polar ot F, and SF,
SB
are conjugate lines.
We
will
shew that they
ai-e
'
102
Since
THE CONIC SECTIONS
8 is
the pole of
XF
SX) = 1.
(AA',
.-.
GS.CX=CAK
Now
Then
draw
SK parallel to GB to meet BF in K. BK.KF=GS.8X = GS (GX - GS)

= GA'-GS' = SB'-GS' = SK\ FSB is a right angle.
.".
THE CONIC SECTIONS

Let the vanishing
be the pole of the
line.
103
<o
line cut the circle in
and m, and
let c
Let pp' be any chord the
line of
Then pp'
with
(Uft)'.
is
divided
harmonically at
which passes through c. c and its intersection
Using corresponding
shall
capital letters in the projection,
we
at
have that the chord PP' through G is divided harmonically and its intersection with the polar of G which is the line
at infinity.
..PG = GP'.
Thus every chord through C

bisected at G, which
is
in tlie curve of projection is
therefore called the centre of the curve,

called diameters.
line
and the chords through G are

Let
it
be observed that not every

it.
through G meets the
curve, since in the plane of the circle there are lines through c
which do not meet
Of each
the
pair of conjugate lines through c only one will
meet
circle, for ceo
and
cco'
are the double lines of the involution

lines.
formed by these conjugate
Further the involution pencil formed by the conjugate lines through

lines,
G cannot be an orthogonal one, since namely the projection of ctu and cco'. G
it
has real double
Thus there
through
will be one and only one pair of conjugate lines mutually at right angles ( 86).
104
Let
THE CONIC SECTIONS

is
this pair be GA and GB, of which the former meets the curve, namely in A and A'. that
the one
Note that the curve of projection will have two tangents, C whose points of contact fl and XI' the projections of <a and are at infinity. These tangents are called asymptotes.
from
ft)'
Since Cfi and CD! are the double lines of the involution
pencil formed
by the conjugate
(Oil',
lines
through
(82).
G
the bisectors
^5) = - 1
..
since
GA
and
GB are at right angles, they are

( 72).
of the angles between 011 and GD!
To prove that the curve is symmetrical about GA and GB we draw chords PQ, PR perpendicular to them and cutting them in N and M. Let Z and Z' be the points at infinity along the lines GA and GB. Then since Z' is the pole oi AA' and PQ
passes through Z',
(PQ, NZ')
= - 1.
..PN = NQ.
Similarly Pif=ilfi2.
angles, one of
Thus the curve has two axes of symmetry mutually at right which meets the curve, and the other not. AA' which meets the curve is called the transverse axis and GB is
Note. At present
called the conjugate axis.
is
not a definite point on the line GB.
We
shall find it convenient later

is
on to make
points
it definite;
the
point to be emphasised
that the transverse axis does not cut
the curve, and
we cannot determine
and B' on
it
as
these points are determined in the case of the ellipse.

101.
Prop.
cut by the vanishing line) has the focus
hyperbola (or curve of projection of a circle and directrix property,
and
the eccentricity is greater than unity.
Using the notation of the preceding article, we describe a with centre G, and radius GA cutting 00 in and L', and GD,' in K' and L, as in the figure.
circle
The
lines
KL
verse axis, since, as
and K'L' we have
will
be perpendicular to the trans-
seen,
GA
bisects the angle nCXl'.
THE CONIC SECTIONS

..
105
denote by /Sand
S',
the poles of these
lines,
which we
will
will lie
on the
will
line of the transverse axis ( 95).
We
Let
now shew
directrix, as are also 8'
that jS and and K'L'.
its
polar
KL
are focus
and
KL
and K'L' cut
AA'
in
X and A".
Then by
the harmonic property of the pole and polar
{AA', SX) = - 1. ..CS.CX=CA' = CK\

.'.
GKS
is
a right angle.
Now the polar of must go through S, since that of S goes through K. Moreover the polar of goes through H, since KD,
is
a tangent at
.-.
CI.
SD,
is
the
polai- of
K, that
is
SK
and SD. are conjugate
lines.
But
D,
being at infinity SO,
is
parallel to KD,, that is Sil is
perpendiculai- to
SK.
Thus we have two

line
pairs
of conjugate lines through S,
mutually at right angles, namely SD, and

through
S
SK, and SG and the
at right angles to
SC
( 95).
pencil formed by the pairs of conjugate lines orthogonal one, and therefore iS and its polar an through axe focus and directrix for the curve.
Hence the
.S"
is
KX
106
THE CONIC SECTIONS

Similarly 8' and K'L' are focus and directrix.
The
eccentricity
:
is
the ratio
SCI perpendicular from fl on

:
KL
= KD, the same = GE :GX = GA:GX which is greater than unity. Note too that as GS.CX= GA\ the eccentricity also=CS:GA.
We
might have obtained the eccentricity thus
It is the ratio
SA
AX
= GS-GA:GA-GX = CS.GX-GA.GX:CX{GA- GX) = GA {GA - CX) GX (GA - GX) = GA GX.

:
:
102.
Central and non-central conies. Diameters.

have seen that the
is
We
ellipse
and hyperbola have each a and hyperbolas then are

centre
centre, that
a point such that every chord passing through

it.
the same
classified
is
bisected by
Ellipses
together as central conies.

non-central.
The parabola has no
and
is called
95 that the locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords is a straight line. Clearly in the
We
have proved in
case of the central conies this line

for the
must go through the

is
centre,
diameter parallel to the chords
bisected at that point.

is
In the case of the parabola, the line which

middle points of a system of parallel chords
is
the locus of the
parallel to the axis.
For such a system
is
the projection of chords of the circle conr,
current at a point r on the vanishing line; and the polar of
which projects into the locus of the middle points of the system of chords, passes through m the point of contact of the circle with the vanishing line. Thus the locus of the middle points of the system of parallel chords of the parabola passes through 12, that
is,
the line
is
parallel to the axis.

its
All lines then in the plane of a parabola and parallel to

axis will bisect each a system of parallel chords.
These
lines
are conveniently called diameters of the parabola.
They are not
diameters in the same sense in which the diameters of a central
THE CONIC SECTIONS
107
conic are, for they are not limited in length and bisected at a
definite point.
103.
Ordinates of diameters.
ai-e
Def. The parallel chords of a conic bisected by a particular

diameter
called double ordinates of that diameter, called
and the
half chord
is
an ordinate of the diameter.
The ordinates of a diameter are as we have seen parallel to the tangents at the point or points in which the diameter meets the curve.
The
axis.
ordinates of an axis of a conic are perpendicular to that
The
an
ordinates of the axis of a parabola, of the major axis of
ellipse,
and
of the transverse axis of a hyperbola are often
called simply 'ordinates' without specifying that whereto they
are ordinates.
ellipse or
Thus the ordinate
of a point
on a parabola,
hyperbola must be understood to mean the perpendicular

axis,
PN
case
on the
the major axis, or the transverse axis, as the
may
be.
Note. When we speak ot the axis of a conic there can be no ambiguity in the case of a parabola, but in the case of the ellipse and hyperbola, which have two axes of symmetry, there would be ambiguity unless we determined beforehand which axis was meant. Let it then be understood that by the axis of a conic will be meant that one on which the foci lie.
104.
The
contents
of the present
chapter are of great
importance for a right understanding of the conic sections.
The student should now have a good general idea of the form of the curves, and, as it were, see them whole, realising that they have been obtained by projecting a circle from one plane
on to another.
We
shall in the
next chapter set forth properties
which
all
conies have in
treat of the parabola, ellipse
common, and in subsequent chapters and hyperbola separately, shewing
the special properties which each curve has.
108
CHAPTEK X
PROPERTIES COMMON TO ALL CONICS
105.
Proposition.
joining two points
If the line (prodiMied if necessary) and Q of a conic meet a directrix in F, and
be the corresponding focus,
SF
will bisect one of the angles
between
SP
and SQ.
Kg.
1.
Fig. 2.
For, drawing
PM and QR perpendicular to the directrix we
have,
if e
be the eccentricity,
SP:PM=e = SQ:QR, .:SP:SQ = PM:QR = FP FQ (by similar As FQR,

:
FPM).

.-.in figs 1
109
and
S,
in
fig.
-2
it
bisects the angle
SF bisects the exterior PSQ itself.
angle of
FSQ, and
Kg.
3.
We
see then that
(S'/'
bisects the exterior angle of
PSQ,
if
P and Q be on the same branch of the curve, PSQ itself if P and Q be on opposite branches
106.
directrix in
angle.
and the angle
Prop. //" the tangent to a conic at a point P meet a Z and S be the corresponding focus, ZSP is a right
seen from the following considerations
This
is easily
The
will
focus and directrix are 'pole and polar' for the conic,
therefore the tûigents at the extremities of a focal chord
PSQ
meet at
Z in
the directrix, and
Z will
be the pole of PQ.
Thus SZ
lies
find
SF
are conjugate lines, since the pole of *SP
on SZ.
110
But the
angles.
pairs of conjugate lines through a focus are at right
Therefore
as
ZSP
is
a right angle.
But
we
are going to prove in the next article that every

is
plane curve having the focus and directrix property

projection of
the
some
circle,
we
will
give another proof of the
proposition dependent only on this property.
Regard the tangent at P as the limiting case of the the chord PP' when P' is very close to P.
line of
Now
angle of
if PP' meet the directrix in F, SF bisects the exterior PSP' ( 105) for P and P' are on the same branch.
And
the nearer P' approaches P, the more does this exterior
angle approximate to two right angles.
Thus Z
ZSP = the limit of FSP' when P' = a right angle.

It
approaches
should be observed that
this second proof yields also the
result that tangents at the ex-
tremities of a focal chord intersect

in the directrix, since the tangent
at either
is
end of the chord PSQ determined by drawing SZ at
right angles to the chord to
meet
the directrix in Z; then ZP,

are the tangents.
107.
ZQ
as the curves of projection of a circle
In the preceding chapter we defined the conic sections and shewed that they have
the focus and directrix property.
We
shall
now
establish the
converse proposition.
property
Prop. Every plane curve having the focus and is the projection of some circle.
directrix
For we have shewn in the second part of 106 that a curve having the focus and directrix property is such that tangents at
the extremities of any chord through S, the focus, intersect on the directrix on a line through S perpendicular to the chord.
111
Now
project so that the directrix
is
the vanishing line; and
so that the orthogonal involution at
projects into another
orthogonal involution
( 87).
Then the curve of projection has the property that the tangents at the extremities of every chord through s, the projection of S,
to the chord.
meet at
infinity
on a
line
through
s perpendicular
Hence the tangent

curve
is
at each point of the curve

s,
is
at right
angles to the radius joining the point to
and therefore the
a circle with s as centre.

It follows of course from
108.
what we have established

unity then the circle
in the preceding chapter that if the curve having the focus
and
directrix property
it
had
its eccentricity
into which
has been projected must touch the vanishing line
in the plane of the circle; if the eccentricity be less than unity
then the
tricity
line.
circle
does not meet the vanishing line;

circle is cut
if
the eccen-
be greater than unity the
by the vanishing
109.
Pair of tangents.
from a
Prop. If a pair of tangents TP, TQ be drawn to a conic point P and S be a focus, then SP and SQ make equal angles with ST, and if PQ meet the corresponding directrix in F Z TSF is a right angle.
Let
TS meet PQ
in
R.
112
Since
polar of
PKOPEBTIES COMMON TO ALL CONICS
PQ
is
the polar of T, and this goes through F, the
But
through
F must go through T. since F is on the directrix

S.
the polar of
must go
Thus
Hence
ST is the polar of F. SF and ST are conjugate

must be
lines,
and
as they are
through a focus, they
at right angles.
Further
{PQ,FR) = -\. ..S{PQ,FR) = -l.

bisectors of the angles
SP
Thus SR and SF are the and SQ ( 72).
between
Note.
the angle
It will
be seen that
if
if
the points of contact of the
tangents from
lie
on the same branch of the curve
PSQ, but
they are on different branches then
ST bisects ST
bisects the exterior angle of
PSQ.
shew the case where
The
figures given do not
TP and TQ
both touch the branch remote from S. The student can easily represent this in a figure of his own.
110. The above proposition gives a simple construction for drawing two tangents to a conic from an external point T.

Join
113
ST and
let it
meet the conic in

can be
utilised.
K and A".
Take
The
figure
of the preceding
ai-ticle
in
EK'
such
that (TR,
KK')=- 1 ( 70, Cor. 2). Draw SF at right angles to ST to

the line
Draw
FR and
let it
meet the directrix cut the conic in P and Q.
in
F..
Then
For as
TP and TQ are the tangents. ST and SF are at right angles

lines.
and through a
focus,
they are conjugate

.-.
the pole of
pole
But the
.-.
ST lies on SF. of ST is on the

is,
directrix.
F is the pole of ST, that

of
is
the polar of
F goes through T.
KK') = 1.
the chord of
\ the polar of
But the polar Thus the line FR
T goes through F. T goes through R
since (TR,
is,
the polar of T, that
PQ
is
contact of the tangents from T.

111.
The Normal.
The
line
Def.
and at light angles
through the point of contact of a tangent to it is called the normal at that point.
Prop. If the normal at P to any conic meet the axis in G, and S be a focus of the conic then SO=e.SP, where e is the
eccentricittj.
Let the tangent at
meet the
directrix corresponding to
SinZ.
Draw P-V
Then
A.G.
perpendicular to the directrix.
since
PM
is parallel
to the axis,
Z MPS = Z PSG.
8
114
Also since
PMZ and PSZ are

PMS
for
right angles,
of
PSZM is
cyclic
and Z BMP = Z
SZP = complement
Z SPZ = Z SPG.
Thus the As >SPG,
are similar and

.:
SG:SP = PS:PM=e;
The student can make
where
SOê.SP.
In
himself a figure shewing the case
is
on the branch of a hyperbola remote from S.

be found
this case it will
Z SMP
So that the As
112.
=
=
180
90
- z >SfZP
+ zSP^=Z/SfP(?.
SPG
and
PMS are still similar.
The
The
latus rectum.
focal
Def.
the focus
chord perpendicular to the axis on which

the latus rectum of the conic.
is
lies is called
Thus the
latus
rectum
the double ordinate through the
focus to the axis ( 103).
Prop.
Let
The semi-latus rectum of a conic
is
a harmonic mean
between the segments of any focal chord.
SL be the semi-latus rectum, and PSQ any focal chord. Draw PM and QR perpendicular to the directrix, and PN
and
QK perpendicular to the axis. SP:PM = e = SL:SX Then

= SQ:QR.
And by
similar triangles
SP:SQ = SI^:KS = XN - XS -.XS-XK (Fig. = MP-XS:XS-RQ = e {MP - XS) e(Z/S - RQ) = SP-SL:SL-SQ.
:
1)
.'.
SP, SL and
SQ
are in harmonic progression
and
SP'^
SQ~ SLif
This proposition requires some modification on opposite branches. We now have
and Q are
115
2)
SP:SQ = NS: KS = XS - XN KX + XS (Fig. = e {XS - MP) .e(QR + XS) = SL-SP:SQ + SL.

:
Fig. 1.
.-.
Fig. 2.
SP[iSQ + SL)
.-.
= SQ (SL - SP), SQ.SL-SP.SL = 2SP.SQ,

J.
'''
1___2_
SP
SQ~SLthat are in H.p.
Thus
in this case it
is
SP,
SL and - SQ
Cor. The rectangle contained by the segments of any focal chord varies as the length of the chord.
For
SP
SQ
SL'
according as PI and Q he on the same or opposite branches (P being on the branch adjacent to S), and in both cases we have
PQ SP SQ
.
SL
or
.-.
SP.SQ = '-fxPQ.
that
is
SP.SQx PQ.
If SP and SQ are in opposite directions P and Q lie on the same branch of the curve, and if they are ia the same direction, P and Q lie on opposite branches.
Prop. Any conic can be projected into a circle with 113. any point in the plane of the conic projected into the centre of the
circle.
82
116
PEOPEETIES COMMON TO ALL CONICS
For
let
P be
P
any point in the plane of the
conic.
Take the polar of

lines
for the vanishing line
and project
so
that the involution pencil formed by the pairs of conjugate
through
is
projects into an orthogonal involution ( 87)';
then exactly as in
tion
93 we can prove that the curve of projec-
circle.
Note.
that
is
In order that the projection
may be
real
a real one, the
tangents from
to the conic
must not be
(Note to
87),
P must
lie
within the conic.
Carnot's theorem.
114.
Prop.
Bt^,
If a
0^,
conic cut the sides of
triangle
ABG
in
Ax,Ar^;
B^;
.
ABj,
d; AB^ GA^ CA, BG^ BG^ = AC, AG, BA, BA, GB,
then
. . . .
GB^.
Project the conic into a circle

projection
and denote the points in the

letters.
.
by corresponding small
ah,
.
Then
since
ah,
= ac, = b<h = ac,
ac,,
bci
.'.
he,
bc^
boLi,
.
abi
ab^ caj
.
ca, bci
ac^
ba^
ba,
cbi
cb,.
.".
the triangle formed by the lines

thfe
aj},, SjOa, câ, is
in per-
spective with
triangle cd)c (| 68).

.-.
117
is
the triangle formed by the lines A,B^, B,C^, G,A.
in
perspective with the triangle

.-.
ABC.
by
68
. . . .
.
AB, AB^ CA, GA, BC, BC, = A C\ .AC,. BA, .BA,.CB,.

Newton's theorem.
115.
CB,.
Prop.
and PQ,
RS be
// bea va)-iahle point in the plane of a conic, chords in ji.ved directions through 0, then
OP.OQ
^n
ff^
is
constant.
Let 0' be any other point and through 0' draw the chords P'Q', BS' parallel respectively to PQ and i?S.
Let QP, Q'P" meet in
&>
at infinity and
SB, S'R' in
12.
Let FQ: and
ES meet
in T.
Now
apply Carnot's theorem to the triangle
mOT and
get
toP'
wP.aQ.OR.OS.TP'.TQ' ^ .wQ' TR. IS OP.OQ~

.
.
'
but
-^ = 1
,
<oP
and
Q}Q -^
118
TP'.TQ'
'
OP.OQ TB.TS ~OR.OS'

UTO' and
get
Next apply
Carnot's theorem to the triangle
nR.nS.TF.TQ'.O'R'.O'S' nM' as' O'P" O'Q' .TR.TS"

. .
TP'.TQ'
"'
O'P'.O'Q'
Hence
that
,,
,
TR.T8 "O'R'.O'S" ^^'^^ ^'^' '^'^

0R.08~0'R'.0'S"
OP.OQ
^
IS,
IS
, , constant.
This proposition
is
known
as
Newton's theorem.
Note. In applying Newton's theorem it must be remembered that the lines OP, OQ, &c. have sign as well as magnitude.
If
OP
and
OQ
are opposite in direction, they have opposite sign
and
so for
OR
and OS.
is
116.
Newton's theorem
of great importance, as
see in later chapters, where considerable use will be
we shall made of it.
We
give some propositions illustrating
its use.
Prop.
the ratio
focal
// two chords of a conic PP' and QQ' intersect in 0, OP' OQ. OQ' is equal to that of the lengths of the chords parallel to PP' and QQ'.
OP
Let the
qSq'.
focal chords parallel to
PP' and QQ' be pSp' and
Then by Newton's theorem
OP. OP' OQ.OQ' = Sp.Sp .Sq.Sq' PP '-li (112 Cor.).

:
In the special case where have OP' =
is
the centre of the conic
we
-0P and
.-.
OQ' = -
OQ.
OP':OQ' = pp':qq'.
Note. We have already explained that in using Newton's theorem, the signs of the segments of the line are to be considered.
If
OP. OP' and OQ..OQ' have

Sq
.
opposite signs so also will
Sp
Sp' and
Sq' have opposite signs.
This only happens in
PROPEETIKS COMMON TO ALL CONICS

the case of the hyperbola, and when one of the four points
119
j),
and q, q lies on the opposite branch to the other three. Then one of the focal chords pp qq will join two points on opposite branches and the other will join two points on the same branch.
,
If
we make
the convention that a negative value be attached

to count positive the relation
to the length of a focal chord if it joins two points on opposite
branches otherwise
it is
OP.OP':OQ.OQ'^pp:qq;
is
algebraically as well as numerically correct.
So also it is true, with the same convention as to sign, that if GP, CQ be the semidiameters parallel to the focal chords, ^Jp', qq'
pp'
:
qq'
= CP' CQ\
:
And from this we see that of the two diameters parallel to two focal chords, one of which joins two points on the same branch and the other two points on opposite branches, only one can meet the curve in real points for the ratio CP" GQ^ has now
:
a negative value.
117.
Prop.
is
If
OP and OQ
be two tangents to
conic then
OP^ OQ"
:
equal
to the ratio
of the focal chords parallel re-
spectively to
OP
and OQ.
Let the focal chords be pSp', qSq. Then regarding OP as meeting the curve in two coincident points P, and OQ similarly, we have by Newton's theorem
OP.OPÔQ.OQ = Sp.Sp':Sq.Sq',
.-.
OP^:OQ^ = pp'
:qq'.
Whence we
see that the focal chords have the same sign.
It is clear too that the ratio of the tangents from a point to conic is equal to that of the diameters parallel to them. central a
118.
Prop.
// a circle
cut a conic in four points the chords
joining their points of intersection in pairs are equally inclined

to the aocis.
Let the conic and circle intersect in the four points P, Let PP' and QQ' intersect in
0.
Q, P', Q'.
Draw
focal chords pSp',
qSq
parallel to
PP' and
QQ'.
120
PROPEBTIES COMMON TO ALL CONICS

Then, by Newton's theorem
0P.0P':0Q.0Q' = Sp.Sp':8q.Sq'
= pp':qq'.
But from the
.'.
circle
pp'
OP.OP'=OQ.OQ', = qq' and Sp Sp' = Sq

.
Sq'.
Thus the
ments are
parallel focal chords
have the same sign, their
lengths are equal and the rectangles contained by their segequal.
These chords must then be symmetrically placed and make equal angles with the axis. Thus PP' and QQ', parallel to them, make equal angles with the axis.
CoR.
If a circle touch a conic at one point
two
the
others, the tangent at the point of contact
and cut it at and the chord

angles with
joining the two points of intersection

axis.
make equal
Circle of curvature.
119.
An
infinite
number
of circles can be drawn to touch a
conic at a given point P, such circles having their centres along
the normal at the point.
These
circles will in general cut
the
conic in two other points, but in the special case where one of
these other two points coincides with the point of contact

circle is called
P the P
the circle of curvature at P.
This circle
may be
regarded as the limiting case of the circle passing through and through two points on the conic consecutive to P, so that
the conic and the circle have two consecutive tangents in
common.
point.
They have then the same rate of curvature The subject of curvature properly belongs
it
at that
to
the
seems desirable to give here the principal properties of the circles of curvature of conies. Accordingly we shall at the end of the chapters on the parabola, ellipse, and hyperbola add a proposition relating to the circles
of curvature for these curves.
circle of
Differential Calculus, but
It is clear from
118 that
if
the
curvature at a point
of a conic cut the conic again
in
Q then
PQ and
the tangent at
P are
equally inclined to the
axis.
For the tangent at P and the chord chords of the circle and the conic.
PQ
are the
common
121
The
following figure illustrates the circle of curvature at a
point of a conic.
Self-Polar Triangle.
119a.
Prop.
// a
conic pass through the
four points of
pole of the
a quadrangle,
iuith
the diagonal or
regard
to the conic
that
harmonic
is,
t)-iaugle is self-polar
is the
each vertex
opposite side.
Let ABGD be the quadrangle PQR the diagonal or harmonic triangle. and F. Let PQ cut AB and BG in
;
122
Then
.".
(AD,
the polar of
XR) = - 1,
(5))
R goes through X ( 92
YR) = 1,
and
.'.
(BC,
the polar of i? goes through Y.

.'.
FQ
is
is
the polar of R.
Similarly
QR
is
the polar of P, and

proved.
PR
of Q.
Another way of stating

that the diagonal points the conic.
this proposition
would be to say
when taken
in pairs are conjugate for
The
triangle
PQR
is also called
self-conjugate with regard
to the conic.
EXERCISES
Given a conic and a focus and corresponding directrix 1. shew how to draw the tangent at any point.
2.
of
it,
Given two points on a conic and a

is
directrix,
shew that the
locus of the corresponding focus

3.
circle.
POP' and QOQ'
prove that
PQ
are two chords of a conic intersecting in 0, and P'Q' meet on the polar of 0.
[Project the conic into a circle

4.
and
into the centre.]
If the tangent at the
tangent at the nearer vertex
end of a latus rectum LSL' meet the in ^ then TA = AS.
F,
5. If the tangent at any point P of a conic meet a directrix in and the latus rectum through the corresponding focus in D then
:
SJ)
SF = the
eccentricity.
6. If the normal at P to a conic meet the axis in G, and GL be perpendicular to the focal radius SP, then PL = the semi-latus
rectum.
7.
if
If
PSP
FSF'
PQ
and P'Q meet the

is
be a focal chord and Q any point on the conic and directrix corresponding to the focus S in a right angle.
F and F',

8.
123
oi & triangle
If a conic touch the sides opposite to A, B,
ABC
9.
in B, E,
respectively then
AD, BE,
GF
are concurrent.
[Use 114.]
By means
of
Newton's theorem prove that
if
PN
be the
:
ordinate of a point
is
independent of
10.
P on a parabola whose vertex is the position of P on the curve.
A, then
PN^
AN
Conies are drawn through two fixed points
are such that
DE
and E, and subtends a constant angle at a focus of them;
shew that the

a fixed point.
line joining this focus to the pole of
DE passes through
of any point with respect to a conic meets a on the diameter which bisects the focal chord drawn through the point and the corresponding focus.
11.
The polar
directrix
12. Prove that the line joining a focus of a conic to that point in the cori'esponding directrix at which a diameter bisecting
a system of parallel chords meets [Use 95 and 106.]

13.
it is
perpendicular to the chords.
and Q are two points on a
conic,
bisecting the chords parallel respectively to the tangents at
shew that J/iV subtends at the meet a directrix in J/ and corresponding focus an angle equal to that between the tangents at P and Q.
;
and the diameters P and Q
11.
conic,
Given a focus and the corresponding directrix of a variable shew that the polar of a given point passes through a fixed
point.
15.
Gi\en a focus and two points
of a variable conic, prove that
the corresponding directrix must pass through one or other of two

fixed points.
16.
If
two conies have a common

will pass
two conies
focus, a chord common to the through the point of intersection of the corre-
sponding directrices.
17.
If
is
T be
any point on the tangent at a point
P of
a conic of
which 5
TX SM TN
:
be the perpendicular to SP, and a focus, and if directrix corresponding to S, then on the perpendicular the = e. (Adams' theorem.
TM
18. Given a focus of a conic and a chord through that focus, prove that the locus of the extremities of the corresponding latus
rectum
is
circle.
124
19.
PEOPEBTIES COMMON TO ALL CONICS

If
TP
and
TQ
be two tangents to a conic prove that the
portion of a tangent parallel to

is
PQ intercepted
between
TP
and
TQ
bisected at the point of contact.

20.
A diameter of a conic meets the curve in P and

QR
which
is
bisects the
chord
a normal at Q, shew that the diameter through bisects the chord through P which is a normal at P.
21.
PQ
is
the pole of
PQ;
a chord of a conic cutting the axis in K, and T the diameter bisecting PQ meets a directrix in
is
and
S is
the corresponding focus; prove that
TS is
parallel to
ZK.
22. If AA!, BB', GC be chords of a conic concurrent at 0, and any point on the conic, then the points of intersection of the straight lines BG, PA', of GA, PB', and of AB, PG' lie on a straight
line
through 0.
to the point of intersection
[Project to infinity the line joining

of
AB, PG' and the

23.
conic into a circle.]
A, B, C,
are four points on a conic;
AB,
CD
meet in B;
AG
and
BD
in F;
and the tangents at
and
D in
G; prove that
B, F,
are collinear.
[Project
circle.]
AD
and
BG
into parallel lines
and the conic into a
two
a conic be inscribed in a quadrilateral, the line joining through one of the angular points of the triangle formed by the diagonals of the quadrilateral.
24.
If
of the points of contact will pass
25.
Prove Pascal's theorem, that
if
a hexagon be inscribed in a
conic the pairs of opposite sides meet in three collinear points.

