ISLAM AND PEACEMAKING

By: Sheherazade Jafari, PhD Student, School of International Service, American University Abdul Aziz Said, Mohammed Said Farsi Chair of Islamic Peace, American University A Chapter in Peacemaking: From Theory to Practice Volume 1, Edited by Susan Allen Nan, Zachariah Cherian Mampilly, and Andrea Bartoli

As Islamaphobia rises within the West, intra- and inter-religious conflicts persist in the East, and a supposed clash of civilizations between the Western and Islamic worlds continues to dominate the headlines, a serious study of Islam and peacemaking is imperative. Peace and conflict resolution scholars and practitioners are increasingly recognizing the role of religion as a powerful framework of social identification. For billions of people, their religions contain seeds of tolerance, compassion, and reconciliation. Here we examine Islamic justifications for and traditions of coexistence and cultural diversity, nonviolence, forgiveness and reconciliation, and conflict transformation. As key concepts within the field of peacemaking, they are also key precepts of the religion. In Islam, peace is not just an absence of war, but a presence of divine guidance and human responsibility. Lessons on peacemaking are among the most important within Islam, whichlike all religionsis dynamic and reflective of peoples lived experiences. Therefore, it offers powerful resources for both Muslim and non-Muslim peacemaking practitioners. Indeed, one could say that peace and peacemaking is a fatwa, a holy edict. A study of Islam and peacemaking must be understood from within the current political context, especially the continuing estrangement between Islamic and Western societies. The clash of civilizations or West versus Islam remains a dominant narrative today, positing that inherently irreconcilable values cause ongoing suspicion and a constant threat of conflict. Unfortunately, even some serious scholars use this lens to understand Islam, defining simplistic notions of good versus bad Muslims. Yet it is not just Westerners who view Islam as an abstract and static theological doctrine, but some in the Muslim world who compete for exclusive claims to its authenticity and similarly form rigid boundaries around the true meaning of Islam, ultimately presenting a life-negating interpretation that suggests restriction and scarcity rather than plurality and abundance. While Islamic societies once celebrated significant economic, social, and cultural flourishings, in todays world many experience political instability, economic duress, and continued tensions and violence. A sense of insecurity and deep feeling of powerlessness pervades the Muslim world, in stark contrast to the strong Islamic empires of the past. A discourse of victimization legitimizes a struggle against the West. An alternative reading sees Islams journey as historically dynamic and life-affirming, with rich expression in the everyday lived experiences of people. Islam and the West are not diametrically opposed but, rather, share common Judeo-Christian-Islamic and Hellenic roots in which human common denominators are ultimately far more significant than differences. Distinct cultures and values need not stand in opposition to one another but can exist simultaneously, offering a story of compatibility and complimentarity between Muslim and Western societies. Within the peace and conflict resolution field, there is increasing recognition
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that Western cultural and political experiences may not be the best for everyone, and the West may still have lessons of its own to learn. Religion and culture are increasingly taken seriously as both scholars and practitioners consider how people can tap into their most essential spiritual values, humanistic traditions, and local cultural institutions in response to conflict. Recent years have seen a number of examples of peacemaking led by Muslims in the Muslim world. In May 2008, after a series of political protests against the Lebanese prime minister Fouad Siniora, Qatar launched a mediation process that led to a groundbreaking agreement, which ended the ongoing political crisis before it led to another civil war. Prince Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani invited Lebanese leadersmany of whom were divided along religious linesto Doha, Qatar. The discussions resulted in an agreement to end the sitins, elect a new president, and prepare for legislative elections. Receiving strong support from the UN Security Council, the Doha Agreement was a second successful mediated intervention in the region by Arab Muslim mediators, after the Taif Agreement that ended the Lebanese civil war. The role played by Qatar in 2008, along with its current role in leading talks in Darfur, as well as Turkeys efforts with Brazil to mediate the Iranian nuclear standoff in April 2010, indicate a rising peacemaking role for Muslim actors in regional conflicts. Of course, the role of religious actors in peacemaking is not new, especially at the grassroots level. Religious actors have a long history of serving as arbitrators and negotiators, drawing upon such norms as honor and communal unity as well as religious ideals and sacred texts in order to serve as advocates of justice, compassion, and forgiveness. In many conflict settings, religious institutions are among the few functioning organizations on the ground. Especially when the state is unstable or deemed illegitimate by the population, institutions such as the mosque, church, synagogue, and temple provide important social services, including meeting such basic human needs as food, shelter, security, and spiritual guidance. 1 In other words, they are already within the community, exercising legitimacy, trust, and a sense of spiritual authority. Indeed, the notion of a linear, secular path toward modernity has proven to be a myth, as many countriesincluding the United States and within the Middle Eastare experiencing an increasing religiosity among their population, demonstrating a multiplicity of modernities. Understanding Islam and peacemaking, therefore, draws upon what resonates the most in many peoples lives, offering key resources for peacemaking between the West ern and Islamic worlds, as well as among Islamic societies.

What is the study of Islam and peacemaking?

