1

Recovering the Somali State:

The Islamic Factor

by
Abdurahman M. Abdullahi ( Baadiyow)

“Regardless of the subtleties of Islam in Somalia, it is one of the few

elements that virtually all Somalis support to some degree. It provides a code
of moral and ethical behavior, it bolsters Somali cultural tradition by offering a
system in which rulings of elders are accepted, and it brings a tradition of
continuity greatly needed in Somalia’s struggle to bring order out of the last
decade of chaos. The presence of traditional Islamic ethics, codes, and laws of
conduct offer one piece of a foundation upon which the new Somalia can be
built.”
– Hussein Adam, Richard Ford et al,
Removing Barricades in Somalia: Options for Peace and
Rehabilitation

Introduction

As one of the great religions of the world, and the fastest growing in the West,
Islam has been taking center stage worldwide since the 1980s. In Muslim
societies, advocates for the realization of Islam’s divine moral values and legal
imperatives have been at work in every sphere. This unprecedented world
interest in Islam and its new revival intensified to the highest degree after the
September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks and the subsequent explosion of the
global war on terrorism. This war has so far resulted in forceful US military
intervention and regime changes in two Muslim states, namely Afghanistan and
 2

Iraq.1 Somalia has been spared so far inclusion in the list of countries targeted
for US military intervention even though subjected to constant US military
surveillance2. However, the United States does include Al-Barakat Group Co. (a
Somali company), the Al-Haramain charity (Saudi Charity) operating in Somalia,
and the Al-Itihaad Islamic Movement on its list of suspected terrorist
organizations.

Islamic movements around the world are united in considering Islam as a source
of religious inspiration, solace and fulfillment for life in this world and beyond,
and as their supreme guide in all their social, political and economic activities.
Nevertheless, they part company when it comes to modern interpretations of
Islamic texts and their practical application to strategies for societal change.
The core agendas and programs of these movements are influenced among
other things, by the conditions and environment in which they have developed
and now operate.3 For instance, movements operating under foreign
occupation usually lack any avenues to redress their grievances other than
underground activities and armed resistance4. On the other hand, those
movements functioning in a tolerant and democratic environment go for overt
social and political expression.5 Some of these movements have chosen armed
revolt against their governments and their western allies believing that they
have fallen away from authentic Islam.6

Somalia, located on the periphery of the historical Islamic world, was never
totally incorporated in any of the successive Islamic political empires.
Traditionally it was proud of its homogeneity even in religious matters, and
1
The global war on terrorism inevitably links Islam and Islamic movements, particularly Al-
Qa'ida and other armed groups.
2
USA established military base in Djibouti after 9/11 in order to gather intelligence on terrorist
activities and groups in the Horn of Africa.
3
Most of the Muslim countries are ruled by dictatorial regimes that violate human rights. This
creates a conductive environment for underground radical organizations to grow in reaction to
the repressive state apparatus.
4
Examples are Kashmir, Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Palestine.
5
Examples are Kuwait, Bahrain, Malaysia, Yemen, Jordan, Turkey, Morocco, Algeria and so on.
6
This category includes al-Qa’ida, al-Jihad, al-Takfir and armed groups in Algeria and so on.
 3

among the four famous law schools in Islam it adhered to only one: the Shafi’i
School. But Somalia could not remain isolated from the waves of Islamic
revivalism that have been a feature of the modern Muslim world since their
beginnings in Egypt, Saudi Arabia and the Indian subcontinent in the early years
of the 20th century. As part of their cultural interaction with the wider Islamic
world, Somalis have received ample printed materials and have been in contact
with different scholars from different schools of thought ever since the late
1960s. As a result, Somalia has witnessed tremendous changes since the 1960s
and was gradually losing its former homogeneity. In the last four decades, the
Safiya Movement has brought the Hambali School from Saudi Arabia, and the
Tablig Movement has brought the Hanafi School from India and Pakistan. Each
of these schools has taken root in Somali society alongside the established
Shafi’i School. Beside the traditional Sufi brotherhoods, new ‘brands’ of Islamic
groups have emerged, each calling for Islamic revival and adopting different
perspectives and approaches. In short, movements have emerged in Somalia
that is parallel to the different Islamic movements elsewhere in the Muslim
world in their interpretation of Islam and their socio-political programs.

When the Somali nation-state collapsed in early 1991, 30 years after its birth on
July 1st 1960, it was succeeded by a patchwork of warlord-dominated regions,
clan-based fiefdoms, shaky local administrations, nominal transitional
governments and traditionally administered areas. That being said, up to now,
scholars of Somalia disagree on what it was that really collapsed in Somalia in
1991. This makes recovering the Somali state even more time consuming,
since “where the starting point is remains contentious.” Obviously, there are
three components that any given state must have. Firstly, the idea of the state:
the political, economic, religious and social ideologies that lay the foundation for
the state in the minds of its people. Secondly, the physical land mass of the
nation-state, including territorial borders, natural resources, and the man-made
wealth within these boundaries. Thirdly, there are the institutional entities of the
 4

nation-state: the executive, legislative, administrative and judicial branches of

the state.

There are two schools of thought on the question of restoring the Somali state.
The first is the extreme view, which holds that since everything related to the
Somali nation-state collapsed, it can only be reconstructed from scratch. This
view also proposes that the best option for Somalis is to re-invent the nation-
state anew through a bottom-up process of state formation, based on the
brainchild concept of “Building Blocks”.7 The second opinion is a moderate one,
which holds that the Somali nation-state only partially collapsed and that it is
recoverable. Proponents of this view argue that only national state institutions
collapsed, and that other two components of the state – namely, its population
and the physical landmass – remain unchanged. This view supports a top-down
process of “state recovery” instead of the “re-invention of a new state”8.

The complexity of the Somali crisis does not permit emotional solutions,
repetition of known previous failures, an imposed external solution, or
structures tailored to suit the interests of specific groups or personalities.
Reconstructing the Somali nation-state requires re-engineering by sincere
experts in Somali affairs, supported by multilateral studies. These studies must
include a review of the shared core values of society and the state; a re-
examining of what constitutes appropriate state structures in a clan-based
society; consideration of the human resources required to run the institutions of
the state; and so on. Also required is a prudent understanding of the involved

7
Under Ethiopian pressure, the Inter-Governmental Authority for Development (IGAD) and the
international community adopted the “Building Block” approach in 1998. This approach was
further encouraged with a "peace dividend" aid package by European Union. Proponents of this
approach hoped that these blocks would eventually unite to form a new Somali state.
8
The concept of “state recovery” took the center stage in Arta peace process in Djibouti and
subsequent Embagathi Peace Conference in Kenya. Both the Arta TNG (Transitional National
Government) and Embagathi TFG (Transitional Federal Government) recognized the
imperativeness of decentralized system for Somalia.
 5

external powers, and a means of addressing their concerns without

compromising the strategic objective of recovering the Somali state.

In this paper, ‘the Islamic factor’ does not refer to Islam as a faith and a belief
system for all Somalis, nor does it focus on what is termed these days ‘political
Islam’ as such. This paper focuses how Islamic moral values – values that
supersede and dilute clannish values of disunity and disintegration – could be
revived and invigorated in order to recover the Somali state. Therefore, this
paper brings to the forefront aspects of Islam that bring people together and
make communities closer, uniting their mission and purpose in life. Of course,
we cannot ignore the active role of modern Islamic movements and their impact
in calling for Islamic values, including Islamic law, to be brought into the daily
life of Muslims. This too creates trans-clan organizations that could help reach
these goals. But in attempting to recover the Somali state, studying the Islamic
factor entails examining not only revivalist (Tajdiid)9 Islamic movements, but
also the role of Islam in tribal society of Somalia.

