Foodborne Intoxication and

Toxicoinfections
Vindhya Tri Widayanti, STP., MP.

Foodborne Intoxications
Food Microbilogy

Foodborne Intoxication
Foodborne intoxication or food poisoning of

microbial origin occurs by ingesting a food

containing a preformed toxin
Foodborne intoxication
Staphylococcal intoxication

Botulism
Mycotoxicosis

Some General Characteristics

1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

6.

The toxin is produced by a pathogen while growing

in a food.
A toxin can be heat labile or heat stable.
Ingestion of a food containing active toxin, not viable
microbial cells, is necessary for poisoning (except
for infant botulism, in which viable spores need to
be ingested).
Symptoms generally occur quickly, as early as 30
min after ingestion.
Symptoms differ with type of toxin; enterotoxins
produce gastric symptoms and neurotoxins produce
neurological symptoms.
Febrile symptom is not present.

Staphylococcal intoxication
Foodborne Intoxication

Staphylococcal intoxication
IMPORTANCE

Staphylococcal food poisoning

(staphylococcal gastroenteritis;
staphylococcal food poisoning; staph food
poisoning), caused by toxins of
Staphylococcus aureus, is considered one of
the most frequently occurring foodborne
diseases worldwide.
1,2

Characteristics of Staphylococcus
aureus
Organisms
Sta. aureus are Gram-positive cocci, occur generally in bunches, and
are nonmotile, noncapsular, and nonsporulating
Growth
Most strains ferment mannitol and produce coagulase, thermonuclease,
and hemolysin, but differ in their sensitivity to bacteriophages.
The cells are killed at 66C in12 min, and at 72C in 15 s.
Sta. aureus are facultative anaerobes, but grow rapidly under aerobic
conditions.
They can ferment carbohydrates and also cause proteolysis by
extracellular proteolytic enzymes.
They are mesophiles with a growth temperature range of 7 to 48C, with
fairly rapid growth between 20 and 37C.
They can grow at relatively low Aw (0.86), low pH (4.8), and high salt
and sugar concentrations of 15% and in the presence of NO2.
Sta. aureus can grow in many foods.

Characteristics of Staphylococcus
aureus
Habitat
Sta. aureus, along with many other staphylococci,
are naturally present in the nose, throat, skin, and
hair (feathers) of healthy humans, animals, and
birds.
Sta. aureus can be present in infections, such as
cuts in skin and abscesses in humans, animals,
and birds, and cuts in hands and facial-erupted
acne in humans.
Food contamination generally occurs from these
sources

Toxins and Toxin Production

Enterotoxigenic strains of Sta. aureus produce seven

different enterotoxins: A, B, C1, C2, C3, D, and E (also

designated as SEA, SEB, etc.).
They are serologically distinct heat-stable proteins of
molecular weight 26 to 30 kDa and differ intoxicity. The
toxins vary in heat stability, SEB being more stable than
SEA.
Normal temperature and time used to process or cook
foods do not destroy the potency of the toxins. Outbreaks
from SEA are more frequent, probably because of its high
potency.
Rate of toxin production by a strain is directly related to its
rate of growth and cell concentrations. Optimum growth
occurs ca. 37 to 40C. Under optimum conditions of growth,
toxins can be detected when a population has reached
over a few million per gram or milliliter of food and
generally in ca. 4 h.
Some of the lowest environmental parameters of toxin
production are 10C, pH 5.0, or Aw 0.86

Disease and Symptoms

Staphylococcal toxins are enteric toxins and cause

gastroenteritis.
A healthy adult has to consume ca. 30 g or ml of a
food containing 100 to 200 ng toxins produced by
1067 cells/g or /ml; infants and old and sick
individuals need lesser amounts.
The symptoms occur within 2 to 4 h, with a range of
30 min to 8 h, and are directly related to the potency
and amounts of toxin ingested and an individuals
resistance.
The primary symptoms, from stimulation of the
autonomic nervous system by the toxins, are
salivation, nausea and vomiting, abdominal cramps,
and diarrhea. Some secondary symptoms are