"Peace is a Word Spoken by a Merciful God!" (Quran 36:58) The study of Islam and peacemaking recognizes the ways in which different peacemaking concepts are understood within Islam, as well as how they are practiced by Muslims. It draws upon key principles in the Quran and hadith and sunna, or sayings and deeds, of the Prophet Muhammad, whose life as a spiritual leader and peacemaker is recognized by Muslims as a model to be followed. Historical and contemporary examples are used to illustrate how Islamic concepts of peace and peacemaking are put in practice. It is important to note, however, that a study of Islam and peacemaking is not a denial of the ways in which Islam
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has been misused to justify the violent acts of some Muslims. Like the Hippocratic Oath, no matter what Islam requires of its followers, there is still much malpractice. As with all religions, we must draw a clear distinction between theological doctrine and practicebetween the teachings of Islam and the actions of some Muslims. Further, this study is not a comprehensive list of the various interpretations and performances of peacemaking by Muslims, nor can it represent the diversity of Muslim experiences and interpretations around the world. While we draw from different traditions and branches of knowledge, such as Sufism, we also do not differentiate among different sects of Islam. As it stems from the primary sources of knowledge on Islamabove all, the Quran Islamic peacemaking is a teaching and tradition that has the potential to transcend divisions among Muslims. Our intention here is to identify some of the central resources and forms of guidance within the doctrine that parallel some of the important concepts in the peace and conflict resolution field, and that have been put into practice within both historic and modern Islamic societies. They provide key resources and examples for contemporary peacemaking initiatives as well as raise important opportunities and questions to consider. Islamic peacemaking as an action stems from the fundamental position that the concept of peace holds within the religion. For many Muslims, Islam is peace. The word Islam derives from the trilateral root, salima, which means to be safe, secure, and free from any evil or affliction.2 The word salaam, peace, derives from the same root. Its meaning is clear in the taslim, or exchange of salutations of peace: al-salam alaykum, may safety and peace abide with you. Ultimately, however, the highest form of peace is that with God. One of the ninety nine names with which God is referred to in the Quran is Al-Salaam, the peace, or the author of peace, safety, and security (Quran 59:23).3 A central theme of the Quranic revelations is surrender and nearness to God, and consequently to peace. As humankind came from God and is part of God, fitrahthe original human constitutionis defined as innately good and muslim (the self-resigned one) in nature, who is salim, secure/free from evils of any kind. Indeed, the concept of original sin does not exist in Islam. While peace is therefore divine, humans are to play a central and active role in the creation and maintenance of peace on earth. In its most basic form, this can be seen within the five pillars of Islam, which are obligatory for all Muslims: 1) shahada, the acceptance of a monotheistic God and of Prophet Muhammad as Gods messenger; 2) salat, daily prayers; 3) sawm, fasting during the month of Ramadan; 4) zakat, almsgiving; and 5) hajj, pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime. In addition to serving as a sign of their commitment to Islam, the five pillars instill a sense of inner peace and purposefulness, and outer peace through compassion and charity toward others. Shahada and prayer intend to bring the believer closer to God and contentment, as remembrance of God is remembrance of what is good. Alms giving and fasting are intended to promote empathy toward the suffering of others and a responsibility toward community building. Yet Islam goes much further in its call for peacemaking. The role of humans in building peaceful communities, nations, and a peaceful world is clear when examining Islams specific principles of coexistence and cultural diversity, nonviolence, forgiveness and reconciliation, and transformation. As explored in the following sections, these concepts are central to Islamic teaching and can be understood as building blocks of a framework of Islamic
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peacemaking. Islamic tradition suggests a world view premised on universalism and inclusiveness, in which each person has a responsibility toward tolerance and social action. The Prophet Muhammad said, each of you is a caretaker/shepherd and ea ch of you is responsible for his flock,4 in other words, each person carries responsibility toward another. Peacemaking is a duty of humankind, who are well-equipped by God for the role.