[Project the conic into a circle so that the line joining the points
of intersection of
26.
.4 is
two
pairs of opposite sides is projected to infinity.]
a fixed point in the plane of a conic, and
P any point
on the polar of A. The tangents from P to the conic meet a given Shew that AR, PQ, and AQ, PR intersect on a line in Q and R.
fixed line.
[Project the conic into a circle having the projection of

centre.]
27.
for
fixed point,
PQ
system of conies touch AB and AG aAi B and G. 2) is a and BD, GD meet one of the conies in P, Q. Shew that meets BG in a fixed point.
If
intersection of
a conic pass through the points A, B, C, D, the points of AG and BD, of AB and GD, of the tangents at B and G, and of the tangents at A and D are collinear.
28.
125
29. Through a fixed point ^ on a conic two fixed straight lines AI, AI' are drawn, S^ and S' are two fixed points and P a variable point on the conic; PS, PS' meet AI, AI' in Q, Q' respectively, shew that QQ' passes througli a fixed point.
î-â,
If a conic cut the sides BC, CA, AB oia, triangle ABC in B^B^, CjCj, and AA-^, BB^, CG^ are concurrent, then will -4^2, .8^2, GC'j be concurrent.
30.
31.
"When
a triangle
is
self-conjugate for a conic,
two and only
two
of its sides cut the curve in real points.
32. Prove that of two conjugate diameters of a hyperbola, one and only one can cut the curve in real points. [Two conjugate diameters and the line at infinity form a self-
conjugate triangle.]
Given four points S, A, B, C, shew that in general four drawn through A, B, G having S as focus; and that three of the conies are hyperbolas with A, B, G not on the same branch, while the remaining conic may be an ellipse, a parabola, or a hyperbola having A, B, (7 on the same branch.
33.
conies can be
34. Prove that a circle can be projected into a parabola with any given point within the circle projected into the focus. 35. Prove that a circle can be projected into an ellipse with two given points within the circle projected into the centre and a
focus of the ellipse.

36. Prove that a circle can be projected into a hyperbola with a given point P within the circle and another given point Q without it projected respectively into a focus and the centre of the hyperbola.
126
CHAPTEE XI
THE PARABOLA
120.
in 96
The form
and
97.
of the parabola has already been indicated
In this chapter we shall develop the special
properties of the curve.

;S
Throughout
A will stand for the vertex,
for
the focus,
X for the
intersection of the directrix with the
axis,
and fl
for
the point at infinity along the axis, at which point,
as
we have
Prop.
seen, the parabola touches the line at infinity.
The lotus rectum = ÂS.
Let LSL' be the latus rectum.

the directrix. Then LL' =
121.
PIf''
Draw LM perpendicular 2LS = 2LM = 2SX = 4:AS.

be the ordinate of the point
to
Prop.
If
PN
P, then
= 4<AS.AN:
Let
PN meet the parabola again in P', and let LSL'

(
be the
latus rectum.
115),
NP.NP':SL.SL' = N'A.NQ,:SA.Sn,
= NA:SA
since D,
is
at infinity.
THE PARABOLA
127
PN' -.81^ = AN -.AS; PN'-.iAS'ÂN-.AS; .-. FN^ = -iAS.AN.
This proposition
will later
on be seen
to
be only a special
case of a more general theorem.

122.
The preceding
I
proposition shews that a parabola
is
the locus of a point in a plane such that the square of

tance from a line
line
I'.
its dis-
varies as its distance from a perpendicular
The
line
I is
the axis,
is
I'
the tangent at the vertex, and
the constant of variation
the length of the latus rectum.

to
lie
is
To determine the parabola we ought

of the line
the locus
I'
know on which
side
the point
lies.
If
it
may
on either side then

got from the other
is tiuo
parabolas, each of which
by rotating the figure about the tangent two right angles.

123.
at the vertex through
Tangent and Normal.

If tlie tangent
Prop.
and
respectively,
and
and normal at P meet the axis in T PX be the ordinate of P,
(1)
{2)
TA = AX,
XG=-2AS.
We
The first of these properties has been alread}- proved in 97. meet the cur\-e again in P, the have seen that if
PX
tangents at
and P' meet on the
line of the axis, that
is,
thev
128
intersect in T.
THE PARABOLA
Then by the harmonic property

{TN, AH) = - 1 .-. TA = AN.
of the pole
and
polar
Also since
TPO
is
a right angle
But
.-.
PN^ = TN.NG = 2 AN. NO. PN^ = 4^^ AN ( 121),

.
Def.
NG NQ is called the
Prop.
= 2AS.
subnormal of the point P.
constant.
Thus
in
a parabola the subnormal

124.
is
The tangent at any point of a parabola makes equal angles with the axis and the focal distance of the point.
THE PARABOLA
129
to the
Now
since
SF = PM,
.-.
and
PZ
is
MPZ which have the angles at M and S right angles, ASPZ= A MPZ
and
common
As SPZ,
ZSPT=^TPM=ZSTP.
P meet the axis SO = SP = ST.
then
Cor. If the normal at
That ST= and STP.
SP
follows from the equality of the angles
SPT
Further the complements of these angles must be equal;

.-.
ZSPG=^ ZSGP; ..SG = SP.
We
125.
note that the equality of
SG
follows from the fact that for
any conic
.
and SP in a parabola SG = e SP ( 111).

.
Prop.
to the
The foot of
the perpendicular
from
lies
the
focus on
tangent at any point

.
P
is
of a parabola
on the
tangent at the vertex and
SY^ = SA SP.
implicitly proved in 97.
The
first
part of this proposition

thus:
We can also prove it SY will bisect
Let the tangent at TP.
meet the
axis in T.
Since
ST = (SP,
But
.-.
PN be the ordinate of P, tA = AN. AY 13 parallel to NP, that is AY the tangent at the

if
is
vertex.
130
Further as
THE PARABOLA
SYT
is
a right angle and
YA
perpendicular to
ST, SY' = 8A.ST = SA. SP. CoE. 1. ^SPY= ZSYA. Cor. 2. If the locus of the foot of the perpendicular from a fixed point on a variable line be a straight line, then the variable line touches a parabola having its focus at the fixed
point.
Def.
When
a line moves in a plane so as always to touch

is
a certain curve, the curve
called the envelope of the line.
Pair of Tangents.
126.
Prop. Tangents
to
a parabola at the extremities of a
focal chord intersect at right angles in the directrix.
That they intersect in the

Let
directrix
we know
already, since
the focus and directrix are pole and polar.
PSQ
be a
focal chord,
and
let
the tangents meet in the
directrix in Z.
Draw
PM and QF perpendicular to the directrix.
Then
as
we have seen
in 124
.-.
ASPZ= AMPZ, ZSZP^ZMZP.

/:SZQ = zFZQ.
Similarly
Thus
Z QZP = ^
of two right
angle.
Za
= a right
THE PARABOLA
127.
131
to
the triangles
Prop. If TP and TQ he two tangents SPT, STQ are similar.

already that the angles
a parabola,
are equal
We
( 109).
know
PST, TSQ
in
Let the tangents at P and Q meet the tangent at the vertex Y and Z, then S7T and SZT are right angles ( 125). Then ^SPY=^SYA ( 125)
= Z STZ since SZYT is
cyclic.
Thus
.-.
Z SPT ^Z STQ;
the remaining angle

are similar.
1.
STP = /. SQT and the triangles SPT

SP.SQ
:
and
STQ
Cor.
ST' =
Cor.
2.
{ovSP:ST = ST:SQ. TP' TQ' = SP SQ

:
for
TP' .TQ'=A SPT
A STQ
since
= SP.ST:ST.SQ
Z PST =Z TSQ
= SP:SQ.
128.
Prop.
is
The
to
exterior angle between two tangents to
parabola
equal
half the angle which their chord of contact
subtends at the focus.
92
132
THE PARABOLA
Let the tangents at P and Q meet in T, and F and respectively.
let
them meet
the axis in
Then
FTK = z SKQ - z SFP

= z SQK - z /SPT = 2 right angles - Z SQT-Z 8PT = 2 right angles - Z /STP - Z /SPf = zT/SfP = izP;SQ.
129.
Parabola escribed to a triangle.

the sides of a triangle are tangents to a parabola, the
said to circumscribe the parabola.
is
When
triangle
But
it
must be
in
clearly understood that the triangle does not enclose the parabola,
for
no
finite triangle
can enclose a parabola, which

that
is infinite
extent.
is really
When
a triangle circumscribes a parabola, the parabola

it, is, it
escribed to
touches one side of the triangle
and the other two and in the

It
is
sides produced.
Only
triangles
which have
it.
the line at infinity for one of their sides can enclose the parabola,
strict sense of
the word be said to circumscribe
convenient however to extend the meaning of the word
'circumscribe' and to understand
by a
triangle circumscribing
a conic a triangle whose sides touch the conic whether the

triangle encloses the conic or not.
130.
tangents
to
Prop. The circumcircle of the triangle formed by three a parabola passes through the focus.
THE PARABOLA
Understanding the word 'circumscribe' as explained in
133
129
we may
If a
state this proposition thus:
triangle circumscribe a parabola its circumdrcle goes
through the focus.
This can be seen from the fact that the feet of the perpendiculars from the focus on the three sides of the triangle which touch the parabola are collinear, lying as they do on the tangent
at A.
.',
lies
on the circumcircle of the triangle
( 7).
Or we may prove the
proposition in another way:

Q,
Let the tangents at P,

figure.
R form
the triangle
TLM as in the
Then
as
And
that is,
as
A SPL is similar to A SLR, Z SLR = Z SPL. ASPT is similar to ASTQ, Z STQ = Z SPT.
.-.
zSLM=zST2I,
SLTM is cyclic, or iS lies on the circle through T, L and M.

directrix.
Cor. The orthocentre of a triangle circumscribing a parabola

lies
on the
For
centre
if
is
TLM be
bisected
the triangle, the line joining
S to
the orthois,
by the tangent
at the vertex,
which
as
we
have seen, the pedal line of S

..
( 8).
the orthocentre must
lie
on the
directrix.
134
131.
THE PARABOLA
in T,
Prop. If the tangents at P and Q to a parabola meet and a third tangent at R cut them in L and M, the triangle SLM is similar to the triangles SPT and STQ, and
PL LT= TM:MQ = LR: RM.

:
By TLM.
.:
the preceding proposition
lies
on the circumcircle of
^SML=^STL
SPT from
the similar
and ^ SLM= Z
.-.
As SPL, SLR.
A SLM is similar to A SPT and therefore also to A STQ. Further A SLR is similar to A STM for aSLM= ^STM,
and
SRL = / SLP = 180 -ZSLT=ZSMT. .'.LR:TM = SR:SM = MR:MQ (by similar As SRM, ,-.LR:RM=TM:MQ.
/:
SMQ).
MR:RL^TL: LPHence PL:LT=TM:MQ = LR:RM.

Similarly
132.
Diameters.
have already explained in
We
102 what
is
meant by
is
diameters of a parabola. Every line parallel to the axis
diameter, and every diameter bisects a system of parallel chords.

It
must be remembered too that the tangents
at the extremities
THE PARABOLA
135
of each of the parallel chords bisected by a diameter intersect
on that diameter
( 95).
Prop. If
TQ and TQ'
QQ'
be tangents to
a parabola, and
the diameter bisecting
in
and
cutting the curve in
TV be P then
TP = PV.
For
PV being parallel to the axis goes through fl.

of the pole
Thus by the harmonic property
and polar
{TV,pa) = -i, ..TP = PV.

Note that
133.
TA = AN (
123)
is
only a special case of this.
The length of any focal chord of a parabola is four times the distance of the focus from tJie point where the diameter bisecting the chord meets the curve.
Prop.
Let
it
RSE' be any focal chord, PF the diameter which bisects
in V.
Let the tangents at B and R' meet in Z. Then Z is both on the directrix and on the line of the diameter PV. Also
^P = Pr( 132). But ZSV is a right

Now
draw
angle
106).
..SP = PV=ZP.
PM and B'M' perpendicular to the directrix.
136
THE PARABOLA
Then 2VZ = RM+ R'M'
since
V is
the middle point of
BR
= RS+SR' = RR'; ..RR' = ^PV=4>SP.
A
is
focal
chord bisected by a particular diameter
is
called the
parameter of the diameter which bisects the chord. Thus

the parameter of the diameter
equal to 4iSP. In particular the latus rectum
of the axis, and
is
RR' PV, and we have proved it

the parameter
we proved
it
equal to 4:8A.
134.
Prop. If QV be an ordinate of a diameter
PV then
Q'.
QV = 4<SP PV.
.
Produce the ordinate

...
QF
RSR'
to
meet the curve again in
Q7=FQ'.
Draw
the focal chord
parallel to the chord QQ'.
RR'
will
PF in U (say). The diameter PF meets the curve again in O at an infinity,

be bisected by
thus by Newton's theorem
VQ. VQ':VP. FX1= UR. UR' UP. USl;

:
.-.
VQ. VQ'
UR. UR'=VP. VD. UP UD, = VP UP. .:QV^:RU' = PV:PU;

:
.
THE PARABOLA
137
.-.
QF = 4SP.PF
It will be seen that the property PN''

is
= 4>AS.AN
of 121
only a special case of the general proposition just proved.
135. The preceding proposition shews that a parabola may be regarded as the locus of a point in a plane such that the square of its distance from a fixed line I varies as its distance from another fixed line I' not necessarily at right angles to I. The line I is a diameter of the parabola and I' is a tangent at the point where I and I' intersect.
If a be the angle
which
QV
makes with the
axis in
134
and
.'.
QV= perp. from Q on PF x cosec a PV= perp. from Q on tangent at P

from
x cosec a
(Pei-p.
Q on FV)^ x cosec^ a = iSP X perp. from Q on Q on PVy Q on tangent at
tangent at
x cosec
a.
(Perp. from
Perp. from
_ ^.^ ^ _ ^^^ P ^^^

(S
where
SY
is
the perpendicular from
on the tangent at P.
138
THE PARABOLA
Thus
if
a point move in a plane so that the square of

I
its
I',
distance from a line
is
k times
its
distance from another line

is
k being constant, the locus of the point

axis parallel to
I.
a parabola having
I'
its
The
focus lies in a line parallel to
and
k
distant
tion of
-r
from
it,
and
it also lies in
a line through the intersecthe same angle that

I
and
I'
and making with

I'
l'
makes
point
with
it.
The
line
is
I.
the tangent to the parabola at
its
of intersection with
As
already explained in
I
122
if
I'
the lines
apd
I'
are at
right angles
is
the axis itself and
the tangent at the vertex.
136.
We
circle of
have explained in
119 what we mean by the
circle of
curvature at any point of a conic.
We
shall
now shew how

lies
the
curvature at any point of a parabola can be determined.

centre of the circle of curvature at
The
on the normal
at P, if then
this circle in
circle
we can
any
find the length of the chord through
of
direction, the length of the diameter of the
can be found by drawing a line through the other extremity

it
of this chord and perpendicular to
to
meet the normal in D,
then
PD will be the diameter of the

the circle
circle of curvature.
axis
Prop. The chords of and through the focus

It is clear that these
at
any point
of curvature parallel to the of a parabola = iSP.
two chords must be equal
for
they make
equal angles with the tangent at P.
Now consider a circle touching the parabola at P

it
and cutting
again at 'a near point Q.
Draw
the diameter of the parabola
through
at
Q and
let it
meet the
circle
again in
K and the tangent,

PV.
P in R.
Draw
QV the ordinate
circle
to the diameter
Then from the
we have
RQ.RK=RP';
THE PARABOLA
139
to
Now
through
in the limit
cides with P,
RK becomes the chord of

to the axis.
when Q moves up
and ultimately coin-
the circle of curvature
P parallel
Hence
this chord is of length
4SP.
Cor. The diameter of the
circle of
curvature at
P = ^^
45fp2
,
where iSF
T=r^
is
the perpendicular on the tangent. For
Diameter
= cos
_SY
^ between normal and axis)
= sin ( Z = sin ( Z
between tangent and
axis)
between tangent and 8P)
~SP"
Note. The diameter of the
curvature through
circle of
curvature
is
commonlycircle of
called the diameter of curvature,
and the chords of the
P are
called simply chords of curvature.
'
140
THE PAKABOLA
EXERCISES
1.
PSP"
is
a focal chord of a parabola, PJV and P'lf' ordinatea
to the axis, prove
PJV
2.
P'iV'
= iAS' = iAN AW.

.
A series
of parabolas touch a given line
and have a common
focus, prove that their vertices lie
on a
circle.
3. If a straight line rotate about a point in a plane containing the line the directions of motion of each point in it at a given moment are tangents to a parabola. 4.
ratio,
The ordinates of points on a parabola are divided in a given prove that the locus of the points dividing them is another The
locus of the middle points of focal chords of a parabola
parabola.
5. is
also a parabola,
whose latus rectum
is
half that of the original
parabola.
6.
li
QV be
an ordinate of the diameter
PV and QD be perpenG
then
dicular to the diameter

7.
QD^ = 4:AS PV.

.
If the normal at
to a parabola meet the axis in
PQ' = 4AS.SP.
FQ, PR are two chords of a parabola; PQ meets the diameter 8. through B in the point F and PE meets the diameter through Q in E; prove that EF is parallel to the tangent at P.
[Project the parabola into a circle with
centre.]
9.
E
cut
projected into the
If a circle touch a parabola at
P and
it
at
Q and
R, the
diameters through
line parallel to the
Q and R will meet
the circle again in poiats on a
tangent at P. [Use 116 Cor.]'- '' '"

10.
If
TP
and
:
TQ
be two fixed tangents to a parabola, and
a variable tangent cut
them
in
L and
M respectively
the ratios
PL TM and TL QM
:
are equal and constant.
11.
If
tangent in
two tangents TP and TQ to a parabola be cut by a third L and respectively then
TL
TP'^
TM _
TQ~
THE PARABOLA
12.
141
If the
normal at
P to
a parabola meet the curve again in

of
Q and
PN be the ordinate of P,
and T the pole PQ:PT=PN:AN.
PQ,
13. If the tangent at P meet the directrix in rectum produced in D, then SD = SZ.
14.
Z and the latus
TP
and
TQ
are tangents to a parabola,
and the diameters
through
P and Q meet any line drawn through T in M and

TM- = TA^'=TP.TQ.
li
N; prove
15.
the diameter through
be any point on the tangent at P to a parabola and T meet the curve in Q, then
RP^^-^SP.RQ.
16. If the chord PQ which is normal at subtends a right angle at S, then SQ = '2SP.
to a parabola
17.
If
PN and
P'X' be two ordinates
of a parabola such that
the circle on iV^V as diameter touches the parabola, then
NP + N'P'^NN'.
18.
QL
are
TP and 7*^ are two tangents to a drawn perpendicular respectively to
parabola,
TQ
and PK and and TP, prove that
the triangles
19.
STK and STL
are equal.
through
TP and TP' are tangents to a parabola, and the diameter T cuts the curve in Q. If PQ, P'Q cut TP', TP respec-
tively in
and
R',
and the diameters through

prove that PV,
and
A''
cut the
curve in Y,
V respectively,
P'V
intersect
on TQ.
[Project the parabola into a circle and the line through 2" parallel
to
PP'
to infinity.]
20. Prove that no circle described on a chord of a parabola as diameter can meet the directrix unless the chord be a focal chord, and then the circle touches the directrix. 21.
If
TP
and
TQ
be a pair of tangents to a parabola and the
chord
PQ
be normal at P, then
triangle
TP
is
bisected
by the
directrix.
22.
The
ABC
circumscribes a parabola having
focus, prove that the lines through A, B,
S as G perpendicular to SA, SB,

P' intersect in Q; the
axis again
SO respectively
23.
circles
are concurrent.
to a parabola at
The tangents
R'.
P and
circumscribing the triangles
in
R and
Prove that
PR
SPQ, SPQ' meet the and QR' ai-e parallel.
142
24.
THE PAEABOLA
A given
Shew
triangle
ABC
moves
in a plane, with
passing through a fixed point, and with the vertex

straight line.
25.
one side AB era. a, given
Shew that the
side
AG will
envelop a parabola.
that the envelope of a line which moves so as to
intercept equal chords on

radical axis of the
26.
axis.
two given circles is a parabola having the two given circles as the tangent at its vertex.
the
Q.
A line meets a parabola in P and p on the same side of

is
.4^
drawn
parallel to
Pp
is
to
meet the curve again in
Prove that the ordinate of of P and p.

'il.
equal to the
sum
of the ordinates
The
distance of the point of intersection of two tangents to

is
a parabola from the axis

points of contact.
28.
half the
sum
of the ordinates of their
If
at any point
29.
LL' be the latus rectum of a parabola and the tangent P meet that at L in F, then SL LP = VL VL'.
. .
A circle touches a parabola at a point P, and passes through

Shew
is
the focus S.
that the parabola meets the circle again or not

is
according as the latus rectum

30.
or
is
not
less
than SP.
QQ'
the normal at
to a parabola meeting the parabola
again in Q', QP is equally inclined to the axis with the normal and meets the curve again in P; V is the middle point of QQ', and PF" meets the axis in R; shew that QSPR lie on a circle, S being
the focus.
31.
Two
is
parabolas with equal latus rectum are on the same axis,

of
and are such that the part

the other
focus of the first parabola.
any tangent to one which
is
cut off by
equal to the perpendicular upon this tangent from the
Shew
that the latus rectum of each

vertices.
is
sixty-four times the distance

32.
between the
circle
touches a parabola at both ends of a double ordinate
PP'
to the axis.
The normal at
meets the
circle in
and the
parabola in Q. The diameter of the parabola through touches PP' at U. in U. Prove that the circle
Q meets PP'
QRU
a double ordinate of the axis of a parabola, R any point on it, and the diameter through E meets the curve in P; the and the diameters through E and F. tangent at P intersects in and FN". Prove that PR is a mean proportional between
33.
is
EF
EM
34.
If
a parabola
roll
on another equal parabola, the vertices

its
being originally in contact,

the fixed parabola.
focus will trace out the directrix of
THE PA&ABOLA
35. If
143
is A, and whose centre is
be any point on a parabola whose vertex
PS
Ji
perpendicular to
AP
meet the axis B, a
circle
and radius
HP
will pass
JR.
through the ends of the ordinate to the
parabola through
circle
if common tangents be drawn to the and parabola the ordinates at the points where they touch the
Also
pai'abola will be tangents to the circla

36.
Through any point on a parabola two chords are drawn
equally inclined to the tangent there.
Shew
that their lengths are
proportional to the portions of their diameters bisected between
them and the

37.
curve.
TQ, TR, tangents to a parabola, meet the tangent at P in and TU is drawn parallel to the axis, meeting the parabola in U. Prove that the tangent at U passes through the middle point of YZ, and that, if S be the focus,
Y and
Z,
YZ^îSP.TU.
38. PQ is a normal chord of a parabola meeting the axis in G. Prove that the distance of G from the vertex, the ordinates of P and Q, and the latus rectum are four proportionals.
39.
tangents to
Lines are drawn through the focus of a parabola to cut the Prove that the locus of their it at a constant angla
is
intersection
40.
a straight
line.
The radius
is
of curvature at
an extremity
of the latus
rectum
of a parabola
41.
equal to twice the normal.

at either extremity of the latus rectum of
its
The diameter
a parabola passes through the centre of curvature at

extremity.
42.
other
If the tangent at
circle
any point
of a parabola
meet the axis

then
in
T,
PQ
and the = 4Pr.

If
of
curvature meet the curve in Q,
43.
on a parabola,
44.
be the middle point of the radius of curvature at PR subtends a right angle at the focus.
The tangent from any point

its
of a parabola to the circle of
curvature at
45.
vertex
is
equal to the abscissa of the point.
The chord
of curvature through the vertex

,
at
any point
Poi& parabola is
4Pr-
Y being
the foot of the perpendicular from
the focus on the tangent at P.
144
CHAPTEE
We
XII
THE ELLIPSE
137.
form of the
ellipse,
have already in 98 and 99 indicated the general shewing that it has two axes of symmetry
C the centre. On the major axis AA' are two foci S and S', at a distance equal to CA from B and B' the ends of the minor axis, and to these foci correspond directrices at right angles to AA' and cutting it externally in Z and Z' so that GS:GA =-CA:GX = e, the
at right angles to one another and intersecting in
eccentricity.
It is convenient to call
ellipse.
and
A', the ends of the
major
axis,
the vertices of the
It will be understood that the smaller is the ratio
CS GA
:
the more does the ellipse approximate to circular form, and the
greater
GS GA
:
is
without reaching unity the more does the
ellipse flatten out.
We
so that,
have always
G8''=GA-'-GB'
keeping
GA
constant,
GB
diminishes as
GS
increases,
and
vice versa.
And we have
already explained that a circle
may be
regarded as the limiting case of an ellipse whose two
foci coincide
with the centre.

establish the chief geometrical properties
We
which
138.
now proceed to
all ellipses
have in common.
Sum
of focal distances constant.
Prop. The sum of the focal distances of any point on an ellipse is constant and equal to AA'.
THE ELLIPSE
Let
through
145
the perpendicular
P be any point on an ellipse, MPM' P to the directrices as in the figure.
Then
.-.
SP = e.PM axiAS'P = e.PM'; SP + S'P = e (MP + PM') = e XX' = 2e.CX^2CA=AA'.

.
Cor.
Two
confocal ellipses (that

intersect.
is,
which have both
foci in
common) cannot
139. The proposition just proved shews that an ellipse may be regai'ded as the locus in a plane of a point the sum of whose distances from two fixed points in the plane is constant. And we learn that an ellipse can be drawn by tying the ends of a piece of string to two pins stuck in the paper so that the string is not tight, and then holding the string tight by means of the
pencil pressed against

to
it,
and allowing the point of the pencil
make
its
mai'k in
all
possible positions thus determined.
By keeping
same major
ellipse
the string the same length and changing the
distance between the pins
we can draw
ellipses all
having the
It will
axis but having different eccentricities.
be
seen that the nearer the pins are together the more does the
approximate
to circular form.
140.
Tangent and Normal.

The tangent and noi-mal at any point of an
ellipse
Prop.
bisect respectively the crteriar
and
interior angles
between the
focal distances of the point.

