L9: VOLCANOES Chap.

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HOW DO VOLCANOES ERUPT? Step 1: Melt the solid rock What can cause solid rock to melt? - Decompression melting (decrease in P, most important) - Increase in T - Increase in water content Magma rises to continental crust Decompression melting Step 2: Fractures Phase change from solid to liquid leads to increase in volume Fractures develop in overlying rocks - More hot material rise - More rocks liquefy Step 3: Volatiles Volatiles gradually come out of solution Gas bubbles push magma upward Step 4: Magma fragments When bubbles 75% volume Powerful gas jet expels magma in the atmosphere Volcanic eruption: sudden occurrence of a violent discharge of volcanic materials PLATE TECTONICS & VOLCANOES Theory of plate tectonics is central to understanding natural disasters related to the Earths internal energy - Volcanoes and earthquakes do not occur randomly Coincide with plate boundaries - 90% of volcanoes found at the edge of plates Classic example: "Pacific Ring of Fire" Relation between tectonic environment, magma composition and eruptive style HOT SPOT VOLCANOES Chain of volcanoes Aligned in the direction of plate motion Age increasing with distance from hot spot - Oldest likely to be extinct on the seafloor Variable eruptive style Example: Hawaii VOLCANOES AT SPREADING CENTERS Peaceful eruptions Magma directly derived from asthenosphere - Basaltic lava: low % SiO2 - Very high T - Low viscosity Pull-apart movement of plates creates zone of low pressure - Rocks melt partially - Magma rises and flows easily Examples: volcanoes of Iceland

VOLCANOES AT CONVERGENT ZONES Continent-continent collision zones : little volcanism Subduction zones: widespread volcanism -Role of water H20 from down going plate lowers the melting point of rock Partial melting is induced in the overlying plate Magma rises and erupts Volcanic mountains formed at the edge of the continents where one plate subducts beneath another - 10% of magma on the Earths surface - Andesitic to rhyolitic magma Examples: - Volcanoes of the Andes - Mount Baker, Mount St. Helens (USA) ERUPTION STYLES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 3 Vs - Factors controlling volcanism: Viscosity, Volatiles, Volume of magma VISCOSITY Viscosity: internal resistance of a liquid to flow Most important property controlling magma behavior and, therefore, eruptive style What controls magma viscosity? - % SiO2 Magma with high % SiO2 has more silicate chains, sheets and 3D structures More bounds between atoms increase viscosity LOW-VISCOSITY MAGMAS Tend to reach the Earths surface Erupt peacefully Characteristics: - Basaltic magma: 80% of magma reaching the surface is basaltic - High T (1000-1250C) -Low volatile content: At high T, volatiles escape easily HIGH-VISCOSITY MAGMAS Tend to form intrusive bodies When reaching the surface, erupt explosively Characteristics: - Andesitic and rhyolitic magma - Low T (600-900oC) - High volatile content: Volatiles are "trapped" in magma and have to burst to escape VISCOSITY AND DENSITY Density of magma: - Magma density > crust density Mafic magma; low viscosity - Magma density < crust density Felsic magma; high viscosity

 Eruption style and associated igneous rock PEACEFUL ERUPTION STYLE Icelandic-type: small volume - Landform: lava plateau Hawaiian-type: large volume - Landform: shield volcano Flood basalts: very large volume None occured in "recent" geological time - Largest volcanic events on Earth - Landform: flood basalt province LAVA PLATEAU Land forming Plate boundaries diverge Basaltic lava pours peacefully from long fissures Submarine volcanic activity forming new sea floor SHIELD VOLCANOES Peaceful lava flows - High volume Gas emissions Faults, earthquakes, tsunamis Hawaii: 3 active volcanoes; 1 dormant, 1 extinct Kohala (extinct), Mauna Kea (dormant), Kilauea, Mauna Loa Hualalai STROMBOLIAN-TYPE ERUPTIONS "Intermediate" case - Peaceful eruptive style in convergent zone environment - Mafic composition: basaltic to andesitic Medium viscosity Medium volatiles - Gas build up - Eruptions generate pyroclastic materials - Lava pours out of a crater Small volume - Pressure accumulate quickly in subsurface - Released in separate short-duration bursts (daily activity) - Bursts not strong enough to destroy the volcanic edifice Eruptive phase of a few years duration until volcanic conduit clogged Scoria cone: volcano in the shape of a conical hill formed by pyroclastic debris piled up next to a volcanic vent - Also known as Cinder cone - Destroyed quickly by erosion since pyroclastic debris weak and unstable Harder volcanic conduits remain creating a volcanic neck MONOGENETIC VOLCANO Monogenetic volcanic field: collection of cinder cones El Parcutin volcano, Mexico - Grows quickly, 5 stories in a week - Born, developed and died (1943-1952) The new volcano in Mexico is a unique geological phenomenon: for, before our eyes, it has sprung into existence and has grown to a very respectable height of 1,500 feet, all within a period of 8 months. Dr. Parker D. Trask (USGS), Science, December 1943 - Ash found in Mexico City, 400 km away 1. Initial period (20 Feb 18 Oct 1943) 10-19 February: underground noises, vapors 20 February: fissure 22 February: first lava flows 2. Development of the Sapichu cone (smaller cone) Secondary conduit (18 Oct 1943 8 Jan 1944)