Coexistence and Cultural Diversity

One of the main concepts within the study of peace and conflict resolution is coexistence, in which groups live among each other nonviolently and with respect for their differences. Within Islam, coexistence can be understood through the guiding principle of cultural diversity, illustrated in the oft-cited Quranic verse: O mankind! We created you from a single [pair] of a male and female, and made you into nations and tribes, that you may come to know one another. Verily the most honored among you in the sight of God is the most righteous of you. (49:13). According to this verse, in Islam differences among peoples are not only accepted but deliberate. The Quran also says: And had your Lord so willed, He could have surely made all human beings into one single community: but (He willed it otherwise, and so) they continue to hold divergent views (11:118). Simultaneously, the Islamic concept of tawhid purports the oneness of God, from which all beings stem. While differences among cultures exist, humanity is ultimately united under the oneness of God. It is therefore necessary to know and accommodate cultural diversity, while recognizing humanitys common origin . Historically, the lived experience of Islam has reflected this notion, as there are many traditions and interpretations of Islam (even if some Muslims disagree with them, and just as there are among other religions). The Quran states: unto you, your religion, and onto me, mine (109:6). In particular, the Quran refers to specific protections for the people of the book and ahl al-dhimma (or dhimmis), protected peoples, non-Muslimsespecially Christians and Jewswho have residential and other rights in Muslim societies. The Ottoman and other Islamic empires put this into practice with the millet system, under which religious minorities could rule themselves through their own laws and separate courts in exchange for loyalty to the empire. The region of Spain once known as al-Andalus serves as another historic example of cultural diversity within Islam. Under centuries of Muslim rule, from 711 to 1492 AD, Islamic, Jewish, and Christian cultures not only coexisted but flourished in an environment of relative tolerance as compared to other parts of Europe at that time. As separate communities united under the ruling caliphates, their daily interactions and work together resulted in important artistic achievements and scholarly discoveries in both the natural and social sciences. While the theory of clash of civilizations expects persistent tensions and threats of violence from the encounters among differing belief systems, the cultural coexistence of al-Andalus brought instead high productivity and contributed significantly to both Western and Eastern cultures. To be sure, the treatment of different minorities varied depending on the caliphate, just as the millet system varied in its treatment of peoplewhile it aimed to be protective, it was also
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discriminatory. In some instances, jizya, a special poll tax, was paid by non-Muslims to the Islamic state in order to live freely by their own faith tradition, yet with the Islamic rulers protection against outside aggressors. While some have criticized jizya as evidence of the subjugation of non-Muslims, others note that it paralleled the zakat obligatory to Muslims and was similar to (and in some cases lower than) the tax levied by prior rulers. Moreover, as examples of cultural diversity, such practices as the millet system and jizya must be viewed and understood within their historical contexts, in which few societies at the time incorporated provisions to enable tolerance and cultural coexistence. In al-Andalus, for instance, Jews and Christians were among the power elite and held leadership positions alongside Muslims during different historical periods. Today, versions of the millet system are in use within a number of Middle Eastern and North African countries through the observance of personal laws for particular religious minorities. Yet many contemporary Muslim societies are not living up to the principle of cultural diversity and doctrine of oneness in tawhid that is so central to their faith. Rather, the tendency leans toward insecurity, defensiveness, and intolerance of those perceived to challenge their beliefs. In what only fuels such sentiments, there exists a growing lack of respect for cultural diversity in the West that particularly targets Muslims, such as the Swiss ban on Minarets, French and other bans on the Niqab, heated controversy over the Islamic cultural center in New York City, and other examples that work to prevent Muslim religious practice and expression. Interestingly, however, the experience of past Islamic empires suggests a relationship between the religious observance and practice of cultural diversity and coexistence and the strengthening and flourishing of society, during which time Islam produced such renowned poets and philosophers as Rumi, Hafez, Ibn Arabi, Averroes, to name just a few. It was during the dismantling of the empires that intolerance and discrimination grew. Defensive reactions and exclusive claims to Islam today only serve to move communities further away from Islams core teachings of tolerance and universalism. Perhaps, therefore, this is a particularly important moment in history for peace-seeking actors to recall tawhid, the acceptance and even celebration of difference among peoples under the unity and oneness of God.