Food Association

Prevention (Reduction) of the

Disease
Reduce initial load of Sta. aureus in a food by proper

selection of the quality of the raw materials and

ingredients
sanitation of the food environments
proper personal hygiene among food handlers.
People with respiratory diseases, acute types of facial
acne, skin rash, and cuts in hands should not handle
the food.
products should be heat-treated to ensure killing of
live cells.
chill the processed products and ready-to-eat foods to
5C quickly.
Suitable preservatives can also be used to kill or
arrest growth.
Once heatstable toxins are formed, heating before

Identification Methods
To associate a food implicated in staphylococcal food poisoning, the

food or vomit samples are analyzed for the presence of high levels of
enterotoxigenic Sta. aureus cells and enterotoxins.
Enumeration technique in one or more selective differential agar media
to determine the load of viable cells of Sta. aureus, followed by several
biochemical tests, such as hemolysis, coagulase, thermonuclease
reactions, or ability of a pure culture to produce enterotoxin, are
performed to link the potential cause of the food poisoning outbreaks.
Enterotoxins from the food or vomit samples are extracted and tested,
either by biological means or by serological means, to associate them
with the outbreak. In the biological method, animals (e.g., cats,
monkeys, or dogs) are given the enterotoxin preparation orally or it is
injected intraperitoneally or intravenously. Vomiting symptoms by the
test animals is a positive indication of the presence of staphylococcal
enterotoxin.
In the serological methods, the enterotoxins are purified and examined
by one of the several recommended immunological methods. Not only
are these tests very sensitive, but they allow the identification of the
types of enterotoxins involved in a food poisoning case.

Botulism
Foodborne Intoxication

Botulism
Botulism results following consumption of food

containing the potent toxin botulin of Clostridium

botulinum. It is a neurotoxin and produces
neurological symptoms along with some gastric
symptoms. Unless prompt treatment is
administered, it is quite fatal. Infant botulism
occurs when an infant ingests Clo. botulinum
spores, which germinate, grow, and produce
toxins in the GI tract and cause specific
symptoms.

Characteristics
Organisms
Cells of Clo. botulinum strains are Gram-positive
rods, occur as single cells or in small chains;
many are motile, obligate anaerobes, and form
single terminal spores.
Cells are sensitive to low pH (<4.6), low Aw
(0.93), and moderately high salt (5.5%).
Spores do not germinate in the presence of nitrite
(250 ppm). Spores are highly heat resistant (killed
at 115C), but cells are killed at moderate heat
(pasteurization).
Toxins form during growth. Strains can either be
proteolytic or nonproteolytic

Characteristics
Growth
Clo. botulinum strains, on the basis of the type of toxin
production, have been divided into six types: A, B, C, D, E,
and F. Of these, A, B, E, and F are associated with human
foodborne intoxications.
Type A strains are proteolytic, Type E strains are
nonproteolytic, but Types B and F strains can be either
proteolytic or nonproteolytic
Proteolytic strains can grow between 10C and ca. 48C,
with the optimum at 35C.
Nonproteolytic strains grow optimally at 30C, with a range
from 3.3 to 45C.
Optimum growth facilitates optimum toxin production.
A pH of 4.6, Aw of 0.93, or 5.5% NaCl can prevent cell
growth, but by using two or more parameters along with
lower temperature, the lower growth limits of any of the
given parameters can be greatly reduced

Characteristics
Habitat
Spores of Clo. botulinum are widely distributed in
soil, sewage, mud, sediments of marshes, lakes
and coastal waters, plants, and intestinal contents
of animals and fishes.
Fruits and vegetables can be contaminated with
spores from soil, fishes from water and
sediments, and various other foods from many of
the given sources.
Type A and B spores are more prevalent in soil,
sewage, and fecal matters of animals, whereas
Type E spores are generally found in marine
environments.