3. Reactivation of the principal cone (8 Jan 1944 12 Jan 1945) 4. Gradual decline in activity (Jan 1945 Feb 1952) * Erosion several cm/year

VULCANIAN-TYPE ERUPTIONS Eruptions alternate between: - Medium/high viscosity lava of varied composition - Pyroclastic material covering a large area Often preceding a more violent plinian-type eruption Landform: Stratovolcano: A large volcanic cone built of alternating layers of viscous lava and pyroclastic debris - Steep-sided - Symmetrical - Also known as stratovolcano Surface rupture: central vent Examples: Mount Fuji, Kilimanjaro, Mount Etna PLINIAN-TYPE ERUPTIONS Volatile-powered vertical eruption carrying pyroclastic debris - Plume up to 50 km in the atmosphere reach stratosphere - Lots of pumice Continued development of stratovolcano During final phase of eruptive sequence: - High viscosity: lava behaves like a "paste" forming a plug in the volcanic conduit - Few volatiles remain Landform: lava dome Mount Vesuvius, Naples Italy - Buried Pompeii in 79 A.D. -Ash 33km high - 1.5M tonnes per second - 16 000 deaths - Debris/ash cloud moving at > 100 km/hr, > 100C - Over 1000 casts found LAVA DOME Lava dome: volcanic cone with a highly viscous blob of lava forming a half-ball shape over the vent (Note: sometimes the term is only applied to the blob of lava) - Lava is too viscous to flow far from the vent - In many cases, the dome continues to grow upward until it collapses CALDERA-TYPE ERUPTIONS Largest explosive volcanic eruptions Method 1 - Collapse of an existing stratovolcano into the partially emptied magma chamber - Usually follows a sustained Plinian-type eruption that opened void space below the volcano - Piston-like action of collapsing volcano cause very large volume of magma to flow outward as pumice- rich sheets Ex: Crater Lake, animation

Method 2 - Cataclysmic explosion litterally blows the existing volcano apart completely - Examples: Santorini, Krakatoa Krakatoa, Indonesia - Eruption 416AD Created of 7km wide caldera, currently submersed Remnanents formed islands, baby volcanoes formed - Eruption 1883 Eruption heard 4800 km away Shock wave recorded around the world Destroyed baby volcanoes Approximately 35 000 people killed Generated 40 m high tsunami travelling 2.5 km inland VOLCANIC HAZARDS AND MITIGATION VOLCANIC HAZARDS 50-60 eruptions worldwide each year - 2-3 eruptions/year in North America Ex. Aleutian chain (Alaska) Volcanoes become hazardous when people are in close proximity - 100 000 killed in last 100 years - Tendency for people to inhabit fertile soils on flanks Primary hazards result directly from the eruption - Examples: pyroclastic flows, volcanic gas, lava flows, pyroclastic fall (ballistic projectiles and ash) Secondary hazards result from the environment created by the volcano - Hazardous conditions can persist long after eruptive phase is over - Ex.: floods (lava flows can dam rivers and modify drainage relationships), lahars, atmospheric dust Tertiary hazards result from the destabilizing long-term effects of the volcanic eruption on society - Famine Atmospheric dust affects global climate Extensive crop damage and loss of livestock - Diseases Breakdown of sewage and water systems - Effects of tertiary hazards can be felt several years after the eruption PYROCLASTIC FLOWS Synonym: "nue ardente" (glowing cloud) Pyroclastic flow: avalanche of hot gas, ash and rock fragments moving down the sides of a volcano - T 1000C - Velocity 10 300 m/s - High-density flows follow valleys - Low-density, more dilute flows can move up and over ridges Direct effects of pyroclastic flow: - Responsible for the largest number of fatalities related to volcanism - Highly destructive to infrastructure due to mass, high To and great mobility Indirect effect: fires Examples: Pompeii (79 AD) & St-Pierre de la Martinique (1902) Ballistic projectiles: falling fragments of lapilli and scoria (particle size > 2 mm) - Fall close to the volcano VOLCANIC GAS Volcanic gases come out of solution and increase in volume when magma erupts - Main driving force of explosive eruptions - Most abundant: H2O, CO2, SO2 Can also be present: H2S, H2, CO, HCl, HF, He Concentrated near vent Distribution controlled by prevailing wind