Nonviolence
Whoever kills a personexcept in retribution for another person or for spreading corruption on earthit shall be as if he had killed all of humanity; and whoever gives life to one it shall be as if he had given life to all of humanity. (Quran 5:32) A growing body of literature within the peace and conflict resolution field validates the strategic importance of nonviolent techniques, shedding light on numerous examples of successful nonviolent movements throughout the world. Within Islam, acts of nonviolence are not only plentiful in history and tradition, but also serve as an ultimate act of faith. The Islamic framework provides spiritual guidance and justification for a number of specific techniques espoused within the secular literature on nonviolence. As previously mentioned, sawm, or fasting, is one of Islams five pillars and is intended to foster purification
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through sacrifice toward higher spiritual goals, as well as compassion toward those who are suffering. According to Khalid Kishtainy, it is a natural training for hunger strikes as it builds discipline and solidarity among adherents.5 Other Islamic traditions such as zakat, or almsgiving, and waqf, or charitable endowment, instill a sense of responsibility toward others and collective nonviolent action toward a community defined by material equity, fairness, and justice. Further, through such practices adherents put their faith into practice, bringing significant spiritual significance to their lives. A key Islamic concept on nonviolence is one that is perhaps most misunderstood in the West: jihad. In its general meaning, it refers to a struggle or striving against injustice and oppression. Yet a distinction is drawn between jihad al asghar, or the lesser jihad of an armed, defensive, and jihad al akbar, or the greater jihad, an inner struggle of purification, personal sacrifice, and discipline. After one battle, the Prophet Muhammad told his companions, We have returned from the lesser jihad to the greater jihad; the jihad of the soul. 6 While many Western scholars in particular are focused on the principle of a violent jihad,7 historically Islamic teachings place a clear preference for the inner, nonviolent struggle over any form of violence. Unquestionably, early Islamic history is filled with stories of war and the suffering that resulted from such battles. The Quran does not dismiss the possibility of violence, but while retribution and self-defense are acknowledged and even permitted, the preference is always for restraint: Fear God, and know that God is with those who are Godfearing (Quran 2:194). Further, violence is absolutely forbidden toward innocents, a status that ultimately only God can judge. God is also the reader of ones true motives, even when a violent act appears permissible. As Prophet Muhammad said of the first case that will be decided on the Day of Judgment, God will ask, And what did you do (for Me)? He will say, I fought for You until I died a martyr. God will say, You have told a lie. You fought so that you might be called a brave warrior.8 Finally, Chaiwat Satha-Anand explains that, according to the rules of Islam, violence is unacceptable when one cannot distinguish between combatants and noncombatants. Given the nature of contemporary conflictsthe majority of which are intrastate and waged not in far-off battlefields but in communities where perpetrators and victims are often indistinguishablehe concludes that violent action becomes unacceptable for Muslims in the modern world.9 Both historical and contemporary Muslim societies hold numerous examples of the practice of nonviolence. Abdul Ghaffar Khan, also known as Badshah Khan, is well-known for leading a nonviolent struggle against the British Empire in the first half of the 20 th century. Witnessing as a child the often violent injustices of colonial rule as well as the bloody vendettas among the tribes in his region, he dedicated himself to the struggle for independence from the British and to popular education on nonviolence.10 In addition to establishing over one hundred schools with lessons on nonviolence, Abdul Ghaffar Khan founded the Khudai Khidmatgar, Servants of God, a hundred-thousand strong political resistance movement in the Pashtun-controlled, northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent (what is now Pakistan). The oath taken by members of the movement included a refrain from any violence or revenge. He told them: "I am going to give you such a weapon that the police and the army will not be
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able to stand against it. It is the weapon of the Prophet, but you are not aware of it. That weapon is patience and righteousness. No power on earth can stand against it.11 Abdul Ghaffar Khan and his colleagues applied Islamic principles and historical models of nonviolence in their efforts against injusticefor which he spent nearly forty years in prison during his lifetime.12 He explained: There is nothing surprising in a Muslim or a Pashtun like me subscribing to the creed of nonviolence. It is not a new creed. It was followed fourteen hundred years ago by the Prophet all the time he was in Mecca, and it has since been followed by all those who wanted to throw off an oppressors yoke.13 Abdul Ghaffar Khan was a close friend of Gandhis, remembered today by many as the Frontier Gandhi. According to Marshall G. S. Hodgson, in Abdul Ghaffar Khans movement Quranic encouragement of forgiveness as better than revenge became the foundation of a highly Muslim interpretation of Gandhis ideas.14 Ultimately, Abdul Ghaffar Khan and his Khudai Khidmatgar contributed directly to independence in the Indian subcontinent. A more contemporary example can be seen in the work of Ali Abu Awwad, who promotes nonviolence as the most effective form of resistance and means to establishing Palestinian rights. In the first intifada, Abu Awwad was imprisoned for his resistance activities against the Israeli occupation. During the second, he was shot in the leg by an Israeli soldier. It was while receiving medical treatment in Saudi Arabia that he learned his brother had been killed by an Israeli soldier. I was very shocked by the news, Abu Awwad recalls. I was full of anger and hatred and didn't want to see or have any contact with the other side.It was as if my life had ended and there wasn't any reason to live.15 Yet rather than follow the path of revenge, Abu Awwad chose nonviolence. Today, he works through the Bereaved Families Forum, which brings together mourning Palestinian and Israeli families, and the organization Al Tariq, which means the way in Arabic and promotes nonviolent democracy and leadership in Palestine. Abu Awwad received training from Mubarak Awad, a renowned Palestinian leader of nonviolence and the first to initiate nonviolent action during the first intifada. Finding no books in Arabic on nonviolence, Awads Palestinian Center for the Study of Nonviolence translated various texts on Islam and nonviolence, including the story of Abdul Ghaffar Khan, to show that there are people who believe in the work of Gandhi and are Muslim.16 More recently, his Washington, DC-based organization Nonviolence International translated and sent materials on nonviolence to members of the Green Movement in Iran. Initiated in response to what was widely regarded as a fraudulent presidential election in 2008, the largely nonviolent movement included both secular and religiously identified members. As hundreds of thousands took to the streets in the days following the election results, evenings were punctuated by chants of Allahu Akbar, God is great, from rooftops. In her testimony to Congress, Robin Wright noted the irony of this strong movement in Iran: A regime that came to power through revolution, in a country suspected of secretly developing a nuclear arms capability, faces its biggest challenge to date from peaceful civil disobedience.17 Indeed, there are many examples of nonviolent resistance throughout history within Muslim-majority countries, including several of the independence movements of the 20th century.18 Beginning with the Prophet Muhammad to contemporary efforts, todays Muslims have a long history of examples of nonviolence in peacemaking.
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Forgiveness and Reconciliation

