UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES AND VETERENARY MEDICINE CLUJ-NAPOCA

ANALYSIS OF RISK FOR SOLANINE

Masterand: POPA MIHAELA SAPCO, anul 1

Cluj-Napoca 2009
1

Table of Contents
1. Risk analysis ........................................................................................................................... 3 1.1. Chemical risk assessment ................................................................................................. 3 Description of hazzard ............................................................................................. 3 Hazzard identification ............................................................................................... 4 Hazzard characterization ........................................................................................... 4 Risk evaluation.......................................................................................................... 5 Exposure assessment ................................................................................................. 5

1.1.1. 1.1.2. 1.1.3. 1.1.4. 1.1.5. 1.2. 1.3. 2.

Risk management corrective and preventive actions .................................................... 6 Risk communication......................................................................................................... 6

Chemical control ..................................................................................................................... 7 2.1. Chemical analysis ................................................................................................................ 7 2.1. Monitoring via HACCP ................................................................................................... 7

REFERENCES: .............................................................................................................................. 9

1. RISK ANALYSIS 1.1. Chemical risk assessment 1.1.1. Description of hazzard

Solanine is a glycoalkaloid poison found in species of the nightshade family, such as potatoes. It can occur naturally in any part of the plant, including the leaves, fruit, and tubers. It is very toxic even in small quantities. Many plants in the Solanaceae family contain glycoalkaloids, and they are considered to be natural toxins. They are active as pesticides and fungicides and are produced by the plants as a natural defence against animals, insects and fungi that might attack them. Solanine was first isolated in 1820 by Desfosses from the berries of the European Black Nightshade (Solanum nigrum), after which it was named.

Figure 1. -Solanine Potatoes that have been exposed to light in the field or during storage may become green, due to an accumulation of chlorophyll. This greening may affect only the surface (peel) or it may extend into the flesh of the potato. Exposure to light is only one of the stress factors affecting potatoes. Other pre- or post-harvest stress factors are mechanical damage, improper storage conditions, either as a tuber or after partial food processing, and sprouting (Sharma & Salunkhe, 1989). As a result of any of the above stress factors, there can be a rapid increase in the concentration of alpha-solanine and alpha-chaconine, which gives the potatoes a bitter taste. These natural toxicants (stress metabolites) have insecticidal and fungicidal properties; each of the two major glycoalkaloids is normally present in all tubers in small amounts (< 5 mg/100 g of tuber fresh weight). The glycoalkaloids are formed in the parenchyma cells of the periderm and cortex of tubers, and in areas of high metabolic activity such as the eye regions.

The glycoalkaloids are unevenly distributed throughout the potato, with concentrated under the skin.

a large part

1.1.2. Hazzard identification

The plant glycoalkaloids are toxic steroidal glycosides and the commonest types found in food plants are -solanine and -chaconine with -solanine (C45H73NO15) being the most toxic of the two. Occurrence in foods: Amongst the most widely cultivated food crops, aubergines, tomatoes and potatoes are in the Solanaceae family; however, the levels of glycoalkaloids in tomatoes and aubergines are generally quite low and are therefore not a concern. The glycoalkaloids of most relevance to food safety are those occurring in the potato since even in commercial available tubers destinated for human consumption a residual level of these compounds is always present. The predominant toxic steroidal glycosides in potato are -solanine and -chaconine. They occur in potato tubers, peel, sprouts and blossoms and their concentration in tubers depends on a number of factors, such as cultivar, maturity, environmental factors and stress conditions. The total glycoalkaloid level in tubers destined for human consumption is generally in the range of 25-150 mg/kg fresh weight, but considerably higher levels have been recorded for certain commercial varieties. As an example, the Lenape potato variety was withdrawn from commercial growing in Canada and the USA as it contained unacceptably high levels of glycoalkaloids.