VOLCANIC GAS Direct effects: - Heavier-than-air gas (e.g. CO2) accumulate in depressions, causing suffocation - Example: Lake Nyos (Cameroon, 1986) S, Cl, F react with water, forming poisonous acids LAVA FLOWS Hazardous nature related to speed of advance Controlling factors: rate of lava production at the vent, slope steepness, lava viscosity (Fluid basaltic flows, km/hr & Viscous andesitic-rhyolitic flows, cm/hr ) - Whether lava flows as a broad sheet, through a confined channel, or in a lava tube Direct effects: lava flows destroy everything in their path - Bury, crush, burn objects ASH FALL Volcanic ash (particle size < 2 mm) - Tiny jagged pieces of rock and glass - Properties: hard, abrasive, mildly corrosive, does not dissolve in water - Can be transported 100-1000s km downwind Direct effects: vegetation destroyed, surface water contaminated, respiratory health issues, structural damage to buildings SECONDARY HAZARDS: LAHARS Lahar: type of mudflow that originates on the slopes of volcanoes when volcanic ash and debris become saturated with water and flow rapidly downslope - Speed: 1 40 m/s - Spread over long distances Almost always occur on stratovolcanoes - Steep flanks - Tall cones often snow covered - Constructed of weakly consolidated material Triggering mechanisms: melting of snow and ice , heavy rainfall CASE STUDY Nevado del Ruiz volcano, Columbia Major eruption on 10 November 1985 melts ice cap - Lahar triggered, travelling at 60 km/h - Town of Armero buried - 23,000 fatalities Could this disaster have been prevented? - Historical records: lahars in 1595 and 1845 - Hazard map published one month before the disaster * But poorly distributed - Volcano awakes in 1984 - Small scale volcanic activity - Government is warned Currently - 500 000 people living in the region - Volcano is monitored heavily - Evacuation plans in place MITIGATION Volcanic eruptions are one of the most difficult natural hazards for which to mitigate - Low frequency, high magnitude events - Exact combination and timing of events difficult to predict - Especially for explosive volcanoes

Can lava flows be diverted? Wall building - The city of Catania successfully blocked the lava flow of Mount Etna in 1669 (USGS) - But the diverted flow headed to the town of Paterno - The citizens of Paterno prevented Catania from maintaining their artifical breach Aerial bombing - Unsuccessful in Hawaii, Mauna Loa in 1935 and 1942 VOLCANIC ACTIVITY CLASSIFICATION Active: volcano which has erupted in historic times Dormant: volcano that has not erupted in historic time but is capable of erupting in the future Extinct: volcano that is not expected to erupt again Rather "subjective" classification including an element of prediction - Different vulcanologists use different criteria CANADIA VOLCANOES Garibaldi and Baker Garibaldi is dormant with seismic activity, no gas activity - Hazards: lavas, ash clouds, mudflows Mt. Baker was active with ash explosions (1840s), abundant recent gas activity - Hazards: lavas, landslides, ash clouds, mudflows MONITORING VOLCANIC ACTIVITY Compilation of baseline data when the volcano is dormant - Seismic activity - Thermal monitoring - Sampling of gas, lavas, etc. Warnings issued when changes occur