Reconciliation is not just a physical process, but involves personal healing and, ultimately, forgiveness. For many, religion provides important mechanisms and guidance to aid the deeply personal and transformative process of forgiveness and to enable reconciliation. Of the ninety-nine names of God in the Quran, several specifically evoke forgiveness: Al-Ghafoor, the oft-forgiving; Al-Afu, the pardoning; Al-Haleem, the lenient; Al-Tawwab, the acceptor of repentance; and Al-Rahman and Al-Raheem, which are mentioned the most frequently and mean the most gracious and merciful. Because humanity and human souls are understood to come from God, indeed to be of God, Islamic teachings call upon Muslims to exemplify these qualities of God. As Reza Shah-Kazemi explains, what is true of God in absolute mode must be true of man in relative mode.19 Islam consistently holds forgiveness, or al-Afu, as the preferred requital to an injustice or crime. While the Quran permits certain retribution and self-defense, forgiveness is the spiritually superior option: The recompense of an injury is an injury the like thereof; but whoever forgives and thereby brings about a re-establishment of harmony, his reward is with God; and God loves not the wrongdoers. (Quran 42:40). Islamic teachings also provide practices of reconciliation to accommodate forgiveness and restore harmony between individuals and communities. Sulha is a form of mediation or arbitration with roots in the pre-Islamic tribal security system, in which injustice to one tribe was matched by a similar injustice to the other. In Islam, the principle of equality was emphasized in order to prevent ongoing intertribal blood feuds. Yet forgiveness was strongly preferred and encouraged through the symbolic provision of diyya, or monetary compensation, to the aggrieved party. As practiced among early Muslim communities, a delegation of wujaha (or jaha), community leaders, mediated between the feuding families or tribes, working to maintain communal peace and restore trust by encouraging the offended to agree to a visit from the offender and accept the diyya as a symbol of their repentance and sorrow. When the settlement was confirmed, the reconciliation took place publicly, reflecting the centrality of communal unity in Islamic tradition. The hope is always for eventual reconciliation: It may be that God will grant love [and friendship] between you and those whom ye [now] hold as enemies. For God is Oft-Forgiving, Most-Merciful (Quran 60:7). Tahkim, or arbitration, also with roots in pre-Islamic culture, plays an important role in early Islamic history and today as an unofficial alternative to official court systems in some Muslim-majority countries. Therefore, arbitration as a tool for reconciliation has a long history with continued relevance within Islam. The Prophet Muhammads role as peacemaker is particularly noteworthy. After several years of nonviolent resistance toward the elite in Mecca, who were increasingly threatened by the Prophet Muhammads growing Muslim community, the people of what is now known as the city of Medina invited the Prophet and his followers to relocate and serve as their chief arbitrator. Through consultation with each of Medinas tribes , he eventually negotiated a Constitution of Medina, which established a social and political contract between the Muslims and tribal groups of Medina. It also instituted a set of rights and responsibilities for the various groups, including religious freedoms for the Jews, Christians, and
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pagans, as well as created guidelines for the payment of blood money and shared responsibility for the security and stability of the cityeffectively bringing the once fighting tribes together as one community, or Ummah. In another well-known story, the Prophet Muhammads conflict resolution skills proved effective as he and nearly 1,500 Muslims journeyed to the city of Mecca to perform Hajj, the rite of pilgrimage. Before reaching the city, they were intercepted by a heavily armed group from the powerful Qurayshi tribe of Mecca, who refused to allow them to enter the city. Rather than fight, however, the Prophet Muhammad negotiated the Treaty of Hudaybiyya, a ten-year truce between the Muslims and their adversaries. Many of the Muslims found the treaty humiliating and dishonorable, as it required that they go back to Medina without performing hajj and to return after a year, when they could only stay in Mecca for three days. Some were ready for revolt, as they were angry at the Prophet Muhammad for refusing to allow them to fight and compiling with the Qurayshs demand that he not be called the Messenger of God. Yet the Prophet Muhammad was confident in the results of his negotiation, and on the journey home received a revelation that this was a clear victory (Quran 48:1). Through the treaty, the powerful Quraysh officially demonstrated their recognition of the Muslim community and the Prophet Muhammad as his leader, rather than as rebels. When a group allied with the Qurayshi breached the treaty, the Prophet Muhammad pardoned them instead of seeking revenge, and eventually reconciled with the Qurayshi. Over time more tribes entered into agreements with the Muslims, who received a growing level of respect and power. The Prophet Muhammads family also serves as important examples from which Muslims can derive inspiration. In one account, certain members of the community were insulting the character of his wife Aisha. It became known that one of the slanderers was the cousin of her father, Abu Bakr, who used to support this man financially. Abu Bakr, who became the first caliph after the Prophet Muhammad, vowed to never help him again, but a Quranic revelation encouraged him otherwise: Let not those among you who are endued with grace and amplitude of means resolve by oath against helping their kinsmen, those in want and those who migrated in the path of Allah. Let them forgive and overlook. Do you not wish that Allah should forgive you? Indeed Allah is oft-Forgiving, most Merciful (Quran 24:22). Seeking the forgiveness of God, Abu Bakr forgave his cousin and provided him with even more support. Within the concept of unity in Islam, the forgiveness that Muslims give and the forgiveness they in turn receive is an important connection. A contemporary example of the spiritual process of forgiveness is that experienced by Azim Khamisa, a Sufi Muslim American whose faith provided him with the strength necessary to meet with and ultimately forgive the person who shot and killed his son, Tariq. He explains: Like so many of us when horror strikes, I turned to my faith. My spiritual teachers reminded me that mourning could fill the first 40 days of Tariq's journey in the next world, but that after that, after we said the prayers that closed the 40 days, excessive grieving would impede his soul's journey. I must turn my grief into good deeds for the living, deeds that would fuel his soul's journey, not hinder it. The quality of the rest of my life depended totally on my reaction to Tariq's murder; for a life to have quality, it must have purpose. My faith had given me a cause, a reason for living.20
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Today, in honor of his son, Khamisa helps others undergo a similar process through his Tariq Khamisa Foundation, his books, and through talking with diverse audiences about his experience. Despite the grief and despair, Khamisa recognized that the 14-year old gang member who killed Tariq while he was delivering pizzas is also a victim. He reached out to the boys grandfather and guardian, who today joins him in sharing their story of forgiveness. Khamisa further argues that forgiveness should be incorporated into the justice system in order to more successfully heal both the victims and perpetrators of violence21a message that is supported within Islamic teachings of the more effective and preferred path of forgiveness and reconciliation. He says: We humans continuously confront defining moments in our lives. Sometimes these events are joyous; sometimes they are tragedies. At these moments its important to make the right choices. When we do, we are literally able to manifest a miracle and produce transformation in ourselves and others.22