Toxins and Toxin Production

The toxins of Clo. botulinum are neurotoxic proteins.
In general, toxins associated with food intoxication in humans (Types A,

B, E, and F) are extremely potent, and only a small amount of toxin is

required to produce the symptoms and cause death.
Following ingestion, toxin molecules are absorbed from the upper
portion of the intestine through the intestinal wall and spread via the
blood to the peripheral nerves. The toxins block signal transfers,
irreversibly causing paralysis of all involuntary muscles. The toxins
move slowly through the body.
Toxins produced by nonproteolytic strains are not fully activated; trypsin
treatment is necessary to activate them (this occurs in the digestive
tract).
The toxins are heat labile and can be destroyed in a contaminated food
by high and uniform heat, such as 90C for 15 min or boiling for 5 min.
Radiation at 5 to 7 mrad can also destroy them
Cell growth is necessary for toxin production. At optimum growth
temperature, toxins are produced in large amounts. However, at both
extreme growth ranges, enough toxin can be produced by a strain in a
food to cause disease and death following ingestion.

Disease and Symptoms

Botulism is caused by ingestion of the neurotoxin botulin

formed in a food. The toxins are absorbed from the

intestine, spread to the peripheral nerves, and block the
transmission of impulse.
However, at the initial stage (generally 12 to 36 h, butcan
be 2 h), some gastrointestinal disorders (e.g., nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, and constipation) may be evident.
Neurological symptoms develop within a short time,
especially if the amount of botulin consumed is high. As
they are highly potent toxins, only a very small amount (1
ng/kg body weight) is necessary for severe symptoms and
even death.
In general, neurological symptoms include blurred or
double vision; difficulty in swallowing, breathing, and
speaking; dryness of the mouth; and paralysis of different
involuntary muscles, which spreads to the diaphragm,
lungs, and heart.
Death usually results from respiratory failure.

Food Association

Prevention of Botulism
The single most important control method is to use

proper temperature and time in home canning of lowacid products.

Some foods (e.g., fish) should be properly and
uniformly cooked at high temperatures.
Foods cooked at temperatures in which spores
survive should be stored at low temperatures (at 3C
or below); at refrigerated temperature (4 to 5C),
storage should not be prolonged unless some
additional precautions are used, such as NO2, low
pH, low Aw, or NaCl.
Suspected foods should be properly heated before
consumption, but it is better not to eat them.
Even tasting a small amount of a suspected food
without giving high and uniform heat treatment can be
dangerous

Identification Methods
In a suspected food, the presence of Clo.

botulinum can be determined by enumeration

techniques using selective agar media and
anaerobic incubation, followed by biochemical
and toxicological testing.
The presence of toxins in the food is more often
tested. This involves injecting a food extract
intraperitoneally into mice. Development of
characteristic neurological symptoms, followed by
death in 92 h, suggest the presence of toxin.
The people engaged in testing for the organism
or the toxins need to immunize themselves before
handling the materials

Infant Botulism
Clo. botulinum spores, ingested by human infants

through food and the environment, can germinate in

the intestine and produce the toxin to cause infant
botulism.
The spores fail to produce the same disease in
individuals above 1 year of age, probably because the
well-established normal population of gastrointestinal
flora discourages spore germination and cell
multiplication by Clo. botulinum.
Both Types A and B have been identified in infant
botulism cases. Symptoms include general weakness,
inability to suck and control the head, loss of reflexes,
and constipation.
Foods such as honey and corn syrup and dirt have
been linked as sources of Clo. Botulinum spores in

Mycotoxicosis
Foodborne Intoxication

Mycotoxicosis
Many strains of molds, while growing in a suitable

environment (including in foods), produce

metabolites that are toxic to humans, animals,
and birds, and are grouped as mycotoxins.
Consumption of foods containing mycotoxins
causes mycotoxicosis. They are secondary
metabolites and not proteins or enteric toxins.
Many are carcinogens and, when consumed, can
cause cancer in different tissues in the body.
Some cause toxicity of organs by unknown
mechanisms.

Characteristics
Organisms
Toxigenic species and strains of molds from many genera
are known to produce mycotoxins.
Toxigenic strains from several species and genera and the
toxins they produce include Asp. flavus, Asp. parasiticus
(both produce aflatoxins), Asp. nidulans, Asp. virsicolor
(sterigmatocystin), Penicillium viridicatum (ochratoxin),
Pen. patulum (patulin), Pen. roquefortii (roquefortin), and
Cla. purpurea (ergotoxin).
Toxigenic strains cannot be differentiated from
nontoxigenic strains by morphological characteristics only.
It is necessary to grow a strain under suitable conditions
and test the material for the presence or absence of a
mycotoxin.
This is particularly important for the mold strains from
different genera that are used in food production.