A. G.
10
146
THE ELLIPSE
Let the tangent and normal at
meet the major axis in
T and Q respectively.
Then by
.-.
111
/(?
=e
SP, and S'a
= e.
S'P.
SG:GS' = SP:PS';
.-. .'.
PG bisects PT which
the angle SPS';

is
at
right
angles
to
PG
must
bisect the
exterior angle of SPS'.
CoE.
for since
OG.CT=CS'
PG
and
PT
are the bisectors of the angles between
SP
and S'P,
{GT,SS') = -1.
Prop.
141.
the tangent at
circle
If SY, S'Y' be the perpendiculars from, the foci on any point P of an ellipse, Y and Y' lie on the described on the major axis A A' as diameter, and
SY.S'Y' = BC\
Produce
SY to
meet S'P in K.
Then
for
ASPY= AKPY ^SPY=^ZKPY (140) Z SYP= Z KYP being right angles and PF is
P.g:
^^
common.
.-.
.-.
= ,STand^F=/SF, KS' = KP + PS' = SP + PS'=AA'

since
(138).
Now
F and G
to
are the middle points of
SK
and SS',
GY is parallel
S'K and GY=^S'K = GA.
THE ELLIPSE
Thus
diameter.
147
circle
(and similarly Y')
lies
on the
on
AA'
as
Moreover as Y'YS
again in a point
is a right angle, YS will meet the circle such that Y'Z will be a diameter, that is,
Y'Z goes through
G.
And AGSZ= ACS'Y' so that SZ=S'Y'. .-. SY. S'Y' ==SY.SZ = AS.SA' = CA'- CS' = BG^
Cor.
1.
The diameter
parallel to the tangent at
will
SP and S'P in points E and ^' such that PE = PE' = AG. For PYGE' is a parallelogram. .-. PE'=GY=AG and similarly P' = ^C'.
meet
OoE.
2.
The envelope
it
it, is
of a line such that the foot of the
perpendicular on
from a fixed point
lies
on a fixed
a focus.
circle,
which has
Cor.
S within
an
ellipse
having
for
3.
The envelope
it
it, is
of a line such that the product of
the perpendiculars on
from two fixed points, lying on the

is
same
side of
constant
an
ellipse
having the fixed points
for its foci.
Def.
is called
The
circle
on the major axis of an

circle.
ellipse as
diameter
the aumliary
142.
ellipse
Prop.
whose centre
If TQ and TQ' be a pair of tangents is C, and GT meet QQ' in V and the
to
an
curve
inP,GV.GT = GP\
102
148
THE ELLIPSE
For let PG meet the ellipse again in P'. Then as QQ' are pole and polar, {TV, PP')=- 1. .-. as G is the middle point otPP', GV GT= GP\
.
T and
143.
The preceding
proposition
is
an important one and

in
includes the following as a special case:
If the tangent at P mset the major and minor axes and PN, PM he the ordinates to these axes then
T and
t,
GN.CT^GA\
CM.Gt = GB\
THE ELLIPSE
144.
149
Prop.
to the
If
the
normal
meet the major and minor axes in

parallel
tangent at
any point P on an ellipse and g, and the diameter in F, then PF PG = BC^ and
at
PF.Pg = AG\
Draw
the ordinates
PN and PM to the
t
axes and let these
meet the diameter

in the figure.
in
j&T
and
as
^^
150
144b.
THE ELLIPSE
Fair of tangents.
The two tangents drawn from an external point
to
Prop.
an
ellipse
make equal
angles with the focal distances of the point.
Let TP and TQ ^PTS=ZS'TQ.
be the tangents;
it is
required to prove
Draw SY, S'Y'

pendicular to TQ.
perpendicular to TP, and
SZ and
S'Z' per-
Then SF.S'Y' = BC' = SZ. S'Z'

.
( 141);
.-.
SY:SZ = S'Z':S'Y'.
AlsoZ F/S^= supplement of Z
YTZ (since SYTZ is cyclic) = Z Y'S'Z' (since Y'TZ'S' is cyclic). the As SF^ and S'Z'Y' are similar, and Z SZY= Z S'Y'Z'. But Z SZY = Z STY in the same segment and Z /Sf'F'Z' = Z S'TZ' in the same segment. Z STY = S'TZ'.
.-. .-.
145.
Director Circle.
The locus of
points,
Prop.
from which
the tangents to
an
ellipse are at right angles, is
circle
{called the director circle
of the ellipse).
Let
TP and TQ
141,
be two tangents at right angles.

to
Draw
SY perpendicular to TP
meet S'P in K.
Then by
SY= YK and
S'K = AA'.
THE ELLIPSE
Also
151
the angles at
.-.
ASYT=AKYT, for 8Y= KYRnd YT is common Y are right angles. ST = KT and z KTP = / STP = Z QTS' ( 144 b).
.-.
and
Z KTS' = Z PTQ =
a right angle.
Now
...
+ 2CS' = 8T'' + S'T'> ( 10) = ET' + S'T' -KS'" = 4>GA'. = cr^ 2GA' OS' = 20^= - (CA' 2GT''
locus of
CB')
= CA' + CB'.
Thus the
radius
is
T is
a circle round C, the square of whose
GA^ + GBK
Conjugate Diameters.
is
146.
The student
lines of a conic,
already familiar with the idea of conjugate

lines
two
being called conjugate when each
contains the pole of the other.
When
a pair of conjugate lines
meet in the centre of an ellipse, each being a diameter it is convenient to call them conjugate diameters. It is clear that they are such that the tangents at the points where either
meets the curve are parallel to the other. Moreover all the chords which are parallel to one of two conjugate diameters are bisected by the other ( 95), and these chords are double ordinates of the diameter which thus bisects them. The axes
of the ellipse are that pai-ticular pair of conjugate diameters
which
ai-e
152
147.
THE ELLIPSE
Prop. If QVbe an ordinate of the diameter of an ellipse, and BCD' he the diameter conjugate to GP,
PGP'
qV:PV.VP' = CD^:CP\
For, producing QY to meet the Newton's theorem we have

. :
ellipse
again in
Q' , by
But
VQ YQ' YP YP' = GD GD' GP GP'. YQ' = - YQ, GD' = - GD, GP' = - GP; -. QV^:PV.YP' = GD':GP'.
.
. :
148.
Special cases of the preceding proposition are these
If PN and
ellipse then
PM be ordinates of the major and minor axes

PN':AN.NA'=BG'':AG\ PM" BM. MB' = AG^: BG\
:
of an
Cor. The latus rectum
AG
THE ELLIPSE
For
if
153
SL
:
be the semi-latus rectum
SL'
149.
AS. SA' = BG' AO^ and AS SA' = BO'.

:
These properties in
14<8
shew that an
ellipse
may be
regarded as the locus of a point in a plane such that the square

of its distance from a fixed line
I
in the plane bears a constant
ratio to the product of its distances

I'
from two other fixed
lines
and
I",
perpendicular to the former and on opposite sides of
the point.
The
I" are
line
is
one of the axes of the
ellipse,
and the
lines
l and
the tangents at the ends of the other axis.

established in 147 shews that an ellipse
The property
square of
its
may
also be regarded as the locus of a point in a plane such that the
distance from a fixed line

its
in the plane, bears a
constant ratio to the product of

fixed lines
I'
distances from two other
and
i
I"
which are
parallel to each other (but not
necessarily perpendicular to
point.
I),
and on opposite
I
sides
of the
I'
The
line
is
a diameter of the ellipse and the lines
and
I"
are the tangents at the points where
meets the curve.
For the student can

notation of 147
easily prove for himself that in the
QV^:PV. VP' = square

:
of perpendicular from
product of perpendiculars from
on tangents
Q on PP' at Q and Q'.
Auxiliary Circle.
150.
Prop.
If
be
ordinate of the major axis,

in p, then
any point on an and if NP meet
ellipse
and
PN the
the aiuiliary circle
NP:Np = BG:AG.
For by
148
PN' -.AN. NA' = BC':A G"

and as
/C
ApA' being
in a semicircle
is
a right angle
pm = AN.NA';
.-.
PN:pN = BG:AG.
P and
and
are said to be corresponding points on the ellipse the auxiliary circle. The tangents at two corresponding
154.
THE ELLIPSE
meet the
line of the
points will
major axis in the same point.

it
For
(
let
the tangent at
meet
in T, then
ON .GT= GA^
the tangent at
143).
.-.
y is
the pole of
pN for the circle, that
is,
goes through T.
if
The student can prove. for himself by the same method that an ordinate to the minor axis meet the circle on BB' as diameter in p' then
PM
PM:p'M=AG:BG.
From
trace out
its axes.
all this it follows
that if the ordinates of a diameter
of a circle be all divided in the
same
ratio,
the points of division

circle as
an
ellipse
having the diameter of the
one of
151.
Prop.
If
GP and GB
diameters of an
circle
ellipse,
corresponding
to
he a pair of conjugate semiand p, d the points on the auxiliary and D, then pGd is a right angle.
Let the tangents at
and p meet the major axis in
T.
Draw
the ordinates
since
PN, DM.
to
Now
But
GB is parallel
.-.
as
A P NT is similar to A BMG. PN:BM=NT:MG. PN:pN=BG:AG=DM:dM,

TP,
.-.
PN:BM = pN:dM.
THE ELLIPSE
165
that
is
..as the
pN:dM=NT:MC,: pN:NT=dM:MG. As pNT and dMO have the angles

.-.
at
M and N
equal, they are similar.

.'.
^MCd = ^LNTp.
A'
.*.
Gdis
parallel to Tp.
.'.
Z dCp = Z CpT =
a right angle.
Cor.
pN = CM and dM = ON for A GNp = A dMG.

also
Whence
we have
PN:CM=BG:AG, DM GJSr = BG AG.

:
152.
Prop.
If
GP
and
GD
be conjugate semidiameters
of
an
ellipse
GP' + GD'=GA''+GB''.
For using the figure of the
last proposition
GP' = GN" + PN^ =

and GB'
CiV"^
= G]\P + DM'=pN' +
~
Jin"
^
KG-
pN''
dM'=pN'+j^^ GN'.
+ GN')
RP"
.:
GP' + GI>'=(l+ 1^) ipN'
= (l+^ÂC' = AG' + BC\
156
THE ELLIPSE
of
Thus the sum of the squares of two conjugate diameters an ellipse is constant and = AA"^ + BB"^. ,
Or we may prove
In
the proposition thus:
151 we proved jpiV= GM,

.-.
GM^ +
GN''
= pN-'+CN^==Cp^ = AG\
axis
In exactly the same way by drawing ordinates to the minor and working with the circle on BB' as diameter we have
PN' + DM^ = BG\ Whence by addition, GP^ + GD'^ = AG^ + BG\

152a.
Equiconjugate Diameters.
is
There
are equal to one another
one pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse which namely those which lie along the
diagonals of the rectangle
formed by the tangents at the
extremities of the major and minor axes.
A'
Thtit the diameters along these lines are equal
is
clear from
the symmetry of the curve, and that they are conjugate diameters
is
seen from the fact that in the figure here presented since
KG
bisects
lines.
AB, which
is
parallel to LL',
GK and
he
GL' are conjugate
152b.
Prop.
If
GP
and
GD
a pair of conjugate semi-
diameters ofjan ellipse
SP S'P = GBK
.
THE ELLIPSE
Since
157
is
the middle point of SS'
= (S'P + spy - 2SP S'P = 4>GA'-2SP.S'P.

.
.:
SP.S'P = 2GA'-0P'-CS^ = GA' + GB' - GP^ = GD^ (by 152).

be
153.
Prop.
at
normal
1/ P P meet DGD',
any point on an
ellipse,
and
the
the diameter conjugate to
GP,
in F, then
PF.GDÂG.BG.
Draw
the tangent at
foci
P and
drop the perpendiculars *SFaad
S'Y' from the
on
it.
Join
SP
and S'P, and
let
S'P cut BD'

are similar.
in E.
Then the As SPY, S'PY'
158
.-.
THE ELLIPSE
.:
SY:SP = S'Y':S'P. SY.S'Y':SP.S'P = SY':SP^

= PF' PE^ since
:
the
A s SYP,
similar.
PFE are
.-.
BC':CD^ = PF^:AC'',
that
is,
PF.GB = AG.BG.
The
area of the parallelogram formed by the tangents
is
Cob.
at the extremities of a pair of conjugate diameters
constant
For the area
= 4 area of parallelogram PB' = 4,PF.CD = 4<AG.BG.
Circle of Curvature.
154.
point
Prop. The chord of the of an ellipse and through
circle
of curvature at any of the

ellipse is
the centre
GP
Let
be a point on the
ellipse
near to
and
QV
the
ordinate of the diameter
PGP'.
Consider the circle touching the ellipse at

in Q.
and cutting
it
Let
QK be the
chord of this circle parallel to GP.
Let
QK meet
the tangent at
P in R.
'
THE ELLIPSE
159
Then from
the circle
RQ.RK=RP\
RP'
OV^
CD^
Thus the chord of the

being the limit of
circle of
curvature through the centre
RK when Q approaches P
_GD'-
CP' CD"
-GP"Cor.
X Limit
VP
200"
-^
OP
The diameter
of the
circle
of curvature
2CD^
^
PF
F being the
point in which the normal meets CD, for

:
Diameter
= sec ( Z ^p GP
Diameter =
between normal and GP)
= GP:PF.
2GD'
2GD'
PF
AG.BG-
160
THE ELLIPSE
EXERCISES
1.
Prove that in the notation of this chapter
GS:CX=CS^:GA\
2.
If
SL be
the semi-latus rectum of an ellipse then
SL = e. SX;
prove from this that
Obtain also the length of the latus rectum by using the fact
chords are in the ratio ( 116, 117) that the lengths of two focal of the squares of the diameters parallel to them.
3.
If Y,
an
ellipse
on the tangent at P, of which
be the feet of the perpendiculars from the foci of prove hs, the ordinate;
PN
that the circle circumscribing

ellipse.
4.
YNZ passes
through the centre of the
If
circle circumscribing
where
5.
it is
S and S' the minor axis in the points met by the tangent and normal at P.
be any point on an ellipse whose foci are
SPS'
will cut the
If
two
circles
circles
touching them both
touch internally the locus of the centres of is an ellipse, whose foci are the centres
of the given circles.

6.
If the tangent at
to
an
ellipse
meet the major axis in T,
and NG- be the subnormal,
GT.NG=BG-'.
7.
If
PN
Y, Y' the feet of -the perpendiculars
be the ordinate of any point from the
P
foci
of
an ellipse and on the tangent at
P, then
PN bisects the angle

= Py:YA.
YNY'.
8. If the normal at P to an ellipse meet the minor axis in g, and the tangent at P meet the tangent at the vertex A in Y, shew
t\x&.tSg:SG
9. If the normal at P meet the major axis in G, PG is a harmonic mean between the perpendiculars from the foci on the tangent at P.
10.
If
an
ellipse inscribed in
a triangle have one focus at the
orthocentre, the other focus will be at the circumcentre.
THE ELLIPSE
11.
161
lines at right angles
If
an
ellipse slide
between two straight

circle.
the locus of
its
centre
is
1 2. Lines are drawn through a focus of an ellipse to meet the tangents to the ellipse at a constant angle, prove that the locus of the points in which they meet the tangents is a circle.
13.
The
locus of the incentre of the triangle whose vertices are

ellipse
the foci of an
14.
ellipse
15.
and any point on the curve
is
an
ellipse.
The opposite sides of a quadx-ilateral described about an subtend supplementary angles at either focus.
Prove that the foci of an ellipse and the points where any it meets the tangents at its vertices are concyclic.
If
tangent to
16.
CQ
be a semidiameter of an ellipse conjugate to a chord

to the curve at P, then
which is normal normal at Q.

17.
GP
is
conjugate to the
If -P be
any point on an
ellipse, foci
vertex, then the bisectors of the angles
S and S', and ^ be a PSA, PS'A meet on the
tangent at P.
18. In an ellipse whose centre is C and foci S and aS", GL is drawn perpendicular to CP, and CJ/is drawn parallel to SP meeting
PG
is
in J/.
19.
Prove that the triangles

is
CLM,
CMP are similar.
two points, and Q any point on the ellipse. Prove tliat if QT be a tangent to the circle from Q, and QL perpendicular to the common choi-d, then
A circle
drawn touching an
ellipse at
QT=e.QL.
20.
If a parabola have its focus coincident with one of the foci

ellipse,
of
an
ellipse
and touch its minor axis, a common tangent to the and parabola will subtend a right angle at the focus.
21.
Shew how
to determine the
magnitude and position of the
axes of an ellipse, having given two conjugate diameters in magni-
tude and position.

22.
Construct an ellipse when the position of
its
centre and a
self-conjugate triangle are given.

23. If P be any point on an and AP, A'P meet a directrix in
ellipse
whose vertices are

F, then
and A,
right
E and
EF subtends a
/"^.V:
angle at the corresponding focus.

2-1.
Deduce from Ex. 23 the property that
JX. XJ'
11
is
constant.
A. a.
162
THE ELLIPSE
25. Prove that chords joining any point on an ellipse to the ends of a diameter are parallel to a pair of conjugate diameters.
[Two such chords are

26.
called supplemental chords.]
If a circle touch a fixed ellipse at P,
and intersect
it
at the
ends of a diameter QQ', then

27.
PQ
and PQ' are
fixed in direction.
Ellipses
have a common fixed focus and touch two fixed
straight lines, prove that their director circles are coaxal.

28.
SY is
the perpendicular from the focus
of
an
ellipse
tangent, and
K the point in ;SF produced such that SY= YK.

circle of
on a Prove
that the square of the tangent from
K to the director circle is double
the square on SY.

29.
The
curvature at an extremity of one of the equal
conjugate diameters of an ellipse meets the ellipse again at the extremity of that diameter.
PN be the ordinate of a point P on an ellipse, 20-D^ of curvature in the direction of PN = x PN.

30.
If
the chord
-^
31. and S' be the foci of an ellipse and B an extremity of the minor axis, the circle SS'B will cut the minor axis in the centre of curvature at B. 32.
US
The
circle of
curvature at a point
of
an
ellipse passes
through the focus

to
S,
and
SE
is
drawn
meet in
the diameter through
shew that
it
divides the
diameter in the ratio 3:1.

33.
The
circle of
curvature at
again in
the tangent at
ellipse
P on an ellipse cuts the curve meets the other common tangent,

circle
which touches the (T0,EF) = -1.

34.
and
at
and F, in
prove
The tangent
Q'
;
at
P to
Q and
shew that
GP is
an ellipse meets the equioonjugates in a symmedian of the triangle QGQ'.
163
CHAPTER
XIII
THE HYPERBOLA
155. We have seen in 100, 101 that a hyperbola, which the projection of a circle cut by the vanishing line, has two
is
axes of symmetry at right angles, one of which,
named
the
transverse axis, meets the curve in what are called the vertices
and A', while the other called the conjugate axis does not meet the curve. These two axes meet in G the centre of the curve, and there are two tangents from G to the curve having
their points of contact at infinity.
These tangents are called

angles with the axes.
the asymptotes and they
make equal
The curve has two
foci
& and
S' lying on the line of the
transverse axis, and such that the feet of the perpendiculars

lie on the circle on AA' as which are the polars of the foci are at right angles to the transverse axis, and pass through the feet of and X' be the points in which the these perpendiculars. If
from them on the asymptotes
diameter
The
directrices
directrices cut the transverse axis
and G be the
centre,
then the
eccentricity
(e) = GS\GA = GA: GX.
156.
In this chapter we
shall
set
forth
the
principal
properties that all hyperbolas have in

are the
same
as those of the ellipse
common. Some of these and can be established in

hyperbola has a
much
the same way.
But the
is,
fact that the
pair of asymptotes, that
tangents whose points of contact are
at infinity, gives the curve a character
and properties of
112
its
own.
164
157.
THE HYPERBOLA
DiflFerence of focal distances constant.
difference of the focal distances of
Prop. The
a hyperbola
verse axis.
any point on
of the trans-
is constant,
and equal
to the
length
A A'
Let
P be any point on the hyperbola. Draw PMM' as in the figure perpendicular to the directrices,
S'P
..
then
= e.PM' &jiASP = e.PM. S'P'^SP = e.XX' = AA'

S'P SP = AA' and
for
For points on the one branch we have points on the other SP - S'P = AA'.
Cor.
Two
confocal hyperbolas cannot intersect.
Tangent and Normal.

158.
bola bisect respectively the interior
Prop. The tangent and normal at any point of a hyperand exterior angles of the focal
radii of the point.
Let the tangent and normal at

in
meet the transverse axis
T and
G.
Then by
111
SG = e. SP, S'G = e. S'P. SG:SP = 8'G:S'P.

.-.
THE HYPERBOLA
..
165
PO
is
the bisector of the exterior angle of SPS', and

to
PT, perpendicular
angle.
PG, must
therefore bisect the interior
Cob. Cor.
1. 2.
CG.GT= GS\
If an ellipse
for {SS',
TG) = -
1.
and hyperbola are confocal
their tangents
or,
at the points of intersection of the curves are at right angles,

in other words, the curves cut at right angles.
159.
Prop. If SY, S'Y'

to
he the perpendiculars from the fod
on the tangent on the circle on
a hyperbola at any point P, Y and Y' will lie AA' as diameter (called the auxiliary circle), and
SY.S'Y'
Let
will be constant.
SY meet S'P in K.
since
Then
and and
Z SPY=^ z KPY
158)
ZSYP = ZKYP
P Y is
common,
and
ASPY= AKPY SY=YK,PK = SP.

,-.
And
since
Y and G are
S'K
and
the middle points of
SK and SS', CY is
p;u-allel to
GY=iS'K=hAS'P-KP) = h{S'P-SP) = ÂA' = OA. Thus Y (and similarly Y') lies on the cii-cle on A A'.
166
If S'Y'
THE HYPERBOLA
meet the circle again in Z, then since YY'Z YZ must be a diameter and pass through G.
is
right angle,
Also
S'Z=SY. = = ..SY.S'Y' S'Z.S'Y' S'A'.S'A = CS''-CA''

constant.
ASOY= AS'GZ and
which
is
Cor.
1,
The diameter
in points
P will meet
SP
and S'P
Cor.
2.
E and E' such
that
PE= PE' = CA.
The envelope
it
perpendicular on
which has
Cor.
sides of
its foci.
3.
of a line such that the foot of the from a fixed point S lies on a fixed circle outside it, is a hyperbola having 8 for a focus. of a line such that the product of
The envelope
it is
the perpendiculars on
it, is
from two fixed points, lying on opposite

a hyperbola having the fixed points
for
constant
Compare
160.
141, Corr.
2 and
3.
On the
length of the conjugate axis.
We
way
meet the
tion of
have seen that the conjugate axis of a hyperbola does not curve, so that we cannot say it has a length in the same
its
that the minor axis of an ellipse has for

it
length that por-
intercepted by the curve.
It is convenient,
and
this will
be understood better as we
THE HYPERBOLA
proceed, to measure off a length
167
axis such
B' on the conjugate

G,
that
B and
B' are equidistant from
and
BO' = CS'-GA"- = AS.A'S.

This will make
ST.S'Y'
141.)
in the preceding proposition equal to
BGK (Compare
The length BB' thus defined

stood that
will for
it
convenience be called
clearly under-
the length of the conjugate axis, but
must be
BB'
is
not a diameter length of the hyperbola, for
and B' do not

161.
lie
on the curve. be drawn and A',
It will easily be seen that if a rectangle
having a pair of opposite sides along the tangents at
and having
length
its
diagonals along the asymptotes, then the portion
of the conjugate axis intercepted in this rectangle will be this
BB' which we have mai-ked

if
off as explained above.
For
the tangent at
^1
the directrix corresponding to
meet the asymptote CD, in 0, and S meet Cn in K, we have, since
GKS is
a right angle and
CK= GA ( 101), ACKS= AG AG.
Hence
A0'= SK" =
GS'
GK'-
= CS' - GA\
168
THE HYPERBOLA
Fair of tangents.
162.
Prop. The two tangents drawn from a point
to
a hyper-
bola
make
equal or supplementary angles with the focal distances
of the point.
Fig.
1,
Let TP,
angles
TQ
STP, S'TQ
be the tangents, it is required to prove that the are equal or supplementary.

perp. to
Draw SY, S'Y'

Then
TP, and SZ. S'Z'
to
TQ.
SY.S'Y' = BC' = SZ .S'Z'. .: 8Y:8Z=S'Z':S'Y'
Also
Z.YSZ= ZZ'S'Y'
these being the supplements of the
THE HYPERBOLA
equal angles
169
ZTY
equal to YTZ, since
and Z'TY' in fig. 1, and in fig. 2 each being ^.^TFand S'Y'TZ' are cyclic.
Hence the As
SYZ and S'Z'Y' are similar and Z STP = z SZY= z S'Y'Z' = z STZ'
= supplement
of
Z iSTQ
in
fig. 1,
while in
fig.
it
= z S'TQ.
Thus the two tangents from an external point make equal

or supplementary angles with the focal distances of the point
according as the tangents belong to opposite branches or the
same branch
163.
of the curve.
Director Circle.
locus of points tangents from which to
is
Prop. The
hyperbola).
a hyperbola
are at right angles
a circle {called the director circle of the
TP and TQ be two tangents at right Draw SY perp, to TP to meet S'P in K.

Let
angles.
Then by
Also
159,
SY= YE and S'K=AA'. ASYT= AKYT.
Thus
ST = KT
.
and Z
KTY = Z STY = Z QTS' (

right angle.
162).
Z KTS' = Z PTQ = a
170
THE HYPERBOLA
Now
2GT'
+ 2GS' = ST^ + S'T^ (1 10) = KT' + S'T' = KS'' = AA'' = 4<GA''.

...
GT^
= WA^-GS^
= GA^-(GS'-GA') = GA^-G&.
Thus the
locus of
T
is
is
a circle whose centre
is
G and
the
square of whose radius
GA"^
GBK
(Cf. 145.)
is
Cor.
1.
If
GA = GB, GT = 0, that
the tangents from G, or
the asymptotes, are at right angles.
Cor.
2.
If
GA < GB, there are no points from which tangents
at right angles can be drawn.
The Conjugate Hyperbola.

164.
hyperbola
is
completely determined
its
when we know
the length and position of

for
transverse and conjugate axes;
when AA' and BB'

are determined
are fixed,
S and
S' the foci on the line
AA'
by
GS''=^GS'^ =
GA^+GB\
:
Also the eccentricity
determined, being the lines perp. to
= GS GA, and the directrices AA' through points X
are
and
X' on
it
such that
GA:GX=e=GA':GX.
165
We
are going
now
to take a
new hyperbola having

This new hyper-
for its transverse
and conjugate axes respectively the conjugate

original hyperbola.
and transverse axes of the

hyperbola
(
bola will clearly have the
the exterior
figure.
same asymptotes as the original 161) and it will occupy space in what we may call angle between those asymptotes, as shewn in the
This new hyperbola

hyperbola
is
called the
conjugate hyperbola in
follows that the original
relation to the original hyperbola,

is
and
it
the conjugate hyperbola of the
new
one.
THE HYPERBOLA
171
The hyperbola and its conjugate

having
its foci
are two distinct curves, each
and
directrices,
nor will they in general have the
same
eccentricity.
foci
AA' and
lie on the line of and the eccentricity is GS:GA. The foci S and S' of the conjugate hyperbola lie on the line of BB' and are such that OS^ = GA' + GB\
The
S and
S' of the original hyperbola
are such that GS^
= OA^ + CB\
Thus OS = GS, but the
eccentricity
is
(72
if
GB, which GB.
is
only
the same as that of the original hyperbola
GA =
In this special case the asymptotes are the diagonals of a

square
(
161) and are therefore at right angles.
When
the asymptotes are at right angles the hyperbola
is
said to be rectangular.
In the next chapter we shall investigate
the special properties of the rectangular hyperbola.
The conjugate h3êrbola

it
is,
as
we
shall see, a very useful
adjunct to the hyperbola and considerable use will be

in
made
of
what
follows.
Asymptotic properties.
Prop. IfRhe any point on an asymptote of a hyperand RN perpendicular to the transverse axis meet the hyperbola in P and p then MP Rp = BG^.
166.
bola,
.
172 Let the tangent at
THE HYPERBOLA
meet the asymptote on which
R lies
in^.
Then
fl
being the point of contact of the asymptote with
the curve at infinity
we have by Newton's theorem

:
RP.Rp: Rn^ = EA^ EQ.\ ..RP.Rp=ÊA' = BG'.
This can also be written
RN'-PN'^BG".
It will presently be seen that this proposition
special case of a
is
only a
more general theorem.

to
Prop. If PJSf he the ordinate of any point P of a hyperbola

167.
:
the transverse axis
PN^ AN. A'N = BG' .AG\

Using the
figure of
166 we have
RN^-PN^ = BG\ ..PN' = RN^-BG\

But
.'.
RN':BG' = RN^:EA^ = GN^:GA\ RN'^ - BG^ BG^ = CN'' - GA'

:
GA".
..PN^:BG' = AN.A'N:GA\
.-.PN'-.AN.A'JSr^BG'-.AG^
THE HYPERBOLA
or
173
we may
write this
FN' GN' - GA' = BG'

:
AG'.
This too
will
be found to be but a special case of a more
general theorem.
Comparing
ellipse ( 148)
this property
with the corresponding one in the

ellipse,
we
see that it was not possible to establish the
property for the hyperbola in the same way as for the
because the conjugate axis does not meet the hyperbola.
168.
Prop.
hyperbola
RPN,
RDM
If from any point R in an asymptote of a be drawn perpendicular to the transverse
and conjugate axes to cut the hyperbola and its conjugate respectively in P and D, then PD is parallel to the other asymptote^ and GP, GD are conjugate lines for both the hyperbola and the
conjugate hyperbola.
its
Let O and 12' be the points of contact of the hyperbola and asymptotes at infinity.
We
first
observe that
AB
is
parallel to GD,'.
For drawing the
lines
through
and
perpendicular to
174
THE HYPERBOLA
the axes to meet the asymptotes, as indicated in the figure, in E,

e,
E',
we have
EB:BE' = EA:Ae.
Also
MN
is parallel
to
AB,
for
GA:GB=GA :AE=GN:RF = GN GM.

