Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta

ERTH2404 Lecture 5: Sedimentary Rocks

Dr. Jason Mah

Photo: C. Samson, Carleton U.

Paul Menton Centre

Volunteer note taker requested for the class
volunteer_notetaking@carleton.ca 501 University Centre (Paul Menton Centre)

Reading assignment
Please read Kehews book to complement the material presented in this lecture: Chap. 5;

Review of Igneous Rocks

Classification of igneous rocks dependent on a number of parameters
Mineral composition (Felsic or Mafic) Intrusive or Extrusive (controls grain size)

Review of Igneous Rocks

Intrusive processes

Review of Igneous Rocks

Extrusive processes

Lecture contents
Origin and classification of sedimentary rocks
Detrital sedimentary rocks Chemical sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary structures Sedimentary depositional environments Engineering considerations

Sedimentary Rocks
Significance
Sedimentary rocks make up 5% of Earths rocks 75% of rock exposed Important economically
Building material Energy sources (coal, petroleum, natural gas) Sources of iron, aluminum and manganese

Record Earths past history and environments

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Remember the rock cycle

What happens to rocks at the Earths surface?

Remember the rock cycle

Sedimentary rocks are formed from any type of pre-existing rocks by the processes of
Weathering Erosion & Transportation Deposition

Common characteristic: BEDDING (layering) Sedimentary rocks reflects the environment of erosion (climate, ocean vs. land)
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Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Two criteria:
1. Process of formation: detrital or chemical 2. Texture: grain size, shape, physical features

Detrital: formed by the erosion and deposition of rock fragments Chemical: formed by precipitation

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Texture
Clastic rocks are composed of aggregates of individual fragments:
Clasts (larger fragments) surrounded by a matrix (fine-grained sediments) Commonly layered

Non-clastic rocks are composed of a pattern of interlocking crystals

Similar to crystalline igneous rocks
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Classification Table
Process of formation Detrital Inorganic Chemical Biochemical Clastic Nonclastic Texture

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Process of Formation
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
Weathering: breakdown of rocks into fragments
Physical (abrasion, freezing), chemical

Erosion: Detachment and transport of fragments by water, wind or gravity Deposition: sediments deposited by natural process Lithification: cementation and compaction

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Precipitation: formation of a solid in a solution during a chemical reaction
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Lithification
Lithification is achieved in several ways
1. Compaction: caused by weight of overlying material Most basic lithification process Mechanical reduction of void space in between particles 2. Cementation: filling of void spaces by chemical precipitation Generates cement that binds particles together Two most common cements: quartz (SiO2) and calcite (CaCO3)
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Lithification
Lithification is achieved in several ways
3. Crystallization: additional growth of the original crystal within the void spaces
Without addition of new chemical substances

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Lithification
Lithification reduces the amount of void space between particles
Increase in density Decrease in porosity and permeability

The degree of lithification influences the induration of sedimentary rocks

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Lithification

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Porosity
Total volume of Earth material: VT Total volume of void space: Vv Total volume of particles: VS
Porosity Void ratio [%] [ ] = Vv / VT e = Vv / Vs

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Permeability
Permeability: general qualitative term describing the ability of a material to transmit fluids Permeability is a composite property of:
Material properties: size, shape and interconnectivity of the voids Fluid properties: density, viscosity

Permeability varies by several order of magnitude in earth materials

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Classification of detrital rocks

Most common minerals are quartz, feldspar, clay minerals Detrital rocks are classified according to particle size

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Classification of detrital rocks

Wentworth scale
Grain diameter [mm] <1/256 1/256 - 1/16 1/16 - 2 >2 Size name clay silt sand gravel

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Classification of detrital rocks

Grain diameter [mm] <1/256 1/256 - 1/16 1/16 - 2 >2 Size name clay silt sand gravel Detrital sedimentary rock Mudstone Shale Siltstone Sandstone Arenite Wacke Conglomerate Breccia

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Properties of detrital rocks

Grain size: based on grain diameter Roundness: rounded vs. angular Sorting: distribution of grain sizes in sedimentary rock

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Grain size, Roundness, Sorting

Grain size is related to the distance traveled from the sediment source
Due to abrasion Mineral composition: how tough is a mineral?
Close to Source Grain Size Roundess Sorting Larger Angular Poorly sorted Far from Source Smaller Rounded Better sorted