1.1.3. Hazzard characterization

Although glycoalkaloids in potatoes are produced naturally by the plant, certain factors can have a significant effect on the levels present: Maturity The highest concentration of glycoalkaloids are usually associated with areas that are undergoing high metabolic activity, such as potato flowers, young leaves, sprouts, peels and the area around the potatos eyes. Small immature tubers are normally high in glycoalkaloids since they are still metabolically active. Exposure to light Exposure to light has a significant effect on the concentration of both total and individual glycoalkaloids. Potatoes that become sunburned during growth and start to green owing to lack of soil cover, tend to taste very bitter as a result of their high glycoalkaloid content. In retail outlets, tubers may be displayed under fluorescent lightning and this can increase glycoalkaloid concentration. Studies have indicated that replacing fluorescent lights with mercury lightning for potatoes on display would significantly reduce glycoalkaloid content and improve food safety.

Storage temperature Storage at very low temperature (0-50C) results in more bitter tasting potatoes and thus more solanine, than storage at higher temperatures (up to 200C). On the whole, storage at lower temperatures will prolong potato quality, but at very low temperatures (0-50C) stress becomes a factor and solanine accumulation starts to occur. Injury/Damage Any type of injury or damage to the tubers will result in the accumulation of glycoalkaloids. Disease, insect attack or rough handling during or after harvest, will all initiate glycoalkaloid synthesys (as it is a defense response). Damaged potatoes from retail generally contain elevated levels of solanine. Stability in foods Solanine is relatively stable in potatoes and levels are not affected by boiling, freezedrying or dehydration. Microwave cooking has only a limited effect, but cooking at temperatures at or above 1700C is more effective at lowering levels.

1.1.4. Risk evaluation

Effects on health Most cases of suspected potato poisoning involve only mild gastrointestinal effects, which generally begin within 8-12 hours after ingestion and resolve within one or two days. However, reported symptoms have included nausea, and vomiting, diarhoea, stomach cramps and headache. More serious cases have experienced neurological problems, including hallucinations and paralysis, and fatalities have also been recorded.

1.1.5. Exposure assessment

A study conducted on three human volunteers showed that the rate of elimination of alpha-solanine from the body was low, about 1-2% per day, corresponding to an overall half-life of 34 to 68 days (Claringbold et al., 1982). Acute toxicity studies estimated a lethal dose of 3 to 6 mg/kg body weight for humans. There have been many reported cases of human poisonings (sometimes fatal) due to the ingestion of greened or otherwise damaged potatoes. The symptoms of low grade solanine poisoning are acute gastrointestinal upset with diarrhoea, vomiting and severe abdominal pain. In more severe cases, neurological symptoms, including drowsiness and apathy, confusion, weakness, and vision disturbances, followed by unconsciousness and, in some cases, death have also been reported. The vital signs include fever, rapid and weak pulse, low blood pressure and rapid respiration. Onset of symptoms has ranged from minutes to 2 days after ingestion of toxic potatoes, with longer incubation periods generally associated with the more severe cases. There are also known some teratogenic effects produced by solanine. In 1972, Renwick showed that areas with an increased incidence of neural tube defects (NTD) (anencephaly and

spina bifida) were associated with areas where potato consumption was higher, and where potato blight was more common.

1.2. Risk management corrective and preventive actions

Risk management is strongly linked into the food safety policy and the definition of the appropriate level of consumer protection. It involves the development of strategies, and the selection and implementation of appropriate control actions necessary to prevent, reduce or eliminate the risk to ensure the decided level of health protection. Risk management measures could include: Confinement strategies: e.g. certain cultivars that are known to be high in solanine are not allowed to be grown for human consumption; Restricted use; Monitoring of the content of solanine of potatoes destined for human consumption; Monitoring the conditions in which potatoes are stored to minimize stress and thus solanine synthesis; Record keeping (the use of documentation) to ensure traceability along the food chain.

