Cogeneration PDF
Cogeneration PDF
Cogeneration PDF
COGENERATION
1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................... 1 2. TYPES OF COGENERATION SYSTEMS............................................. 2 3. ASSESSMENT OF COGENERATION SYSTEMS .............................. 10 4. ENERGY EFFICIENCY OPPORTUNITIES ....................................... 14 5. OPTION CHECKLIST.......................................................................... 16 6. WORKSHEETS..................................................................................... 17 7. REFERENCES ...................................................................................... 19 1. INTRODUCTION
This section briefly describes the main features of the cogeneration system or a Combined Heat & Power (CHP) system.
36 Units (Losses)
Combined Heat & Power (85% Overall Efficiency)
60 100 40
= 40%
24 Units
68
= 85%
10 Units 6 Units (Losses) (Losses) Figure 1. Energy efficiency advantage of a cogeneration system (UNESCAP, 2000)
34 Units
UNEP
Figure 1 shows the efficiency advantage of CHP compared to the conventional central station power generation and on-site boilers. When both thermal and electrical processes are compared, a CHP system typically requires only three- fourth the primary energy compared to separate heat and power systems. This reduced primary fuel consumption is the main environmental benefit of CHP, since burning the same amount of fuel more efficiently means fewer emissions for the same level of output.
UNEP
Thermal Energy Equipment: Cogeneration industrial or commercial application. The condensate from the condenser or from the steam utilization system returns to the feedwater pump for continuation of the cycle. The two types of steam turbines most widely used are the backpressure and the extractioncondensing types. The choice between backpressure turbine and extraction-condensing turbine depends mainly on the quantities of power and heat, quality of heat, and economic factors. The extraction points of steam from the turbine could be more than one, depending on the temperature levels of heat required by the processes. 2.1.1 Back Pressure Steam Turbine A back pressure steam turbine is the simplest configuration. Steam exits the turbine at a pressure higher or at least equal to the atmospheric pressure, which depends on the needs of the thermal load. This is why the term back- pressure is used. It is also possible to extract steam from intermediate stages of the steam turbine, at a pressure and temperature appropriate for the thermal load. After the exit from the turbine, the steam is fed to the load, where it releases heat and is condensed. The condensate returns to the system with a flow rate which can be lower than the steam flow rate, if steam mass is used in the process or if there are losses along the piping. Make- up water retains the mass balance. HP Steam
Boiler Fuel
Turbine
Condensate
Process
LP Steam
The back - pressure system has the following advantages: Simple configuration with few components. The costs of expensive low-pressure stages of the turbine are avoided. Low capital cost. Reduced or even no need of cooling water. High total efficiency, because there is no heat rejection to the environment through condenser.
UNEP
Thermal Energy Equipment: Cogeneration The back - pressure system has the following disadvantages: The steam turbine is larger for the same power output, because it operates under a lower enthalpy difference of steam. The steam mass flow rate through the turbine depends on the thermal load. Consequently, the electricity generated by the steam is controlled by the thermal load, which results in little or no flexibility in directly matching electrical output to electrical load. Therefore, there is a need for a two-way connection to the grid for purchasing supplemental electricity or selling excess electricity generated. Increased electricity production is possible by venting steam directly to the atmosphere, but this is very inefficient. It results in a waste of treated boiler water and, most likely, in poor economical as well as energetic performances. 2.1.2 Extraction Condensing Steam Turbine In such a system, steam for the thermal load is obtained by extraction from one or more intermediate stages at the appropriate pressure and temperature. The remaining steam is exhausted to the pressure of the condenser, which can be as low as 0.05 bar with a corresponding condensing temperature of about 33C. It is rather improbable that such low temperature heat finds useful applications. Consequently, it is rejected to the environment. In comparison to the back - pressure system, the condensing type turbine has a higher capital cost and, in general, a lower total efficiency. However, to a certain extent, it can control the electrical power independent of the thermal load by proper regulation of the steam flow rate through the turbine. HP Steam
Boiler Fuel
Turbine
Condenser
UNEP
HRSG
Steam to Process
Fuel
Combustor
Air
The air is delivered through a diffuser to a constant-pressure combustion chamber, where fuel is injected and burned. The diffuser reduces the air velocity to values acceptable in the combustor. There is a pressure drop across the combustor in the range of 1.2%. Combustion takes place with high excess air. The exhaust gases exit the combustor at high temperature and with oxygen concentrations of up to 15-16%. The highest temperature of the cycle appears at this point; the higher this temperature is, the higher the cycle efficiency is. The upper limit is placed by the temperature the materials of the gas turbine can withstand, as well as by the efficiency of the cooling blades. With current technology this is about 1300C. The high pressure and temperature exhaust gases enter the gas turbine producing mechanical work to drive the compressor and the load (e.g. electric generator). The exhaust gases leave the turbine at a considerable temperature (450-600C), which makes high- temperature heat recovery ideal. This is affected by a heat recovery boiler of single-pressure or doublepressure, for more efficient recovery of heat. The steam produced can have high pressure and temperature, which makes it appropriate not only for thermal processes but also for driving a steam turbine thus producing additional power. 2.2.2 Closed-cycle gas turbine cogeneration systems In the closed-cycle system, the working fluid (usually h elium or air) circulates in a closed circuit. It is heated in a heat exchanger before entering the turbine, and it is cooled down after the exit of the turbine releasing useful heat. Thus, the working fluid remains clean and it does not cause corrosion or erosion. Heat Source
Thermal Energy Equipment: Cogeneration Source of heat can be the external combustion of any fuel. Also, nuclear energy or solar energy can be used.