Characteristics
Growth
In general, molds grow best in humid and warm
environments. They are aerobic and thus need air
for growth.
They can grow, though slowly, at very low Aw
(0.65), low temperature (refrigerated
temperature), and low pH (pH 3.5). These
conditions are often used to extend the shelf life
of many foods.
Unless other methods (such as vacuum
packaging) are used, they can grow in these
foods, and, if toxigenic, can produce toxins in the
foods

Characteristics
Habitat
The spores are present in soil, dust, and the
environment. Many foods can have viable spores
or mycelia, especially before a heat treatment

Toxins and Toxin Production

Mycotoxins include a large number of toxins produced by

different toxigenic species and strains of molds.

Many have not yet been identified.
Some of the toxins have been listed before. They are
small-molecular-weight heterocyclic organic compounds
and some have more than one chemical type. An example
is aflatoxin, which has two major types, B1 and G1, and
each has several subtypes. Aflatoxin B1 is considered the
most potent.
Mycotoxins are produced by toxigenic mold strains as
secondary metabolites.
Toxin production, in general, is directly related with the
growth rate of a mold strain.
In microbiological media suitable for growth of molds, Asp.
flavus strains can produce optimum concentrations of
aflatoxin at 33C, pH 5.0, and Aw 0.99.

Food Association
The growth of toxigenic mold strains and the

presence of specific mycotoxins have been detected

in many foods, such as corn, wheat, barley, rye, rice,
beans, peas, peanuts, bread, cheeses, dry sausages,
spices, apple cider, grain meals, dough cassava,
cotton seeds, and spaghetti.
Consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated food can
cause mycotoxicosis in humans.
Feeding moldy products to food animals (including
moldy silage) and birds can also produce foods of
animal origin (milk, eggs) that are contaminated with
mycotoxins.
Many mycotoxins are resistant to heat used in the
normal preparation of foods. Thus, their elimination by
heating is not used to remove them from foods.

Prevention of Mycotoxicosis
Heat treatment, where possible, can also reduce

the load by killing the molds and their spores.

Using anaerobic packaging;
reducing Aw, where possible, to 0.6 or below;
freezing
using specific preservatives against mold growth.
A product in which molds have grown should not
be consumed.

Detection Methods
These include solvent extraction of a suspected

food sample, thin layer chromatography of the

extract, and visualizing under a UV light or a
fluorescent light.
Chemical tests and analysis by mass spectral
methods are used to identify the specific type of
aflatoxin

Foodborne Toxicoinfection
Food Microbiology

Foodborn Toxicoinfection
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.

For sporeformers, ingestion of large numbers of

live vegetative cells is usually necessary.
Vegetative cells of sporeformers do not multiply
in the digestive tract, but sporulate and release
toxins.
For Gram-negative bacteria, live cells can be
ingested in moderate numbers.
Gram-negative cells rapidly multiply in the
digestive tract.
Many cells also die, releasing toxins.
Toxins of both groups produce the
gastroenteritis symptoms.

Clostridium Perfringens Gastroenteritis

Foodborne Toxicoinfection

Clostridium Perfringens
Gastroenteritis
Gastroenteritis caused by Clo. perfringens has

several specific characteristics. In most outbreaks,

large numbers of cases are involved.
The outbreaks generally occur with some foods that
were prepared in advance by heating and then kept
warm for several hours before serving. In the majority
of the instances, these situations are associated with
feeding many people within a short period of time in
cafeterias, restaurants, schools, and banquets
(banquet disease).
As the disease produces mild symptoms, many
incidents are probably not reported. Thus, the
reported cases could be only a fraction of the actual
numbers

Characteristics

The cells are Gram-positive rods, motile, and sporeformers.