1.3. Risk communication

Government agencies and media are a major source of information on risks. Risk communication to stakeholders is a key area of risk analysis.The expression of each risk assessment should be unambiguous, transparent and relevant. Key rules include: Completeness of information; Public access to documentation; Transparency of discussions and motivations; Frank acknowledgement of the various positions and contrasting view, including speculations; Clarity in wording and accuracy in use of specific expressions; Recognition of different interests and stakeholders; Recognition of social, cultural and ethical issues. Awareness of risk perception is another important factor in communicating risk. Risk perception of experts and the general public might differ considerably, because personal opinions are formed by information from different sources and integrated with personal experiences. Among the factors influencing public perception of risk are, for example, the extent to which the risk is voluntary, controllability of the risk and the novelty of the risk form. The specialists suggest expressing conclusions of risk assessment in a more user-acceptable manner by putting them into some form of context, e.g. through risk ranking by comparing risk assessments of different, but related, sources of risk, the risk of possible replacements and by using risk benefit analysis. 6

2. CHEMICAL CONTROL 2.1. Chemical analysis

Solanine is usually identified by the colours (colorimetric methods) given with various sulphuric acid reagents, which have also been used for the quantitative estimation of this alkaloid. These sulphuric acid reagents, although suitable for identification or determination of the pure alkaloid from potatoes, with the crude substance extracted from viscera give rise to considerable charring, which makes identification difficult and estimation almost impossible. The main analytical method for determination of solanine is High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) . A novel, simple and sensitive high-performance liquid chromatographic method for the determination of the potato glycoalkaloids, -solanine and -chaconine, based on the chemiluminescent reaction of tris (2,2-bipyridine) ruthenium (III) has been developed. The calibration graph is linear in the range of 5 ng/ml10 g/ml for both -solanine and -chaconine. The detection limits of -solanine and -chaconine are around 1.2 and 1.3 ng/ml, respectively. This method was successfully applied to potato tuber samples without cleanup, preconcentration, and derivatization steps. The recoveries (mean standard deviation, %) of solanine and -chaconine spiked in tuber pith at 10 g/g (n = 6) were around 101.0 4.4% and 103.6 7.1%, respectively.

2.1. Monitoring via HACCP

Cultivar selection The amounts of total and individual potato glycoalkaloids are genetically controlled. The most effective ways of obtaining low levels is to select breed varieties that are initially very low in glycoalkaloids. Processing: Peeling In normal tubers, potato glycoalkaloids appear to be concentrated in a small 1,5 mm layer immediately under the skin, therefore, with normal tubers, peeling will remove 60-95% of glycoalkaloids present. However if the tubers are very high in glycoalkaloids, peeling will remove only up to 35%, as in potatoes with a high level, diffusion into the deeper tissue occurs. Unfortunatelly, peeling or slicing also elicites a stress response in the tubers and causes a slow rise in the glycoalkaloid levels. If long delais occur before subsequent processing, glycolakaloids can accumulate.

Cooking The heat stability of glycoalkaloids means that only high temperatures processing such as deep frying has any significant effect on levels in potatoes. Other processes give little or no reduction in the concentration of these compounds. Physical/Chemical Treatment Gamma irradiation has been shown to control glycoalkaloid levels, particularly in damaged tubers. Treatment with certain chemicals, most of which function as sprout inhibitors has also been showed to control glycoalkaloid accumulation. Legislation Although there is no specific legislation governing glycoalkaloid levels in potatoes, the generally accepted safe upper limit is considered to be 200 mg glycoalkaloids per kg of fresh potato.

REFERENCES:
1. Richard Lawley, Laurie Curtis, Judy Davis The Food Safety Hazzard Guidebook RSC Publishing 2. Hitoshi Kodamatani, Keiitsu Saito, Nobumitsu Niina, Shigeo Yamazaki and Youichi Tanaka Simple and sensitive method for determination of glycoalkaloids in potato tubers by high-performance liquid chromatography with chemiluminescence detection 3. http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v30je19.htm 4. http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9783540201786 -c1.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-135286-p29727136 5. http://www.foodsafety.ksu.edu/en/faq-details.php?a=4&fc=2&id=1227 6. ftp://ftp.fao.org/es/esn/food/meetings/NE_crd5.pdf