It is important, first and foremost, to take note of the difference between Islam
as the religion of all Somalis, and the modern development of Islamic
movements with a political component among a multitude of other programs.
Islam with its authentic sources of the Qur’an and the Sunna of the Prophet
Mohammed (PBUH) is sacrosanct among all Muslims, while Islamic movements
representing organized groups carry human deficiencies and limitations.
Moreover, the reader must be aware that Islamic movements are not all of one
brand, but constitute a mixture of “moderate” (Al-wasadiyah) and “extremist”
(Al-guluwu) groups. The classical literature on Islam in Somalia focuses mainly
on Sufi brotherhoods, and modern Islamic developments have only received
some attention very recently. Moreover, most of the recent literature tends to
9
This terminology of “Reviving Religion” is taken from the Hadith of the Prophet related by Abu-
Hureyra: “Indeed, God sends for this nation on the top of every 100 years, some one (a person,
an organization, a movement) who revives its religion.”
 6

show prejudice against the modern movements, stereotyping them in a variety

of politically loaded taxonomies (Ken Menkhaus, Matt Bryden, Ronald Marshal,
Medhane Tadesse and Andre Le Sage).10 But as the most active trans-clan and
ideologically motivated groups in Somali society, the Islamic movements remain
an important factor in the future of Somalia; and thus, deserve more scholarly
attention.

This paper takes a moderate view of the recoverability of the Somali nation-
state and focuses only on one particular factor among many that need to be
studied. It examines the Islamic factor, the moral factor, in reconstructing the
collapsed Somali nation-state. Firstly, it explores the idea of tribal society,
nation-building and Islam. Secondly, it offers a background on the role of Islam
in the society and the state. Thirdly, it traces the nature the modern Islamic
movements and their role in social transformation and political participation.

10
See the writings of Ken Menkhaus, Matt Bryden, Ronald Marshal, Medhane Tadesse and Andre
Le Sage, revolving around counter terrorism perspectives. Mostly, the Western media and its
scholars prefer, for their own reasons, to call modern Islamic revivalist movements
‘fundamentalism’, ‘radicalism’, ‘extremism’ and ‘terrorism’, while members of these movements
prefer to be called ‘Islamic resistance’, ‘revivalists’, ‘awakening’, ‘Islamism’, ‘call for Islam’, etc.
 7

1. Tribal Society, Nation-Building and Islam

“Bedouins can acquire royal authority only by making use of religious

coloring,
such as prophethood or sainthood or some great religious event in general.”
– The Arab/Islamic philosopher Ibn-Khaldun

There are three requirements to reconstitute the Somali nation-state. These are:
(1) a certain level of societal cohesion; (2) an accepted form of governance; and
(3) sufficient support from the international community. The first two
prerequisites are internal factors, without which even strong international
support will yield no results. Here, we will be focusing on these internal factors,
examining the possibilities of their attainment in Somali society.

To begin with, we will address a number of questions. How can societal

cohesion be materialized in a clan-based social setting and a society suffering
from the scars of the internecine wars of the last two decades? Is there any
form of governance that can reassure the Somali people that they will receive
equal treatment as citizens of the state no matter what their clan affiliation is?
To answer these questions, we shall explore the existing indigenous ideologies
within Somali society, since both societal cohesion and accepted governance
require a certain level of shared values.

The shared values among most Somalis are tribalism, nationalism and Islam. In
varying degrees, these are detectable in the psyche of almost every Somali
(Abdullahi 1992). Among these values, only tribalism carries the virus of
divisiveness in society, while core values of nationalism and Islam are agents for
societal cohesion and constitute core ideologies for nation-building. And it is a
 8

fact that a single divisive factor cannot overcome two unifying factors unless
they are weak and internally divided. In any case, it is clear today that unless
discussions on reconstructing Somalia reconciles nationalism and Islam on one
side and offers space for clan attachments on the other, recovering Somalia is
mere entertainment.11

(1.1) Tribal Society and Divisive Tribalism

After a long period of denial, the fact that the Somali social setting is based on
clans has finally been accepted by those involved in the reconciliation process.
In post-civil war Somalia, it seems that all the local administrations and national
reconciliation conferences could not find a better formula during the initial
institution building stage than clan representation in accordance with an agreed
power sharing formula.12 Any attempt to create other options for power
sharing, at this stage, did not receive enough popular support (Abdulqadir Adan
2000). Today, the Somali social setting has become so used to this formula of
sharing power based on clans that the first chapter of most academic studies of
Somalia begins with clan classification and mapping.

In weak states like Somalia, social divisions generate what is termed as “sub-
cultures”, which create multitudinous loyalties within the state. Tribalism being
a state of mind, an act of consciousness, it generates tribal solidarity and a
strong loyalty to one’s own tribe and a high propensity among political leaders
to invest in the goal of controlling the government. In rural areas, tribal
solidarity is necessary and is the only viable way of survival where no central
authority exists to arbitrate disputes and to provide security.

11
Reconciling tribalism, nationalism and Islam is not an easy undertaking and departs from the
conventional perception of their irreconcilability, which has dominated both political and
intellectual discourses. This author has also held the theory of irreconcilability (Abdullahi 1992:
6). This project requires immense intellectual input and public awareness besides mutual
understanding of the Islamic and non-Islamic scholars ( non-Islamic scholars are not necessarily
secular as such)
12
Regional administrations: the Borama and Growe conferences; National Reconciliations: the
Arta peace process in Djibouti and Mbigathi in Kenya (4.5 formula dividing Somalis into 4 equal
clans and a congregation of other clans represented as 1/2 clan share).
 9

According to Ibn-Khaldun, “only tribes held together by group feeling can live in
the desert” (Ibn-Khaldun, Muqaddimah: 261). Clan solidarity, however, may be
destructive in urban centers if it transgresses the social domain and is widely
used as a political instrument. Even so, in the social domain, social relations
are usually expected to take another form, based on neighborhoods and
professional group interests. But in Somalia, rural migrants to the urban
centers brought their tribal allegiances with them. This “urban tribalism”
developed in the 1950s into overtly political tribalism. Rural tribalism is based
on the fame an individual derives from the glory of his ancestors, loyalty to and
self–sacrifice for the sake of the clan, and the fulfillment of the law of revenge.
It was this tribalism that was institutionalized in the urban centers, creating
negative political implications. In fact, this clan culture, instead of weakening
with improved education, increased accumulation of wealth, and nationalistic
programs, only strengthened; the reverse process, the “nomidazation” of the
urban elite, took place.13

The founding fathers of the modern Somali nation-state were very much aware
of the obstacles that political clan loyalties posed for the nation-building
process. In the 1950s, in the early days of the struggle for independence,
smaller clan-based political parties emerged beside the national political parties
and political clanism systematically ingrained in the physic of people. The
political system coined similar to Italian-style multi-party system and district
electoral constituencies laid early seed of political tribalism. Thus, founding
fathers were confronted with imperatives for nation building centered on
promoting nationalism in a society that lacked appropriate organizational skills
in modern political participation. This dilemma became manifest in the clan
alignments of the first-ever elections and formation of a local administration in

13
The reason simply is that pastoral segments of the society, privileged under the military rule,
dominated the government; and thus, in accordance with the law that the weak imitates the
strong, urban elites conditioning themselves to this new situation.
 10

Southern Somalia in 1956. Since then, political clanism emerged ferociously and
every politician was compelled to pass through the knotty test of clanism. Clan
politics was the only means to mobilize supporters and get elected to the
parliament. In this process, Somali political culture, based on imperativeness of
clan affiliation, commercialization of politics and nepotism, was developed.