Transformation
More recent scholarship within the peace and conflict resolution field has focused on the need for conflict transformation, which works to identify and dismantle the underlying sources of conflict, thereby enabling more sustainable social change. According to John Paul Lederach (who himself works out of an Anabaptist-Mennonite religious framework), conflict transformation recognizes peace as a process rather than an end-state, moving conflicts away from destructive patterns to constructive ones and placing the focus on human relationships. 23 Within an Islamic peacemaking framework, inner personal transformation is connected to societal conflict transformation; peace within oneself and peace in relation to others is linked not only with each other, but to a relationship with God. In particular, Tasawwuf, or the Sufi branch of knowledge and mysticism in Islam, understands the purification of ones inner self as a way to peace, which is defined as harmony or equilibrium. Sufism affirms that human beings have a capacity for inner knowledge and realization of tawhid, oneness with God, in their current lifetime. Yet this quest for union with God is not an act of isolation and withdrawal from society or materialism per se, but firmly places the individual within community and with earthly duties.24 An individuals spiritual path and their responsibility toward society are always connected, including through the keynote of Sufism, dhikr, or the remembrance of God. When dhikr enters ones conscious, harmony, love, and peace are perceived and therefore permeate ones actions. By remembering Gods love, ones actions become loving. Similar to the secular concept of conflict transformation, therefore, the Islamic framework provides a conceptualization of transformation that works from the inside out, addressing what is deep-rooted at the personal level in order to come closer to Gods love and, ultimately, peace. It is through this path to the divine, of greater jihad, that transformation takes placea process that often encompasses the principles of coexistence, nonviolence, and forgiveness and reconciliation. Various individuals and initiatives are working from within an Islamic framework to enable the transformation of the lives of individuals and, therefore, the community. Certainly the previously mentioned nonviolence movement of Abdul Ghaffar Khan, as well as the Prophet Muhammads life as a spiritual peacemaker, serve as important historical examples. Another
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example is of Emir Abd El-Kader, the nineteenth century Algerian Sufi nationalist leader. A scholar of the Quran, his military and political leadership united Algerias tribes in the fight for independence from the French. His faith guided him in and out of battle, such as in his insistence that prisoners be treated humanely or be released, and in punishing his own military when they continued to pursue their time-honored tradition of decapitating the dead in the battlefield in order to have proof of their victory.25 Ultimately, however, El-Kader surrendered and was exiled to France. When he was finally released by Napoleon III, he moved to Damascus, Syria with his family, where he became even more committed to the theology and philosophy of his religion. A few years after his arrival, a conflict among the Druze and Christians took hold of Damascus. Over 3,000 Christians were killed when their neighborhoods were attacked. El-Kader took action, sheltering Christians in his home and saving thousands of lives. Despite the despair, loss, and defeat he experienced in life, El-Kader held steadfast to his faith. His political and military leadership were never divorced from his personal spiritual journey, which he continued long after he was forced to leave his homeland. As a military figure he did not pursue nonviolence, yet he was widely recognized as a leader who exemplified strong morals, self-restraint, humility, and a willingness to forgive and reconcile. Further, he was known for his intense appreciation of Islams principle of coexistence and cultural diversity, deeply respecting different belief systems: If you think God is what the different communities believethe Muslims, Christians, Jews, Zorastrians, polytheists and othersHe is that, but also moreNo one is an infidel in all the ways relating to God. No one knows all Gods facets. Each of His creatures worships and knows Him in a certain way and is ignorant of Him in others. Error does not exist in this world except in a relative manner.26 He was honored by Abraham Lincoln for his heroism toward the Christians in Damascus, and remains a hero for many Algerians today. Even a small town thousands of miles away from his homeland is named after him: Elkader, Iowa. More contemporary examples can be seen in the work of countless grassroots Muslim peacemakers, who are drawing from their faith to bring lasting change to their communities. One such peacemaker is Sakena Yacoobi, founder of the Afghan Institute of Learning. Yacoobi began her work in 1995, shortly before the Taliban took control of Kabul. Through underground schools, she taught women and girls literacy and health care based on the Quran. Because she was known as a devoutly religious woman, families felt comfortable sending their daughters to her school. The women and girls readings of the Quran taught them about their religions embracement of womens rights, social justice, and nonviolence. Indeed, she says: We call it a human rights workshop but what we are really teaching is the Quran.27 Today her organization serves over 350,000 women and children throughout Afghanistan each year. Yacoobi is one of many who are successfully transforming her community from the bottom up, speaking and connecting to individuals through their personal faith to bring greater social change. People here have become suspicious of one another and have so much revenge to take out to one another. We used sensitivity to culture, tradition, and religion to introduce them to our curriculum of peace.28