:
Now
and
.
..GA:GN=GB:GM. RN''-PN''' = BG'') BM'-I)M^ = AG^\ ^ EiV" - FN' RM" - DM^ = GM^ GN^ = RN^:RM\ ..RN^:RM^=PN^:DM\
:
:
PD is parallel to MN and therefore to GD,'. Thus PD will be bisected by GO, in the point T (say). and we have Now DP will meet Cfl' at
Thus
D,',
(DP,
,
!rii')
= -i-
GP
and
(7-D will
belong to the involution of which GD, and
0X1' are the
double
lines.
But GO, and GD! being tangents from

bola and
its
G to
both the hyper-
conjugate are the double lines of the involution
pencil formed
,\
by the
pairs of conjugate lines through G.
GP
and
GD
are conjugate lines for both the hyperbola
and
its
conjugate.
this it follows that the tangent at
From
is
P to the hyperbola is
parallel to
parallel to
GD, and the tangent at GP,
D to the conjugate hyperbola
169.
On
its
the term conjugate diameters.
If the lines
PG,
DG in
the figure of 168 meet the hyper-
bola and
conjugate again in the points
P' and D'
respectively,
then
is
PGP' and DGD'
are called conjugate diameters for each of

it
the hyperbolas. But
must be
clearly understood that
PGP'
is
a diameter of the original hyperbola, whereas

it is
DGD'
not,
but
a diameter of the conjugate hyperbola.
THE HYPERBOLA
175
Of two
so-called conjugate diameters one is a diameter of
the hyperbola and the other of the conjugate hyperbola.
The line DGD'

in so far as it
is
is
a diameter even
it is
for the original
hyperbola
bisect a
a line through the centre and
it will
system of parallel chords, but

that
for
it
not a diameter in the sense
represents a length intercepted by the curve on the line, and B' are not on the hyperbola. BCD' does not meet the hyperbola in real points, though of course as the student acquainted with Analytical Geometry will know it meets the curve in imaginary points, that is, points whose coordinates
involve the imaginary quantity

170.
V 1.
Prop. The tangents
at the extremities of a pair of conlie
jugate diameters form a parallelogram whose diagonals

the asymptotes.
along
Let
figure.
PGP' and DGD'
be the conjugate diameters, as in the
We
have already proved
(|
168) that
PD
is
bisected
by CQ.
The tangents and OP.
at
and
are respectively parallel to
CD
These tangents then form with having one diagonal along Cfl.
CP
and
CD
a parallelogram
176
THE HYPERBOLA
Similarly the tangents at P' and B' meet on GD,, and those
at P',
and P, D' on
CD,'.
Cob. The portion of the tangent at any point intercepted between the asymptotes is bisected at the point of contact.
For
171.
LP = DG=GD' = Pl.
The property given
in the Corollary of
independently established by projecting into a
circle,
170 can be and we

line
may
nn'
use the same letters in the projection without confusion.
Let the tangent at

in K.
to the circle
meet the vanishing
The
.'.
polar of
K, and the polar of
K goes through G, since that at G goes through K goes through P.

= -l. .:G(KF,nD,') = -l. ..{KP,Ll) = -l.
..{KF,aQ,')
GP is the polar of K. Let GP meet nO' in F.
with
Thus in the hyperbola L and I are harmonically conjugate P and the point at infinity along LI. .-. LP = Pl.
172.
hyperbola a
Prop. If through any point R on an asymptote of a, line he drawn cutting the same branch of the hyperbola in Q and q, then RQ Rq is equal to the square of the semi.
diameter of the conjugate hyperbola parallel
to
RQq.
THE HYPERBOLA
Let
177
V be the middle point of Qq. GV cut the hyperbola in P. Then the tangent at P is parallel
Let
Let
it
to Qq.
meet the asymptotes
in
and
I.
Let
CD
be the semi-diameter of the conjugate hyperbola
parallel to Qq.
By Newton's theorem we
.-.
have
EQ.Eq:RD.'' = LF':Ln.^
RQ.Bq = LP'=GD\
be always drawn in a fixed direction
is
Thus
if
the line
.
RQq
the rectangle JRQ
Rq
independent of the position of the point
R on the asymptote.
We may
And
if
write the above relation
RV-QV'^^CD^
RQq meet
.-.
the other asymptote in r
we have
rV'-qV' = RV'-QV\
.-.
RV=
Vr
and
.'.
RQ = qr.
of
its line
Hence any chord of a hyperbola and the length

A. Q.
intercepted between the asymptotes have the same middle point.

12
178
THE HYPERBOLA
We
thus have the following remarkable property of the

:
hyperbola
If JRr joining any two
points on the asymptotes of a
hyperbola cut the curve in

173.
Q and
q then JRQ
= qr.
Prop.
q then
If a
.
line be
to
drawn through a point
on an
asymptote of a hyperbola
in
Q and
qR RQ =
meet opposite branches of the curve CP' where CP is the semi-diameter of
the hyperbola parallel to Qq,
For by Newton's theorem
RQ.Rq:RQ?=^GP.GP'
.-.
Gil'.
-:
RQ.Rq = -GF'. qR.RQ = GP\
As
in the preceding article

it
portion of
we can shew that Qq and the intercepted between the asymptotes have the same
middle point.
174.
Prop.
If
QV
be
an ordinate of
the diameter
PGP
and DGD'
the diameter conjugate to
PP' then QV'-.PV.P'V^GB'-.CP'.

the asymptote CD, in
Let
in
Q'.
QF meet
R
and the curve again

parallel to
Through PGP'.
draw the chord qq of the hyperbola
THE HYPERBOLA
179
VQ VQ' VP. VP' = RQ RQ' Rq .-. - QV .VP.VP'=GL':- GP\

. : . :
Rq'.
that
is
QV^:PV.P'V=CD-':CP^.
This
is
the general theorem of which that of
167
is
special case.
We may write
the relation as
:
QV^:GV''-GP-'= Gl>
175.
GP".
From
167, 174
we can
see that a hyperbola
may be
regarded as the locus of a point in a plane such that the ratio

of the square of
its
distance from a fixed line
varies as the
I' and I" on the same
product of
parallel to
its
distances from two other fixed lines

is
one another and such that the point
side of both of them.
If
I'
and
I"
be perpendicular to
I',
then
is
the transverse axis
of the hyperbola and

If r
I"
the tangents at
I,
its vertices.
and
I"
are not perpendicular to

I',
then
i is
a diameter
of the hyperbola, and

it
I"
are the tangents at the points where
meets the hyperbola.
122
180
176.
secting in
THE HYPERBOLA
Prop.
If
QQ',
RR'
be chords
:
then the ratio
OQ
OQ'
OR
OR'
of a hyperbola interis equal to that of
the squares of the diameter parallel to the respective chords.
Let
OQQ
meet an asymptote in L.
parallel to
Through L draw Lrr r and r'.
ORE to
meet the curve
in
OQ
OQ'
OR
OR' =
LQ
sq. sq.
LQ' Lr Lr'
: .
=
:
of diameter parallel to QQ^ of diameter parallel to RR'.

if
177.
This proposition holds equally well

lie
.
the ends of
either or both of the chords
hyperbola, provided that
OQ
on opposite branches of the OQ' and OR OR' be regarded

.
simply as positive magnitudes.
For suppose that
Q, Q' lie
the same branch, then as
LQ
on opposite branches and R, R' on and LQ' are in opposite directions
we must
for
the application of Newton's theorem say
LQ
LQ'
QL
.
LQ'
= sq.
= sq.
:
of diameter parallel to QQ',
so that, as
OQ
OQ'
OQ'
=Q0. OQ',
.
we have
QO
OR
OR'
of diameter parallel to QQ'
sq. of
diameter parallel to RR'.
THE HYPERBOLA
178.
It
181
may
perhaps seem unnecessary to make a separate

116.
proof for the hypei-bola of the proposition proved generally for
the central conies in out the fact that in

of the curve
itself,
But our purpose has been
to bring
116 the diameters must be length diameters

for these the proposition is true.
all
and
But
as diameters of the hyperbola do not

points,
meet the curve
in real
diameter
we wanted to shew how the diameters of the conjugate may be used instead. Whenever the signs of OQ OQ' and OR. OR' in the notation of 176, 177 are different, this means that the diameters parallel to QQ', RR' are such that only one of them meets the hyperbola. The other meets the
.
can see now that if BCD' be a diameter of the conjugate hyperbola, the imaginary points B, h', in which it meets the original hyperbola, are given by
179.
OS^
We
OS'-'
= - CB\
Geometry is
and
this to the student acquainted with Analytical
also clear from the following
The equation
of the hyperbola is
m:=i
and of the conjugate hyperbola
">
= -l ^-f! 0a?
Thus corresponding to every point {in; iy) on (1) and vice versa.
(x,
(2).
y)
on
(2) there is a point
And if a
bola (2) in
line
(x,
through the centre meet the conjugate hypery) it will meet the original hyperbola in {ix, iy).
Prop. 180. a hyperbola
//
GP
and
CD
he conjugate semi-diameters
of
CP'-GD^^CA'-CB'.
Draw
the ordinates
PN and DM to the transverse and
con-
jugate axes.
182
THE HTPEEBOLA
These intersect in a point we have
on an asymptote
168) and
CF' = ON" +
FN' = OR' - {RN' - FN") = GB?-BG" (166)
and
CD" = CM' +
.-.
DM' = OR' - (RM" - DM') = GR'-GA'. GF'-GD'=GA'-C1P.

that
is if
CoE.
one, then
If
CA = GB,
the hyperbola be a rectangular
GF = GD.
Prop.
181.
If F
be
any point on a hyperbola

CF.
SF.S'F=GI>'
where
GD
is the
semi-diameter conjugate
to
Since
G is
.-.
the middle point of SS'
= 2GS' + 2GF' ( 10). (S'F - spy + 2SF S'F = 2GS' + 2GF\

SP2 + s'p.
.
that
is
WA' + 2SF
.
S'F = 2GS' + 20P.
SF S'F =
.
GF' + GS' - 2GA' = GF'+GB'+GA'-2GA' = GF'-(GA'-GB') ^GB' (180).
THE HYPERBOLA
182.
183
Prop.
If
CP
and
OD
be conjugate semi-diameters
of a hyperbola, and the normal at
Draw
the
P meet GD in F, then PF.CD = AGBG. perpendiculars SY and S'Y' from the foci
on the
tangent at P.
Then the As SPY,
fif'PF being similar
we have
8Y S'Y' S'Y'-8Y 1PF PF SP ~ S'P ~ S'P -SP~ 2AG " AC'

that
is
SY.S'Y' PF' SP.S'P ~AG" BG' _ PF^
GL'~AC''
:
PF CD = AG
.
JBG.
GOR.
The area
of the parallelogram formed
by the tanis
gents at the ends of a pair of conjugate diameters
constant
ÂA'.BB.
183.
totes
Prop. The area of the triangle formed by and any tangent to a hyperbola is constant.
the
asymp-
Let the tangent at

fig.
P meet
the asymptotes in
and
I.
(Use
of 170.)
Let P' be the other end of the diameter through P and let. DCD' be the diameter conjugate to PP'. Then L and I are
184
THE HYPERBOLA
angular points of the parallelogram formed by the tangents at

P,
F, D,
D'
( 170).
Moreover A GLl is one quarter of the area of the gram formed by these tangents, that is ( 182),
parallelo-
AGLl = CA.CB,
which
is
constant.
CoE.
The envelope
of a line which forms with two fixed
lines a triangle of constant area lines for its asymptotes,

its
is a hyperbola having the fixed and the point of contact of the line with
envelope will be the middle point of the portion intercepted

lines.
between the fixed
184. Prop. If TQ and TQ' he tangents to the same branch a hyperbola, and CT meet the curve in F and QQ' in V, then of
CV.CT=GP\
This follows at once from the harmonic property of the pole
and
polar, for
we have
{PF,TV) = -\.
.-.
GV.GT^GF.
to
185.
of a hyperbola, and
bola in
Prop. IfTQ and TQ' be tangents GT meet QQ' in V and
opposite branches
the conjugate hyper-
P then
VG.GT=GP\
THE HYPERBOLA
185
dT
This can be surmised from the preceding proposition, for if meet the original hyperbola in the imaginary point p, we
(
have
179)
Gp^
.-.
= -CP\
CV.OT=Gp' (184) = - OF".
.'.
VG.GT=GP\
We give however the following purely geometrical which does not introduce imaginary points.
Let
proof,
DGJy
be the diameter conjugate to PP" and meeting
the hyperbola in D, D', and
TQ
in
t.
Draw
the ordinate QTF to the diameter DD', that
is,
QTF" is
parallel to PP'.
Then by
similar
As
iPFQ,
tGT
Gt:tW.
TG:WQ =
.-.
TG. WQ: WQ' = Gt.GW:GW.tW = Gt GW GW - Gt CW.

. : .
ButbylS4,
.-.
Gt.GW=GD\ TG.WQ:W(^=
GD' GF
CD'.
186
THE HYPERBOLA But

.-.
CP':WQ' = CD':GW'-CD'
(174).
TC.WQ = GI^.
VG.CT=CF>.
.-.
186.
The
following are special cases of the two preceding
propositions.
X.
THE HYPEEBOLA
This
proposition
187
exactly
like
can
be
established
( 144).
the
corresponding one in the ellipse
188.
Prop.
If
the
transverse axis in 0,
normal at P to a hyperbola meet and PN be the ordinate
the
GG = eKGN
and
This
is
NG:GN=BG':AG\
proved in the same way as in
144 a.
189.
Prop.
point
^
P of a
,
The chord of the circle of curvature at any hyperbola and through the centre of the hyperbola is
and
is
the diameter oj the circle is
This
proved in the same way as
for the ellipse.
EXERCISES
a focus iS of a hyperbola parallel 1. If a line be drawn through to one of the asymptotes and a perpendicular S'Jl be drawn from the other focus S' on to this line SK=AA'.
[Use
2.
157.
Take
P at
O.]
of a circle touching
Find the locus of the centre
two fixed
circles externally.
188
THE HYPERBOLA
P of a hyperbola cut an 3. If the tangent at any point asymptote in T and SP cut the same asymptote in Q then SQ = QT.
[TP and
4.
TO, subtend equal angles at
<?.]
Shew
that
when
a pair of conjugate diameters of a hyperbola
are given in magnitude and position the asymptotes are completely
determined. Hence shew that there are only two hyperbolas having a given pair of conjugate diameters.
5.
If
two hyperbolas have the same asymptotes a chord

is
of
one
touching the other

6.
If
PH,
PE
a hyperbola to meet CO' and
be drawn parallel to the asymptotes CO, CO' of and K, then CO in
PH.PK=IGS^^
[Use
7.
183.]
The tangent to a hyperbola at P meets an asymptote in T is drawn parallel to the other asymptote to meet the curve in Q. PQ meets the asymptote in L and M. Prove that LM is trisected at P and Q.
and
TQ
8. From any point R on an asymptote of a hyperbola RPN' is drawn perpendicular to the transverse axis to cut the curve in P RK is drawn at right angles to GR to meet the transverse axis in K.
Prove that
PK is
the normal at P.
[Prove that
9.
CiV^
= e^ C^. 188.]
Prove that in any central conic if the normal at P meet the axes in and g then PG- Pg = CD'^ where CD is conjugate to CP.
.
10.
If
the tangent at a point
asymptotes in
g,
L and
g
lie
then L,
I,
G,
J" of a hyperbola meet the and the normal at P meet the axes in G and on a circle which passes through the centre of
I,
the hyperbola.
11. The intercept of any tangent to a hyperbola between the asymptotes subtends at the further focus an angle equal to half the angle between them.
12. Given a focus of an ellipse and two points on the curve shew that the other focus describes a hyperbola.
S',
If be any point on a central conic whose foci are S and the circles on SP, S'P as diameters touch the auxiliary circle
13. for their radical axis the ordinate of P.
and have
1 4. of the tangent at any point P of a central conic with respect to the auxiliary circle lies on the ordinate of P.
The pole
THE HYPERBOLA
15.
189
If
point on the curve then QP"^ constant quantity.

16.
Q any
FP' and DD' be conjugate diameters of a hyperbola and + QP"'- exceeds QD^ + QD'^ by a
of
Given two points
a parabola and the direction of

focus
is
its
axis,
prove that the locus of

If
its
a hyperbola.
17.
two tangents be drawn
to a hyperbola the lines joining
their intersections with the asymptotes will be parallel.

IS. If from a point P in a hyperbola PK be drawn parallel to an asymptote to meet a directrix in K, and S be the corresponding focus, then PK = SP.
19.
If the tangent
in
meet the axis

20.
and
and normal at a point P of a central conic and PN be the ordinate, NG GT=BC\

.
The base
of a triangle being given

circle,
and
also the point of
contact with the base of the inscribed

is
the locus of the vertex
a hyperbola.
21. If tangents be drawn to a series of confocal hyperbolas the normals at their points of contact will all pass through a fixed point, and the points of contact will lie on a circle.
22. hyperbola is described touching the principal axes of a hyperbola at one of their extremities prove that one asymptote is parallel to the axis of the parabola and that the other is parallel to
;
the chords of the parabola bisected by the

23.
first.
If
an
ellipse
and a hyperbola confocal with
it
intersect in
P, the asymptotes of the hyperbola pass through the points of with the auxiliary circle of the intersection of the ordinate of
ellipse.
21. Prove that the central distance of the point where a tangent to a hyperbola meets one asymptote varies as the distance, parallel to the transverse axis, of the point of contact from the
other asymptote.
25. Tangents RPR', TQT' are drawn to a hyperbola, R, T being on one asymptote and R', T' on the other ; shew that the as diameters are coaxal with the director circles on RT' and
RT
circle.
26.
From any
point
straight lines are
drawn
;
hyperbola in Q, Q' a constant ratio.
a given diameter of a hyperbola, two and meeting the prove that PQ, PQ' are to one another in
parallel to the asymptotes,
P on
190
THE HYPERBOLA
27. The asymptotes and one point on a hyperbola being given, determine the points in which a given line meets the curve.
28. If be the ordinate and PG the normal of a point P of a hyperbola whose centre is G, and the tangent at P intersect the asymptotes in L and L', then half the sum of GL and CL' is the
FN
mean
proportional between
GN and
CG.
29.
The tangents
to a conic
circle are the bisectors of the angles
from any point on the director between every pair of conjugate

of a conic, the
lines
through the point.
30.
Given a
focus, a tangent
is
and the eccentricity
locus of the centre

31.
circle.
If
P be
P to the foci
point,
are at right angles, CD'^
a point on a central conic such that the lines joining = IBC^-
32. Find the position and magnitude of the axes of a hyperbola which has a given line for an asymptote, passes through a given
and touches a given straight
line at a given point.

aS"
33. If
P be any
point on a hyperbola whose foci are
and
S'
the incentre of the triangle

vertices of the hyperbola.
SPS'
lies
on the tangent at one
of the
34. With two conjugate diameters of an ellipse as asymptotes a pair of conjugate hyperbolas are constructed ; pi-ove that if one hyperbola touch the ellipse the other will do likewise and that the
diameters drawn through the points of contact are conjugate to
each other.
35.
Prove that a
circle
straight lines joining the foci of a hyperbola to
can be described to touch the four any two points on
the same branch of the curve.

36. Tangents are drawn to a hyperbola and the portion of each tangent intercepted by the asymptotes is divided in a given ratio shew that the locus of the point of section is a hyperbola.
on an asymptote of a hyperbola RE is in E, and ET, EV are drawn through E parallel to the asymptotes, cutting a diameter in T and V; RV is joined, cutting the hyperbola in P, p ; shew that TP and Tp touch
37.
From
a point
drawn touching the hyperbola
the hyperbola.
[Project the hyperbola into a circle and
38.
V into
the centre.]
and CI> are conjugate semi-diameters of a hyperbola, and the tangent at P meets an asymptote in L ; prove that if PB meet the transverse axis in F, LEG is a right angle.
CP
THE HYPERBOLA
191
39. From a given point on a hyperbola draw a straight line such that the segment between the other intersection with the hyperbola and a given asymptote shall be equal to a given line. When does the problem become impossible?
40.
If
P and Q
be two points on two
circles S^
and S belonging
to a coaxal system of which
that the angle
PLQ
is
one of the limiting points, such a right angle, prove that the foot of the
is
perpendicular from L on PQ lies on one of the circles of the system, and thus shew that the eu\elope of PQ is a conic having a focus at L.
41.
If a conic touch the sides of
a triangle at the
feet of the
perpendiculars from the vei'tices on the opposite sides, the centre of

the conic must be at the symmedian point of the triangle.
192
CHAPTER XIV
THE EECTANGULAB, HYPERBOLA
190.
is
A rectangular hyperbola as we
its
have already explained

its
one which has
asymptotes at right angles and
transverse
and conjugate axes equal.

hyperbola
= V2,
for
The eccentricity of a rectangular e = CS:GA, and CS' = CA^ + GB' = WA\
We
will
now
set forth a series of propositions giving the
chief properties of the curve.
191.
Prop.
meters are equal, and if
In a rectangular hyperbola conjugate diaQV be an ordinate of a diameter PGP',
QV' = PV.P'r.
For we have
and
GP'-GD'^ GA^-GE' = QV':PV.P'V=GD^:GP^ = 1.
(180)
(174)
192.
Prop.
Conjugate diameters of a rectangular hyper-
bola are equally inclined to each of the asymptotes.
pencil formed
For the asymptotes are the double lines of the involution by the pairs of conjugate lines through G, and therefore the asymptotes are harmonically conjugate with any pair of conjugate diameters. Hence as the asymptotes are at
right angles they
must be the

( 72).
between
each pair of conjugate diameters
Cor.
1.
Any
its
diameter of a rectangular hyperbola and the
tangents at
asymptotes.
extremities are equally inclined to each of the
THE RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA

Cor.
2.
193
Any
chord of a rectangular hyperbola and the

it
diameter bisecting
are equally inclined to each asymptote.
193.
to the
Prop. Any diameter of a rectangular hyperbola

to it
is
equal
diameter perpendicular
is
of the conjugate hyperbola.
This
bola
is
obvious
when we
consider that the conjugate hyper-
in our special case equal to the original hyperbola
and
can be obtained by rotating the A\hole figure of the hyperbola through a right angle about an axis through its centre perpendicular to its plane.
194.
to
If a hyperbola have two perpendicular diameters equal

to the
one another, the one belonging
hyperbola itself and the
other to its conjugate, the hyperbola must be
a rectangular
one.
Let
GP
and
CQ
be the semi-diameters at right angles to
one another and equal,

conjugate.
P being on
the hyperbola, and
Q on
the
194
PN':GN'-CA' = BG':AC'' (167) QM^ CM' -BG' = AG': BG\ and GN' FN' =1 whence we get AG^ EG
Now
:
and
Subtract and use
.
GM"
BG^
QM' = AG'
1.
GN^ = GM' and PN^ = QM'.
GN'(^
.'.
L\
BG'J
\AG^
Pi^.fJ
KBG'
AGV
L.^
since
GN' + PN'^Ô,
AG = BG.
the
195.
vertices
Prop.
If a rectangular hyperbola pass through

it
of a triangle
parses also through the orthocentre.
Let
ABG
be the triangle,
its
orthocentre and
AD
the
perpendicular from
on BG.
Let the rectangular hyperbola meet

Since the chords
parallel to
AD again in p.
Ap and BG are at right angles the diameters

meet one the hyperbola and the other the
them
will
Thus DB.DG and Dp DA will have opposite signs ( 177), and the ratio of their numerical values will be unity since the
.
diameters parallel to them being at right angles are equal.

.-.
BD.DG = Dp.DA.

But
195
BD.DG = AD. DQ where Q is the

= -AD.DP
(6).
point in which
AB
produced meets the circumcircle
.-.
Dp.DA^DA.DP. Dp = DP
.-.
that
is
coincides with P.
Cor.
When
a rectangular hyperbola circumscribes a
tri-
angle, if the three vertices lie on the
same branch of the
curve,
the orthocentre will

centre will
196.
vertices lie on one branch

lie
if two of the and the third on the other, the orthoon that branch on which are the two vertices.
lie
on the other branch, but
Prop.
If a
it
conic
circumscribing a triangle pass

he
through the orthocentre
must
a rectangular hyperbola.
Let ABC be the triangle and AD, BE, CPthe perpendiculars meeting in the orthocentre P.
must be a hyperbola, since it is impossible for two chords of an ellipse or parabola to intersect at a point external to one of them and not to the other, and the chords AP and BG do so intersect. Now since BD .BG=AD .PD, the diameter parallel to
It is clear that the conic
BG= the diameter parallel

And
these diameters
its
to
AP.
and the other to

opposite sign
conjugate since
must belong the one to the hyperbola DB BG and BP BA have

.
.
( 177). is
Therefore the hyperbola

197.
a rectangular one
( 194).
Prop.
If a rectangular hyperbola circumscribe a

on the nine points
circle
triangle, its centre lies
of the triangle.
Let
the
ABC be
the triangle, and B, E,
F the
middle points of
sides.
be the centre of the rectangular hyperbola and OLL' an asymptote cutting AB and AC m. L and L'. Since OF bisects the chord AB, OF and AB make equal
Let
angles with
OLL'
( 192,
.-.
Cor.
2).
/:FOL = ^FLO.
132
196
Similarly
.'.
aEOU = ÊL'0.
/i
Z FOE = ÂLL' + /l4L'L= zBAG = FDE.
.'.
lies
on the
circle
round
DEF, which
circle is the
nine
points circle of the triangle.

198.
Prop.
The angle between any chord
PQ
of a
rect-
angular hyperbola and the tangent at

subtended by
is
equal to the angle
PQ
at P', the other end of the diameter through
0_
Let the chord
PQ
and the tangent at
P meet the asymptote
Cn, in iJ and L. Let
V be
the middle point of PQ.
THE KECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA
197
Then
and
.-.
VRG = Z VGR ( 192, Cor. 2), z PLC = Z PCL ( 192, Cor. 1). = aLPR /lGLP-aGRV = z PGL - z VCR = z FCP = z QP'P (since CF is parallel to QP').
A
Prop.
199.
Any
tends at the ends of
chord of a rectangular hyperbola subany diameter angles which are equal or
supplementary.
Let
QR
be a chord, and
POP'
a diameter.
I
Let the tangents at
and P' meet the asymptotes in L,
and
cuts
L', V
In
fig. 1,
where Q and
lie
on the same branch and

(198)
PP'
QR
internally,
ZQPL^ZQP'P
and
.'.
ZRPI-=ZRP'P.
Z
QPR = supplement of sum of QPL = supplement of Z QP'R.
and
RPl
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Tn
cuts
fiff.
2,
where Q and
i? lie
on the same branch and
PP'
QR
externally,
and
.-.
ZLPR^ZRP'P ZLPQ = ZQP'P. /:RPQ = zQP'P-zRP'P = zQP'R.
'
198
In
cuts
fig. 3,

where
Q and
lie
on opposite branches and
PP
QB
internally,
QPE =. z QPL + z LPP' + aP'PB

= z QP'P + z PP'V + z i?P7' = zQP'E.
In
fig. 4,
where
Q and
lie
on opposite branches and
PP
cuts Qi2 externally,
and
QPL + z iPi? = z QP 'P + z LPR zQP'R = ^ QP'L' + zL'P'R^Z QP 'L' + z EPP'. .-. z QPP + z QP'R' = z i'P'P + z iPP'
z QPi? = z
2 right
Z s.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
EXEECISES
1.
The portion
its
of
any tangent
is
to a rectangular hyperbola interits
cepted between
asymptotes
double the distance of
point of
contact from the centre.

2.
If
FN
be the ordinate of any point
hyperbola, and
from
3.
N to the auxiliary circle = PN.

If
PG the normal at P, prove GN = NG,
on a rectangular and the tangent
at
any point
GK be the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent P of a rectangular hyperbola the triangles PGA, CAR
are similar.

4.
199
FQB
is
the angle at
P is
a triangle inscribed in a rectangular hyperbola, and a right angle prove that the tangent at P is per;
pendicular to QB.
5. If PF' and QQ' be perpendicular chords of a rectangular hyperbola then PQ', QP' will be at right angles, as also PQ and P'Q'.
6.
perpendicular to
PQP'
of a rectangular hyperbola, and a diameter meets the hyperbola in Q ; prove that the circle touches the hyperbola at Q.
is
PP'
any chord
it
7. If from the extremities of any diameter of a rectangular hyperbola lines be drawn to any point on the curve, they will be equally inclined to each asymptote.
8.
Focal chords of a rectangular hyperbola which are at right
angles to one another are equal.