To deal with the issue of political tribalism, successive Somali governments

developed the following three strategies: (1) proportional representation (Awes
Osman Hagi & Abdiwahid Osman Hagi, 1998);14 (2) extreme glorification of
Somali nationalism and condemnation of the clans; and (3) legislative measures
to strengthen these strategies (Abdullahi 1992: 78-82).15 However, all these
efforts failed to prevent the development of clan-based government politics and
the emergence of clan-based armed factions. Armed confrontation between
these factions finally sealed the fate of the Somali nation-state.

Clan solidarity in Somalia is more robust in the pastoral areas and, of course,
among their extended families in the urban centers. Since these pastoralists
traditionally dominated Somali clan politics, they have colored “nomadic”
culture across the whole political spectrum of Somalia. The problem of
“nomadic culture” vis-a-vis state formation was well studied by the Arab
philosopher Ibn-Khaldun, who wrote that: “Savagery has become the character
and nature [of the Bedouins]. They enjoy it, because it means freedom from
authority and no subservience to leadership. Such a natural disposition is the
negation and antithesis of civilization…the very nature of their existence is the

14
The dominance of specific clans over the political arena, where others were under-
represented, systematically ruined this strategy.
15
Three important laws were passed prior to 1969. The first was intended to reduce the
authority of the tribal chiefs, the second to lessen tribal solidarity and the third resulted in
banning political parties that utilized tribal names. The military regime enacted laws to
liquidate "dabar-goynta" tribalism, abolishing the Diya (blood money) system, renaming clan
chiefs in the rural areas; and introducing compulsory auto insurance and local government
responsibility for funeral expenses. Above all, massive propaganda against tribalism was
conducted in the name of the ‘socialist transformation’ of Somali society.
 11

negation of building [urbanization], which is the basis of civilization.

Furthermore, since they do not see any value in labor and craftsman and do not
appreciate it, the hope for profit vanishes, and no productive work is done. The
sedentary population disperses and civilization decays… The Bedouins are not
concerned with laws, or with deterring people from misdeeds… they care only
for property that they might take away from people through looting… Under the
rule of Bedouins, their subjects live as in a state of anarchy. Anarchy destroys
mankind and ruins civilizations” (Abdullahi 1992: 17).

Summarizing the above, it is possible to say that nomads have three

characteristics which cause destruction of urban life and ultimately of the state:
(1) anarchy and lawlessness, (2) despising labor and crafts, and (3)
transgressing private and public property. Since nomads and their cultural
extension in the urban areas can’t produce functional state institutions, due to
the behaviors stated above, the question becomes: how can these nomads be
transformed or absorbed into a system of modern state institutions? The
founding fathers of Somali nationalism answered this question in two ways: (1)
Intensification of modern education and gaining experience of running state
institutions from the colonial administration. (2) Raising national consciousness
and condemning everything related to the clan culture. However, neither
approach came to fruition owing to time constraints and malpractices. In
practice, there was no more than 10 years in which to implement them.16

Clan divides are neither evil nor good. Rather, they are a neutral and natural
social setting, prevalent in many societies and particularly among Muslims
where family values are very strong. A true genealogy through one’s paternity
is an indication of family sanctity and compliance with desired Islamic values.
This neutral entity could be utilized either in a positive way or destructively.
16
Actual programs for state formation began after UN Trusteeship of 1950 after which limited
modern schools were opened. Also, Somalis were gradually employed in the higher echelons of
the state institutions.
 12

Unfortunately, in Somalia, clan settings were, in many instances, employed

wrongly, even in the highest echelon of the state institutions. In fact, contrary
to the make-up of clans in many countries where clans don’t share much in their
ethnicity, clans in Somalia share all the necessary elements of homogeneity.
However, criminalization of clan sentiment by Somali Youth League (SYL) and
the successive Somali governments created unilateral explanation that all
national evils emanate form political clanism. In this way, public perceptions
have been diverted from grasping the complex root causes of the immense
challenges of the Somali nation-state. Going even further, many Somalis
consider clanism as the “Cancer of Somali State”, which implies incurability
(Mansur, Abdalla 1995: 112). The implications of such a notion are very severe:
essentially they lead either to forging a policy of “eliminating tribalism” (dabar-
goynta”), or to giving up on nation-building measures. Moreover, fixating all
Somali problems on clan divide is one of the great farces, deceptive and
scapegoats that the failed elite constantly used to justify their ineffective
national programs. This perspective was promoted by anthropologists I. M.
Lewis17 and Enrico Cerulli.18 It has been passed on to their disciples Berhard
Helander19 and Virginia Lulling.20 Nevertheless, Maria Brons expressed lucidly
that “the clan divide as such is not the core factor of the Somali crisis of state
formation: it is rather competition over resources and power, which is seen as
safeguarding access to these resources, that is expressed in competitive clan
labels” (Brons, Maria 2001: 90).

(1.2) Nation-Building and Nationalism

Nation-building requires a certain degree of national consciousness, which
tames “nomadic culture” and cements segments “clan blocks” into a solid

17
7. Professor of Anthropology, London School of Economics. He wrote his PhD thesis on Somalia
in the 1950s and since then he has written extensively on Somalia. His numerous works are
considered indispensable references on Somalia.
18
8. Italian ethnologist, employed by the Italian Administration in Somalia. He wrote extensively
on Somali ethnology.
19
9. Swedish anthropologist who wrote his PhD thesis on Somalia. Currently works for Uppsala
University, Sweden.
20
10. An Anthropologist who wrote her PhD on the Somali Sultanate of Geledi.
 13

nation. To do this, early Somali nationalists thought that Somalis were already a
nation in search of a state (David Laitin and Said S. Samatar 1987), and that by
strengthening the ideology of nationalism and scorning clanism, nation building
would be better achieved. Therefore, nationalism was focused on and over
expressed in the rich Somali heritage in poems and modern songs, and as a
result the national flag and anthem were looked at with great respect and
adoration.

According to Saadia Tauval, in addition to the common factors underlying the

rise of nationalism in the “Third World” countries, three factors in particular
contributed to the rise of nationalism in Somalia (Tauval, Saadia 1963: 76-78).
First, resentment against colonial governments, which had superficially ruled
but had never subjected the Somalis. In the colonial era, Somalis who had
never been subjected to an institutionalized government had to bear the burden
of heavy taxation, forced labor, and racial policy especially in the era of the
Italian fascism. The colonial authorities appropriated rich agricultural lands in
the southern part of Somalia and interfered with the traditional authorities of
elders and Islamic scholars. Saadia Tauval states that “the confrontation of the
nomadic, individualistic and independent Somalis with organized government
inevitably led to resentments and conflict” (Saadia Tauval 1963: 62).

