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Psychologys Statistics

OUTLINE OF RESOURCES
Getting Started
Activities and Demonstrations

Building Vocabulary: Crossword Puzzle 92

Digital Connection

Videocassette Series: Statistics: Decisions Through Data 93 DVD/Online Series: Against All Odds: Inside Statistics 93

Frequency Distributions
Activities and Demonstrations

Application Activity: Organizing and Interpreting Data 93 Application Activity: Describing Data 94

Measures of Central Tendency

Digital Connection

Technology Application Activity: PsychSim: Descriptive Statistics 94

Measures of Variation
Digital Connection

DVD: Handling Variability 94

Normal Distribution
Digital Connection

DVD: Describing Data 95

Activities and Demonstrations

Cooperative Learning Activity: A Tasty Sample(r): Teaching About Sampling Using M&Ms 95

Comparative Statistics
Activities and Demonstrations

Application Activity: The Water Cup Toss Test 96

Correlation Coefficient
Activities and Demonstrations

Application Activity: Creating a Scatterplot 96 Application Activity: Correlation and the Challenger Disaster 97

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Statistical Inference
Activities and Demonstrations

Application Activity: When Is a Difference Significant? 97

Handouts
31 32 33 34 35 36 Crossword Puzzle Presidents Ages at Time of Inauguration Student Survey M&M Data Sheet The Water Cup Toss Test Charting Correlations on Scatterplots

Blackline Masters
31a 31b 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 310 Challenger Correlations Challenger Correlations Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.6 Figure 3.7 Figure 3.9 Figure 3.10 Figure 3.11

MODULE ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES

After completing their study of this module, students should be able to: analyze characteristics of a distribution of scores (including frequency distribution, measures of central tendency, and measures of variation). interpret data represented on a normal distribution. describe the difference between percentage and percentile rank. define correlation coefficient and interpret positive and negative correlations. explain what it means when a research result is statistically significant.

MODULE OUTLINE Getting Started

Activities and Demonstrations
Building Vocabulary: Crossword Puzzle

Concept: Students can reinforce the definitions of the terms in this module by completing this crossword puzzle that incorporates a matching activity. Materials: Handout 31 Description: Distribute the handout to students. Allow them to complete the puzzle as a study tool for assessments that might be used in coordination with this module. 92
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Discussion: By coupling a matching activity with a crossword puzzle, students get two different ways to process the information from this module. Digital Connection
Videocassette Series: Statistics: Decisions Through Data

This series consists of five one-hour videotapes and a 260-page Users Guide, which provides program summaries and classroom exercises. An important strength of the series, which makes it particularly useful at an introductory level, is its use of everyday examples to illustrate basic statistical concepts. For example, the first program covers descriptive statistics through the introduction of a number of data sets, including physical measurements of army soldiers, pollution in Chesapeake Bay, Hispanic FBI agent discrimination, and the reliability of space shuttle rocket boosters. It presents data gathering and accompanying statistical analysis as important tools in helping us to see what the unaided eye would miss. It shows, for example, how bar graphs and the use of medians to compare weekly wages of Colorado Springs municipal clerical and maintenance workers were used in identifying and eventually correcting wage discrepancies. This approach to statistics runs throughout the series. Additional programs cover the normal curve, regression, scatterplots, correlation, design of experiments, sampling distributions, hypothesis testing, and confidence intervals. (Consortium for Mathematics and Its Applications [COMAP], 60 minutes each) For ordering information, please visit www.comap.com.
DVD/Online Series: Against All Odds: Inside Statistics

From the Annenberg/CPB collection, this series consists of 26 half-hour programs that cover every aspect of statistics. You might consider purchasing the programs for your department for selected use in introductory psychology and in more advanced courses, particularly those in statistics and methodology. Hosted by Teresa Amabile of Brandeis University, the programs intersperse lectures on key concepts with mini-documentaries from everyday life. For example, in one sequence viewers see how women armed with statistical information were able to win a hiring discrimination suit. Another documentary demonstrates the principles of behavioral correlation with the examination of twins who were reared apart. Specific program titles from which you may want to select smaller segments for showing in connection with text material include What Is Statistics? Picturing Distributions, Describing Distributions, Normal Distributions, Correlation, The Question of Causation, Samples and Surveys, Confidence Intervals, and Significance Tests. (Annenberg/CPB, 30 minutes each) For ordering and viewing information, please visit www.learner.org/resources/series65.html.