Conclusion: Emerging Questions and Opportunities

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In most contemporary accounts, religion has not been tied to peacemaking. This is true despite its role in different periods of history as a powerful force for peace. Confucianism, for instance, helped end the Warring States Period of ancient China. Christianity helped reunify the decedent Roman Empire, both its East and West factions. Rabbinic Judaism was a great force of peace in exilic Babylon. Islam unified the turbulent Arab tribes. Buddhism was a basis for instilling peace during Ashokas empire. While it is true that in many periods of history, horrific crimes have been committed in the name of religion, all religions have scriptured resources that allow them to help bring peace. An important feature of the Quran is the emphasis it places on its hearers to use their own innate intelligence to reflect and understand its revealed guidance. God equips humanity with the capacity and freedom to think and choose their own path, yet also provides the guidance and strength necessary to follow a path of peace. The Quran says, There is no compulsion in religion, for the right way is clear from the wrong way. Whoever therefore rejects the forces of evil and believes in God, he has taken hold of a support most unfailing, which shall never give way, for God is All Hearing and Knowing (2:256). Islam provides the precepts to pursue peacemakingparticularly through its teachings on coexistence and cultural diversity, nonviolence, forgiveness and reconciliation, and transformationyet it is the will of the people to follow its guidance. Todays world of religiously-fueled conflict and instability requires us to take religion in conflict resolution seriously, and provides an opportunity for both Muslims and non-Muslims alike to consider the traditionand edictof peacemaking within Islam. Such a study raises a number of important opportunities and questions that have the potential to further strengthen the peace and conflict resolution field. First, peacemaking from an Islamic perspective, or a religious or spiritual perspective more generally, makes explicit the connection between inner and outer peace. The key concepts of peacemaking discussed here often require great personal sacrifice and the overcoming of deeply held beliefs to heal from tragedy and to forgive. Islam and other religions not only provide resources and guidance to aid in this process, but explicitly acknowledge that sustainable conflict resolution cannot happen without such a personal transformation. As the peace and conflict resolution field increasingly recognizes the need for a holistic approach to peacesuch as in conflict transformationpeacemaking from religious perspectives bring important insight on the necessary connection between peace within ones self, and peaceful actions within ones community. The study of Islamic peacemaking also contributes to the conceptualization of localizing peace, which recognizes that peace is ultimately unsustainable if it does not resonate with the local cultures and traditions of the people.29 Localizing peace in Muslim-majority settings means drawing upon peace resources that are present in the local religious and cultural value systems. As Yacoobi and others demonstrate, faith leaders have unparallel access to their communities, especially in times of instability, carrying first-hand knowledge of the beliefs and practices of their people, as well as a unique vantage point of the conflict. That said, it must be acknowledged that different religious leaders carry differing interpretations, and do not always exemplify religious peacemaking in their own actions. This raises some important questions, for instance: how do we distinguish between helpful and harmful traditional practices? Further, who gets to make this distinction and do they have the
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right to speak for their religious community? While the peace and conflict resolution field has made significant strides in recognizing the role of local religion and culture in peacemaking, great care must also be taken in recognizing the difference between doctrine and practice, and acknowledging the variety of interpretation that can exist within the same community. In particular, the study of Islamic (and, in general, religious) peacemaking raises important questions about religion and gender, as well as other social constructions that are used to marginalize people. On the one hand, such a study can highlight Islams embracement of womens rights. Many scholars have referenced the steps the Prophet Muhammad took in his lifetime to raise and protect the status of women, steps that can be seen as quite radical for its time. Today, many Muslim women scholars and leaders, some of whom call themselves Muslim feminists, are introducing interpretations of Islam that support womens rights and equality between the sexes. Examining Islamic peacemaking with a gender lens raises such questions as: how can religious peacemaking practices be inclusive of women, youth, and other traditionally marginalized groups? What is the role of religious leaders and institutions in addressing violence not just in the public sphere or community, but also in the private sphere or home? In the post-conflict period, what is the role of local religious leadership in rebuilding institutions and systems, including rule of law, that embraces human rights and freedom for all? Finally, the study of Islam and peacemaking draws important attention to the similarities in values between Islamic and Western societies, rewriting the story of a clash of civilizations to be one of compatibility and complimentarity. When they are distrustful of each other, the two sides overlook the life-affirming values and systems they shareand are therefore of their own tradition as well. Islamic peacemaking enables a more dynamic and inclusive transfer of knowledge between the West and Islam, in which one gives its best and receives the best of the other. An Islamic framework sees the coexistence of the two as not only possible, but provides its followers with the resources to create such a reality.
1