The second factor relates to religious antagonism towards both European

powers and Ethiopia. To the Somalis, the colonial powers represented
Christianity, whereas they were Muslims; “it was exceedingly difficult and
humiliating for them as Muslims to accept a non-Muslim rule” (Saadia Tauval
1963: 62). The third factor was a “deliberate encouragement by various
governments” to achieve certain goals. Italy with its “la Grande Somalia”
program during its invasion of Ethiopia in 1935, the British ambition of a
“greater Somalia” in 1946, and Egypt’s revolutionary influence in the 1950s, all
contributed to the rise of Somali nationalism in one way or another. All in all,
Somali nationalism and its core ideology revolved around the establishment of a
 14

united Somali nation-state including all regions inhabited by Somalis in the

greater Horn of Africa region. However, it appears that this Somali vision of
nationalism did not take into consideration how to preserve the nation-state
once it had been founded (Mansur, Abdalla 1995:112).21

Nationalism was seemingly a very emotional conscious feeling of the majority of

the people, but national consciousness did not supersede tribal solidarity, even
though all possible efforts were made to realize nationalist goals. The
reunification of the former British Somaliland and Italian Somalia, and the
promulgation of the independence of the Somali Republic on July 1st 1960, was
the greatest achievement of the Somali nationalists. Yet clan alignments and
clan politics were gradually mounting and Somalia reached the verge of
collapse only nine years after independence. In October 1969, the military
intervened and recreated new symbols for nationalistic zeal, including the
adoption of the Latin alphabet for writing the Somali language, and, at the
pinnacle of nationalist fervor, waging war in 1977/78 to recover Somali
territories captured and colonized by Ethiopia. With the defeat of Somalia in the
war and proclamation of the independent Republic of Djibouti, Somali
nationalism began to wane. The overstretched goals of Somali nationalism and
the low capacity of the state institutions caused the self-destruction of the
Somali nation-state itself. The abysmal level of Somali nationalism and its
fragility is evident from the absence of national political institutions and total
demise of the former ruling national political parties.22 In the vacuum left by the
fading away of Somali nationalism and the collapse of the state, radical clan
factions and Islamic movements with both moderate and radical components

21
The state was described as a favorite she-camel called "maandeeq" which give abundant milk
to the people looted by the thieves (colonial powers) but later retrieved by the owners
(Somalis). But did the owners know how to care for their new camel (the state) the way they
would care for their actual camels?
22
The SYL and the Revolutionary Socialist Party ruled Somalia from 1960-1969 and 1976-1990
respectively, and both have disappeared organizationally. Moreover, Somalis lack national
political institutions advocating for the ideals of Somali nationalism. However, recently, in the
post-civil war period, emerging and active nationalistic tendencies have been observed both
inside Somalia and in the Diaspora communities.
 15

emerged. Radical clan factions are the continuation of political tribalism, while
the modern Islamic movements are also continuation of the traditional Islamic
scholars with new social and political organizations focusing on the Islamic
component of Somali indigenous ideologies.

(1.3) Islam: A Fount of Social Cohesion

The early history of Islam demonstrates how the clans of the Arabian Peninsula
changed their political culture after their conversion to Islam. After the
migration to Medina, the first Islamic state to be established was based on
trans-clan brotherhood bonds between Muslims and a sense of belonging to all
other citizens of Medina. It combined territorial attachment with a common
faith in a form of social cohesion among all community members. 23 This history
suggests that present-day Somali clans, having great similarities with these
ancient clans, might also be influenced by the revival of Islamic values. Islam
abhors and admonishes anarchy and lawlessness, the despising of labor and
crafts, the looting of private and public property, and internecine wars. Islam
teaches its faithful the concept of one nation “Ummah wahidah” (Qur’anic
verses 92:21, 52:23), adherence to the commands of the one God, unity under
single law-abiding leader, and leadership committed to the values of good
governance. Islam is both an individual and a communal religion. It calls for
the individual to live in harmony with his or her self, with the community and
with the entire creation of God; and for the individual to take direct
responsibility for his all his actions (Qur’an 6:164; 17:15; 35:18; 39:7; 53:38).24
Islam teaches an individual to be honest, truthful, patient, content, charitable,
cheerful and tolerant. It commands its faithful to control their anger and to
forgive when others wrong them.

23
The concept of citizenship in Islam could be traced in the text of the Covenant of Medina laid
down by Prophet Mohamed (PBUH) after his migration from Mecca to Medina in order to create a
unified community from the Muslims, Jews and non-Muslims who were residing in the city of
Medina and its environs.
24
No one should pass the blame onto someone else: “no bearer of burden will bear the burden
of another in the hereafter.”
 16

Besides the early community of believers in Medina, the entire Arabian

Peninsula changed drastically because of the new faith that was instilled in the
mindset of the segmented clans. Universal values, such as the supremacy of
the law, equality, justice, freedom and fraternity, were established. Upon these
values, Islamic civilization was built. In later years, the Arab sociologist and
philosopher Ibn-Khaldun recorded that “Bedouins can acquire royal authority
only by making use of religious coloring, such as prophethood or sainthood or
some great religious event in general. The reason is because of their savagery:
the Bedouins are the least willing of all nations to subordinate themselves to
each other, as they are rude, proud, ambitious and eager to be leaders. Their
individual aspirations rarely coincide. But when there is religion [among
them]…then they have some restraining influence upon themselves. The quality
of haughtiness and jealousy leave them. It is, then, easy to unite them [in a
societal organization] (Quoted by Mukhtar, Mohamed 1995: 16).

Islam also emphasizes social cohesion and harmony. Its basic philosophy is
enjoining the right and prohibiting the wrong and the teaching that one should
not harm others (Al-termedi Hadith. 2551). Social cohesion begins in the family
and community and extends to human beings at large. This concept is well
documented in the Qur’an in the verse “O people, be conscious of your Lord,
who created you from one soul and from it created its mate and from them
twain scattered many men and women. Be conscious of God and remember
the rights of the wombs, surely God is always watching you” (Qur’an 4:1). The
law of Islam emphasizes justice and fairness and prohibits cheating,
exploitation, fraud, and deception, as well as coercive policies. It also
emphasizes good governance under broad moral principles and laws ordained
by God. Furthermore, Islamic moral teachings emphasize benevolence, charity,
and kindness.
 17

Having seen the above brief conceptualization of some Islamic values, let’s now
look at the minimum necessary values for restoring the Somali nation-state.

1. Respecting and abiding by the state laws: In the mindset of many Somalis,
man-made laws are derived from the colonial code, and therefore breaking
them is not seen to be immoral since they do not carry any social values. On
the other hand, if these laws are considered to be Islamic, in a broader sense,
one feels that breaking it will have grave consequences not only in this world
but also on the Day of Judgment and it may lead the person into hellfire.
Practically, all laws of the state could be made Islamic if these laws are enacted
by the community through Ijtihad of the Islamic legal experts conditioned its
non-contradictory to the spirit of Islam. Moreover, state laws that does not
contravene with the Islamic laws gradually develop into community culture
safeguarded by the community at large. For instance, many Somalis consider
those who break the laws of Allah as “evildoers” and look them down while
those who break state laws are often considered “bona fide” or even “heroes”
among fellow clan members. In the contrary, individuals who do shy away to
accumulate public wealth for personal benefits or strictly comply the laws are
despised in the mostly corrupted environment of the state institutions and
society. Therefore, problem of legal awareness and legal conformity is one of
the biggest problems in the third world countries and insurmountable obstacle
for good governance. The gateway for such good governance is to have laws
that are accepted, respected and abided by most citizens of the state.
Therefore, Islamic laws are the only means capable to restore respectability for
the state laws that invigorate in the individuals and communities self-restraining
moral codes.