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Sediment Maturity
Mature vs. Immature Mature: well sorted, fine-grained (sand or smaller), rounded, mostly quartz grains Immature: poorly sorted, coarse-grained, angular, very little quartz

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Common detrital rocks

Uniform grain size
Shale: composed of mud Siltstone Sandstone: composed of sand (gritty)
Arenite (<15% matrix) Wacke (>15% matrix)

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Common detrital rocks: Shale

Most common sedimentary rock (50% of all sedimentary rocks) Shale is formed by the compaction and/or cementation of clay minerals Particles (<1/256 mm) deposited in thin layers (laminellae) Shale splits into thin layers (fissility) Usually parallel to depositional layering Shale weathers readily Found in gentle slopes
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Common detrital rocks: Sandstone

Sandstone is formed in a variety of environments Texture can be used to interpret the rocks history Quartz (SiO2) is the prominent mineral More durable than shale Found in steeper slopes
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Common detrital rocks: Sandstone

Quartz Sandstone:
All sand-sized, all rounded, well sorted, 99% quartz monomineralic rock

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Common detrital rocks

Wide range of grain size > 2 mm
Breccia: composed of angular gravel
Deposited closer to source

Conglomerate: composited of rounded gravel

Transported further from source

conglomerate

breccia

USGS

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Chemical sedimentary rocks

Material precipitated from water
Inorganic: minerals crystallize from supersaturated water Biochemical/Organic: organisms extract compounds from seawater to form shell; when dies, sinks to bottom of ocean
Biochemical sediment

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Inorganic Precipitation
Water supersaturated in certain elements
Often because of evaporation

Precipitated crystals sink to bottom Ca, CO3 Ca, Mg, CO3 SiO2 Na, K, Cl Ca, SO4 limestone (CaCO3) dolostone ( CaMg(CO3)2 ) chert rock salt (NaCl, KCl) gypsum (CaSO4 . 2H2O)
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Inorganic Precipitation
SiO2 based
Chert, opal: microcrystalline Geode: mineral deposits in cavities in rocks

Chert

Geode

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Biochemical Precipitation
Organisms extract minerals from seawater and build shells Shells sink when organisms die
Reef, benthic and some planktonic organisms extract Ca and CO2 limestone (CaCO3) Other planktonic organisms extract SiO2 chert
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Limestone
Most common chemical sedimentary rock (10% of all sedimentary rocks)
Composed mainly of mineral calcite (CaCO3) Produced by biochemical and inorganic precipitation

Marine biochemical origin most common

Coral reefs (important petroleum reservoir rock) Coquina (broken shells) Chalk (shells of microscopic organisms)
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Organic limestone
Coquina: composed of poorly cemented shells

Scale in mm
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Inorganic limestone
Travertine (limestone): stalactites, stalagmites, hot springs (Yellowstone)

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Inorganic limestone
Travertine: Mammoth hot springs, Minerva Terrace (Yellowstone)

Credit: Pat Holleran, Shannon Technologies

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Inorganic Precipitation
Evaporites
Precipitation due to evaporation of shallow lakes, inland seas Minerals precipitate in order of increasing solubility:
1. Ca + SO4 --> gypsum (CaSO4 . H2O) 2. Na + Cl --> halite (NaCl) 3. K + Cl --> sylvite (KCl)

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Salt flats
Playa (ephemeral) lake: a waterbody existing for a short period following precipitation or snowmelt In a desert environment where rain dissolves elements from rocks, washes down into valleys ephemeral lakes Salt flat: water evaporates leaving behind salts

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Salt flats
Bonneville Salt Falts (Utah)

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Sedimentary structures
Sediments deposited in layers: beds, strata Each layer unique, records conditions under which particles, minerals deposited Bedding plane: surface that separates each successive layer Conditions recorded in sedimentary structures within layers Folding: strata deformed and curved
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Sedimentary structures: Bedding

Parallel bedding: quiet deposition of particles falling to the bottom of a water column by gravity Cross bedding: deposition under alternating wind or water current direction
Graded bedding:
Coarse particles at the bottom, changing to finer particles at the top

Deposition of material moving rapidly downslope

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Sedimentary structures: Bedding