[See 116, 117.]
9.
The distance
is
of
the centre
foci.
the geometric
any point on a rectangular hyperbola from mean between its distances from the
10.
If
PP' be a double ordinate

is
to the transverse axis of a

C,
rectangular hyperbola whose centre

to the tangent at P.
11.
then GP'
is
perpendicular
The centre
e centres.
of the inscribed circle of a triangle lies
on any
rectangular hyperbola circumscribing the triangle whose vertices

are the
12. Focal chords parallel to conjugate diameters of a rectangular hyperbola are equal.
13.
If the tangent at
any point
of a rectangular hyperbola,
centre C, meet a pair of conjugate diameters in
E and F, PC touches
the circle GJEF.
tangents are drawn to the same branch of a rectangular Prove that the angles which these tangents subtend at the centre are respectively equal to the angles which they make with the cliord of contact.
14.
Two
hyperbola.
15.
circle
and a rectangular hyperbola intersect in four
points and one of their
common
chords
is
a diameter of the hyperis
bola
shew that the other common chord
a diameter of the
circle.
16.
Ellipses are described in a given parallelogram;
shew that
their foci lie on a rectangular hyperbola.
200
17.
THE RECTANGULAE HYPERBOLA

If
from any point Q in the conjugate axis of a rectangular be drawn to the vertex, and QE parallel to the transverse to meet the curve, QR = AQ.
hyperbola
QA
18. The lines joining the extremities a rectangular hyperbola are perpendicular
of conjugate diameters of to the asymptotes.
19. The base of a triangle and the difference of its base angles being given the locus of its vertex is a rectangular hyperbola.
20.
The
circles described
on
parallel chords of a rectangular
hyperbola are coaxal.

21. If
a rectangular hyperbola circumscribe a triangle, the

is
pedal triangle
22.
a self-conjugate one.
point
At any
of a rectangular hyperbola the radius of

is
curvature varies as CP^, and the diameter of the curve

the central chord of curvature.
23.
is
equal to
At any
point of a rectangular hyperbola the normal chord
equal to the diameter of curvature.

24.
PN
is
hyperbola from any point

is
drawn perpendicular to an asymptote of a rectangular P on it, the chord of curvature along PN
equal to
j^
201
CHAPTER XV
200.
figure
is
When
the vertex of projection by means of which a
projected from one plane
p on to
another plane
tt is
at a
very great distance from these planes, the lines joining corre-
sponding points in the original figure and its projection come near
to
being
parallel.
case in which points on the
What we may call cylindrical projection is the p plane are projected on to the tt
all
plane by lines which are

vertex
drawn
parallel to each other.
We
regard this as the limiting case of conical projection
when the
V is at infinity.
lines joining corresponding
tt
In the particular case where the

points are perpendicular to the
plane on to which the figure
is
on the p plane is projected, the resulting figure on the tt plane said to be the orthogonal projection of the original figure.
Points in space which are not necessarily in a plane can be
orthogonally projected on to a plane by drawing perpendiculars
from them to the plane. The foot of each perpendicular is the projection of the point from which it is drawn. Thus all points
in space
which lie on the same line perpendicular to the plane on to which the projection is made will have the same projection.
In the present chapter it will be shewn how certain properties of the ellipse can be obtained from those of the circle,
for,
as
we
shall see, every ellipse is the orthogonal projection of
circle.
It is first necessary to establish certain properties of
orthogonal projection.
201.
projection
It
may be
observed at the outset that in orthogonal

line as in conical projection.
we have no vanishing
202
OETHOGONAL PROJECTION
line at infinity in the
The
plane projects into the line at inis
finity
in the plane
tt.
-ir
This
clear
from the fact that the

it
perpendiculars to the
infinity
plane from points in

at infinity.
on the
line at
meet the p plane
It follows that the orthogonal projection of a parabola will
be another parabola, and of a hyperbola another hyperbola,

while the orthogonal projection of an ellipse will be another
ellipse or in particular cases
circle.
202.
The
following propositions relating to orthogonal pro-
jection are important:
Prop.
line.
The projection of a straight
line is another straight
This
the
in
is
obvious from the fact that orthogonal

It
is
is
only a
limiting case of conical projection.
clear that the line in
TT plane which will be the projection of a line I will be that which the plane through I and perpendicular to the plane ir
TT
cuts this 203.
plane.
straight lines,
Prop. Parallel straight lines project into parallel and in the same ratio as regards their length.
Let
AB and CD be two lines in space parallel to one another.
20S
Then ab and cd must be parallel, for if they were to meet in a point p, p would be the projection of a point common to AB
and CD.
Now draw AF and GG parallel respectively to ab and cd to meet Bb and Dd in F and Q. Then AabF is a parallelogram so that AF= ab, and similarly GG = cd.
Now
be
since
AB is
parallel to GJ),
and
AF
to
OG
(for these
are respectively parallel to ab and cd which

parallel),
we have proved the angle FAB = the angle GGD; and the angles
right angles.
.-.
to
at
F and G are
AAFB is
similar to
AGGD.
..AF:GG = AB:GD.
.-.
ab:cdÂB:GD.
line lying along the
CoR.
in the
Lengths of same ratio.
same
line are projected
204.
Prop.
If
be
a limited
ir
line in
tlie
plane
'parallel
I
to p's intersection with the
on
TV
plane, the orthogonal projection of will be a line parallel to and of the same length as I.
Let
AB be the limited line
I,
and ab its orthogonal
projection.
204
Draw
of
AG and BD perpendicular
TT.
to the line of intersection
and
Then
AGDB is
Aa
a parallelogram.
it,
and Bh are perpendicular to perpendicular to GD and therefore they are

Also since
other.
Ga and Dh
are
parallel to
each
Further
for
AAGa=A BDh
/.
and Z.AGa =
BDh
AG= BD, z AaG=^ z BhD for AG and Ca are parallel

.-.
to
BD
and
Z)6.
Ga = Dh.
a parallelogram.
,'.
as (7a
and Db are
.-.
parallel, (7i)6a is
ah=GD = AB.
p plarie perpendicular
to
205.
the line
Prop.
limited line in the
of intersection of p and ir will project into a line also perpendicular to this line of intersection and whose length will
hear
to the original line
ratio equal to the cosine of the angle
between the planes.
Let
AB be
perpendicular to the intersection of ^ and

it
tt,
and
let its line
meet
in G.
Let ah be the orthogonal projection of AB.
Then ab and
AB meet in
G,
and ah
AB = ac:AG
= cos aGA = cos ( z between p
and
it).
205
206. Prop. A closed figure on the p plane will project into a closed figure whose area will hear to that of the original figure a ratio equal to the cosine of the angle between the planes
For we may suppose the figure to be made up of an infinite number of narrow rectangular strips the length of which runs parallel to the intersection of p and tt. The lengths of the slips are unaltered by projection, and the breadths are diminished in the ratio of the cosine of the angle between the planes.
207.
The
ellipse as the orthogonal projection
of a
circle.
have seen ( 150) that corresponding ordinates of an and its auxiliary circle bear a constant ratio to one another, viz., BG-.AG.
ellipse
We
Now
let
the auxiliary circle be turned about
its
major axis
A A'
until it
comes into a plane making with that of the ellipse

is
an angle whose cosine
BG
AG.
206
It
is
clear that the lines joining each point on the ellipse to
the
new position
Thus the
of the point corresponding to
it
on the auxiliary
ellipse.
circle will
be perpendicular to the plane of the
ellipse is the orthogonal projection of the circle in
its
new
position.
Certain properties of the ellipse then can be deduced from

those of the circle
by orthogonal
projection.
We
proceed to
some
illustrations.
208.
Prop.
If
GP
diameters of an
ordinates
ellipse,
P'M,
B'N he P'M GN'^D'N: GM=CD: GP.

:
and CD be a pair of conjugate semiand GP', GD' another such pair, and the drawn to GP, then
For
let
the corresponding points in the auxiliary circle
adjusted to
make an angle
cos~^
-j-t^
with the plane of the
ellipse,
be denoted by small
letters.
Then Gp and Gd
are perpendicular radii as are also Gp'

parallel to
and
Gd', and p'm, d'n being Gp, and we have
Cd
will
be perpendicular to
.'.
p'm :Gd = Gn:Gp

d'n
:
and
.-.
Gd = Gm
Gp.
by
203
P'M:GI) = GI{:GP
D'N:CD=GM:GP.
.-.
P'M:GN=GD:GP = JD'N
GM.
207
209. Prop. If the tangent at a point P of an ellipse meet any pair of conjugate diameters in T and T' and CD be conjugate
toGP,thenTP.PT'=GD\
For
in the corresponding figure of the circle Gt
and
Ct' are
at right angles, and

T'
Cp
is
perpendicular to
tt'.
.-.
tp.pt'
= Gp'=Cd^.
.-.
tp:Gd = Gd:pt'.
.: .:
TP:GD = GD:PT'. TP.PT' = GBK

ellipse
210.
GA
The area of an andGBistr.GA. GB.
Prop.
whose semi-axes are
For the
ellipse is the orthogonal projection of its auxiliary
circle tilted to
.*.
make an angle
ellipse
:
cos""'
-j^ with that of the

circle
:
ellipse.
Area of
Area of auxiliary
.
Ai-ea of ellipse
= BG AG(^ 206). = tt BG .AG.

.
211.
Prop.
plane
on to another plane
parallel to the
The orthogonal projection of a circle from a tt is an ellipse whose viajor axis is intersection of p and tt, and equal to the diameter
which
of the
circle.
the
Let AA' be that diameter of the p and tt planes. Let
circle
is pai-allel
to
AA
project into aa' equal to
it (
204).
208 Let
PN be an ordinate to the
diameter
AA'
and
let
pn be
its projection.
..
pn =
PN cos a where a
( 205).
:
is
the Z between
p and
tt,
and pn
is
perpendicular to aa'
Now pri'
an na' = PN^
.
cos^ a
:1.
-.AN.
NA'
for its
= cosâ
Hence the
axis,
and
its
locus of p is an ellipse having aa' minor axis = aa' x cos a.

is easily
major
The
Cor.
eccentricity
1.
seen to be sin
a.
into similar
Two circles in the same plane project orthogonally and similarly situated ellipses.
eccentricities will
For their
the one
is
be equal and the major axis of
parallel to the
major axis of the other, each being
parallel to the line of intersection of the planes.
CoE.
2.
Two
similar
and similarly situated
ellipses are the
simultaneous orthogonal projections of two
circles.
EXEEOISES
1.
The
locus of the middle points of chords of an ellipse which

is
pass through a fixed point

2.
a similar and similarly situated
ellipse.
If
a parallelogram be inscribed in an ellipse
its sides
are
parallel to conjugate diameters,
and the greatest area
of
such a
parallelogram
3.
is
AC.
chord of an ellipse meeting the diameter con= 2GB' where GB is the semithen PQ
.
If
jugate to
PQ be any OP in T,
PT
diameter parallel to PQ.

If a variable chord of an ellipse bear a constant ratio to the 4. diameter parallel to it, it will touch another similar ellipse having
its
axes along those of the original

5.
ellipse.
The
greatest triangle
its
has one of
sides bisected
others cut in points of
which can be inscribed in an ellipse by a diameter of the ellipse and the trisection by the conjugate diameter.
6.
209
and
similarly
If a straight
Hue meet two
concentric, similar
situated ellipses, the portions intercepted between the curves ara

equal.
7.
The
locus of the points of intersection of the tangents at theis
extremities of pairs of conjugate diameter
a concentric,
similar,,
and similarly situated

8.
ellipse.
If
BP,
will
BD
9.
GP, CD be conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipse, and' be joined, and AD, A'P intersect in 0, the figure BDOP
be a parallelogram.
intersect in four points.

will
whose axes are at right angles to one another Shew that any pair of common chords make equal angles with an axis.
ellipses
Two
10.
Shew that a
ellipse itself
circle of curvature for an ellipse and the can be projected orthogonally into an ellipse and one of
its circles of curvature.
A.G.
14
210
CHAPTEE XVI
CEOSS-EATIO PEOPEBTIES OF CONICS
Prop. If A, B, G, D he four fixed points on a conic, a variable point on the conic, P (ABCD) is constant and equal to the corresponding cross-ratio of the four points in which the tangents at A, B, C, D meet that at P.
212.
and P
Project the conic into a circle and use corresponding small

letters in the projection.
Then
But p{ahcd)
therefore
is
P{ABGD) = p{ahcd).
constant since the angles aph, bpo, cpd are
constant or change to their supplements
asp moves on the
circle;
P (ABCD) is
constant.
b, c,
let
Let the tangents at a, be the centre of the
d cut that in p in
a^, hi,Ci,di
and
circle.
CROSS-EATIO PROPERTIES OF CONIGS
211
Then
Oai, Obi, Oc^, Odi are perpendicular to pa, pb, pc, pd.
.'.
p (abed) =
(aJjiCidi)
= (ai6icA).
4, we have
..P{ABCI)) = (AiBiCiD,).
Cor.
li
A' be a point on the conic near

A' (ABGD)
to
= P (ABCD).
.'.
i{
AThe
the tangent at A,
A(TBGD) = P(ABGD).
Note. In the
joining any point
G,
special
case where the pencil
formed by
P on the
conic to the four fixed points A, B,
Thus
D is harmonic, we speak of the points on the conic as harmonic. if P (ABGD) = 1, we say that A and G are harmonic
B
and D.
213.
conjugates to
Prop.
If A, B,
and
a
conic.
points in a plane
the locas of
G, B be four fixed non-collinear P a point such that P {ABGD) is constant,
P is
Let Q be a point such that
Q (ABGD) =P (ABGD).
Then
if
the conic through the points A. B, G, B,
P does
not
pass through Q, let

.-.
.:
QA in Q'. P (ABGD) = Q' (ABGD) Q' (ABGD) = Q (ABGD).

it
cut
by
212.
Thus the
pencils
{A, B, C,
D) and
Q' (A, B, G,
D) are
homographic and have a common ray QQ'.
142
212
Therefore
CROSS-BATIO PEOPERTIES OF CONICS

(
64) they are coaxally in perspective ; that
is,
A, B,
C, I) are collinear.
But
this is contrary to hypothesis.
Therefore the conic through A, B, G, D,
P goes
through
Q.
is
proved.
We
see from the above that
we may regard a
conic through
the five points A, B, G, D,
E as
the locus of a point
P such that
P{ABGD) = E{ABGD).
The envelope of a line which cuts four noncoplanar concurrent fixed straight lines in four points forming a
214.
Prop.
range of constant cross-ratio
is
a conic touching the four
lines.
This proposition will be seen, when we come to the next

chapter, to follow
by Reciprocation
directly from the proposition
of the last paragraph.
The
following
line
is
an independent
proof.
a, h,
c,
Let the
cut the four non-concurrent lines
in
the points A, B, C,
such that
(ABGB) =
the given constant.
CROSS-EATIO PROPERTIES OF CONICS
213
B' such
Let the
line q cut the
same four
lines in A', B', G',
that (A'B'G'D')
= (ABGD).
a, b, c, d, p,
q'
Then
Let
if
q be not a tangent to the conic touching
from A' in q draw

b, c,
a tangent to the conic.

in B", G", D".
d cut
.-.
q'
(A'B"G"B")
= (ABGD) by = (A'B'G'D').
212
The ranges A'B"G'D" and A'B'G'D'

graphic and they have a
are therefore
homo-
common
b, c,
corresponding point.
is
Therefore they are in perspective

to our hypothesis that a,
( 60), which d are non-concurrent.
contrar}'
Thus q touches the same

a, b,
c,
conic
as that
which touches
d, p.
And
215.
our proposition
is
established.
conic
Prop. If P (A, B, G, B) be a pencil in the plane of the poles of PA, PB, PG, PB with S, and A,, B,, G
respect to S, then
P{ABGB) = (A.BAB,).
as
we have
"We need only prove this in the case of a seen, a conic can be projected.
circle, into
which
214
Let
CKOSS-RATIO PROPERTIES OF CONICS
circle.
Then OA^, OB^, OG^, OD^ FA, PB, PC, PD.

.-.
are perpendicular respectively to
PiABGD) =
is
(AACD,) = (A.BADi)-
This proposition
of the greatest importance for the pur-
poses of Reciprocation.
We
form a pencil
the range.
216.
had already seen that the polars of a range of points we now see that the pencil is homographic with
;
Pascal's theorem.
If a
conic
pass through six
points A, B, G, D, E,
F the
opposite pairs of sides of each of the
sixty different hexagons (sia;-sided figures), that can he
formed
with these points intersect in collinear points.
This theorem
may be proved by
:
projection (see Ex. 25,
Chap. X).
Or we may proceed thus
Consider the hexagon or six-sided figure formed with the

sides
AB, BG, CD, DE, EF, FA.
CROSS-RATIO PROPERTIES OF CONICS
215
The
pairs of sides which are called opposite are
AB and BE;
BC and EF; CD
Let
and FA.
Let these meet in X, Y,
Z respectively.
in G.
CD
meet
Then
since
EF in H, and DE meet FA A (BDEF) = C (BDEF),

..{XDEG)=^{YHEF).
These homographic ranges
XDEG
and
YHEF
( 60),
have a
common
that
is,
corresponding point ^.
.".
XF,
DH and
is
i''(r
are concurrent
Z, the intersection of
BH and FG, lies on Z F.

sixty
Thus the proposition The student should

vertices.
proved.
satisfy himself that there are
different hexagons that can be formed with the six given
217.
Brianchon's theorem. If a
conic he inscribed in
hexagon the
lines joining opposite vertices are concurrent.
This can be proved after a similar method to that of
216,
and may be
cation.
left as
an exercise to the student.
We
shall content
ourselves with deriving this theorem from Pascal's by Recipro-
To the principles of this important development of modern Geometry we shall come in the chapter immediately
following this.
Prop. The locus of fixed points is a conic.

218.
the centres of conies through
four
Let
be the centre of one of the conies passing through
the four points A, B, G, B.
216 Let
CEOSS-EATIO PEOPEETIES OF CONICS
M M M
M, be
the middle points of
AB, BG, CD, DA
respectively.
Draw OM;,
respectively.
OM,',
OM/, OM,'
parallel to
AB, BG, GD,
DA
are
Then
0M
OM,';
0M
OM,'
0M
OM,';
0M OMi
pairs of conjugate diameters.
Therefore they form an involution pencil.

.
(M,M,M,M,) =
{m^m^m:m:).
But the right-hand

in fixed directions.
side is constant since 0-Mi',
OM^ &c. are
-.0 (M^M^MsMi)
..
is
constant.
the locus of
1.
is
a conic through M^, M^, M^, Mi.

lies
Cor.
The
conic on which
passes through M^,
M^
the middle points of the other two sides of the quadrangle.
For
points
if Oi,
lie
Oi, Os, Oi, 0^ he five positions of 0, these five on a conic through M^.M^, M^, M^ and also on a conic
through
M^,
Me.
But only one

is
conic can be
drawn through
five points.
Therefore M^, M^, M^, M^, M^, the locus of 0.
M^
all lie
on one conic, which
Cob.
2.
The
locus of
also passes
through P,
Q,
the
diagonal points of the quadrangle.
lines
For one of the conies through the four points A B, GD and the centre of this conic is P.
;
is
the pair ot
So
for
Q and
R. {AA',
219.
Prop. If
BE,
GG'] he an involution pencil

to cut the
and
if a conic he
drawn through
rays in A, A', B,
B',
C, G', then the chords
AA', BB', GG' are concurrent.

intersect in P.
Let
AA' and
BE
Project the conic into a circle with the projection of

its centre.
for
Using small
letters in the projectfon,
we
see that aoa', bob'
are right angles, being in a semicircle.
217
Hence they determine an orthogonal

.".
involution.
coc' is
a right angle
that
is, co'
goes through p.
.".
CO' goes through P.
It will
be understood that the points

gi-^-e
A A',
BB',
CC -when
joined to any other point on the conic

for this follows at once
an involution pencil
of 212.
is
by the application
system of points such as these on a conic
called
an
involution range on the conic.
The point
where the corresponding chords intersect
is
called the pole of the involution.
EXERCISES
1.
If (P,
P'),
(Q, Q') be pairs of
(see
Note on
212),
prove that the tangent at
harmonic points on a conic F and FP' are

if
harmonic conjugates to FQ and FQ'. Hence shew that normal at F, PQ and FQ' make equal angles with FP'.
2.
FP' be
F and F' and is normal and PQ' are equally inclined to FP' and cut the conic again in Q and Q'. Prove that F'Q and F'Q' are harmonic conjugates to F'P and the tangent at F'.
at P.
The The
straight line
FP'
cuts a conic at
straight lines
FQ
3.
Shew
that
if
the pencil formed
bj'
joining any point on a
conic to four fixed points on the same be harmonic, two sides of the
quadrangle formed by the four fixed points are conjugate to each

other with respect to the conic.
218
4.
asymptotes in
The tangent at any point P of a hyperbola intersects the Jlfi and M^ and the tangents at the vertices in L-^ and
Zj, prove that
PM^ = PL-,.PL^.
5.
Deduce from Pascal's theorem that
if
a conic pass through
the vertices of a triangle the tangents at these points meet the

opposite sides in collinear points.
[Take a hexagon
near to A, B,
6.
AA'BB'GC
in the conic so that A', B',
C are
C]
Given three points of a hyperbola and the directions of both
asymptotes, find the point of intersection of the curve with a given

straight line
7.
drawn
parallel to
one of the asymptotes.

line is
Through a
fixed point
on a conic a
is
drawn cutting the
conic again in P, and the sides of a given inscribed triangle in

A', B', C".
8.
Shew
that
(PA'B'C)
constant.
A, B, C,
D are
CB
to one asymptote meets
asymptote meets
9.
any four points on a hyperbola ; CK parallel AD in K, and DL parallel to the other in L. Prove that KL is parallel to AB.
The
sixty Pascal lines corresponding to six points on a conic
intersect three
10.
by
three.
on a hyperbola of which GA and GB through D and E respectively meet in Q the tangent at D meets GB in R, and the tangent at E meets GA in T. Prove that T, Q, R are collinear, lying on a line parallel to DE.
points J) and
Any two
U are taken
;
the asymptotes are
GA and OB
the parallels to
'
11.
and
AB
The lines GA and GB are tangents to a conic at A and B, and E are two other points on the conic. The line CD cuts in G, AE in H, and BE in K. Prove that
CD^ GD^ = GH.GK:

:
GH
QK.
12. Through a fixed point A on a. conic two fixed straight lines AI, AI' are drawn, S and S' are two fixed points and P a variable point on the conic; PS, PS' meet AI, AI' in Q, Q' respectively,
shew that QQ' passes through a

13.
fixed point.
If
two
triangles be in perspective, the six points of inter-
section of their non-corresponding sides lie on a conic,
and the axis
of perspective is one of the Pascal lines of the six points.
219
14. If two chords PQ, PQ' of a conic through a fixed point P are equally inclined to the tangent at P, the chord QQ' passes
through a fixed point.

15.
If the lines
respectively,
APQGRS
16.
AB, EC, CD, DA touch a conic at P, Q, R, S shew that conies can be inscribed in the hexagons and BQRDSP.
Y and
Y'.
The tangent at P to an ellipse meets the auxiliary circle in ASS' A' is the major axis and SY, S'l" the perpendiculars
Y', A'
is
from the foci. Prove that the points A, Y, point on the circle a pencil whose cross-ratio
position of P.
17.
subtend at any independent of the
If J,
diameter, shew
how
be given points on a circle, and CD be a given to find a point P on the circle such that PA
and
PB
shall cut
CD
in points equidistant from the centre.
220
CHAPTER XVII
RECIPROCATION
220. If we have a number of points P, Q, R, &c. in a plane and take the polars p, q, r, &c. of these points with respect to a conic T in the plane, then the line joining any two of the points P and Q is, as we have already seen, the polar with
respect to
of the intersection of the corresponding lines
and
q.
It will be convenient to represent the intersection of the

lines
p and
q by the symbol (pq), and the line joining the points
P and Q by (PQ). The point P corresponds with the line p, in the sense that P is the pole of ^, and the line (PQ) corresponds with the point
(pq) in the sense that
(PQ)
is
the polar of (pq).
Thus
if
we have a
and
to
figure
consisting of an aggregate of
it,
points and lines, then, corresponding to

consisting of lines
called
in
relation
we have a figure F' F and F' are one another Reciprocal figures. The
points.
Two
such figures
medium
of their Eeciprocity is the conic P.
Using
215 we see that a range of points in
F corresponds
F'.
to a pencil of lines,
homographic with the range, in
EECIPKOCATION
221.
221
By means
of the principle of correspondence enun-
ciated in the last paragraph

of a figure consisting
we
are able from a

lines
known property
of points and
to infer another
pi'operty of a figure consisting of lines
and
points.
The one property is called the Reciprocal of the other, and the process of passing from the one to the other is known as
Reciprocation.
We
222.
will
now
give examples.
that if the vertices of two triangles
We know
ABC,
A'B'd be
in perspective,
the pairs of corresponding sides

collinear
{BC) (B'C), {CA) {G'A'), (AB) {A'B') intersect in

points X, Y, Z.
Kg. F.
Now
if
vertices of the triangle
we draw the recipi-ocal figure, corresponding to the ABC, we have three lines a, b, c forming
(be), (ca), (ab).
a triangle whose vertices will be

for
And
similarly
A'B'C.
Corresponding to the concurrency of (AA'), (BB'), (CG') in
the figure F, we have the collinearity of

figure F'.
(aa'), {bb'), (cc') in
the
Corresponding to the collinearity of the intersections of
(BC) (B'C), (GA) (CA'), (AB) (A'B) in

(be)
(b'c'),
figure F,
we have
the
concurrenc}- of the lines formed by joining the pairs of points

(ca) (ca), (ub) (a'b') in the figure F'.
222
RECIPEOCATION
Thus the theorem

following
of the
figure
reciprocates into the
If two triangles whose sides are ahc, a!h'c' respectively be such that the three intersections of the corresponding sides are collinear, then the lines joining corresponding vertices, viz.
{ah)
and
{a'V),
(fio)
and
(b'c'),
(ca)
and (cV), are concurrent.

^=\aa'
Fig. F'.
The two
stated thus
reciprocal theorems placed side
by
side
may be
Triangles in perspective are

coaxal.
Goaooal triangles are in perspective.
The student
will
of course have realised that a triangle
regarded as three lines does not reciprocate into another triangle

regarded as three
lines,
but into one regarded as three points
and
vice versa.
223.
Let us now connect together by reciprocation the

property of
the
quadrilateral
harmonic
and
that
of
the
quadrangle.
Let
a, b,
c,
d be the
lines of the quadrilateral
A, B,
G,
D the
corresponding points of the quadrangle.
EECIPEOCATION
Cac)
223
(bd)
Fig. F.
Let the
line joining (ab)

(ac)
and (cd) be p, and (bd) be q, (ad) and (be) be r.
Fig. F'.
224
EECIPROCATION

symbolically thus
of the quadrilateral
is
expressed
{{ah){cd\{pr){pq)]
[{ad){hG),{pr){qr)]
= -'i., =-1,
{{ac){hd),{pq){<ir)]=-l.
The
reciprocation gives
[{AB){GD),{PR){PQ)} = -1, {(AD)(BC).{PR)(QR)} = -1, {(AG){BD),{PQ)(QR)}=-1.

If these be interpreted on the figure
we have the harmonic

sides
property of the quadrangle,
viz.
that the two
of the
diagonal triangle at each vertex are harmonic conjugates with
the two sides of the quadrangle which pass through that vertex.
The student
sees
now
that the
'diagonal points' of a
quadrangle are the reciprocals of the diagonal lines of the Hence the term quadrilateral from which it is derived.
'diagonal points.'
224.
to
a conic For
Prop. An involution range reciprocates with into an involution pencil.

the involution range be
respect
let
A, A,; B,B,]
on a line p.
C,
Ci&c.
be
The
c, Ci
pencil obtained
by reciprocation
will
a, Ojj b,
bi',
&c. through a point P.
Also
and
But
Thus the
225.
= (ABGA^) = {A,B,G,A) by 215. (ABGA,) = (AAG.A) by 78. (abcoi) = (aJ)iCia).