Cells vary in size and can form small chains.
Clo. perfringens is anaerobic but can tolerate some air (oxygen).
The vegetative cells are sensitive to low-heat treatment
(pasteurization), but the spores are extremely heat resistant, and
some can survive even boiling for several hours.
The cells are resistant to D-cycloserine.
In the presence of suitable substrates, H2S is formed during
growth.
The cells need several amino acids for growth. Thus, they can
grow very effectively in many protein foods.
The temperatures of growth of vegetative cells and germination
of spores and outgrowth range between 10 and 52C. The
optimum growth occurs at ca. 45C.
At optimum conditions, cell multiplication can be very rapid, in
ca. 9 min.
The cells fail to grow well at pH <5.0, in NaCl concentration >5%,
at Aw, <0.93, and in 500 ppm nitrite

Habitat
Spores and vegetative cells are found in soil;

dust; intestinal contents of animals, birds, and

humans; and sewage.
Many foods, particularly raw foods, get
contaminated from these sources.

Toxin and Toxin Production

Among the five types of Clo. perfringens, Type A

strains are predominantly involved in foodborne

toxicoinfection.
The enterotoxin is a heat-labile protein. It is an
intracellular protein produced by the cells during
sporulation in the intestine and released. Unlike
toxins of foodpoisoning microorganisms, the
enterotoxin is produced in the digestive tract.
The environmental parameters for the production
of enterotoxin are directly related to the
sporulation environment. There are some reports
that, in addition to the intestine, sporulation and
enterotoxin production to certain levels can also
occur in some foods

Disease and Symptoms

The enterotoxin causes only gastroenteritis.

The symptoms appear 8 to 24 h following

ingestion of a large number of viable cells ( 5 105/g) through a food.

The main symptoms are diarrhea and abdominal
pain. Nausea, vomiting, and fever also can occur
but are less common.
The toxin changes the permeability of intestinal
cells.

Food Association
Raw meat from animals and birds is most

commonly contaminated with the spores and cells

from the digestive tract content,
vegetables and spices commonly get them from
soil and dust.

Prevention
proper sanitation in all phases of food preparation

and handling.
Food should be cooked to the highest
temperature recommended to kill the cells and as
many spores as possible.
The food should be cooled quickly and uniformly
(preferably within 1 h) to refrigerated temperature

Detection Method
The detection method involves enumeration of

the incriminated food and fecal samples for Clo.

perfringens in a selective agar medium and
incubation of plates under anaerobic conditions.

Bacillus cereus Gastroenteritis

Foodborne Toxicoinfection

Bacillus cereus Gastroenteritis

The incidence of foodborne gastroenteritis by

Bac. cereus origin is relatively high in some

European countries..

Characteristics
The cells are Gram-positive motile rods, which

form endospores in the middle of the cells.

Cells are sensitive to pasteurization.
Spores can survive high heat treatment used in
many cooking procedures.
Bac. cereus is aerobic, but can also grow under
some degree of anaerobic environment.
The cells can multiply in a temperature range of 4
to 50C, with the optimum ca. 35 to 40C.
Other parameters of growth are pH of 4.9 to 9.3,
Aw of 0.95 and above, and NaCl concentration
below 10%.

Habitat
Spores and cells of Bac. cereus are common in

soil and dust and can be readily isolated in small

numbers from many foods, which include both
raw and finished products. Intestinal tracts of 10%
of healthy adult humans have Bac. cereus under
normal conditions.

Toxins and Toxin Production

The strains produce at least two types (emetic

and enteric) of enterotoxins, each

probably associated with specific types of
symptoms.3,6 The toxins are produced
during growth of cells at the growth temperature
range and retained in the cells.
Only when the cells are lysed are the toxins
released. They occur in the intestinal
tract but can also occur in foods. Thus, the cases
can also be regarded as food
poisoning, as in staphylococcal food poisoning

Disease and Symptoms

In general, a large number of cells (10^68/g) need to be

ingested to produce gastroenteritis.

The two types of enterotoxins produce two types of symptoms.
The enterotoxin associated with the diarrheal form is a heatlabile protein, and that associated with the emetic form is a heatstable protein.
In the diarrheal form, symptoms occur 6 to 12 h following
consumption of a food containing the viable cells. Symptoms
include abdominal pain, profuse watery diarrhea, and perhaps
nausea, but no vomiting or fever. Recovery is usually within 24 h.
These symptoms in many respects are similar to those produced
by Clo. perfringens.
In the emetic form, the symptoms occur 1 to 5 h following
ingestion of a food containing the viable cells. As the toxin is heat
stable, once the toxin forms in cells, heating food containing a
large number of cells before eating can produce the symptoms.
Symptoms are nausea and vomiting; abdominal pain and
diarrhea may also be present. Symptoms last for ca. 24 h. In
some respects, the symptoms are similar to those of
staphylococcal gastroenteritis.