Parallel bedding Cross bedding
Graded bedding

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Sedimentary structures: Cross-bedding

Sand dunes, some river deposits
Records alternating wind or current direction

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Sedimentary structures: Ripples

Ripple marks
Small scale back-and-forth motion of waves Occur on beaches and streams

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Sedimentary structures: Mud cracks

Muddy sediment dries and shrinks
cracks fill with different sediment (desert, dry lakes)

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Fossils
Remains of plants or organisms shells, bones, petrified wood, imprints of plants index fossils: indicator of relative time

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Sedimentary environments
Features of sedimentary rocks reflect their depositional environments Important factors:
Transporting agent (water, wind, ice) Flow characteristics Characteristics of body of water
Size, shape, depth, circulation of water

Presence of life Nature of sediments being deposited

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Sedimentary environments
Types of sedimentary environments
1. Continental 2. Marine
Shallow Deep (continental shelf; depth 200 m) (seaward of continental shelf)

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Continental environments
Dominated by erosion and deposition associated with water, ice and wind Detrital sedimentary rocks dominant Grain size varies with flow velocity
Coarse-grained sediments deposited by fast-flowing rivers Fine-grained sediments deposited by slow-flowing rivers
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Continental environments

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Marine environments
Shallow
Detrital sedimentary rocks
Near shore:
Low-energy environment (e.g. protected lagoon): silt-size sediments High-energy environment (e.g. exposed beach): sand-size sediments

Shelf: wide range of sediment sizes Slope: frequent mass movements, graded bedding

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Marine environments
Shallow
Biochemical sedimentary rocks
Conditions for accumulation of biochemical sedimentary rocks
Sunlight Oxygen Warm water (T>20C) Little silt- and clay-size sediments

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Marine environments

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Marine environments
Deep ocean
Clay-size sediments Quiet environment
Conducive to the formation of shale

No biochemical sedimentary rocks

Reefs cannot develop

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Marine environments

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Stratigraphy of the Grand Canyon

The Colorado Plateau

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GC: Colorado Plateau

Little rock deformation Location of stratigraphy research

GC

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GC: Stratigraphy

Paleozoic sedimentary Proterozoic sedimentary Proterozoic metamorphic/ igneous

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GC: The Paleozoic Sequence

Coconino Sandstone
Kaibab Limestone

The Redwall

Bright Angel Shale

Tapeats Sandstone 62

Zion National Park

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Navajo Sandstone

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Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta

World Heritage Site since 1979 Mesozoic era (Cretaceous ( 75 Ma)) Warm inland sea at the base of Cordillera
Subtropical climate Lush vegetation in coastal plain Rivers carried organic-rich sediments into sea

Layer-cake sedimentary deposits

Mostly shale, sandstone and mudstone Rich deposit of dinosaur fossils
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Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta

Valleys carved by water from melting glaciers at the end of the last glaciation (13,000 years ago)

Photo: C. Samson, Carleton U.

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Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta

Formation

Photo: C. Samson, Carleton U.

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Engineering considerations
Water infiltrates porous/permeable rocks Cracks open after several freeze/thaw cycles

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Engineering considerations: Detrital

Variability
Vertical and horizontal gradation into other sedimentary rocks Variations within each strata
Knowledge of depositional environments may allow for prediction of rock type and properties Quarries, exploration areas, oil and gas exploration

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Engineering considerations: Detrital

Bedding causes extremes in directional properties
Anisotropy: characteristic of a property having a different value when measured in different directions
Strength, permeability, seismic velocity

Bedding planes are zones of weakness

Exploit them in quarrying
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Engineering considerations: Detrital

Engineering properties influenced by geological events occuring long after sediment deposition
Lithification affects strength Strength influenced by type and amount of cement Quartz (SiO2) cement stronger than calcite (CaCO3) cement Conglomerates often weak due to poor cementing between clasts and matrix
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Engineering considerations: Chemical

Carbonate rocks: limestone and dolostone PROS
Best sedimentary aggregates Excellent source of building rock Carved limestone blocks used as foundation in older Ottawa neighborhoods

CONS
Thin bedded limestones separated by layers of clay or shale may serve as sliding planes May dissolve and form a system of subterranean galleries (karst terrain)
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Next: Metamorphic Rocks

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