(abca,)
{aAcia)
pencil
is
in involution.
Involution property of the quadrang;le
and
quadrilateral.
Prop. Any transversal cuts the pairs of opposite sides of a quadrangle in pairs of points which are in involution.
KECIPROCATION
Let
225
A BOB
be the quadrangle
( 76).
Let a transversal
cut
the opposite pairs of sides

)> jj
ji
i>
AB, AC,
CD
in E, E^,
BD in F,F
G, G,.
>}
i>
AD, BC in
Let
AD and BC meet in P.
(GEFG^) = A {GEFG,) = (PBGC,)
Then
= D(PBCG,) = (GF,EA) = (GiEiF:,G) by
interchanging the
letters in pairs.
Ud)
(be)
Hence E,
A. G.
E-,
F,
F-^^;
G, Gi belong to the
same involution.
15
226
EECIPEOOATION
We
have only to reciprocate the above theorem to
obtain,
this other
The lines joining any point to the pairs of opposite a complete quadrilateral form a pencil in involution.
vertices
of
Thus
in our figure T,
which corresponds to the transversal t,

{ac), (bd)
;
joined to the opposite pairs of vertices

(ab), (cd) gives
(ad), (be)
an involution
The
circles
pencil.
226.
Prop.
described on the three diagonals
of a complete quadrilateral are coaxal.
Let AB, BG, CD,
DA
be the four sides of the quadrilateral.
The
Let
diagonals are
AG, BD, EF.

circles
be a point of intersection of the
on
AG and
BD
as diameters.
..
APG and BPD
are right angles.
But PA, PG; PB, PD; PE,

.-.
PF
are in involution ( 225),
by
86 Z
..
the circle
EPF is a right angle. on EF as diameter goes through P,
RECIPROCATION
Similarly the circle on
227
the other point of
intersection of the circles on
EF goes through BD and AG.
That
Cor.
is,
the three circles are coaxal.

points of the three diagonals of a quadri-
The middle
lateral are collinear.
This important and well-known property follows at once,

since these middle points are the centres of three coaxal circles.
The
line containing these
middle points
is
sometimes called
the diameter of the quadrilateral.

227.
Desargues' theorem.
same
involution.
Conies through four given points are cut by any transversal

in pairs of points belonging to the
Let a transversal t cut a conic through the four points A, B, C, D in P and P^.
AB, CD; AG, BD We now have
Let the same transversal cut the two pairs of opposite sides of the quadrangle in E, E^\ F, F^.
{PEFP,)=A{PEFP;) = A (PBCP,) = i)(PC'A) by 212 = {PF,E,P,) = (PÊ^FiP) by interchanging

letters in pairs.
.-.
the
P, P, belong to the
involution determined
by E, E^;
162
F, P..
228
EECIPEOCATION
Thus
t
all
the conies through
ABGD
will cut the transversal
in pairs of points belonging to the
same
involution.
Desargues' theorem,
Note that the proposition of 225 is only a special case of if the two lines AD, BC be regarded as one
of the conies through the four points. 228.
As we
is
shall presently see, the reciprocal of Desargues'
theorem
the following
If conies touch four given lines the pairs of tangents to them from any point in their plane belong to the same involution
pencil,
namely that determined by
the lines joining the point to
the pairs of opposite vertices of the quadrilateral formed by the four lines.
Reciprocation applied to conies.

229.
We
are
is
now going on
to explain
how the
principle of
Reciprocation
applied to conies.
Suppose the point

will envelope
conic r, the line p, which
P describes a curve S in the plane of the is the polar of P with regard to P,

will
some curve which we
denote by
S'.
Tangents to S' then correspond to points on

observe further that tangents to
but we must
S'.
correspond to points on
For
let
P and P' be two near points

lines.
on 8, and
let
and p'
be the corresponding
Then
the point (pp') corresponds to the line

as
(PP).
Now
at of
P' moves up to P, {PP') becomes the tangent to S and at the same time (pp') becomes the point of contact
p with its envelope. Hence to tangents of S correspond points on S'. Each of the curves S and 8' is called the polar reciprocal of
the other with respect to the conic T.
230.
Prop,
G,
If 8
be
a conic then 8'
is
another conic.
Let A, B, point on 8.
he four fixed points on 8, and
P any other
Then
P(ABGD)
is
constant.
RECIPROCATION
229
But
.-.
P (ABGD) = {(pa) (pb) (pc) (pd)]

is
by
215.
{(pa){pb)(pc)(pd)]
the envelope of
constant.
a, b, c,
.*.
is
a conic touching the lines
( 214).
Hence S'
follows.
is
a conic.
This important proposition might have been proved as

S,
being a conic,
is
straight lines in its plane cut
a curve of the second order, that is, it in two and only two points, real
or imaginary.
Therefore S' must be a curve of the second class, that is a curve such that from each point in its plane two and only two tangents can be drawn to it that is, S' is a conic.
;
231.
Prop.
If S and S'
be
two conies reciprocal
to
each
other with respect to a conic V, then pole
and polar of S
corre-
spond
to
polar and pole of S' and vice versa.
Let
that
P and TU be pole
and polar of
S.
[It is
most important that the student should understand
polar of
TU is the polar of P with respect to S, not to F. P with respect to F is the line we denote by p.]
The
Let
QR
be any chord of S which passes through
then the
tangents at
Q and R meet
{qr)
in the line
TU,
at
T say.
(tu) are so related
t
Therefore in the reciprocal figure

that
if
p and
(tu).
any point
be taken on p, the chord of contact
of
tangents from
..
it to
S' passes through
p and
(tu) are polar
and pole with respect
to S'.

230
CoE.
CoE.
1.
EECIPEOCATION
Conjugate points of 8 reciprocate into conjugate and vice versa.
lines of S'
2.
self-conjugate triangle of
will reciprocate into
a self-conjugate triangle oi S'.

232.
We
will
now
set forth
some
reciprocal theorenas in
parallel columns.
1.
If
a conic be inscribed in
(i.e.
If a conic be circumscribed
a triangle
a three-side iigure),
to
triangle
(a
three-point
the Joining lines of the vertices of the triangle and the points of
contact of the conic with the
opposite sides are concurrent.
figure),
the intersections of the the triangle with the
sides
of
tangents at the opposite vertices

are collinear.
(ab)
2.
The
six points of
inter-
The
vertices
six
of of
lines
joining
the the
section with the sides of a triangle

of the lines joining the opposite
triangle
to the
of
points
intersection
vertices to
two
fixed points lie
opposite sides
and two
fixed lines
on a
conic.
envelope a conic.
of inter-
3.
The three points
The three
lines joining the
section of the opposite sides of
opposite vertices of each of the

six-point figures
each of the six-side figures formed by joining six points on a conic

are collinear.
Pascal's theorem.
formed by the
lines
intersections
of
touching
conic
are
concurrent.
Brianchon's theorem.
4.
If a conic circumscribe a
If
quadrangle, the triangle formed
quadrilateral, the triangle
a conic be inscribed in a formed

is self -conjugate
by
its
diagonal points
is
self-
by
its
diagonals
conjugate for the conic.
for the conic.
RECIPROCATION
233.
bola,
231
Prop.
The conic S'
is
an
is
ellipse,
parabola or hyper-
according as the centre of
within, on, or without S.
lines
For the centre of F reciprocates into the line at infinity, and through the centre of F into points on the line at infinity.
Hence tangents
tangents to
to
from the centre of
will reciprocate
into points at infinity on S',
and the points
of contact of these
S'.
S
if
will reciprocate into the
asymptotes of
Hence
the centre of
is
be outside S, S' has two real
asymptotes and therefore

If the centre of
line at infinity, that
a hyperbola.
viz.
F
is,
be on S, S' has one asymptote,

S'
is
the
a parabola.
If the centre of
is
be within S, S' has no real asymptote and
therefore an ellipse.
234.
Case where F
it
is
circle.
If the auxiliary or base conic

will
be a
circle (in
which case we
denote
by G and
its
centre by 0) a further relation exists
between the two figures

obtain.
and F' which does not otherwise
to
The polar of a point P with respect to being perpendicular OP, we see that all the lines of the figure F or F' are
to the corresponding points
perpendicular to the lines joining

of the figure F' or F.
And
is
thus the angle between any two lines in the one figure
equal to the angle subtended at
by the
line joining the
corresponding points in the other.
In
to
particulai- it
may be
noticed that if the tangents from

is
S are
For
at right angles, then S'

if
a rectangular hyperbola.
OP
and
OQ
are the tangents to S, the asymptotes of
S' are the polars of

at right angles since
P and
POQ
with respect to G, and these are
is
a right angle.
If then a parabola be reciprocated with respect to a circle
whose centre
circle,
is
on the
directrix, or a central conic

its
be recipro-
cated with respect to a circle with
centre on the director
a rectangular hyperbola
let it
is
always obtained.
Further
be noticed that a triangle whose orthocentre
232
is
EECIPROCATION
will reciprocate into
at
another triangle also having

easily
its
orthocentre
himself.
at
0.
This the student can
verify
for
235.
It can
now be seen
that the two following propositions
are connected by reciprocation

1.
The orthocentre of a triangle circumscribing a parabola The orthocentre of a triangle inscribed in a rectangular
lies
lies
on the directrix.
2.
hyperbola
on the curve.
These two propositions have been proved independently

< 95, 130).
Let us now see how the second can be derived from the
first
by
reciprocation.
Let the truth of (1) be assumed.

Reciprocate with respect to a circle
at the orthocentre of the triangle.
having
its
centre
Now
the parabola touches the line at infinity, therefore the
pole of the line at infinity with respect to C, viz. 0, lies on the

reciprocal curve.
And
is
the reciprocal curve is a rectangular hyperbola because on the directrix of the parabola.
is
Further
also the orthocentre of the reciprocal of the
triangle circumscribing the parabola.
Thus we
see that if a rectangular hyperbola be circum-
scribed to a triangle, the orthocentre lies on the curve.

It is also clear that no conies but rectangular hyperbolas can
pass through the

236.
respect to
vertices
of a triangle and
its orthocentre.
Prop. If 8 be a circle and we reciprocate with a circle G whose centre is 0, S' will be a conic having
be the centre of
S.
for a focus. Let
Let p be any tangent to S, Q its point of contact. Let P be the pole of p, and a the polar of A with respect toG.
Draw
PM perpendicular to
a.
EECIPROCATION
233
Then
theorem
since J.Q
(
is
perpendicular to p,
we have by Salmon's
17)
OP
^PM
-r-r.
0A~ AQ'
-rrn
PM = the constant AQ
P which
is is
Thus the
is
locus of
a point on the reciprocal curve

directrix the
a conic whose focus
0,
and corresponding
polar of the centre of S.
Since the eccentricity of S'

ellipse, parabola, or
OA
is
-jj!.
we
see that S'

is
is
an
hyperbola according as
in
within, on, or
without
S.
This
is
agreement with
233.
Cor. having
is
The
polar reciprocal of a conic with respect to a circle

is
its
centre at a focus of the conic
circle,
whose centre
the reciprocal of the corresponding directrix.
237. Let us now reciprocate with respect to a circle the theorem that the angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
Let
be the centre of
S,
KL
any diameter, Q any point on
the circumference.
directrix a,
In the reciprocal figure we have corresponding to and a point {kl) on it corresponds to {KL).
the
234
k and
I
RECIPEOCATION
are tangents from (kl) to ;S' which correspond to is the tangent to 8' corresponding to Q.
and L, and q
Now {QK)
angle at
and (QZ) are at right angles.

{ql)
Therefore the line joining {qk) and

the focus of S'
reciprocal
subtends a right
Hence the
theorem
is
that the intercept on any
tangent to a conic between two tangents which intersect in the

directrix subtends
a right angle
at the focus.
238.
Prop.
system of non-intersecting coaxal circles can
be reciprocated into confocal conies.
Let
and L' be the limiting points of the system of
circles.
Reciprocate with respect to a circle
G whose
centre
is
at L.
Then
one
focus.
all
the circles will reciprocate into conies having
for
the circles
circle.
Moreover the centre of the reciprocal conic of any one of is the reciprocal of the polar of L with respect to that
RECIPROCATION
235
But the polar

line
of
for all the circles is the same, viz. the

( 22).
through L' perpendicular to the line of centres
Therefore
well as a
all
the reciprocal conies have a

focus.
all
common
centre as
common
Therefore they
are confocal.
239.
have a second common
focus, that
is,
they
We know that if
of the coaxal system touching
be a common tangent to two circles them at P and Q, PQ subtends a
right angle at L.
Now
L.
reciprocate this with regard to a circle with its centre

circles
The two
of the system
t
reciprocate into confocal
conies, the
common
tangent
reciprocates into a
common
point
to
of the confocals, and the points
and Q into the tangents
the confocals at the
common
point.
Hence
confocal conies cut at right angles.

is
This fact
of course
known and
easily
proved otherwise.
We are
240.
here merely illustrating the principles of reciprocation.
Again it is known (see Ex. 40 of Chap. XIII) that if /Si and S be two circles, L one of the limiting points, and P and Q points on S^ and S^ respectively such that PLQ is a right
ano-le,
the envelope of
reciprocate
PQ
is
a conic having a focus at L.
Now
having
this
property with respect to a circle
its
centre at L.
S^ and S^ reciprocate into confocals with
236
BECIPEOCATION
;
one focus the points P and Q reciprocate into tangents to and /S/, viz. p and q, which will be at right angles and the line (PQ) reciprocates into the point {pq).
L as
Si
As the envelope
of
{PQ)
is
a conic with a focus at L,
it
follows that the locus of {pq) is a circle.
Hence we have the theorem

be at right angles, the locus
If two tangents from a point

of
This also
241.
is
T, one to each
of two confocals,
T is
circle.
a well-known property of confocals.

will
We
conclude
this
chapter
by proving two
reciprocal
theorems, the one having reference to two triangles which are

self-conjugate for a conic, the other to
for
two triangles
a conic.
Prop.
If two
triangles he self-conjugate to the
same
conic
their six vertices lie
on a conic and their six sides touch a
conic.
Let ABG, A'B'G' be the two triangles self-conjugate with

respect to a conic S. Project
into a circle with
projected into the centre;
then (using small letters for the projections) ab, ac are conjugate
diameters and are therefore at right angles, and b and
the line at infinity.
c lie
on
Further
a'b'c' is
a triangle self-conjugate for the

is
circle.
..a the centre of the circle

triangle.
the orthocentre of this
RECIPROCATION
Let a conic be placed through the
five points a' ,
b',
237
c,
and
6.
This must be a rectangular hyperbola, since as we have seen no conies but rectangular hyperbolas can pass through the vertices of a triangle and its orthocentre.
ColoÂ
on the conic through the five points named above, since the line joining the two points at infinity on a rectangular hyperbola must subtend a right angle at any point.
.*.
c also lies
Hence the
..
six points a,
b, c, a', b', c
all lie
lie
on a on a
conic.
the six points A, B, C, A', B", G' also
conic.
The second part
of the proposition follows at once
by
reciprocating this which
we have just
proved.
242.
Prop.
If two
triangles are reciprocal for
conic,
they are in 'perspective.
Let ABC, A'B'C be two triangles which are reciprocal for the conic S; that is to say, A is the pole of B'C, B the pole of C'A', C the pole of A'B' and consequently also A' is the pole ofBC, of GA, and G' of AB.
;
Project
..
into a circle with the projection of

ai-e
for its centre.
B" and G'
238
BECIPEOCATION
Using small
is
letters for the projection,
we
see that, since a'
the pole of
he,
aa
is
perpendicular to
be.
Also since
bb'
b' is
the pole of
ac, ah' is
perpendicular to ac
which
is
parallel to ab' is perpendicular to ac.
Similarly
.". ..
ec' is
perpendicular to ab.
triangle abc.
aa', bb', cc'
meet in the orthocentre of the
AA', BB', CG' are concurrent.
EXERCISES
1.
If the conies
S and
S' be reciprocal polars with respect to
the conic V, the centre of S' corresponds to the polar of the centre
of
r with
2.
respect to S.
Parallel lines reciprocate into points collinear with the centre
of the base conic V.

3.
Shew
that a quadrangle can be reciprocated into a parallelo-
gram.
RECIPROCATION
4.
239
:
Reciprocate with respect to any conic the theorem

is
The locus
of the poles of a given line with respect to conies passing through
four fixed points
conic.
Exx. 5
5.
Reciprocate with respect to a circle the theorems contained in 12 inclusive.
The perpendiculars from the

The tangent
vertices of a triangle
on the
opposite sides are concurrent.

6.
to a circle is perpendicular to the radius through
the point of contact.

7.
Angles in the same segment of a
circle are equal.
8.
The
opposite angles of a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle
are together equal to two right angles.
The angle between the tangent at any point of a circle and 9. a chord through that point is equal to the angle in the alternate segment of the circle.
10.
The polar
of
a point with respect to a
circle is
perpen-
dicular to the line joining the point to the centre of the circle.
11.
The
locus of the intersection of tangents to a circle which

is
cut at a given angle

12.
a concentric
circle.
Chords
of
circle
which subtend a constant angle at the
centre envelope a concentric circle.

13.
Two
conies
having double contact will reciprocate into
conies having double contact.

14.
circle
.S
is
reciprocated by
means
of
circle
into a
conic
^">'.
Prove that the radius of
is
the geometric
mean between
the radius of
15.
5 and the
semi-latus rectum of 5'.
Prove that with a given point as focus four conies can be

triangle,
will equal the latus
drawn circumscribing a given latera recta of three of them

fourth.
and that the sum rectum
of the of the
prove 16. Conies have a focus and a pair of tangents common that the corresponding directrices will pass through a fixed point, and all the centres lie on the same straight line.
;
17.
Prove, by reciprocating with respect to a circle with

iS,
its
centre at
the theorem
If a triangle
ABC
circumscribe a parabola
240
RECIPKOCATION
whose focus is S, the lines through A, B, to SA, SB, SO are concurrent.

18.
C perpendicular
respectively
Conies are described with, one of their foci at a fixed point
S, so that
the same angle of given magnitude at
each of the four tangents from two fixed points subtends Prove that the directrices <S'.
corresponding to the focus
S pass
through a fixed point.
19. If be any point on the common tangent to two parabolas with a common focus, prove that the angle between the other tangents from to the parabolas is equal to the angle between the
axes of the parabolas.
and has one focus at shew that the corresponding directrix is perpendicular to 10 and meets it in a point such that 10 OX=AO. OB, where / is the centre of the inscribed circle of the triangle, and D is the foot of the perpendicular from A on BG. Shew also how to find
20.
A conic circumscribes the triangle ABC,

;
0, the ortbocentre
the centre of the conic.

21.
Prove that chords of a conic which subtend a constant angle
at a given point on the conic will envelope a conic.
[Reciprocate into a parabola by means of a circle having its

centre at the fixed point.]
22.
its lie
If a triangle
centre
be reciprocated with respect to a circle having on the circumcircle of the triangle, the point will also
of the recg)rocal triangle.
on the circumcircle
23.
Prove the following and obtain from it by reciprocation If from any point pairs of tangents ^, p' q, q', be drawn to two confocals Si and S^, the angle between p and q is equal to the angle between p' and q'.
a theorem applicable to coaxal circles
;
:
24.
Prove and
:
reciprocate
with
respect
if
to
any conic the
following
If
ABC
be a triangle, and
the polars of A, B,
sides
with
respect to
any conic meet the opposite

coUinear.
in
P, Q, B, then
P, Q,
R are
25.
A fixed
point
the extremities
and
B of
in the plane of a given circle is joined to any diameter, and OA, OB meet the circle
again in
P and Q. Shew that the tangents at a fixed line parallel to the polar of 0.
26.
P and Q
intersect
on
All conies through four fixed points can be projected into
rectangular hyperbolas.
EECIPEOCATION
27.
241
If
two
triangles be reciprocal for a conic ( 242) their centre
of perspective is the pole of the axis of perspective with regard to
the conic.
28. Prove that the envelope of chords of an ellipse which tend a right angle at the centre is a concentric circle.
s\ib-
[Reciprocate with respect to a circle having

centre of the ellipse.]
29.
its
centre at the
ABC
is
triangle,
its
incentre;
A^^,
B^, Cj the points of
contact of the incircle with the sides.
/to the point
of concurrency of AA-^,
Prove that the line joining BB^, CG,^ is perpendicular to
the line of coUinearity of the intersections of BÔi, A^B^, AB.
BG
GÂ^,
GA
[Use Ex.
27.]
16
242
CHAPTER
CIRCULAR POINTS.
243.
XVIII
FOCI OF CONICS
We
have seen that pairs of concurrent lines which are

lines.
conjugate for a conic form an involution, of which the tangents
from the point of concurrency are the double
Thus conjugate diameters
of a conic are in involution, and

its
the double lines of the involution are
asymptotes.
Now
the conjugate diameters of a circle are orthogonal.

of a circle are the imaginary double
Thus the asymptotes

But
lines of the orthogonal involution at its centre.
clearly the double lines of the orthogonal involution at
one point must be parallel to the double lines of the orthogonal

involution at another, seeing that
lation, without rotation,
we may hy a motion of transinto the position of the other.
move one
Hence the asymptotes

Let
a, h
of one circle are, each to each, parallel

its plane.
,
to the asymptotes of any other circle in
be the asymptotes of one
circle C, a!
b'
of another
C, then
b'
being parallel meet on the line at being parallel meet on the line at infinity.
a, a'
infinity,
and
b,
But a and
and
b
a'
b'
meet
and
G and G' on G and G'
the line at infinity,

Therefore
G and
G' go through the same two imaginary points
on the
line at infinity.
Our
conclusion then
is
that
all circles
in a plane go through
the same two imaginary points on the line at infinity.
These
simply
two points are called

the circular points.
the circular points at infinity or,
CIRCULAR POINTS.
FOCI OF CONICS
243
The circular lines at any point are the lines joining that point to the circular points at infinity; and they are the imaginary double lines of the orthogonal involution at that point.
244.
It
Analytical point of view.

student to think of the circular lines at any for a moment to touch upon the Analytical
point
if
may help the we digress
aspect of them.
The equation
of a circle referred to
x'
its
centre
is
of the form
y^
= a\
The asymptotes
of this circle are

a?
+ y = 0,
that
is
the pair of imaginary lines
y = ix and
These two
circle.
y=
i.r.
lines are the circular lines at the centre of the
The
If
points where
they meet the line at infinity are the
circular points.
we
rotate the axes of coordinates at the centre of a circle
through any angle, keeping them still rectangular, the equation of the circle does not alter in form, so that the asymptotes will
make
angles tan~'
{i)
and tan~^ (
i)
with the new axis of x as
well as with the old.
This at
first
sight
is
paradoxical.
plained by the fact that the line y = tan~^ (i) with every line in the plane.
10;
But the paradox is exmakes the same angle
For
let
= mx
be any other line through the origin.
Then the angle

positive sense from
-1 tan^
= ix makes with = mx, is y

that y
this,
measured in the
( ^;
^-^ \ ^ =
+ im)
If
tan^
-^
I
-.
->
\1
245.
1 i-
im
= tan
%.
Prop.
ft'
AOB
be
an angle of constant magnitude
and n,
(12,
he the circular points, the cross-ratios of the pencil

constant.
O',
A, B) are
162
244 For
T^
CIECULAE POINTS.
r, /nLn,' (nn,' ^
FOCI OF CONICS
sill
AT,\ AB)=-. ^p sm AOil jT^TT, ' sm ilOB
sin flOfl'
AOB
all
but the angles

circular lines
0.00,',
HOB, AOO!
are
constant since the
make
the same angle with every line in the plane,

hypothesis.
is
and
lAOB is constant by
..
(OO'AB)
constant.
246.
Prop.
All conies passing through the circular points
are
circles.
Let
points,
C be the centre of a conic S passing through the circular which we will denote by XI and O'.
CD,' are the
Then OO,
asymptotes of
S.
But the asymptotes are the double formed by pairs of conjugate diameters.
lines of the involution
And
that
is
the double lines completely determine an involution,
to say there can be only one involution with the

lines.
same
double
Thus the conjugate diameters

Hence 8
is
a,
of
are
all
orthogonal.
circle.
The circular points
may
be utilised
of
conies passing through two or
for establishing properties more fixed points.
For a system of conies

This
will
is
all
passing through the same two
points can be projected into circles simultaneously.

effected
by projecting two points into the
circular
points on the plane of projection.
The
projections of the conies
now go through
all circles.
the circular points in the
new plane and so

is
they are
The student
of course understands that such a projection
an imaginary one.
247.
We
will
now proceed
to
an illustration of the use of

is

It can
be seen at once that any transversal
cut by a system
of coaxal circles in pairs of points in involution (the centre of

this involution being the point of intersection of the line
with
the axis of the system).
CIRCULAR POINTS.
FOCI OF CONICS
245
227),
From
this follows at once Desargues'
theorem
namely
that conies through four points cut any transversal in pairs of

points in involution.
For
if
we
all
the conies
system, for
two of the points into the circular points circles. Moreover the circles form a coaxal they have two other points in common.
project
become
Hence Desargues' theorem

tion property of coaxal circles.
is
seen to follow from the involu-
The
in
involution property of coaxal circles again
is
a particular
case of Desargues' theorem, for coaxal circles have four points
common, two being the

all
circular points,
and two the points in
which
the circles are cut by the axis of the system.
248.
We
:
will
now make use
of the circular points to prove

to
the theorem If a triangle he self-conjugate

bola
its
a rectangular hyper-
circumcircle passes through the centre of the hyperbola.
Let
be the centre of the rectangular hyperbola,

Xl, fi'
ABG
the
self-conjugate triangle,

is
Now
observe
first
that Onfi'
a self-conjugate triangle for
For OH, OD! are the double lines to which the asymptotes, being of the orthogonal involution at Therefore 012, OH' belong to the inat right angles, belong.
the rectangular hyperbola.
volution whose double lines are the asymptotes
( 82),
that
is
the involution formed by pairs of conjugate lines through 0.

..
on, on'
is
are conjugate lines,
and
is
the pole of
OO'
which
..
the line at infinity.

is
Onn'
a self-conjugate triangle.
self-conjugate triangle.
D,,
Also
.-.
ABG is a
the six points A, B, 0, 0,
O'
all lie
and this conic

.'.
must be a
circle as it passes
through
on a conic ( 241); D, and fl'.
A, B,
C,
are concyclic.
CoR.
its
If a rectangular hypei-bola circumscribe a triangle,

lies
centre
on the nine-points
is
circle.
This well-known theorem

proposition, for the
a particular case of the above

is
pedal triangle
self-conjugate
for
the
rectangular hyperbola.
(Ex. 21, Chapter XIV.)
246
249.
finity.
CIRCULAR POINTS.
FOCI OF CONICS
Prop.
Concentric circles have double contact at in-
For
if

all
circles, il, D,'
the circular
points at infinity,
the circles touch Oil and Oil' at the points
O and
II
fl'.
That is, and ft'.