Food Association

Prevention
Heat treatment

Decrease contaminated equipment,

Personal hygiene.
Keep food at a temperature at which the spores

do not germinate and cells do not grow.

Detection Method
Bac. cereus can be enumerated by surface

plating on an agar medium containing mannitol,

egg yolk, and polymyxin B (as a selective agent).
Colonies surrounded by precipitation resulting
from lecithinase of the cells are indicative of Bac.
cereus.

Cholera
Foodborne Toxicoinfection

Cholera
Cholera, caused by Vib. cholerae 01, is a

noncontagious disease but can cause large

epidemics with high mortality.

Characteristics
Vib. cholerae, like other vibrios, is a Gram-negative motile,

curved rod. The species has many serogroups.

Strains in 01 are associated with epidemic cholera. This
serotype is further characterized by biotype and serotype.
The type currently associated with cholera epidemics
worldwide is of the El Tor biotype and either Inaba or
Ogawa serotype.
Non-01 serotypes do not agglutinate with antibodies
prepared against 01 antigens. Also, non-01 serotypes,
similar to 01 serotypes, are not sensitive to trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole with furazolidone.
Both types are sensitive to heat and are killed by the
temperature used for cooking. Improper heating (at lower
temperature for a shorter time) may not be able to kill all
the cells present in a food.
The optimum temperature of growth is between 30 and
35C. The growth rate is very rapid, even at room
temperature.

Habitat
Cholera is a human disease. The disease results

from the ingestion of infective doses of Vib.

cholerae cells through food and water
contaminated with feces of humans suffering from
the disease.

Toxins and Toxin Production

The toxin of the 01 serotype
a heat-labile
85-kDa cytotoxic protein with two functional units.
The active A subunit stimulates adenyl cyclase in the

intestinal epithelial cells, causing massive secretion of

water along with chloride, potassium, and bicarbonate in
the lining of the intestine.
The non-01 serotype
produces a cytotoxin and a hemolysin.
Following ingestion of Vib. cholerae cells in sufficient

numbers,
the cells colonize the small intestine and multiply rapidly
and produce toxins.
When the cells die and lyse, the toxins are released into
the intestine.

Disease and Symptoms

Vib. cholerae is not contagious. A person must consume a large

number of viable cells through contaminated food or water to

contract the disease.
The infective dose for cholera is ca. 10^6 viable cells per person,
but it varies with age and health.
The incubation period ranges from 1 to 5 d, but is usually 2 d.
The symptoms include the sudden onset of profuse watery
diarrhea and vomiting. Loss of fluid results in dehydration.
Other symptoms in severe cases are painful muscle cramps and
clouded mental status.
Many infected persons may not have any symptom or have mild
to moderate diarrhea.
Treatments consist of rapid replacement of fluids, along with
electrolytes, and administration of proper antibiotics.
In addition to diarrhea, the non-01 toxins also cause infection of
soft tissues and septicemia.

Food Association

Prevention
treated municipal water, decontamination of other

water by boiling or chemical treatment, and proper

disposal of sewage.
The infected persons may be treated with antibiotics
to enhance recovery, along with replacing body fluids.
Unexposed people can be vaccinated to protect them
from the disease.
Seafood should not be harvested from polluted water
nor from water found to harbor Vib. cholerae.
seafoods should not be eaten raw.
The time- temperature of heat treatment of a
suspected food should be enough to kill the pathogen.
An example of this is the survival of Vib. cholerae in
contaminated crabs boiled for ca. 8 min; a 10-min
boiling time is probably necessary to ensure killing.

Detection Method
Isolation of Vib. cholerae from a sample is

achieved by an initial preenrichment in alkaline

peptone water, followed by streaking on a
selective agar medium plate (such as thiosulfate
citrate bile salt sucrose agar).
Suspected colonies (yellow) are biochemically
and serologically tested for confirmation. The
toxin is detected by immunoassay or bioassay.
The toxin gene can be identified by PCR.