2. Protecting public and private property: The concept of public property is not
well entrenched in the culture of many Somalis. In the pastoral society as well
as in agricultural communities, private property is well understood, but public
property is merely no-man’s property. Nothing is shared in the Somali culture
 18

except blood wealth (diya–paying”, clan wells and common defense during
conflicts. Zakat and charities, which are Islamic concepts, also are not well
developed in the culture. What Somalis know most is not pure charity, but
returning favors “abaal ergasho”. Modern states are built with public property
collected in the form of taxation and redistributed to the society through
allocations in the budgetary system. This requires huge administrative
apparatus that is transparent and accountable. In Somalia, on the other hand,
the culture of nomads, in which raiding and looting are common practices, was
transferred to the cities in a new urban cultural form. This nomadic culture has
taken root in that every employee of the state loots whatever state belongings
he or she able to grasp. This process of looting of public property occurs in a
setting where the higher and lower echelons of the government are
interconnected in a complex web of kinship. Therefore, reviving the Islamic
values of ‘lawful’ and ‘prohibited’ (halal and haram) in a community that is very
much attached to Islam may create additional added value for the protection of
public property. This concept inculcates all citizens that taking a way something
that belongs to the whole community- public property is prohibited “haram” in
Islam. Accordingly, the family, friends and the relatives pressure individuals who
dare to take “haram” even before the state apparatus. This means that
community self regulation and restraints will take place and public thrifty will
greatly minimized.

3. Supreme loyalty to the state: The modern state demands supreme loyalty
and has the responsibility of protecting its citizens from internal as well external
threats. This loyalty is divided in clan-based societies, where the individual’s
loyalty is pulled in diametrically opposing directions. This tension between the
state and clan creates highly explosive polarizations among population. The
pastoral culture of leadership is based on the fact that the clan chief is first
among equals, while the hierarchical system of the modern state is not well
entrenched in that culture. Most Somalis are of nomad culture that creates
 19

insubordination towards state institutions. Instead, it creates extra-institutional

connections between clan members in the different levels of the state
bureaucracy. In this way, a member of the clan may easily meet with the
ministers and the president belonging to his clan and then ruin the hierarchy
required for the modern state management. State Information is shared in the
informal ways among clan members. Most of the time wrong administrative
decisions are made based on these informal reprting systems of the clans. Islam
demands its believers to give loyalty to their state and its leadership as long as
the leadership abides by the policies and procedures of the state laws. This
notion is well stated in the Qur’anic verse: “O you, who believe, obey Allah and
obey the Messenger and those charged with authority among you. If ye differ in
anything among yourselves, refer it to Allah and His Messenger, if ye do believe
in Allah and the last day.” (Qur’an 4:59). Therefore, loyalty to the state and
leaders are part of Islamic faith and teaches Muslim community to trust each
other and behave in accordance with the Islamic guidelines. Reviving this
concept belittles clan attachments for the benefit of the loyalty to the state.

4. Equality: Equality is relatively self-centered concept in the pastoral

communities. Paradoxically, equality among one clan family are well respected
in the equalitarian society but the universal equality of all people, races and
clans in Somalia is not well entrenched in the culture. Strong and big clans
despise smaller and weaker clans. Warrior clans in the pastoral regions look
dawn peaceful agricultural settled communities. Sometimes, individuals with no
clan attachments or belonging to smaller clans are considered of lower cast
while members of the large and strong clans may consider themselves as
nobility. The impact of this culture is extremely disastrous in a way that
members belonging to specific clans claim their rightful to be the natural
leaders of the nation. In the contrary, concept of the modern state is founded on
equality for all citizens disregarding traditional cultural heritage. Somali
nationalists failed to create society where every citizen feels equal among
 20

others. However, Islamic practices in Somalia had shown totally different

picture. For instance, Sufi brotherhoods in Somalia had proved supremacy of the
Islamic brotherhood over clan attachments in their Jamaa communities.
Members of larger clans have become disciples of sheikhs from smaller clans or
even despised clan groups25. In this way in the Sufi orders, clan supremacy was
diminished drastically and Islamic equality superseded over artificial clan pride.
This means that when Islamic values is revived and disseminated in the
community equal citizen’s concept is better accepted in the society.

1. Islam, Society and State: Historical Interactions

“Two are inviolable in Somalia: the clan and Islam.”

– Somali wisdom

Islam reached Somalia in its earlier years, and it is believed that some parts of it
fell into the hands of Umayyad Dynasty (685-705) (Mukhtar 1995:3).26
Nevertheless, Somalia remained on the periphery of the Muslim world for quite
some time. The Somali race is well known for its ardent belief in Islam to the
degree that being Somali becomes synonymous with being a Muslim, since all
Somalis are Muslims by “birth”. Traditionally, Somalis mainly belong to one of
the two Sufi brotherhoods – the Qaderiyah (which has two branches, the
Uwesiyah and Zayli’yah) and the Ahmadiyah (also with two branches, the
Salihiyah and Dadrawiyah) – and adhere to the Shafi’ school of Islamic
jurisprudence. Prior to colonial rule, clan elders and religious leaders ran
communities and played important roles in their affairs. Elders with a variety of
hierarchical levels and roles managed the affairs of their particular communities
25
Clear examples are legendary Sufi brotherhood Sheikhs such as Sheikh Aweys Al-Barawi,
Sheikh Suffi of Banadir, Sheikh Ali Maye of Merca and many others.
26
During the rule of Abdilmalik Ibn Marwan (685-705), a Syrian general Musa Ibn-Umar Al-
khatha'mi was sent to conquer both Mogadishu and the neighboring East African city-state
Kilwa.
 21

during peacetime and in conflicts, playing the role of conflict resolution

managers in the affairs of the community. Religious leaders played the role of
religious teachers and administered religion-related affairs like conducting
marriage contracts, inheritance, resolving conflict by means of the Islamic legal
code, and so on.

These religious leaders were responsible for all community education matters,
and therefore most of their activities were directed to the fields of education
and propagating Islam. The basics of the education system were founded on
memorization of the Qur’an, and its higher levels were geared towards teaching
Arabic language, Islamic jurisprudence Malamat, Sufism and interpretation of
the Qur’an and Hadith. Early years of memorization of the Qur’an, in the widely
spread Qur’anic schools known in Somalia as Dugsi became part of Somali
culture and were observable in almost every populated area of Somalia.