250.
all
the circles touch one another at the points
Foci of Conies.
Every conic has four foci, two of which lie on one and are real, and two on the other axis and are
Prop.
imaginary.
axis of the conic
Since conjugate lines at a focus form an orthogonal involution, and since the tangents from any point are the double lines of the involution formed by the conjugate lines there, it follows that the circular lines through a focus are the tangents to the conic from that point.
But the
circular lines at
any point go through
li
and
Xi'
the
circular points.
Thus the
tangents from
foci
of the conic will be obtained
and O'
to the conic,
by drawing and taking their four
points of intersection.
Hence there
were
are four
foci.
To help the imagination, construct a

real points.
figure as if 1
and
fl'
Draw tangents from

opposite vertices as also
these points to the conic and let S,
S',
F, F' be their points of intersection as in the figure; S, S' being
F and
F'.
Let FF' and SS' intersect in 0.
Now
is
the triangle formed by the diagonals FF', SS' and

it
ilil'
self-conjugate for the conic, because
touches the sides of
the quadrilateral.
..
(Reciprocal of 119
D,Q,', i.e.
a.)
is
the pole of
of the line at infinity.
..
is
the centre of the conic.
CIRCULAR POINTS.
Further Ofifl'
is
FOCI OF CONICS
247
the diagonal, or harmonic, triangle of the
qu&drangle SS'FF'.
.-.
0{!:in',FS)
= -l.
(76)
..
OF and OS are conjugate

OF and OS are
lines in the involution of
which
OXi and 00,' are the double

..
lines.
at right angles.
And OF and OS
triangle formed
for
are conjugate lines for the conic since the
the conic;
by the diagonals FF', SS', D,D.' is self-conjugate and is, as we have seen, the centre.
..
OF and
OS, being orthogonal conjugate diameters, are the

pairs of foci, one on one axis
axes.
Thus we have two

other on the other axis.
and the
Now we know
if
that two of the
foci,
say
S and
S', are real.
It follows that the other two,
F and F',
are imaginary.
F were real,
.".
the line
is
FS
would meet the
line at infinity in
For a
real point,
which
not the case.
F and F'
must be imaginary.
Cob.
concyclic.
to the conic
The lines joining non-corresponding foci are tangents and the points of contact of these tangents are
248
251.
CIRCULAE POINTS.
FOCI OF CONICS
Prop.
system of conies touching the sides of a
quadrilateral can be projected into confocal conies.
Let
being
ABGD be the quadrilateral, the pairs of opposite vertices

F.
^,C; B,D; E,
Project
E and F into
B,
the circular points at infinity on the
plane of projection.
.'.
A,
C and
by
D project into
the foci of the conies in the
projection,
250.
CoR.
lines.
Confocal conies form a system of conies touching four
252.
We
will
now make
use of the notions of this chapter

is
to prove the following theorem, which
not unimportant.
If
the sides
of two triangles
lie
all
touch the
same
conic, the six
vertices
of the triangles all
on a conic.
all
Let ABG,
A'B'C be
S.
the two triangles the sides of which
touch the same conic
Denote the circular points on the jection by o), ft)'.
tt
plane or plane of pro-
Project
B and
into
w and
';
.'.
^projects into a parabola,
since the projection of
touches the line at infinity.
Further will project into the focus of the parabola, since the tangents from the focus go through the circular points.
CIRCULAR POINTS.
Using corresponding small
FOCI OF CONICS
249
letters in the projection,
we
see
that, since the circumcircle of a triangle
whose
sides touch a
parabola goes through the focus,

.".
.-.
a, a',
lie
b',
are concyclic.
circle.
a, al,
b', c', Q), co'
on a
A, B,
C, A', B',
lie
on a
conic.
The converse
reciprocation.
of the above proposition follows at once
by
253.
We
have in the preceding

if lie
article obtained a proof of
the general proposition that a conic, their six vertices

of what
is
the sides of two triangles touch
on another conic by the projection

viz.
a particular case of this proposition,

focus.
is
that the
circumcircle of a triangle whose sides touch a parabola passes
through the
This process
known
as generalising by projection.
it.
We
will
proceed to give further illustrations of

254.
Let us denote the circular points in the
plane by
O, n', and their projections on the ir plane by co, a>'. Then of coui-se a> and a>' are not the circular points in the tt plane. But
by a proper choice of the tt plane and the vertex of projection CO and co' may be any two points we choose, real or imaginary. For if we wish to project D, and fl' into the points co and co' in
space,
we have only
to take as our vertex of projection

coO,
the
point of intersection of bhe lines

TT
and
co'.
co'D,',
and as the plane
some plane passing through

255.
co
and
The
following are the principal properties connecting

tt
figures in the
p and
planes
when il and
fl'
are projected into
co
and
co':
1.
Circles in the
o)
p
tt
plane project into conies through the

plane.
points
2.
and
<'
in the
Parabolas in the
in the
tt
plane project into conies touching the
line
coco'
plane.
3.
Rectangular hyperbolas in the
plane, for which, as
we
have seen, H and fl' are conjugate points, project into conies having co and co' for conjugate points.
250
4.
CIECULAE POINTS.
FOCI OF CONICS
The
centre of a conic in the
plane, since it
&>&)'.
is
the pole
of
flfl',
5.
projects into the pole of the line
Concentric circles in the
plane project into conies

ir
having double contact at

6.
o and
ay
in the
plane.
pair of lines
OA,
OB
at right angles in the
plane
project into a pair of lines oa, oh harmonically conjugate with

00),
oa>'.
This follows from the fact that OO, OH' are the
double lines of the involution to which OA,

therefore
OB
it
belong, and
follows that
0{AB, iin')= -
1 ( 82); from
which
o{ah,
7.
&)&)')
= 1.
focus in the
A conic with S as
the two foci
plane will project into

it
a conic touching the lines sw, sw in the
plane.
And
S and
a>
8' of a conic in the
plane will pro-
ject into the vertices of the quadrilateral formed
by drawing
tangents from
plane.
m and
to the projection of the conic in the
256.
Q)
It is of importance that the student should realise that
and
(o
are not the circular points in the
ir
plane
when they
plane
are the projections of
and
fl'.
In
by
0)
252 we have denoted the circular points in the and w, but they are not there the projections of the
tt
circular
points in the
plane.
Our
to'
practice has been to use small letters to represent the
projections of the corresponding capitals.

for the projection of D,
and O'
respectively.
So then we use (o and If O and D! are
the circular points in the

points in the
-it
plane,
if
plane; and
w and ' are not the circular w and w' are the circular points in
plane.
TT plane, 12 and D! are not the circular points in the p That is to say, only one of the pairs can be circular points same time.
the
at the
257.
isation
We
will
now proceed
to
some examples of general-
by
projection.
is
Consider the theorem that the radius of a circle to any point perpendicular to the tangent at A.
CIECULAR POINTS.
FOCI OF CONICS
co
251
the centre
Project the circle into a conic through
and
';
of the circle projects into the pole of mm'.
The
(o,
generalised theorem
c,
is
w
t
of a conic meet in
and a
that if the tangents at two points be any point on the conic and
the tangent there
a(tc, 0)0)')=
1.
Next consider the theorem that angles in the same 258. segment of a circle axe equal. Let AQB be an angle in the segment of which AB is the base. Project the circle into a conic through o) and o)' and we get the theorem that if q be any point on a fixed conic through the four points a, b, co, co', q {abwco') is
constant
( 245).
Thus
ment of a
of conies.
the property
circle generalises into the constant cross-ratio
of the equality of angles in the same segproperty
252
259.
CIECULAE POINTS.
FOCI OF CONICS
Again we have the property of the rectangular hyperPQR be a triangle inscribed in it and having a right angle at P, the tangent at P is at right angles to QR.
bola that if
Project the rectangular hyperbola into a conic having

Q)'
at
and
for conjugate points
and we get the following property.
any point on a conic for which a and m are conjugate points and q, r two other points on the conic such that
If p
be
p
h
{qr, 0)0)')
(pq,
=1 0)0)') = 1.
Lastly
and if
the tangent at
meet qr in k then
260.
we
will generalise
by projection the theorem
that chords of a circle which touch a concentric circle subtend
a constant angle at the centre.
CIRCULAR POINTS.
FOCI OF CONICS
253
Let PQ be a chord of the outer circle touching the inner and subtending a constant angle at C the centre.
The
points
concentric circles have double contact at the circular
contact at
and fi' and a> and to'.

is
so project into
two conies having double
The centre
the pole of
fifl'
and so
c,
the projection of
G, is the pole of aw'.
The property we obtain by

If two
projection
is
then:
conies have double contact at two points

c,
m and
be
m'
and
if the tangents at these points meet in
and if pq
any
cJiord
of the outer conic touching the inner

constant.
conic, then c (pqcoio') is
EXERCISES
be the centre of a conic, O, O' the and if OOO' be a self-conjugate triangle conic must be a rectangular hyperbola.
1.
If
circular points at
infinity,
for the conic, the
through two given points P and P', shew that the chord which joins the points of contact of these two straight lines will always meet PF' in a fixed point.
2.
If a variable conic pass
and touch two given straight
lines,
3.
If three conies have
two points in common, the opposite
common chords
of the conies taken in pairs are concurrent.
4. Two conies S-^ and S^ circumscribe the quadrangle ABCD. Through A and B lines AEF, BOH are drawn cutting S^ in ând G, and Si in F and H. Pi-ove that CD, EG, FH are concurrent. 5.
If a conic pass through
two given
points,
and touch a given
conic at a given point, its chord of intersection with the given conic
passes through a fixed point.
be the circular points at infinity, the two imaginary coincide with O and fi', and the centre and second parabola foci of a real focus of the parabola coincide with the point of contact of liO'
6.
If O, n'
with the parabola.
254
7.
CIRCULAB POINTS.
If a conic
FOCI OF CONICS
be drawn through the four points of intersection
of
two given
conies,
and through the intersection of one pair
of
common tangents, it also passes through the intersection pair of common tangents.
of the other
Prove that, if three conies pass through the same four points, 8. a common tangent to any two of the conies is out harmonically by
the third.
9.
Reciprocate the theorem of Ex.

If
8.
10.
from two points P, P' tangents be drawn to a

all lie
conic, the
four points of contact of the tangents with the eonic,
and the points
P and
11.
P'
on a
conic.
[Project
P and
P' into the circular points.]

combination of three
If out of four pairs of points every
pairs gives six points
on a
conic, either the four conies thus deterlines
mined coincide or the four

points are concurrent.
12.
determined by the four pairs of
Generalise
by
projection the theorem that the locus of the

is
centre of a rectangular hyperbola circumscribing a triangle

nine-points circle of the triangle.
13.
the
Generalise by projection the theorem that the locus of the

self-conjugate
centre of a rectangular hyperbola with respect to which a given

triangle
14.
is is
the circumcircle.
circular points
Given that two lines at right angles and the lines to the form a harmonic pencil, find the reciprocals of the circular points with regard to any circle.
point
Deduce that the polar reciprocal of any circle with regard to any to the circular points as tangents, and has the lines from
the reciprocal of the centre of the circle for the corresponding chord
of contact.
Prove and generalise by projection the following theorem of the circle circumscribing a triangle which is selfconjugate with regard to a parabola lies on the directrix.
15.
The centre
16.
P and
P' are two points in the plane of a triangle

that
ABG.
is
taken in
BC such
BG
and
DA
are harmonically conjugate
with
DP
respectively.
17.
and DP' ; E and F are similarly taken in Prove that AD, BE, CF are concurrent.
GA
:
and
AB
lines
Generalise by projection the following theorem
The
perpendicular to the sides of a triangle through the middle points of the sides are concurrent in the circumcentre of the triangle.
CIRCULAR POINTS.
18.
FOCI OF CONICS
255
sides
Generalise
of a triangle
The feet of the perpendiculars on to the from any point on the circumcircle are coUinear.
:
19. If two conies have double contact at A and B, and if PQ a chord of one of them touch the other in R and meet .4^ in T, then
(Pq,RT)^-\.
20.
Generalise by projection the theorem that confocal conies
cut at right angles.

21.
Prove and generalise that the envelope of the polar of a

is
given point for a system of confocals

of the confocals
22.
a parabola touching the axes

its directrix.
and having the given point on
system of conies pass through the four points A, B,C, B, the poles of the line AB with respect to them will lie on a line I. Moreover if this line I meet CD in P, PA and PB are harmonic
If a
conjugates of
23.
CD and
I.
pair of tangents from a fixed point
T
is
to a conic
is
third fixed tangent to the conic in
L and
L'.
meet a any point on
the conic, and on the tangent at P a point {PT, LU) = - 1 ; prove that the locus of
X
is
taken such that
a straight line.
24.
Defining a focus of a conic as a point at which each pair of
conjugate lines is orthogonal, prove that the polar reciprocal of a circle with respect to another circle is a conic having the centre of
the second circle for a focus.
256
CHAPTEK XIX
INVERSION
261. We have already in 13 explained what is meant bybeing the centre two 'inverse points' with respect to a circle. of a circle, P and P' are inverse points if they lie on the same radius and OP OP' = the square of the radius. P and P' are
.
on the same side of the centre, unless the inary radius, = ik, where k is real.
circle
have an imag-
As
curve
P describes a curve S, the point P'

S and S'
are called inverse curves.
will describe another

is called
S'.
the centre
of inversion, and the radius of the

inversion.
circle is called
the radius of
If
P describe a curve
That
in space, not necessarily a plane curve,
then
we must
consider P' as the inverse of

is,
with respect to
whether P be confined to a plane or not, if be a fixed point in space and P' be taken on OP such that OP. OP' = a constant k'', P' is called the inverse of P, and the curve or surface described by P is called the inverse of that described by P', and vice versa.
a sphere round 0.
It
is
convenient sometimes to speak of a point P' as inverse
to another point
P with respect to
a point
0.
By
this is
meant
that
is
the centre of the circle or sphere with respect to
which the points are inverse.

262.
in its plane is
Prop. The inverse of a circle with a circle or straight line.

lie
respect to
a point
First let 0, the centre of inversion,
on the
circle.
Let k be the radius of inversion.
JNVERSION
257
Draw
Let
the diameter OA, let A' be the inverse of ^.

its inverse.
P be any point on the circle, P'

OP OP' =
.
Then
.:
!c'
= OA
OA'.
PAA'P'
is cyclic.
..
the angle
AA'P'
is
the supplement of
APP', which
is
right angle.
..
^'P'
is
at right angles to
is
A A'.
.'.
the locus of P'
a straight line perpendicular to the
diameter OA, and passing through the inverse of A.
Next
Let Let
let
not be on the circumference of the
circle.
P be
any point on the
circle,
P'
its inverse.
OP cut the circle again in Q. Let A be the centre of the circle.

Then OP. OP' = A^,
and
OP OQ = sq.
.
of tangent from
to the
cii-cle
= <*
(say).
OP'Â-^
'
0Q~POB OA
^-
Take
and BP'
A. Q.
on
OA
such that
is
a fixed point
t^'
is parallel to
AQ.
17
258
INVERSION
And
BP'
-j-^
..
OB = k' = yy-j ^
a constant.
P'
describes a circle round 5,

of the circle
is
Thus the inverse
another
circle.
CoE.
1.
The
inverse of a straight line
is
a circle passing
through the centre of inversion.

CoE.
2.
If two circles be inverse each to the other, the

is
centre of inversion
a centre of similitude
( 25);
and the
radii
of the circles are to one another in the ratio of the distances of their centres from 0.
The student should observe

*Si
and
S',
and
if
OFQ
that, if we call the two circles again meet S' in Q', Q' will be the inverse
ofQ.
Note.
vice versa.
The
part of the circle
sponds to the part of the
circle S'
which which
is
is
convex to
corre-
concave to 0, and
Two
will
of the
common
tangents of
S and
S"
go through 0, and
the points of contact with the circles of each of these tangents
be inverse points.
263.
point
is
Prop. The inverse of a sphere with a sphere or a plane.
respect to
any
This proposition follows at once from the last by rotating the

figures
round
OA
as axis; in the first figure the circle

is
and
line
will generate
a sphere and plane each of which
the inverse of
the other; and in the second figure the two circles will generate
spheres each of which will be the inverse of the other.
INVEESION
259
with respect
to
264
0,
Prop.
its
not in
The inverse of a plane, is a circle.
circle
a point
For the
circle
may be
regarded as the intersection of two

0.
spheres, neither of
which need pass through
These spheres which

that
is is
will invert into spheres,
and their intersection,
the inverse of the intersection of the other two spheres,
of the original circle, will be a circle.
265.
Prop.
in
its
circle will invert into itself
with respect
to
a point
plane if the radius of inversion he the length of
the tangent to the circle from the centre of inversion.
This
is
obvious at once, for

cii-cle
if
OPQ
that
cut the
in
P and
Q,
OT be the tangent from and since OP OQ = OT'' it follows

.
P and
is,
Q
is
are inverse points.

inverts into the
That
the part of the circle concave to
part which
convex and
vice versa.
Cor.
1.
Any system of coaxal circles can
be simultaneously
inverted into themselves if the centre of invei"sion be any point on the axis of the system.
CoK.
2.
Any
three coplanar circles can be simultaneously
inverted into themselves.
For we have only to take the radical centre of the three circles as the centre of inversion, and the tangent from it as the
radius.
172
260
266.
INVERSION
Prop.
Two
coplanar curves cut at the same angle as
their inverses with respect to
any point in
their plane.
S,
Let
and Q be two near points on a curve
P' and Q'
their
inverses with respect to 0.
Then
since
OP.OP'^h'=:OQ.OQ'. .-. QPP'Q' is cyclic.
let Q move P; then Q' moves up at the same time to P' and P'Q' becomes the tangent at P' to the inverse curve S'.
Now
.:zOPQ = ÔQ'P'. up to P so that PQ becomes the tangent to
at
.'.
the tangents at
P and P' make
equal angles with OPP'.
The tangents however
are antiparallel, not parallel.
Now if we have two curves S, and S^ intersecting at P, and PTi, PT^ be their tangents there, and if the inverse curves be
INVERSION
8i',S^' intersecting at P',
261
the inverse of P, and P'T,', P'T^ be
their tangents,
/L
it
follows at once from the above reasoning that
T,PT^
= z T^P'T,'.
Si
Thus
Cor.
and S^ intersect at the same angle as their
inverses.
If two curves touch at a point
their inverses touch
at the inverse of P.
267.
Prop.
If a
circle
be inverted into
circle S',
and
P,
be inverse points with respect to S, then
P' and
Q', the in-
verses of
and Q
respectively, will be inverse points with respect
toS'.
Let
be the centre of inversion.
and Q are inverse points for S, therefore S cuts orthogonally every circle through P and Q, and in particular the circle through 0, P, Q.
Since
Therefore the inverse of the circle

gonally.
OPQ
is
will cut S' ortho-
But the
inverse of the circle
OPQ
line; since 0,
the
centre of inversion, lies on the circumference.
Therefore P'Q'
is
the inverse of the circle
OPQ.
is,
Therefore P'Q' cuts S' orthogonally, that
passes through
the centre of
S'.
it
and Q cuts S orthogonally, Again, since every circle through Q' cuts S' orthogonally and P' through circle every follows that
266).
262
Therefore, if
INVERSION
î be the centre oi S', A^P' J.1 Q' = square of radius

.
of S'.
Hence P' and Q'

268.
are inverse points for the circle S'.
Prop.
system of non-intersecting coaxal circles can
he inverted into concentric circles.
The system being non-intersecting, the

L' are
real.
limiting points
L and
Invert the system with respect to L.
Now L
circle of
and L' being inverse points with respect to each

the inversion.
centre of the circle of inversion,
its
the system, their inverses will be inverse points for
each
circle in
But
is
L being the
inverse
at infinity.
Therefore L' must invert into the centre of each
of the circles.
269.
Feuerbach's Theorem.
principles of inversion
The
may be
illustrated
by
their
application to prove Feuerbach's famous theorem,

nine-points circle of a triangle touches the inscribed
escribed circles.
viz.
that the
the three
and
Let Let
ABC
be a triangle,
its
incentre and I^
its
ecentre
opposite to A.
M and
line
M-^
be the points of contact of the incircle and

bisects the angle
this ecircle
with BG.
Let the
AII^ which
cut
BG in R.
perpendicular to BG. Let 0, P, U be the circumcentre, orthocentre and nine-points centre respectively.
Draw
AL
Draw
circle in
OD perpendicular
to
BG and let
it
meet the circum-
K.
Now since BI and BI^ are the internal and external bisectors
of angle B,
.-.
.-. .*.
(AR,II,)
i(Ê,
since
clined to
RLA is a right BG ( 27, Cor. 2).
= -\, = -!. angle, LI and

//,)
LTi are equally in-
INVERSION
.".
263
incircle
will
the polars of L with regard to the be equally inclined to BG.

the polar of
and the
ecircle
Now
Let
for
the incircle goes through
M and that
for the ecircle
through M^.
MX be the polar of L for the incircle cutting OD in X.
Then
since
B is
the middle point of
MM^
( 12,
Cor.)
.-.
AXM,D=iXMD. aXM,D = ^XMD.

L
for
.*.
MiX
is
the polar of
the
ecircle,
i.e.
and
are
conjugate points for both circles.
N be the middle point of XL, then the tangent from N to both circles = iVZ" = ND\
Let
square of the
264
-.
INVERSION
iV
is
on the radical axis of the two
circles;
but so also
is
D since DM =DM^.
.'.
ND is the radical axis, and this is perpendicular to //j.

the pedal line of
is
Now
since
goes through D, and clearly

line
also,
on the bisector of the angle A, the pedal
must
be perpendicular to
..
AK.
BN
is
the pedal line of K.

line of
But the pedal

.'.
K bisects
KP.
KNP is a straight line and N its middle point. And since U is the middle point of OP, UN = \0K.
.".
iV" is
a point on the nine-points
circle.
Now
NL.
invert the nine-points circle, the incircle

circle
and
ecircle
with respect to the
whose centre
is
N and
radius
ND
or
The two
latter circles will invert into themselves;
and the
nine-points circle will invert into the line
nine-points circle the inverse of
BG; for being on the that circle must be a line, and

.,
D and L,
But
..
points on the circle, invert into themselves,

circle.
DL
is
the inverse of the nine-points

this line touches
both the incircle and
ecircle.
the
nine-points circle
touches both the incircle and
ecircle.
Similarly
it
touches the other two
ecircles.
OoE.
inverse of
The point
of contact of the nine-points circle with
the incircle will be the inverse of M, and with the ecircle the
M
EXERCISES
1.
Prove that a system of intersecting coaxal
circles
can be
inverted into concurrent straight lines.

2.
sphere
is
inverted from a point on its surface

circles in the inverse figure.
shew that
to a system of meridians and parallels on the surface will correspond
two systems of coaxal
[See Ex. 16 of Chap. II.]
INVERSION
3. If A, , G, be four collinear points, and A', four points inverse to them, then
265
B\ C, D, the
AC .BD
4.
_ A'C B'D'
.
AB.GB~ A'B' .CD''

If
Pbe
and
Pi, P,
Ps kc. be
a point in the plane of a system of coaxal circles, its inverses with respect to the different circles
of the sj'stem, P^, Pi,

5.
Pa &c. are
concyclic.
be a fixed point in the plane of a system of coaxal circles, P' the inverse of P with respect to a circle of the system, P" the inverse of P' with respect to another circle, P'" of P" with
If
respect to another
6.
point.
and so on, then P', P", P'" (fee. are concyclic. POP', QOQ' are two chords of a circle and is a fixed Prove that the locus of the other intersection of the circles
circle.
POQ, P'OQ' is a second fixed 7. Shew that the result

circles of
circle of
of inverting at any odd number of a coaxal system is equivalent to a single inversion at one the system ; and determine the circle which is so equivalent
to three given ones in a given order.

8.
Shew
that
if
the circles inverse to two given circles

point
AGD,
two
BCD with respect to a given

(internally
P be equal, the
circle
PCD bisects
and externally) the angles

circles cut
of intersection of the
given
9.
circles.
Three
of points AA', BB',
CG'
one another orthogonally at the three pairs prove that the circles through ABC, ;
AB'G' touch at A. 10. Prove that

11.
if
the nine-points circle and one of the angular

is
points of a triangle be given, the locus of the orthocentre
circle.
Prove that the nine-points circle of a triangle touches the inscribed and escribed circles of the three triangles formed by joining
the orthocentre to the vertices of the triangle.
12.
circles
The
figures inverse to a given figure with regard to
two
if
Ci and Cj are denoted by S-^ and S^ respectively ; shew that Ci and Co cut orthogonally, the inverse of S-^ with regard to C^ also the inverse of S^ with regard to Cj.
13.
is
If A, B,
be three collinear points and
any other
point,
shew that the centres P,

the triangles
OBC, OCA,
if
R of OAB are
Q,
the three circles circumscribing

concyclic with 0.
Also that
0,
three other circles are

circles
drawn through
0,
A;
0,
B;
to
cut the
OBC, OCA,
meet
in
OAB
respecti\-ely, at
lies
riglit
angles, then these circles will
a point which
on the
circumcircle of the quadrilateral
OPQU.
266
14.
INVERSION
Shew
that
if
the circle
PAB
PBG
cut orthogonally the circle
PCD;
15.
and the
circle
PAC
cut orthogonally the circle

orthogonally.
PBD
then
the circle
PAD must
cut the circle
Prove the following construction for obtaining the point
of
contact of the nine-points circle of a triangle
ABG
with the
incircle
The
tangent
contact
bisector of the angle
meets
BG
in
H.
From
H the other
BG
cuts the
RY
Y
is
drawn
to the incircle.
The
line joining the point of
of this tangent
and
the middle point of
incircle again in the point required.

1 6.
Given the circumcircle and

is
incircle of a triangle,
shew that
the locus of the centroid

17.
circle.
A, B,
are three circles

circle.
and
a, if
b,
their inverses with
respect to
any other
Shew that
and
are inverses with

c.
respect to G, then a
18.
and
b are inverses
with respect to
A circle S is inverted
S and
into a line, prove that this line
is
the
radical axis of
19.
the circle of inversion.

circle
bisected
20.
Shew that the angle between a by the circle of inversion.
and
its
inverse
is
The perpendiculars, AL, BM, GN to the sides of a triangle meet in the orthocentre K. Prove that each of the four circles which can be described to touch the three circles about KMAN,
ABG
KNBL,
KLGM touches the
circumcircle of the triangle
A BG.
[Invert the three circles into the sides of the triangle by means of centre K, and the circumcircle into the nine-points circle.]
21.
Invert two spheres, one of which
lies
wholly within the
other, into concentric spheres. 22.
Examine the
If A, P,
particular case of the proposition of 267,

lies
where
23.
the centre of inversion
on
S.
inverses of P,
three collinear points, and if P', Q' be the with respect to 0, and if P'Q' meet OA in A-^, then
Q be
AP.AQ
.
A,P' A^Q' ~ OAi'24.
_ OA"
A circle is
A
drawn
to touch the sides
AB,
AG
of a triangle
ABG and
and the
between
to touch the circumcircle internally at
Shew
that
AB
line joining
to the point of contact with
BG
of the ecircle
opposite to
are equally inclined to the bisectors of the angles
AB
and AG.
[Invert with
as centre so that
inverts into
itself.]
267
CHAPTER XX
SIMILARITY OF FIGURES
270.
If Jf
Homothetic Figures. be a plane figure, which we may regard as an assemblage
by F, and if be a fixed point in the plane, and if on each radius vector OP, produced if necessary, a point P' be taken on the same side of as P such that OP OP' is constant (= k), then P' will determine another figure F' which is said to be similar and similarly situated to F.
of points typified
:
Two
such figures are conveniently called, in one word,
homothetic,
and the point
is
called their homothetic centre.
We
see that two homothetic figures are in perspective, the
centre of perspective being the homothetic centre.
271.
Prop.
is
The
line joining
two points in the figure

these lines are in
F is
parallel to the line joining the corresponding points in the figure
F' which
ratio.
homothetic with
it,
and
a constant
and Q be two points in F, and P', Q' the corresponding points in F', since OP OP' = OQ OQ' it follows that PQ and P'Q' are parallel, and that PQ P'Q' = OP OP' the For
if
: : :
constant ratio.
OP it is still true that PQ P'Q' = the constant ratio, for since OP:OQ = OP' OQ' OP:OQ-OP = OP' OQ' - OP
In the case where
:
is
in the line
.-.
268
.-.
OP:PQ=OP':P'Q'.
PQ:P'Q' = OP:OP'.
.:
Cor.
to
If the figures
them
at corresponding points
the tangent at
P is
F and F' be curves S and S' the tangents P and P' will be parallel. For the limiting position of the line through P
and a near point Q on S, and the tangent at P' the limiting position of the line through the corresponding points P' and Q'.
is
Prop. The homothetic centre of two homothetic figures 272. determined by two pairs of corresponding points. For if two
is
pairs of corresponding points
P,P';
Q, Q'
be given
the intersection oi
PP' and
QQ'.
Or
in the case where
is
in the line
:
PP',
:
is
determined
in this line
by the equation
OP
OP'
= PQ
P'Q'.
The point is thus uniquely determined, for OP and OP' have to have the same sign, that is, have to be in the same
direction.
Figures directly similar. If now two figures F and F' be homothetic, centre 0, and the figure F' be turned in its plane round through any angle,
273.
we
shall
have a new figure
.î
which
is
similar to
F but not now
similarly situated.
Two such
and
figures
and
F,,
are said to be directly similar
is called
their centre of similitude.
Two
directly similar figures possess the property that the
269
points
Z POPi between the lines joining to two corresponding P and Pj is constant. Also OP OPi is constant, and
:
PQ-.PiQi^the same
are similar.
constant,
and the triangles OPQ, OPiQi
274.
Prop.
If P, Pi]
Q, Qi he two pairs of corresponding
points of two figures directly similar, and if PQ, PiQi intersect is the other intersection of the circles P.RPi, QRQi. in B,
For since
zOPQ = ÔP,Q,
270
.'.
SIMILAEITY OF FIGUKES
/L
OPR and
Z OPiR
are supplementary.
/.
POP^B
is cyclic. is cyclic. is
Similarly
QfiQR
proved.
is
The centre determined by two

Cob.
It has
of similitude of two directly similar figures

pairs of corresponding points.
far that
been assumed thus

Q^.
P does
not coincide with
Pj nor with
If
coincide with Pi
then this point
is itself
the centre of
similitude.
If
P coincide with
Z P,Q, T,
Qi
we can draw
Q,T,
QT
and
Q^ T^ through
and Qi such that
= z PQT and
QT = P,Q, PQ;
:
then
T and
T^ are corresponding points in the
two
figures.
275.
When
two figures are directly
similar,
and the two
members
sides
of each pair of corresponding points are on opposite
of 0,
antihomothetic,
and collinear with it, the figures may be called and the centre of similitude is called the anti-
homothetic centre.
When
two points
two figures are antihomothetic the line joining any P and Q of the one is parallel to the line joining the
corresponding points P' and Q' of the other; but

are in opposite directions.
PQ
and P'Q'
SIMILAEITY OF FIGURES
276.
If
271
Case of two coplanar
circles.
divide the line joining the centres of two given circles externally at 0, and internally at 0' in the ratio of the radii, it
is
we
clear from 25 that
is
the homothetic centre and 0' the
antihomothetic centre
for the
two
circles.
We
spoke of these points as 'centres of similitude' before,
but we now see that they are only particular centres of similitude, and it is clear that there ai-e other centres of similitude not lying in the line of these. For taking the centre A of one circle
to correspond with the centre
A^ of the
other,
we may then take
any point
other.
of the one to correspond with any point Pi of the
Let
S be
the centre of similitude for this correspondence.
The
triangles
/S^l
:
PSA,
P^SA-^ are similar, and

:
Sî = AP AiPi = ratio
of the radii.
272
Thus
is
S lies
on the
circle
on 00' as diameter
( 27).
Thus the
locus of centres of similitude for
the circle on the line
two coplanar circles joining the homothetic and antihomoof similitude and
thetic centres.
This
circle
the student
277.
we have already called the now understands the reason
circle
of the name.
Figures inversely similar.
if
a fixed point in the plane, and another figure F' be obtained by taking points P' in the plane
If .F be a figure in a plane,
to correspond with the points

is
P o{ Fin such a way that OP
OP'
and all the angles POP' have the same bisecting line OX, the two figures F and F' are said to be inversely similar; is then called the centre and OX the axis of inverse
constant,
similitude.
Q'
273
will
Thus the
with F.
figure formed
by the points Pi
be homothetic
figure
Indeed the figure F' may be regarded as formed from a jFi homothetic with F by turning F^ round the axis OX through two right angles.
The student
that
,
will
have no
difficulty in
proving for himself
if
any
if
line
be taken through
in the plane of
to
F' and
Pa SO
P'K be drawn perpendicular that P'K = KP^ then the figure

by P^
will
OF
F and and produced to
formed with the points
but the two will not be similarly situated except in the case where OY coincides with
typified
be similar
to
OX.
278.
If
and Q be two points in the figure F, and F, Q

it
:
the corresponding points in the figure F', inversely similar to
we
easily obtain that P'Q'
and we see that the angle

regard to this last point
directly similar
PQ = the constant ratio of OP OP', POQ = angle Q'OF (not P'OQ'). In

:
we
see the distinction between figures
and
figures inversely similar.
279.
similar figures, to find the centre and
Given two pairs of corresponding points in two inversely accis of similitude.
To
A. G.
solve this problem
we observe
that
if
PP
cut the axis

18
274
in F, then
OX
PF:FP = OP:OF
.:
since the axis bisects the
angle POP'.
PF:FP'=PQ:P'Q'.
be given, join
Hence
is
if
P, P'; Q, Q'
PP' and QQ' and

:
divide
these lines at
F and
in the ratio
PQ
P'Q', then the line
FG
the axis.
the axis, then
Take the point Pj symmetrical with P on the other side of is determined by the intersection of P'P^ with
the axis.
Note.
The student who wishes
for
a fuller discussion on the
subject of similar figures than seems necessary or desirable here,
should consult Lachlan's Modern Pure Geometry, Chapter IX.
EXERCISES
1. Prove that homothetic figures be projected into homothetic figures.
will, if
orthogonally projected,
2.
in
two
If F, P'; Q, Q'; R, B' be three corresponding pairs of points figures either directly or inversely similar, the triangles PQR,
P'Q'R' are similar in the Euclidean sense.