See for example R. Scott Appleby. Religion and Global Affairs: Religious Militants for Peace, SAIS Review 18: 2 (1998), 38-44; Barry Rubin. Religion and International Affairs, in Religion: The Missing Dimension of Statecraft, eds. Douglas Johnston and Cynthia Sampson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 20-36.
2 3

Throughout this chapter, we try to follow popular usage of transliterations. See Nathan C. Funk and Abdul Aziz Said. 2009. Islam and Peacemaking in the Middle East (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc, 2009), 61-62. 4 Al-Bukhari, Al-Adab Al-Mufrad, no 212.
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Khalid Kishtainy. Violent and Nonviolent Struggle in Arab History, in Arab Nonviolent Political Struggle in the Middle East, eds. Ralph Crow, Philip Grant, and Saad I. Ibrahim (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1990), 23. 6 As described by Ali Gomaa, the Grand Mufti of Egypt. Quoted in Funk and Said, Islam and Peacemaking, 62. 7 See Mohammed Abu-Nimers examination of studies of war and jihad, in Mohammed Abu-Nimer. Nonviolence and Peace Building in Islam: Theory and Practice (Gainesville: University of Florida, 2003), 25. 8 Sahih Muslim. Kitab Al-Imara no. 4688. 9 Chaiwat Satha-Anand. The Nonviolent Crescent: Eight Theses on Muslim Nonviolent Action, in Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam: Precept and Practice, eds. Abdul Aziz Said, Nathan C. Funk, and Ayse S. Kadayifci (Lanham, NY: University Press of America, 2001), 195-211. 10 Thomas F. Michel, S. J. A Christian View of Islam: Essays on Dialogue, edited by Irfan A. Omar (New York: Orbis Books, 2010), 156-166.

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Eknath Easwaran. A Man to Match his Mountains: Badshah Khan, Nonviolent Soldier of Islam (Santa Monica, CA: Nilgiri Press, 1984), 117. 12 Michel, A Christian View of Islam, 156-166. 13 Easwaran, A Man to Match his Mountains, 103. 14 Marshall G. S. Hodgson. The Venture of Islam, Volume 3: The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 134. 15 Interview with Ali Abu Awwad, Just Vision, accessed November 13, 2010, http://www.justvision.org/portrait/76100/interview. 16 Mubarak Awad, president of Nonviolence International and founder of the Palestinian Center for the Study of Nonviolence, phone conversation with authors, November 14, 2010. 17 Robin Wright. Irans Green Movement, Congressional Testimony (December 2009), accessed November 12, 2010, http://www.usip.org/publications/irans-green-movement. 18 See Gene Sharp. The Intifadah and Nonviolent Struggle, Journal of Palestine Studies, 19: 1 (1989) , 4. 19 Reza Shah-Kazemi. My Mercy Encompasses All: The Korans Teachings on Compassion, Peace, and Love. (Berkeley, CA: Counterpoint Press, 2007). 20 Azim Khamisa. 2006. A Fathers Journey From Murder to Forgiveness, Reclaiming Children and Youth, 15: 1 (2006), 16. 21 See Azim Khamisa. From Murder to Forgiveness: A Fathers Journey . (LaJolla, CA: ANK Publishing, Inc., 2005). 22 Azim Khamisa. Bibliography, accessed January 10, 2011, http://www.azimkhamisa.com/topics/view/17771/. 23 John Paul Lederach. The Little Book of Conflict Transformation. (Intercourse, PA: Good Books, 2003). 24 See Funk and Said, Islam and Peacemaking in the Middle East, 209. 25 John W. Kiser. Commander of the Faithful: The Life and Times of Emir Abd el-Kader (Rhinebeck: Monkfish Book Publishing Company, 2008), 154. 26 As quoted in Kiser, Commander of the Faithful, xvii. 27 As quoted in Isobel Coleman. Paradise Beneath Her Feet: How Women are Transforming the Middle East (New York: Random House, 2010), 162. 28 As quoted in Sheherazade Jafari. 2007. Local Religious Peacemakers: An Untapped Resource in U.S. Foreign Policy, Journal of International Affairs, 61:1 (2007), 121. 29 Nathan C. Funk and Abdul Aziz Said. Localizing Peace: An Agenda for Sustainable Peacebuilding. Peace and Conflict Studies 17:1 (2010), 101-143.

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