Frequency Distributions
Activities and Demonstrations
Application Activity: Organizing and Interpreting Data

Concept: This activity, suggested by David Moore, involves the ages of American presidents at the time of their inauguration. It gives students some elementary practice in organizing and interpreting real data. Materials: Handout 32 Description: Students can organize the data into a bar graph, determine mean, median, and mode, and even calculate the range and standard deviation. Discussion: For your information, the distribution of ages is roughly symmetric. The mean age of a new president is 54.83, the mode is 51, and the median is 55. The range is from 42 to 69, or 27 years, and the standard deviation is 6.27.
Source: Moore, D. S. (1995). The basic practice of statistics. New York: Freeman.

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Application Activity: Describing Data

Concept: Descriptive statistics is effectively taught by example. In fact, it may be best to illustrate the basic concepts through data provided by the students themselves. Materials: Handout 33 Description: Handout 33 allows you to collect a variety of data. You can add and delete questions as you like. Reminding students to bring along hand calculators will facilitate the entire process. Depending on class size and time constraints, you can use the class period to organize and describe the data, or you can collect the surveys and prepare a data sheet. In the following class period, students can, either individually or in small groups, calculate the final statistics. Discussion: Concepts including distributions, percentile rank, central tendencies, variation, and correlation can be illustrated with these data. You can also use the data to test for differences between groups. For example, do first-borns have a higher GPA or higher SAT scores? Similarly, do males and females differ in GPA and SAT scores?

Measures of Central Tendency

Digital Connection
Technology Application Activity: PsychSim: Descriptive Statistics

Concept: PsychSim is a computer program published by Worth that provides hands-on experience with different concepts in psychology. Materials: PsychSim program; computer access, preferably in a lab setting for use with an entire class. Description: This program begins by explaining data distributions, showing how they are more clearly depicted on bar graphs. It allows students to practice calculating measures of central tendencymean, median, and modeand measures of variation. Students see how the measures describe data differently. Discussion: The program can be used effectively to review all the material on descriptive statistics. Reteaching Option: PsychSim can be used as a reteaching tool for students who do not understand the concepts when they are first taught. Installing the program onto a classroom computer and assigning students to use it during a study hall period or during an independent learning time would be a valuable use of this program.

Measures of Variation
Digital Connection
DVD: Handling Variability

This video uses the measurement of blood pressure to illustrate how multiple measures may produce widely different results. Both measurement errors and actual fluctuations in the parameters being measured create variability. The distinction between systematic and random error is used to introduce statistical techniques that take these sources of error into consideration and permit us to make valid inferences and decisions about the data. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 25 minutes) For ordering information, please visit www.films.com.

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Normal Distribution
Digital Connection
DVD: Describing Data

This program begins with the distinction between qualitative and quantitative data and then describes various ways of representing data, including histograms, bar charts, and dot plots. The program also explains the various measures of central tendency and how to calculate mode, median, and mean. The advantages and disadvantages of each measure are reviewed. The video describes variation in data and how it is measured and described, focusing on the standard deviation and the bell-shaped distribution that statisticians refer to as the normal curve. (Films for the Humanities and Sciences, 25 minutes) For ordering information, please visit www.films.com. Activities and Demonstrations
Cooperative Learning Activity: A Tasty Sample(r): Teaching About Sampling Using M&Ms