3. If S and S' be two curves directly similar, prove that if S be turned in the plane about any point, the locus of the centre of
similitude of
4.
S and
<S'
in the different positions of

similar,
will
be a
circle.
circle,
two triangles, directly shew that the centre of the

If
be inscribed in the same
circle is their centre of similitude.
Shew
If
also that the pairs of corresponding sides of the triangles
intersect in points forming a triangle directly similar to them.

5.
inversely similar,
two triangles be inscribed in the same circle so as to be shew that they are in perspective, and that the
axis of perspective passes through the centre of the circle.

6. If on the sides BC, GA, AB of a triangle ABO points X, Y, Z be taken such that the triangle is of constant shape, construct the centre of similitude of the system of triangles so formed ; and prove that the locus of the orthocentre of the triangle is a
XYZ
XYZ
straight line.
7.
275
ABC
If three points X, Y, be taken on the sides of a triangle opposite to A, B, G respectively, and if three similar and similarly situated ellipses be described round AYZ, and GXY,
BZX
they will have a

8.
common
point.
The
circle of similitude of
two given
circles
belongs to the
coaxal system whose limiting points are the centres of the two given
circles.
9.
If
two coplanar
circles
be regarded as inversely
is still
similar, the
locus of the centre of similitude
the
'
circle of similitude,'
and the axis
of similitude passes through a fixed point.
10. P and P' are corresponding points on two coplanar circles regarded as inversely similar and <S' is the centre of similitude in this case. Q is the other extremity of the diameter through P, and
when Q and P'
are corresponding points in the two circles for inverse
similarity, S' is the centre of similitude.
Prove that SS'
is
a diameter
of the circle of similitude.

11.
E,
AD
12.
and
ABGD BG
is
in
a cyclic quadrilateral; AG and BD intersect in is a diameter of the circle of prove that ;
EF
similitude for the circles on
AB,
CD
as diameters.
Generalise by projection the theorem that the circle of
similitude of
two
circles is coaxal
with them.
182
276
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES
L Prove
circle,
that
when
line
four points A, B, G,
orthocentres of the triangles
BCD, GDA, DAB,
D lie on a circle, the ABG lie on an equal

of these circles is
and that the
which joins the centres
divided in the ratio of three to one by the centre of

of the points A, B, G, D.
2.
mean
position
ABG
is
a triangle,
the centre of
its
inscribed circle, and
^1, ^1, Cj the centres of the circles escribed to the sides BG, GA, the points where these sides are cut by the respectively ; L, M,
AB
bisectors of the angles A, B, G.
Shew
that the orthocentres of the

its
three triangles LB^G^, MGÂ-y, NA^B-^ form a triangle similar and

similarly situated to A^B^Gi,
3.
and having
iV'^
orthocentre at 0.
ABG
is
a triangle, Xj, M-^,
are the points of contact of
the incircle with the sides opposite to A, B,
respectively
ij
is
taken as the harmonic conjugate of Zj with respect to B and G; M^ and Sf^ are similarly taken ; P, Q, B are the middle points of Xiij, MJH^, JViN^. Again AAj^ is the bisector of the angle A cutting
BG in A^, and A^^ is the harmonic conjugate of A,^ with respect to B and G B^ and G^ are similarly taken. Prove that the line AJijJ^
;
is
parallel to the line

4.
PQR.
ABG
is
scribed circles are 0, 0'

circles,
a triangle the centres of whose inscribed and circum; Oj, 0^, Og are the centres of its escribed
and O1O2, 0^0^ meet AB,

is
BG
respectively in
and
M;
shew
that 00'
5.
perpendicular to
LM.
on the sides of a given triangle as and quadrilaterals be inscribed in them having the intersections of their diagonals at the orthocentre, and one side of each passing through the middle point of the upper segment of the
If circles be described
diameters,
corresponding perpendicular, prove that the sides of the quadrilaterals opposite to these
form a triangle equiangular with the given
6.
277
such that a quadrilateral can be inscribed in touch the other. Shew that if the points of contact of the sides be P, Q, B, S, then the diagonals of PQSS are at right angles; and prove that PQ, ES and QP, SP have their
Two
circles are
its sides
one so that
points of intersection on the same fixed

7.
line.
straight line
drawn through the vertex A
of the triangle
ABC
meets the lines BE, base to the middle points
BF
E
shew that
8.
BY
which join the middle point of the and F of the sides GA, AB in X, Y
\s.
parallel to
CX.
Four intersecting straight lines are drawn in a plane. Reciprocate -with regard to any point in this plane the theorem that the circumcircles of the triangle formed by the four lines are concurrent at a point which
9. is
concyclic with their four centres.
bola,
E and F are two fixed points, P a moving point, on a hyperand PE meets an asymptote in Q. Prove that the line through
asymptote meets in a fixed point the
line
parallel to the other
through
10.
parallel to
PF.
is
Any
its
parabola
described to touch two fixed straight lines
and with
conic.
11.
directrix passing through a fixed point P.
the envelope of the polar of
Prove that with respect to the parabola is a
Shew how
to construct a triangle of
given shape whose
sides shall pass through three given points.

12.
as asymptotes
13.
Construct a hyperbola having two sides of a given triangle and having the base of the triangle as a normal.
A A
tangent
is
drawn to an
ellipse so that
is
the portion inter;
cepted by the equiconjugate diameters

is
minimum
shew that
it

14.
parallelogram, a point and a straight line in the same
plane being given, obtain a construction depending on the ruler only for a straight line through the point parallel to the given line.
15.
sides each pass

lie
Prove that the problem of constructing a triangle whose through one of three fixed points and whose vertices
lines is poristic,
one on each of three fixed straight

'
when the
three given points are collinear and the three given lines are concurrent.
16.
A, B, C,
collinear
B are four points in a plane no three of which are and a projective transformation interchanges A and B, and
278
also
into which
and D. Give a pencil and ruler construction for the point any arbitrary point P is changed ; and shew that any
conic through A, B, C,
17.
D is transformed into itself.
Three hyperbolas are described with B,G ; C, A; and A, B through A, B, G. Shew that they have two common points F and Q ; and that there is a conic circumscribing ABG with P and Q for foci.
for foci passing respectively
Three triangles have their bases on one given line and their on another given line. Six lines are formed by joining the point of intersection of two sides, one from each of a pair of the triangles, with a point of intersection of the other two sides of those triangles, choosing the pairs of triangles and the pairs of sides in every possible way. Prove that the six lines form a complete
18.
vertices
quadrangle.
19.
problem
Shew that in general there are four distinct solutions of the To draw two conies which have a given point as focus and
;
intersect at right angles at
two other given points. each case the tangents at the two given points.
20.
is
Determine in
An
equilateral triangle
:
ABG is
;
inscribed in a circle of which
two hyperbolas are drawn, the first has C as a focus, OA as directrix and passes through B the second has (7 as a focus, OB as directrix and passes through A. Shew that these hyperbolas meet the circle in eight points, which with G form the angular points
the centre
of a regular polygon of nine sides.
21.
An
ellipse,
centre 0, touches the sides of a triangle
ABG,
in
and the diameters conjugate to OA, OB,

B, E,
F respectively 22. A parabola touches

;
meet any tangent prove that AD, BE, GF meet in a point.
OG
a fixed straight line at a given point,
and
its
axis passes through a second given point.

,the
Shew
that the
envelope of the tangent at

its focus
vertex
is
a parabola and determine
and
directrix.
23. Three parabolas have a given common tangent and touch are collinear. one another at P, Q, R. Shew that the points P, Q, Prove also that the parabola which touches the given line and the tangents at P, Q, R has its axis parallel to PQR.
24.
Prove that the locus of the middle point of the common

its circle of
chord of a parabola and
curvature
is
another parabola
whose latus rectum
is one-fifth
that of the given parabola.
_
279
25. Three circles pass through a given point and their other intersections are A, B, C. point is taken on the circle OBG,
E on
the circle
ii
OCA,
.
on the
circle
are concyclic
for the chord
AF BD. CE = - FB DC
.
OAB. Prove that EA, where

.
0,
D, E,
AF
stands
AF, and
so on.
Also explain the convention of signs
which must be taken.

26. Shew that a common tangent to two confocal parabolas subtends an angle at the focus equal to the angle between the axes of the parabolas.
27.
The
vertices A,
B oi
A
a triangle
lies
ABG
are fixed, and the foot

;
of the bisector of the angle
on a
fixed straight line
determine
the locus of C.
28.
straight line
ABCD
is
cuts
two
fixed circles
that the chord

to
AB of
X aX A and B meet the tangents to

Shew
that P, Q, E,
equal to the chord
CD of
Y.
and F, so The tangents
P, Q, R, S.
29.
lie
7 at C and D in four points on a fixed circle.
a fixed straight line AB, two points P and Q are taken is of constant length. and Y are two fixed points and XP, YQ meet in a point E. Shew that as P moves along the line AB, the locus of ij is a hyperbola of which ^5 is an asymptote. such that
On
PQ
30.
A
Z>,
parabola touches the sides BC, CA,

E,
AB
of a triangle
ABO
BE,
in
OF
Prove that the straight lines AD, meet in a point which lies on the polar of the centre of
respectively.
gravity of the triangle

31.
ABG.
two conies be inscribed in the same quadrilateral, the two tangents at any of their points of intersection cut any diagonal
If
of the quadrilateral harmonically.
32.
circle,
centre 0,
is
inscribed in a triangle
ABG. The
on the circle meets BG in D. The line perpendicular to OB meets PD in D'. The corresponding through points E', F' are constructed. Shew that AD', BE', CF' are parallel.
tangent at any point
33.
Two
points are taken on a circle in such a
manner
that the
sum of the squai'es of their distances from a fixed point is constant. Shew that the envelope of the chord joining them is a parabola.
34. A variable line PQ intersects two fixed lines in points P and Q such that the orthogonal projection of PQ on a third fixed
line is of constant length.
Shew that
of its axis.
the envelope of
PQ
is
a para-
bola,
and find the direction
280
35.
With a
focus of a given ellipse (A) as focus,
and the tangent

at the point
at any point
to (A).
as directrix, a second ellipse (JB) is described similar

(-S)
Shew
that
touches the minor axis of
(.4)
where the normal at

36.
meets
it.
parabola touches two fixed lines which intersect in T,

J).
and
its
axis passes through a fixed point
Prove
that, if
S be
the
focus,
the bisector of the angle

(S is
TSD
is
fixed in direction.
Shew
further that the locus of
a rectangular hyperbola of which
D
its
and
T
37.
are ends of a
diameter.
What
are the directions of
asymptotes 1
If an ellipse has a given focus and touches two fixed straight then the director circle passes through two fixed points.
is
lines,
38.
any point
in the plane of a ti'iangle
ABC, and X,
Y,
are points in the sides BC, CA,
AB
respectively, such that
AOX,
BOY, 00Z are right angles. If the points of intersection of GZ and AX, AX and ^F be respectively Q and R, shew that OQ and
OR
are equally inclined to OA.

39.
The
line of collinearity of the
middle points of the diagonals

of the intercept
of a quadrilateral is drawn,
and the middle point

is
on
it
between any two sides
joined to the point in which they
intersect.
Shew
that
the six lines so constructed together with
the line of collinearity and the three diagonals themselves touch a

parabola.
40.
The
triangles A^B^G^, A^Bfi^ are reciprocal with respect to
a given
circle; B/J2, GÂ-^ intersect in Pj,
and
B^G-^^,
GÂ^ in P^.
Shew
circle.
that the radical axis of the circles which circumscribe the
triangles PiA^B^, PÂ^B^ passes through the centre of the given
41.
A transversal
R
;
cuts the three sides
BC, CA,
in P, Q,
and
also cuts three concurrent lines

Q', R'.
.
AB of a triangle through A, B and
respectively in P',
Prove that
.
PQ' QR'
.RP = - P'Q
Q'R R'P.
.
in the plane of a triangle ABC 42. Through any point drawn a transversal cutting the sides in P, Q, R. The lines OA, OB, OC are bisected in A', B', C; and the segments QR, RP, PQ of the transversal are bisected in P', Q', R'. Shew that the three
ife
lines A'P', B'Q',

43.
C'E
are concurrent.
From any
point
drawn
to a given circle
P on a given circle tangents PQ, PQ' are whose centre is on the circumference of the
first
:
281
cut the
shew that the chord joining the points where these tangents first circle is fixed in direction and intersects QQ' on the line
If
of centres.
44.
any parabola be described touching the

and
triangle, the chords of contact will pass each 45.
sides of a fixed through a fixed point.
lie
the middle point of AB, the tangent CQ, GR are the semidiameters parallel to
on opposite branches of a hyperbola ; from B, DP is drawn. Shew that if AB and DP,

:
46.
The
side
AB:CQ = 2DP BG of a triangle ABC
CR.
trisected at
is
are described within the triangle, one to touch
BC
at
M, N. Circles and AB at
and AC at K. If the H, the other to touch BG at one another at L, prove that GH, BK pass through L.
47.
circles
touch
and the perpendiculars from A, B, G on them in L, M, respectively. Three conies are described; one touching BM, GN aX M, iV and passing through A a second touching GN, AL at N, L and passing through B a and passing through C. Prove that at L, third touching AL, at A, B, G they all touch the same conic.
a triangle
ABG is
the opposite sides meet
BM
parabola touches two fixed lines meeting in T and the 48. chord of contact passes through a fixed point A ; shew that the directrix passes through a fixed point 0, and that the ratio TO to OA is the same for all positions of A. Also that if A move on a circle whose centre is T, then ^0 is always normal to an ellipse the
sum
of
whose semi-axes
is
the radius of this
circle.
49.
Triangles which have a given centroid are inscribed iu a

circle,
given
the
and conies are inscribed
in the triangles so as to have

all
common
50.
centroid for centre, pi-ove that they
have the same
fixed director circle.
A circle is inscribed
in a right-angled triangle and another
is
escribed to one of the sides containing the right angle; prove that the lines joining the points of contact of each circle with the
beino-
hypothenuse and that side intersect one another at right angles, and produced pass each through the point of contact of the other circle with the remaining side. Also shew that the polars of any point on either of these lines with respect to the two circles meet on the other and deduce that the four tangents drawn from any point on either of these lines to the circles form a harmonic pencil.
51.
If
a triangle
ordinates be
drawn from
PQR circumscribe a conic, centre C, and Q, R to the diameters GR, GQ respectively,
282
the line joining the feet of the ordinates will pass through the points
of contact of
52.
PQ, PR.
Prove that the common chord of a conic and its circle of common tangent at this point divide their own common tangent harmonically.
curvature at any point and their
53.
Shew that the point
of intersection of
lies
tangents of a conic and an osculating circle
the two common on the confocal conic
which passes through the point

54.
of osculation.
In a triangle ABG, AL,
BM,
ON are the perpendiculars on
the sides and

Q, B.
circle
MN, NL,
that P, Q,
LM when produced meet BG, GA, AB in P,

R lie
of
Shew
and the circumcircle
circumcircles of
55.
ALP, BMQ,
on the radical axis of the nine-points ABG, and that the centres of the CNR lie on one straight line.
foci
circle
through the
of
reciprocated with respect to the hyperbola

is
a rectangular hyperbola is ; shew that the reciprocal

;
an ellipse with a focus at the centre of the hyperbola and its minor axis is equal to the distance between the directrices of the
hyperbola.
56. A circle can be drawn to cut three given circles orthogonally. any point be taken on this circle its polars with regard to the
If
three circles are concurrent.
tangents OP, OP', OQ, OQ' are drawn 57. From any point two confocal conies ; OP, OP' touch one conic, OQ, OQ' the other. Prove that the four lines PQ, P'Q', PQ', P'Q all touch a third conto
focal.
on two conies U Prove that the corners of the quadrangle whose pairs of opposite sides are the tangents at P, P' and Q, Q' lie on a conic which passes through the four points of intersection of U and 7.
58.
P, P'
and
Q, Q' are four collinear points
and V
respectively.
59.
If
two parabolas have a
real
common
self-conjugate triangle
they cannot have a

60.
common
focus.
The tangents
to a conic at
two points
A and B meet
in T,
those at A', B' in T' ; prove that
T (A'AB'B) =
61.
r (A'AB'B).
A circle
moving
in a plane always touches a fixed circle,
and the tangent to the moving circle from a fixed point is always of constant length. Prove that the moving circle always touches
another fixed
circle.
283
62. system of triangles is formed by the radical axis and each pair of tangent from a fixed point P to a coaxal system of circles. Shew that if P lies on the polar of a limiting point with respect to the coaxal system, then the circumcircles of the triangles form another coaxal system. 63.
straight line
Shew
given circles S, S' intersect in A, B through A any drawn cutting the circles again in P, P' respectively. that the locus of the other point of intersection of the circles,
is
Two
one of which passes through , P and cuts S orthogonally, and the other of which passes through , P' and cuts S' orthogonally, is the straight line through B perpendicular to AB.
64. Four points lie on a circle the pedal line of each of these with respect to the triangle formed by the other three is drawn shew that the four lines so drawn meet in a point.
:
65.
A, B, C,
are four points on a conic;

respectively
a,
BC, GA,
lines
AB in
a, b, c
and the conic in

b,
EF cuts the 1 and F

;
lines
a', b', c'
are harmonically conjugate to
with respect to F, F.
a,
j8,
Da\ Db\ Dc' meet BC, CA,

a, yS,
AB in
y respectively.
The Shew
that
y are collinear. 66. Three circles intersect at so that their respective diameters Z>0, EO, FO pass through their other points of intersection A, B,C; and the circle passing through D, E, F intersects the circles again in G, S, I respectively. Prove that the circles AOG, BOH, GOI are
coaxal.
67.
A conic
The
passes through four fixed points on a
circle,
prove
is
that the polar of the centre of the circle with regard to the conic
parallel to a fixed straight line.
68.
triangles
PQR, P'Q'R' are such that PQ, PR,

Q',
P'Q',
P'R
are tangents at Q, R,
R" respectively to a conic.
Prove that
P (QR'Q'R) = P' (QR'Q'R)

and P, Q, R,
69.
P', Q',
lie
on a
conic.
If A', B', C", D' be the points conjugate to A, , C,

Q, R,
in
an involution, and P, CC, DD',

70.
be the middle points of AA', BB',

.
(PQRS) = (ABCD) {AffCBy
ABC
is a triangle.
.
If
BDGX, OFAT, AFBZ

.
be three
ranges such that {XBGD) be concurrent, then X, T,

71.
(AYGF) {ABZF) =
be collinear.
1,
and AD, BE,
GF
Z will
be a triangle and circumcentres of the line joining

If
ABC
any point on BC, then
ABD, AGD
(i) the touches a parabola:
284
(ii)
the line joining the inoentres touches a conic touching the
ABC, AGB.
line joining the centres of the circles
Find the envelope of the

escribed to the sides
72.
BD,
CD
respectively.
Two
,S".
variable circles
S and
S' touch two fixed circles, find
the locus of the points which have the same polars with regard to
S and
73.
is the perpendicular QP, QP' are tangents to an ellipse, is the is the pole of QM. If on the chord of contact PP' and is perpendicular orthocentre of the triangle PQP', prove that
QM
UK
to^C74.
Two
circles
of the points inverse to
touch one another at 0. Prove that the locus with respect to circles which touch the
two given
circles is
another circle touching the given circles in 0, and
find its radius in terms of the radii of the given circles.

75.
chord
AC
Prove that the tangents at A and C to a parabola and the meet the diameter through B, a third point on the para
:
Hence draw a, c, b, such that aB Bh = Ah -.hC = Bb -.cB. through a given point a chord of a parabola that shall be divided in a given ratio at that point. How many different solutions are
bola in
there of this problem

76.
Ji A, B,
of both asymptotes be given, then the tangent at
he three points on a hyperbola and the directions B may be constructed
by drawing through B a parallel to the line joining the intersection of BG and the parallel through A to one asymptote with the intersection oi AB and the parallel through C to the other.
77.
A
If
circle cuts three
given circles at right angles
calling
ii
these circles O, A, B, G, shew that the points where
G
S
cuts
are
the points where circles coaxal with

78.
A and B
touch G.
be a point
ABG,
DEF be two
SF
coplanar triangles, and
such that SD, SB,
cuts the sides
BG, CA,
AB
respectively in
three collinear points, then SA, SB,

in three collinear points.
SG
cut the sides
FF, FB,
DE
a point of contact with BG of the are found on GA, AB in the same way. Lines are drawn through the middle points of BG, GA, AB
79.
is
ABG
a triangle, Z)
is
circle escribed to
BG E
;
and
parallel to
AD, BE,
OF
respectively
shew that these
lines
meet at
the incentre.
INDEX
The
Antiparallel
references are to pages.
37
147, 158, 165, 205
Asymptotes 103, 171

Auxiliary circle
Axes
101, 104, 107, 166
Isogonal conjugates 36 Latus rectum 114, 126 Limiting points 21 Loci 24, 127, 137, 153, 179
Axis of perspective 61, 62 Brianohon's theoretQ 215 Garnet's theorem 116

Ceva's theorem 83
Circle of curvature
120, 138, 158, 187
Medians 8
Menelaus' theorem 31 Newton's theorem 117, 126, 136, 152, 177, 178, 179, 180
Circular points 242
Nine points circle 8, 195, 262 Normals 113, 127, 145, 149, 164,
186
Ordinates 107 Orthooeutre 2, 188, 194, 232 Orthogonal circles 22, 73
Circumcircle
1, 5,
133, 245
234 Collinearity 31, 63, 214 Concurrence 33
Coaxal
circles
20, 226,
Confooal conies 165, 235, 286, 248 Conjugate points and lines 15, 74 Conjugate diameters 151, 155, 174,
Orthogonal involution 85, 94

Pair of tangents
111, 130, 147, 150,
168
Parallel chords 95
192 Conjugate hyperbola 170 Desargues' theorem 227 Diameters 106, 182 Director circle 150, 169 Double contact 246, 253
Ecircles 10, 262
Parameter 136 Pascal's theorem 214

Pedal line 5, 188 Pole and polar 18, 92, 229
Projective properties 45, 50, 63, 92
Quadrangle
76, 222,
224
Envelopes 130, 147, 212 Equioonjugates 156 Feuerbach's theorem 262 Focus and directrix 91, 94, 96, 108, 238, 246 Generalisation by projection 249 Harmonic properties 74, 75, 92
Quadrilateral 75, 222, 224, 226, 248 Badical axis 17
Beciprocal figures 220, 237 Salmon's theorem 17

Self-conjugate triangles
16, 121, 236,
nomographic ranges and

59, 60, 62
pencils 54,
245 Signs 28, 119, 180 Similar figures 268

Similitude, centres of 24
Similitude, circle of 25, 271
nomothetic
Incircle
10,
figures 267
262
Inverse points 18, 256, 261 Involution criterion 81
Involution properties 84, 98, 216, 224,
Simson line 6 Subnormal 128 Symmedians 37 Tangents 108, 127,
145, 164
227
Triangles in perspective 64
CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY W. LEWIS, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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l?

Professor Max Black

CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

924 059 584 445

Cornell University Library

Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

the United States on the use of the

Cambridge University Press

Maruzen Company, Ltd

All rights reserved

FORMERLY CHAPLAIN OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE

CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY

1911 Reprinted Second Edition 1917 1921 Reprinted

FEINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

a revision and enlargement of

Pure Geometry published

It differs from the

does not assume any previous knowinitio,

ledge of the Conic Sections, which are here treated ab

the basis of the definition of a

as the curves of projection of

not the -starting point of the subject generally

works on Geometrical Conic Sections.

and directrix property,

and their other properties are evolved therefrom.

directrix property is established as one belonging to

the projections of a circle and

freely used, but the fact

therefore possess all its projective properties

properties of the Conic Sections which can only

be established with great labour from their focus and directrix

curves are derived

the method employed here any more diflScult than

the prevalent one, though be covered

true that certain ground has to

this is not very extensive

the few articles which a Student should master

before he proceeds to Chapter ix.

Without a certain knowinvolution

elementary principles of conical projection no one can follow

But these things are quite

as the projections of a circle,

any delay there may be through the short

study of the necessary preliminaries.

SOME PROPERTIES OF CIRCLES

Twenty-four cross-ratios reducible to six Projective property of cross-ratios

Equi-oross ranges and pencils mutually projective

Ranges and pencils in perspective nomographic ranges and pencils

Involution properties of the circle

Pair of orthogonal rays in every involution pencil

Focus and directrix property

Circle projected into another circle "Focus

and directrix as pole and polar

Difference of focal distances constant

Tangent and normal

the length'of the conjugate axis

The conjugate hyperbola

Chord and tangent properties

orthogonal projection of a circle