Moreover, circles of Islamic education in the mosques and ancient Islamic

propagation centers like Zayla, Harar, Warsheikh, Banadir and Merca were well
established in a sustainable system for higher education as reservoirs of Arabic
language-based education. Many leaders of the anti-colonial movements
graduated from these schools, which had also produced activists opposed to
proselytizing by Christian missionaries. Moreover, modern anti-colonial
movements were directly connected to these schools and groups. Religious
leaders and clan elders exercised legitimate authority over their communities
and were working in a networked system, united and harmonious in every
locality in accordance with a set of rules and regulations called Heer that was
blended with Islamic Shari’a. The roles of the elders and religious scholars were
complementary, and job divisions were clear for both types of leadership. They
always cooperated with each other, although it was observed that clan elders
were taking the leading role in the nomadic areas, where the frequency of
 22

outbreaks of warfare was high, whilst religious scholars took prominence in the
agricultural and settled communities.27

During colonial rule, the authority of these traditional community leaders was
greatly weakened. Often, the state authorities intervened in the selection of
clan elders; and since they became salaried employees of the state, their
autonomous authority in their constituencies was weakened. This did not
change in post-colonial Somalia, even though Islam was officially recognized as
the religion of the state and Islamic Shari’a was made the main source of the
legal system. However, modern understanding of Islam in 1960 was not well
developed and thus, all legal matters based on the inherited colonial legal
system remained largely intact . The only aspect of law respected all along was
family law, which was based totally on Shari’a until the military regime tried to
intervene in 1975. Generally, the Somali state was, on the one hand, trying to
show its firm commitment to Islamic symbolism, exploiting it to fit into the state
objectives while, on the other hand, taking a quasi-secular approach in all its
practical actions.

Nevertheless, it was only in the early 1970s that the basic Islamic canon, the
family law, was questioned openly by the military regime under the guise of
implementing socialist ideals of equality between men and women in
inheritance (Qur’anic verse 49:13). Islamic scholars reacted to that attempt
with by protesting peacefully, and in 1975 the uncompromising revolutionary
regime responded with an unprecedented display of arrogance and savagery by
publicly executing ten leading Islamic scholars. This execution shook the Somali
people profoundly and gave impetus for the revival of Islam. Moreover,
indiscriminate state repression had caused mayhem and the emigration of
Islamic activists in search of peaceful havens and opportunities for work and
education. The new emigration destinations were Saudi Arabia, Egypt and
27
It was observed that in the real pastoral areas, clan elders were more powerful than the
religious leaders. However, this phenomenon changed in the settled agricultural regions along
the banks of the rivers, where religious leaders become top leaders of the communities.
 23

Sudan – all centers of the modern Islamic movements. At the same time, the
cruelty of the revolutionary regime led to a great number of the population
gradually expressing its peaceful resistance by disengaging from involvement in
the programs of the regime and taking refuge in mosques.28 Thus, in the
mosques, underground Islamic groups gained new recruits in the 1970s and
established networks to counter socialist ideology with more organized
grassroots Islamic work. The military regime had alienated both Islamic and
clan-based oppositions; the clan-based opposition developed into armed
factions and established bases in Ethiopia, while the Islamic opposition opted
for the grassroots strategy based on intensifying the call to Islam and
strengthening their underground organizational base. It is believed that the
voice of an organized Islamic challenge was first heard loudly in Somalia in the
1989 Black Friday massacre and its aftermath.

After the collapse of the state and the outbreak of the civil war, Islamic groups
took the initiative in reconciling the warring groups, but in vain. Different
groups took different approaches. Al-Itihad became more radical and took up
arms as a way of political participation, while Al-Islah opted for peaceful means
of propagating Islam, reconciling communities and providing social services. On
the other hand, traditional Sufi leaders were either neutral in the conflict or
aligned along clan lines. During the civil war, Islam became a way out for many
Somalis inside Somalia and in the Diaspora communities; both groups flocking
to the mosques and into Islamic study circles. In these mosques, modern
Islamic scholars offered explanations of the calamity of Somalis from an Islamic
perspective. Besides that, hundreds of schools with strong Islamic inclinations
were opened throughout the country, recreating traditional Islamic education
coupled with modernity in a sustainable system supported by the communities.
Moreover, Somalis looking for unity found Islam to be the only available
indigenous ideology capable of uniting them. During the civil war, Somali
28
The military regime established orientation centers in every district to indoctrinate the
population in Marxism and to build popular support for the regime. Participation in the
programs of these centers was considered as evaluation criteria for the loyalty to the regime.
 24

society was transformed, and the popular understanding of Islam and the
devotion of the population to it deepened greatly side by side with the
consistent violations of the basic values of Islam by militias and warlords.
Finally, we point out the notion that “Somalis, for the most part, don’t by and
large apply Islamic values in their own interests, but they always protect Islam
and guard it from abuses by others.” Hence the Somali wisdom that “two are
inviolable in Somalia: the clan culture and Islam.” Most Somalis are ready to
sacrifice their lives in defending these two inviolable ideals.

Currently, in the absence of a strong central authority, traditional elders and

religious scholars play a pivotal role in managing the affairs of their
communities. They have revived their original role in resolving conflicts and
mediating disputes. Moreover, all the successful conferences for reestablishing
local and national state institutions in Somalia have been based on the
decisions of the traditional leaders.29 Furthermore, modernity has influenced
both traditional elders and Islamic scholars, and many of them have joined the
highly educated elite, integrating the best of tradition and modernity. At last,
modern Islamic revivalist groups have modernized traditional ways of
propagating Islam in the mosques and teaching Islamic sciences in public
arenas. As a result, traditional methods of education have improved educational
opportunities for Somalis in the absence of national institutions offering a
sustainable system of education.

3. The Moderate Islamic Movement: Its Nature and Role

“Islam is the supreme guidance and reference for all aspects of life of the
Muslim communities, and therefore the prospective Somali state should

29
All successful reconciliation conferences in Somalia, such as the Borama, Growe and Arta
conferences, were based on the empowerment of the traditional leaders as legitimate leaders of
the communities.
 25

promote and protect Islamic values within the community and follow the
guidelines of Islamic Shari’a law in all its legislative procedures.”
– The core ideology of the Islamic movements in Somalia

Islamic groups in Somalia in general should be understood in the context of the

modernist comprehension of Islam as a complete way of life, an understanding
that does not sit well with the secular tendencies of the post-colonial state.
These secular tendencies were embodied in the way of life of the ruling elite
and were enshrined in the colonial legal heritage and ethos. Islamic groups
disagreed with ‘compartmentalizing’ Islam by likening it to the Christian
practice of pushing religion into a corner, a merely spiritual sphere and an
individual responsibility. Islam being a comprehensive religion, communal as
well as personal, is not and cannot be apolitical. Its “nature of completeness”
logically provides guidelines for the political, social and economic life of Muslim
communities and states. In accordance with these lines of thought, Islamic
activists belonging to different schools of thought questioned the legitimacy of
state policies, particularly those regarding the role of Islam in the state and
society. These activists formed organizations addressing their understanding of
Islam, lately called “political Islam”.30

The reaction of post-colonial states to the activities of these organizations was

undemocratic, brutal and violent. It was a denial of the right to freedom in all
its forms such as physical, cultural, economic, and political. As a result, like all
the other dissident political organizations in the early 1970s, Islamic activists in
Somalia were pushed to the unavoidable option of underground activities.31

30
The expression “political Islam” is coined by non-Muslims in believing that Islam is apolitical
and modern Islamic revivalists are using only Islam for political purposes. They don’t
understand that Islam is a complete religion, as stated in the following verse from the holy
Qur’an: “Indeed, today, we have perfected your religion and completed my bestowal on you.”
(5:3)
31
Because the military government banned other political parties and social organizations, all
dissidents resorted to the underground option or exile.
 26