Concept: Randolph Smith proposes this activity that helps students see how representative samples are chosen and aid in generalization. Knowledge of how to take a representative sample is important to understanding the research process. Materials: A small package of M&Ms for each student (NOTE: Students with food allergies may want to abstain from this activity); a calculator (handy, but not required); Handout 34 Description: Allow each student to choose an intact random sample (one pack of M&Ms) from the population of samples. Students should examine their data and enter it on the Handout 34 data sheet. Have them convert their raw data into percentages. Students should then generate a hypothesis about the distribution of M&M colors in the population based on the students sample. Students should then form pairs to pool their data to generate a joint hypothesis. Finally, pool the data from the entire class to generate an overall hypothesis. Discussion: Many interesting research questions can be addressed with this activity. First, since sample sizes are so small with fun-size packs, the accuracy of percentages will be low. They will see that as they combined their data, the accuracy of the percentages increased. Discuss how larger sample sizes yield greater accuracy. You may even want to have larger bags of M&Ms handy to test this assertion. Another issue concerns quality control. Large manufacturers such as M&M/Mars strive for quality control, but may not be able to achieve it with each bag of candy. Randolph Smith has collected data with these M&M samples in his classes and on two out of three occasions, he found a significant departure from the expected data (p < .001 in each case) you could discuss how companies can test for quality control by using random sampling techniques. Interestingly enough, M&M/Mars, Inc., seems to be quite concerned that the percentages of colors in each bag of candy are consistent. On their website, us.mms.com/us/about/products, the company lists a breakdown of the percentages of each color in each type of bag of candy they distribute. Students can check out the percentages of the particular type of M&Ms they are using in class to determine if their sample is representative.
Source: Smith, R. A. (1999). A tasty sample(r): Teaching about sampling using M&Ms. In L. T. Benjamin, B. F. Nodine, R. M. Ernst, & C. T. Blair-Broeker (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 4). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

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Comparative Statistics
Activities and Demonstrations
Application Activity: The Water Cup Toss Test

Concept: Vic Mankin proposes an active way to compute percentile rank using a simple tossing activity. Materials: 9-ounce cups (one per group of students); 15 paper clips per student tossing; Handout 35 Description: Divide students into groups of 4. Have one student stand 4 feet away from a free-standing 9-ounce paper cup. There should not be a backboard for the cup. A student not tossing the clips can hold the cup to keep it stable. Students should toss a standard paper clip into the cup. Leaning and stretching are permitted so long as feet remain 4 feet from cup. Each student should take fifteen throws. The score is the number of paper clips in the cup for each student. After all students have completed the tossing activity, students should compile their data on Handout 35. Students should record with a tally mark how many paper clips remained in the cup for their particular turn in the Tabulations column. In the Frequency column, students should calculate the number of tally marks in the Tabulations column and record the number. Then, students should begin with the row labeled 15 and record the number of the row in the Cumulative Frequency column. In the next row, labeled 14, the students should take the number in the Frequency column and add it to the number from row 15 to get the cumulative frequency for row 14. Students should repeat this process for each row. If a row does not have any tally marks, then the cumulative frequency will remain the same as the previous row. Students can now calculate the percentile rank for each row by taking the rows cumulative frequency and dividing that number by the total number of observations (in this case, the total number of tally marks) and then multiplying that result by 100. At this point, students should then compile their data into a class-wide percentile chart. Repeat the same process, only now with the whole-class data. Students can see how their own data compares to the class data. Discussion: Students often find percentile rank confusing, even though they have been measured according to percentile rank throughout their lives. Standardized tests reveal percentile rank of students scores as they are compared to the population of students who took the test. This exercise helps students see where their own skill at paper tossing falls into a comparison of other students who engaged in the same test.
Source: Mankin, V. (1973). Teaching tips: The water cup toss test. Professional Psychology, 4(1), 107108.

Correlation Coefficient
Activities and Demonstrations
Application Activity: Creating a Scatterplot

Concept: Scatterplots are simple, visual tools that show the degree of correlations. This worksheet provides some simple data that can be plotted on the graph to show a positive correlation between TV watching and grade point average (GPA). Materials: Handout 36 Description: Pass out the handout, instructing students to plot the data sets for the hours of TV watching and grade point average (GPA) on the graph. They should note what kind of correlation the graph shows: positive, negative, or zero correlation (positive is the correct answer).