Escherichia coli Gastroenteritis

Foodborne Toxicoinfection

Escherichia coli
Gastroenteritis
The two (of the four) enteropathogenic Esc. coli

subgroups that correlate well with toxicoinfection

probably belong to the enteropathogenic and
enterotoxigenic Esc. coli (EPEC and ETEC,
respectively) types.
They produce diarrheal diseases when ingested
in large numbers through contaminated foods and
water.
The symptoms are more like those in cholera.
The incidence is high in many developing
countries and is directly related to poor sanitation.

Characteristics
Gram-negative small curved rods, nonsporulating

and motile (nonmotile strains can be present).

The strains are facultative anaerobes and can
grow effectively in both simple and complex
media and many foods.
Growth occurs between 10 and 50C,with
optimum at 30 to 37C. Some strains can grow
below 10C. Rapid growth occurs under optimum
conditions.
Growth-limiting factors are low pH (below 5.0)
and low Aw (below 0.93).
The cells are sensitive to low-heat treatment,
such as pasteurization.

Habitat
All strains in both subgroups can establish in the

small intestine of humans without

producing symptoms. The carriers can shed the
organisms in feces and can contaminate
food and water directly or indirectly. Many
animals, including domestic ones,
can also harbor different serotypes of both
subgroups and contaminate soil, water,
and food. In animals, some serotypes may not
produce disease symptoms.

Toxins and Toxin Production

The strains in the ETEC subgroup produce two

types of enterotoxins: one is heat labile (LT) and

the other is heat stable (ST). A strain can produce
either LT or ST, or both. LT toxin is an antigenic
protein, similar to cholera toxin
ST is a heat-stable protein, lower in molecular
weight than LT, and is nonantigenic. It also
increases fluid secretion by intestinal cells, but
through a different mode of action.

Toxins and Toxin Production

Strains in EPEC subgroups not to produce enterotoxins

such as those by ETEC serotypes.

Some studies have shown that several serotypes produce
LT toxin, and several others produce toxins different from
LT and ST of ETEC serotypes.
ETEC serotypes can also produce additional factors that
enable the cells to colonize, multiply, and initiate infection.
The genetic determinants of the enterotoxins in ETEC are
plasmid linked and can be transferred to other Esc. coli
strains.
The production of enterotoxins by ETEC strains is
influenced by media composition, culture age, and
alteration of a culture during growth. Optimum production
occurs in a nutritionally rich medium at pH 8.5. Aeration of
broth facilitates good toxin production. The toxins are
generally detected in a growing culture within 24 h at 35C.

Disease and Symptoms

EPEC strains were initially thought to be associated

with infant diarrhea in many tropical and developing

countries, causing high mortality.
In contrast, ETEC strains are regarded as the cause
of travelers diarrhea, a nonfatal diarrheal disease.
Ingestion of a high level (10^69 cells) of viable cells
of the organisms by adults is necessary for the
symptoms to occur within 24 to 72 h.
Symptoms include mild to severe diarrhea that lasts
for 24 to 30 h. In severe cases, dehydration,
prostration, and shock may accompany the diarrhea.
Not all individuals show symptoms

Food Association
Many types of foods, including meat products,

fish, milk and dairy products, vegetables, baked

products, and water have been associated with
gastroenteritis of Esc. coli origin in many
countries. These include serotypes from both
EPEC and ETECsubgroups.

Prevention
Heat treatment

prevent contamination of food and water, directly

or indirectly, by fecal matters.

developing effective sanitation in water supplies
and treating and disposing sewage.
prevent contamination of food due to poor
personal hygiene by people who shed the
pathogen.
food should be refrigerated or eaten quickly,
preferably after reheating

Detection Methods
The detection methods used involved selective

enrichment of sample (food, water, and feces),

isolation of pathogens on selective agar medium,
and biochemical characterization of suspected
isolates.
Confirmation tests to detect toxins involve one or
more serological tests (ELISA).
Other methods to detect toxins include injecting
test material into the ligated ileal loop of infant
mice or exposing Y-1 adrenal cells to toxin (for
LT), or both.

Thank You
Food Microbiology