In the wider understanding of Islamic revivalism, many groups and

organizations could be mentioned in Somalia. The most prominent of these
organizations are Islah, Itihaad and Tablig. All the other organizations largely
fall under the ideology of one of these three organizations, which date back to
the late sixties and early seventies. They are local and Somali by birth, but
their methodology for advocating the harmonization of the indigenous culture
and the laws of the communities and the state with the Islamic legal system
and values, had its roots in the wider Islamic world. The Muslim Brotherhood in
Egypt, the Wahabi School or “Salafiya” in Saudi Arabia, and neo-Sufis in India
could be considered their respective ideological affiliates. Though all these
movements share aspirations to bring Islamic values into the lives of their
communities, their tactical approaches cover a very wide spectrum, from
peaceful evolutionists to armed revolutionaries.32 Also, their visions, strategies,
and organizational structures are so diverse that it could be said only their
activism and aspirations make them different from other Somalis. In practice
these organizations take on the color of the societies around them – and in this
context, a Somali flavor. This is so even so within Somalia, as the movements
reflect the cultural setting: pastoral, agricultural, urban and so on.33 Moderate
Islamic movements (al-Wasadiyah wa al-Ictidal) are all those peaceful
organizations believing in evolutionary reformation of society through the
educational process and the revival of Islamic values. In this category fall Islah
and Tabliq. Extreme groups in their social approach (al-Tadaruf wal-Guluwu)
include Al-Itihad and Takfir, which are armed revolutionaries and believe in
exclusivity and absolutism (Al-Qardawi, Yusuf 1992: 27-60).

The moderate components of the Islamic movements are not isolated from their
cultural heritage; in fact, they believe that their historical roots can be traced

32
For instance, the Islah movement is considered evolutionary while al-Itihad was considered
during 1992-95 as revolutionary. As widely observed, al-Itihad had been shifting towards more
moderation since.
33
It has been observed that extremism (religious and political) is more entrenched in the culture
of pastoralists or a strong nomadic culture, where moderation is mostly detected in the
agricultural and urban locations.
 27

back to the early struggle of the Islamic scholars, the Ulama, to confront British,
Italian and Ethiopian colonial invasions and their policies geared towards
political domination and cultural influence on Somali Muslim society. The
Dervish Movement of Mohamed Abdullah Hasan, the Sheikh Hassan Barsane
resistance, the Biyamaal Revolt and other anti-colonial movements led by
Islamic scholars could be considered as early Islamic revivalist movements.34 In
that sense, the modern revivalism of Islam is a continuous process, a
progressive and anti-colonial resistance movement standing for the protection
of the Islamic cultural heritage against the cultural hegemony of the colonial
powers. Indeed, these Islamic scholars did at least succeed in protecting and
maintaining Islamic faith in the face of the invasion of privileged Christian
missioners who were poised to create Christian minorities in Somalia. As
documented in the colonial archives, these missioners enjoyed financial,
political and moral support from the colonial powers as part of the overall
colonial scheme for conquering and pacifying weaker nations. The Islamic
movements strongly believe that their task is to continue the resistance of their
forefathers in the ways corresponding to the magnitude of the threat that is
facing Somali society. This new generation of Islamic activists is in place and is
destined to deal with the growing external and internal threats and challenges
facing Somalia.

The moderate Islamic movements consider themselves to embody the

continuing aspirations of the Somali national movement, which succeeded in
bringing about political independence in 1960, but fell short of completing the
expectations of the people in gaining economic and cultural independence.35
The national movements, which used the rhetoric of nationalist ideology alone,
also failed to maintain the unity of the Somalis. Therefore, the Islamic

34
. These scholars were the intellectuals and leaders of the communities. They understood the
dangers posed by the colonial powers and therefore called for armed resistance. There is no
contradiction between being Islamists and being nationalists. This is the best intermarriage for
mobilizing internal forces and effectively repulsing enemies.
35
Of courses, extremists consider the fathers of Somali state to be the source of the Somali
debacle, being secular and followers of the colonial ways.
 28

movements’ position is that political independence alone was not sufficient to

realize national goals after independence. In addition, they have focused
strongly on the cultural aspect in the belief that reviving Islamic culture and
safeguarding its values will create conducive environment for societal peace,
economic development and strengthened national cohesion. Islam is also an
effective element in curbing clannish alignments in society and creates trans-
clan affiliations and groupings, a goal that the ideology of nationalism alone
failed to achieve. Indeed, according to the Islamic movements, the ideology of
nationalism was never the only factor during the struggle for independence.
Rather, it was coupled with the Islamic injunctions calling on the faithful to wage
inexhaustible resistance (Jihad) against infidels, particularly if they were
transgressors and occupiers. However, the new ruling elite trained in the
colonial schools underestimated the Islamic factor in their nation-building
programs after independence. In the Somali situation, state policies that did
not give adequate weight to the Islamic factor led to the collapse of the state
institutions. It is absolutely proven that after 30 years of independence, only
Islamic organizations and clan militia remain functional, as organized groups, in
Somalia. As a result, Islamic movements envisage that nation-building in
Somalia requires not only a revival of the country’s national consciousness and
awareness, but also an appeal to the country’s rich Islamic heritage, its tolerant
and community-oriented values. They hope that appealing to and sowing these
two elements, Islamic values and nationalism, will have enough innate strength
to dislodge and weaken destructive political clanism and separatist tendencies
from the psyche of Somali society.

Islamic movements also represent the reawakening of the faith due to the
improved comprehension of Islamic teachings by modern Somali scholars
trained not only in the Islamic education centers and Islamic universities, but
also in modern universities.36 Traditional Islamic education centered on the
36
Most Islamic activists are graduates from modern universities. The reason may be that
modern education offers Muslims better freedom to question and understand their identities and
the world than the so-called Islamic universities, which have state employees controlling their
 29

spiritual aspect of Islam but fell short in explaining the totality of Islam; it was
divorced from being the supreme guidance for modern state institutions. The
new, revived understanding of Islam is that Islam is a complete way of life and
is not confined to a personal creed. In the view of the Islamic movements, Islam
is the supreme guidance and reference for all aspects of life for Muslim
communities, and the Somali state should therefore apply and abide by Islamic
Shari’a law and protect Islamic values. Obviously, this concept is in contrary to
the understanding of religion by the former Christian colonial powers, the
founders of the collapsed Somali state, and most of the former educated elite in
the highest echelon of the political spectrum. The view of religion by the
colonial powers was and remains that religion, every religion, and the state,
every state, must be totally separated from each other since the modern state,
according to their view, should be secular. Moreover, religion should be
relegated to the domain of individual responsibility and religious non-
governmental organizations.

The reawakening of faith (Tajdid al-Iman) is a phenomenon that occurs

whenever Muslims suffer an external threat such as colonialism and invasion
and Islam is employed as an ideology of liberation (Jihad). Also, that
reawakening and moral rearmament take place whenever new charismatic
preachers, organizations and brotherhoods appear and intensify the call for the
renewal of the faith (Al-Qardawi, Yusuf 1992: 13-15).37 In the history of Islam,
this cyclical reawakening of the faith has been occurring since the initial
revelation before 6th century AD. In Somalia, waves of reawakening of the faith
occurred during the anti-colonial struggle and in the confrontation with the
Marxist military regime (1969-1991). The new cycle of reawakening of faith has
created a new hope for the desperate and disenfranchised young generations of

curriculum and activities.