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Discussion: Correlations become more concrete when taught visually. This activity enables students to create their own scatterplots of correlational data.
Application Activity: Correlation and the Challenger Disaster

Concept: Illusory correlationsfor example, the false belief that infertile couples are more likely to conceive a child after adopting a babymay result from a failure to look at all the relevant data. Rob McEntarffer provides a classroom exercise that demonstrates how we may also fail to recognize a true correlation because we ignore relevant data. More generally, his exercise introduces students to scatterplots and the meaning of positive and negative correlations. It also illustrates how correlational research can be important to everyday decision making. Materials: Blackline Masters 31a and 31b Description: Begin by asking students if they remember from their study of history what caused the Challenger disaster. The explosion was attributed to O-ring failure in low temperatures at the time of launch. Place Blackline Master 31a on the overhead projector and have students create their own scatterplot. Have them draw a line of best fit and ask if they see a positive, negative, or no correlation. They should see and report, No correlation. By looking at this data and considering other factors, NASA decided to launch. Explain that although NASA did test the O-rings to determine if there was a correlation between their failure and temperature, they did not take their tests far enough. The problem was that they did not look at all the relevant data. They did not consider the temperatures at which there was not a failure. Place Blackline Master 31b on the overhead projector. Again have students create a scatterplot and draw the line of best fit. Ask, Is there a positive, negative, or no correlation? They should clearly see that there is indeed a negative correlation. Failure of the O-rings tended to occur at lower temperatures. Discussion: This vivid example of the reliance on correlation to make important decisions helps show students the value of critical thinking about data. Guiding students through this activity allows them to see the thought processes people should employ when evaluating data for decision-making purposes.
Source: McEntarffer, R. (1999). Correlation and the Challenger disaster. In L. T. Benjamin, B. Nodine, C. T. Blair-Broeker, & R. M. Ernst (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 4). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Statistical Inference
Activities and Demonstrations
Application Activity: When Is a Difference Significant?

Concept: Differences between the average scores of two groups may be due to chance variation rather than to any real difference. Only when sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is large do we obtain statistical significance. You can effectively illustrate the problem psychologists face in judging differences to be significant with a brief classroom exercise (or you can assign it as an out-of-class project and have students report their results at the next class session). Materials: pennies; a flat table Description: Begin by placing eight to ten pennies on the edge of a smooth table or desk (requires a steady hand, a little practice, and newer pennies). Jar the table by dropping a book on it so that the pennies will fall. (Do not jar it so hard that they flip.) Count the number of heads, which is likely to be greater than the number of tails. Ask students to explain for the difference. Most will attribute it to chance. They will note that, just as when you flip a coin several times, the number of heads and tails may not be equal.
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Have your students pair off, then distribute eight or ten coins to each pair and ask them to place the pennies on edge. Walk around the room jarring each table or desk and have the students report the results to the full class. Write the results on the chalkboard, carefully keeping track of the total number of heads and tails. As each student pair reports their results, continue asking the class whether they believe the difference in the number of heads versus tails is due to chance or to some real difference. Discussion: The exercise uses the counterintuitive fact that, due to their construction, pennies placed on edge on a hard table show a definite tendency to land heads more often than tails. (In fact, about 4 out of 5 times they will fall heads.) The question of significance is essentially what psychologists ask when judging the differences between any two groups. Averages based on more cases, of course, will be more reliable. Although there is certain to be considerable variation in the small sample tested by each student pair, the overall pattern of significantly more heads than tails will emerge and at some point the majority of students will agree that the difference is not due to chance. Note that for psychologists, proof beyond a reasonable doubt means that they do not make much of a difference unless the odds of it occurring by chance are less than 5 percent.
Source: Lock, R., & Moore, T. (1991). Low-tech ideas for teaching statistics. In F. Gordon & S. Gordon (Eds.), Statistics for the twenty-first century (pp. 99108). Washington, DC: Mathematical Association of America.

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Name _______________________________________ Period _________________ Date ____________

HANDOUT 31
Crossword Puzzle
Complete the puzzle using terms from this module. Across 3. A distribution that is symmetrically shaped 7. The score in a distribution that appears most frequently 8. Statistics that allow decisions or conclusions to be made about data 10. The measure of how much scores may vary around the mean in a distribution 11. The average of the data, obtained by dividing the sum by the number of data points 12. A type of distribution in which a list of scores is ordered from highest to lowest Down 1. ____________ coefficient; a measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between the two variables 2. A comparison of a score to other scores in an imaginary group of 100 people 4. A statistical measure of the likelihood that the results of a study are due to chance 5. The middle score in a distribution when data is in chronological order 6. The difference between the highest and lowest data points in a distribution 9. A comparison of a score to a perfect score of 100 10. Distorted; refers to a graph of data that is not equally distributed around the mean

HANDOUT 31 Module 3 Psychologys Statistics

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Name _______________________________________ Period _________________ Date ____________

HANDOUT 32
Presidents Ages at the Time of Inauguration
President Washington J. Adams Jefferson Madison Monroe J. Q. Adams Jackson Van Buren W. H. Harrison Tyler Polk Taylor Fillmore Pierce Buchanan Age 57 61 57 57 58 57 61 54 68 51 49 64 50 48 65 President Lincoln A. Johnson Grant Hayes Garfield Arthur Cleveland B. Harrison Cleveland McKinley T. Roosevelt Taft Wilson Harding Coolidge Age 52 56 46 54 49 51 47 55 55 54 42 51 56 55 51 President Hoover F. D. Roosevelt Truman Eisenhower Kennedy L. Johnson Nixon Ford Carter Reagan G. H. W. Bush Clinton G. W. Bush Obama Age 54 51 60 61 43 55 56 61 52 69 64 46 54 47

1. Display the above data in a bar graph, placing age at inauguration on the vertical axis and the total number of presidents at each age on the horizontal axis. (Hint: Use bars with intervals of five years each, beginning with 4045 years and ending with 6570. Use numbers from 0 to 16 on the vertical axis.)

2. Calculate the mean, median, and mode for the presidents ages.

3. Calculate the variance and standard deviation of the presidents ages.

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Name _______________________________________ Period _________________ Date ____________

HANDOUT 33
Student Survey
Please provide the information requested. Your personal responses will remain anonymous, so please answer all questions accurately and honestly. 1. Your age: 2. Your sex (circle one): 3. Your high school GPA: 4. Your SAT/ACT score: 5. Your height (in inches): 6. Your weight (in pounds): 7. Your birth order (indicate 1 if only child): 8. Total number of siblings: 9. Your shoe size: 10. Average number of hours you study per week: 11. Average number of hours you sleep per night: 12. Average number of hours you watch TV per week: 13. Average number of hours you exercise per week: MALE FEMALE

HANDOUT 33 Module 3 Psychologys Statistics

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Name _______________________________________ Period _________________ Date ____________

HANDOUT 34
M&M Data Sheet
Record the number and percentage of each color in your bag of M&M candy.

Color Brown

Number of M&Ms

Percentage of Color

Yellow

Red

Blue

Green

Orange

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Name _______________________________________ Period _________________ Date ____________

HANDOUT 35
The Water Cup Toss Test
Percentile Worksheet for Class Score Tabulations Frequency Cumulative Frequency Percentile

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Total Number Percentile Cumulative Frequency 100 Number of observations

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Name _______________________________________ Period _________________ Date ____________

HANDOUT 36
Charting Correlations on Scatterplots
Chart the following data pairs on the graph below. Indicate whether the data resemble a positive correlation, negative correlation, or zero correlation. GPA 3.9 3.2 2.1 1.5 1.8 2.5 2.5 3.5 4.0 3.8 3.5 2.9 2.5 3.0 3.5 2.4 2.1 4.0 Hours Watching TV per week 10 15 44 39 35 22 8 10 6 7 9 18 30 20 12 33 25 30

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ANSWERS TO HANDOUT 31
Crossword Puzzle

Answers to Handouts Module 3 Psychologys Statistics

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BLACKLINE MASTER 31a

Challenger Correlations
Make a scatterplot of the following data: Temperature 53 57 58 63 70 75 Number of O-Ring Failures 2 1 1 1 2 2

Would you have launched the space shuttle Challenger in cold weather based on this data?