37
See related Hadith by Abu-Huraira: Allah sent to this nation on the eve of every 100 years
someone who revives its religion." Reviving Islam means, according to al-Qardawi, establishing
an organized Islamic movement with a clear vision, mission and programs and creating
supportive public opinion, in addition to accepting an international environment for
transformation of societies in accordance with Islamic values.
 30

Somalis who have responded to the call that Islam provides salvation in this
world and hereafter.

Moderate Islamic movements are neither anti-Western in sentiment, nor

idealistically nostalgic, nor blind imitators of other nations’ cultures and ways of
life. Therefore, in international affairs, moderate Islamic movements in Somalia
are not directed against any foreign states, nor were they established to
achieve such sinister objectives. Their main focus is on internal Somali affairs,
which require an enormous reformation of the collapsed state institutions.
Somalia needs massive international support in all aspects of life in order to
reassert itself as a sovereign state among other nations. Somalia also needs
the understanding and support of its neighbors in order to reconstruct its
statehood. Unless these requirements are achieved, regional peace and
common security will not be achieved either among the nations in the Horn of
Africa. But it is a prerequisite that all states of the region should adhere to the
principle of non-interference and cease their subversive activities and
hegemonic strategies. Instead, regional cooperation should take its course in
the region to foster economic and social development. Contrary to what some
writers may entertain regarding the radical “clash of civilizations” (Samuel P.
Huntington 1993:22), genuine Islamic revivalism is in the interests of peace and
security in the Horn of Africa. The essence of neighborhood feeling, particularly
between Muslims and Christians, greatly enhances mutual cooperation
(Medhane Tadesse 2002).

During last three decades, moderate Islamic movements had been working
either under dictatorial rule, where all organizations were not only duly banned
as dissidents and harshly persecuted, or in a situation of civil war, where law
and order were totally lost and the law of the jungle became the rule of life.
Having survived these two stages of Somali history, Islamic movements are
more mature and experienced and now play a vital role in Somali affairs. Today,
the influence of Islamic movements can be seen in every aspect of life of the
 31

Somali people. In business, in education, in the civil society movement, in the

mass media, in political life, the values and ideals of Islamic movements are
taking root in the social fabric of the nation. Islamic activists are taking an
important role in the Diaspora communities and established organizations that
propagate Islam, teach children the Qur’an and urge communities to frequent
mosques and Islamic centers. This is simply because Islamic values are deeply
rooted in Somali society and its modern revival, according to the modernist
understanding, is just the continuation and revival of faith, not creating
innovations and discordance with the available and known doctrines of Islam.

The objectives of the moderate Islamic movement during the civil war focused
on forsaking internecine wars, on internal reconstruction and reorganization
after the fall of the reign of tyranny, on improving their image in the community
by cooperating with other organizations and on making local and national
reconciliation one of their major priorities. The promotion of education and
establishing institutions for that purpose were made priorities. Other main
objectives were the intensification of the Islamic call and education in all
regions, the promotion of civil society organizations and improving their image
at the international level. In the field of national reconciliation, the Arta Peace
Process in Djibouti in the year 2000 was the culmination of all reconciliation
efforts since 1995.

Moderate Islamic movements strongly believe that they had a vital role to play
in reviving Somali consciousness. In addition to their role of reconciliation,
education and social service, they are convinced that any viable national
political organizations need the active participation of their members.
Ironically, Islamic movements are not political organization in their own right,
nor are they planning to convert themselves into political parties. Really,
Somali society of today is far beyond interacting with conventional political
parties based on ideology rather than clan affiliations. Islamic groups are
movements for the common good and are working very hard to bring about
 32

social reform, which will pave the way for the appearance of the national
political entities. However, members of Islamic groups may participate in any
organization of their own choice which they believe may bring good for Somalia.
The rationales are that national organizations need people with national vision
and members of Islamic groups have been coached and trained in the ideals of
nationalism and belong to all segments of society. Therefore, they are ready
elements for reconstructing organizations of a national character. These
members may play the role of “cement” in the segmented clans, where each
clan has formed its own militia, political entity and social organization. Of
course, extreme elements of Islamic groups are totally different from above
constructive vision and approach and always create social conflict and armed
confrontations.

4. Conclusion.

Any success of the future Somali state depends on the skillful

reconciliation and integration between nationalism and Islam as unifying
factors on one hand and prudent accommodation of clan attachments on the
other.

1. This paper focuses on the Islamic factor hitherto undermined in the nation-
building process. It brings out the role of Islam in the society and state
formation and indicates how the post-colonial state diminished that role and
undermined those values. It also traces the reality of the modern Islamic
movements as the most active trans-clan and ideologically motivated groups in
Somali society. Moreover, the author believes that among the three
components of the state – namely, the idea of the state, its physical base, and
the institutional expression of the state – only the institutional expression
collapsed in Somalia, and therefore the top-down process of recovering Somali
 33

state should be applied. Furthermore, recovering the Somali state requires

reviewing its shared values and state structures; it requires considering human
capacities required running the state, besides a prudent understanding of the
concerns of external powers. Values shared by all Somalis are clanism,
nationalism and Islam. Ideological reconciliation between these factors should
be considered in the process of any actual political reconciliation in Somalia.

2. Whatever hypothesis with respect to Somalia may be projected, the fact

remains that Somalia is a Muslim clan-based society striving to reestablish its
nation-state institutions. There are two dangerous tendencies in Somalia:
denying clanism and opposing an increased role of Islam in state-building. The
radical nationalistic ideals when dealing with the traditional indigenous Somali
ideologies, clanism and Islam, are still looming and prevalent. Moreover, the
concerns of external powers and strong opposition to the increased role of
modern Islam are also intact. If clanism is accepted in principal as political
reality due to the encouragement of the external powers and the absence of
strong nationalistic forces, Islamic movements are still despised by the clan-
based political forces.

3. The major themes of this paper are:

(1) Islam is the unifying factor for the Somalis divided along the clan lines
provided that extremism is avoided. However, successive Somali governments
have undermined this factor. By the 1970s, modern Islamic movements
emerged with both radical and moderate components to advance the Islamic
cause in Somalia.
(2) Among three shared values of the Somalis, only political clanism carries the
virus of divisiveness in society, while nationalism and Islam are agents for
societal cohesion. It is inconceivable that this one divisive factor can overcome
the two unifying factors unless they are very weak and internally divided.
Therefore, raising national consciousness and strengthening Islamic values are
the necessary ingredients in containing political clanism.
 34

(3) Any success of the future Somali state depends on the skillful reconciliation
of nationalism and Islam on one hand and accommodating clan attachments on
the other. Romantic attempts at denial of political clanism by the early Somali
nationalists and subsequently opposition to the increased role of Islam in state-
building are obstacles to the recovering of the Somali state.
(4) Moderate Islamic movements though gaining better understanding from
Western circles and the Somali political elite, nevertheless remain on the
periphery of political participation, which may deprive Somalia of a vital
element in regaining its statehood. If moderate Islamism is not promoted within
the state apparatus in Somalia, the alternative will be the emergence of more
extreme groups that may bring social conflict and regional security problems.

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