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BLACKLINE MASTER 31b

Challenger Correlations
Make a scatterplot of these data: Temperature 53 57 58 63 66 67 68 69 70 70 72 73 75 75 76 79 81
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Number of O-Ring Failures 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0

Now, would you have launched the space shuttle in cold weather using this data?

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XACTOSTOCK/ SUPERSTOCK

LANA SUNDMAN/ALAMY

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INDEXSTOCK/SUPERSTOCK

SUPERSTOCK/ PURESTOCK/ SUPERSTOCK

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Figure 3.1, Page 43

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20 students randomly assigned to experimental group Listen to music daily in study hall 40 students randomly selected 20 students randomly assigned to control group Music not allowed in study hall

Average grades at the end of the quarter

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All study hall students

Average grades at the end of the quarter

Grades, in random order

No music Music 64 83 75 72 92 68 87 79 94 74 82 77 68 71 69 80 58 97 77 93 69 67 89 93 78 84 73 84 84 89

Frequency distributions
No music 97 93 93 89 89 84 84 84 80 78 77 73 69 67 58 94 92 87 83 82 79 77 75 74 72 71 69 68 68 64

Music

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Figure 3.2, Page 43

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BLACKLINE MASTER 34
Figure 3.3, Page 44

No music
Number of 10 students 9
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

5160

6170

7180

8190 91100

Grades

Music
Number of 10 students 9
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

5160

6170

7180

8190 91100

Grades
110
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BLACKLINE MASTER 35
Figure 3.4, Page 45

Mode (Most common)

Median (Middle score) 84

Mean (Average)
1215 15

No music

= 81

84

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1155 15

Music

= 77

68

75

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Figure 3.6, Page 47

Cs-Only Club
Number of students

Grades Central tendency = C Variation: None

Everybodys Welcome Club

Number of students

Grades Central tendency = C

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Variation: High

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Mean =

160 4

36 yards 38 yards 41 yards 45 yards = 40 yards

4 yards 2 yards +1 yard +5 yards

16 yards2 4 yards2 1 yard2 25 yards2 46 yards2 = Sum of (deviations)2

4. Take the square root of the mean of column 3 Standard deviation =

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Sum of (deviations)2 " Number of punts

46 yards2 = 3.4 yards 4

Steps in Calculating the Standard Deviation

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Figure 3.7, Page 48

1. 2. 3.

4.

Calculate the mean. Determine how far each score (punt distances, in this example) deviates (differs) from the average. Square the deviation scores and add them together. Note that you cannot just average the deviations without squaring them because the sum of the deviation scores will always be zero. Take the square root of the average of the squared deviation scores. This step brings you back to the original unitsyards rather than yards squared.

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1. Calculate the mean 2. Determine deviation from the mean (40 yards)

3. Square the deviations

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Figure 3.9, Page 50

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Assume Jack gets 160 points on a 200-point test. His score is good enough to top 27 students out of his class of 36 students. Percentile rank
27 students beaten 36 total students

Percentage 100 = 80%

160 correct 200 possible

100 = 75th percentile

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Meaning: If the test had been 100 points, Jack would have had 80 right.
20 wrong

Meaning: If 100 students had taken the test, Jack would have scored higher than 75 of them.
Below Jacks score Above Jacks score

80 right

100 points

100 students

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BLACKLINE MASTER 39
Figure 3.10, Page 51

Perfect negative correlation (1.00) (a)

Perfect positive correlation (+1.00) (b)

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No relationship (0.00) (c)

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Figure 3.11, Page 52

Temperament scores

75 55 60 65

80

85

Height in inches

70

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Emotionally 95 reactive 90

85

80

75

70

65

60

55

50

45

40

35

30

Calm 25