While the use of reciprocating engines is expected to grow in various distributed generation applications, the most prevalent on-site generation application for natural gas SI engines has traditionally been CHP, and this trend is likely to continue. The economics of natural gas engines in on-site generation applications is enhanced by effective use of the thermal energy contained in the exhaust gas and cooling systems, which generally represents 60 to 70% of the inlet fuel energy. There are four sources of usable waste heat from a reciprocating engine: exhaust gas, engine jacket-cooling water, lube oil cooling water, and turbocharger cooling. Recovered heat is generally in the form of hot water or low-pressure steam (<30 psig). The high temperature exhaust can generate medium pressure steam (up to about 150 psig), but the hot exhaust gas contains only about one half of the available thermal energy from a reciprocating engine.
UNEP
Thermal Energy Equipment: Cogeneration Some industrial CHP applications use the engine exhaust gas directly for process drying. Generally, the hot water and low pressure steam produced by reciprocating engine CHP systems is appropriate for low temperature process needs, space heating, potable water heating, and to drive absorption chillers providing cold water, air conditioning, or refrigeration. Table 1. Typical cogeneration performance parameters (adapted from: California Energy Commission, 1982)
Prime Mover in Nominal Cogeneration Range Package (Electrical) Electrical Generation Heat Rate (kcal / kWh Efficiencies, %
Smaller Reciprocating Engines Larger Reciprocating Engines Diesel Engines Smaller Gas Turbines Larger Gas Turbines Steam Turbines
10 500 2650 - 6300 kW 500 3000 kW 10-3000 kW 800-10000 kW 10-20 MW 10-100 MW 2400 - 3275
Thermal Recovery 50
26-36
50
76-86
50 50 50 -
UNEP
Thermal Energy Equipment: Cogeneration Table 2. Four types of topping cycle cogeneration systems (pictures from Department of Energy, Australia) Combined-cycle topping system A gas turbine or diesel engine producing electrical or mechanical power followed by a heat recovery boiler to create steam to drive a secondary steam turbine. Steam-turbine topping system The second type of system burns fuel (any type) to produce high-pressure steam that then passes through a steam turbine to produce power with the exhaust provides low-pressure process steam. Heat recovery topping system This type employs heat recovery from an engine exhaust and/or jacket cooling system flowing to a heat recovery boiler, where it is converted to process steam / hot water for further use. Gas turbine topping system A natural gas turbine drives a generator. The exhaust gas goes to a heat recovery boiler that makes process steam and process heat.
2.4.2 Bottoming cycle In a bottoming cycle, the primary fuel produces high temperature thermal energy and the heat rejected from the process is used to generate power through a recovery boiler and a turbine generator. Bottoming cycles are suitable for manufacturing processes that require heat at high temperature in furnaces and kilns, and reject heat at significantly high temperatures. Typical areas of application include cement, steel, ceramic, gas and petrochemical industries. Bottoming cycle plants are much less common than topping cycle plants. Figure 9 illustrates
UNEP
Thermal Energy Equipment: Cogeneration the bottoming cycle where fuel is burnt in a furnace to produce synthetic rutile. The waste gases coming out of the furnace is utilized in a boiler to generate steam, which drives the turbine to produce electricity.
Where, Ms hs hw = Mass Flow Rate of Steam (kg/hr) = Enthalpy of Steam (kCal/kg) = Enthalpy of Feed Water (kCal/kg)
Overall Plant Fuel Rate (kg/kWh) Fuel Consumption * ( kg / hr ) Power Output (kW ) Total Fuel for Turbine & Steam
UNEP 10
Actual Enthalpy Drop across the Turbine ( kCal / kg ) x 100 Isentropic Enthalpy drop across the Turbine ( kCal / kg )
Gas turbine performance Overall Gas Turbine Efficiency (%) (Turbine & Compressor): Power Output (kW ) x 860 x 100 Fuel Input for Gas Turbine ( kg / hr ) x GCV of Fuel ( kCal / kg )
Heat recovery steam generator (hrsg) performance Heat Recovery Steam Generator Efficiency (%):
x 100
UNEP 11
h1
h11
BOILER
Power Output
Condenser Step 1: Calculate the actual heat extraction in turbine at each stage Steam Enthalpy at Turbine Inlet Steam Enthalpy at stage 1 extraction Steam Enthalpy at stage 2 extraction Steam Enthalpy Condenser : : : : h1, kCal/kg h2, kCal/kg h3, kCal/kg h4*, kCal/kg
* Due to wetness of steam in the condensing stage, the enthalpy of steam cannot be considered as equivalent to saturated steam. Typical dryness value is 0.88 0.92. This dryness value can be used as first approximation to estimate heat drop in the last stage. However it is suggested to calculate the last stage efficiency from the overall turbine efficiency and other stage efficiency. Heat extraction from inlet to Stage 1 extraction (h5): h5 = (h1 h2) kCal/kg Heat extraction from stage 1 to stage 2 extraction (h6): h6 = (h2 h3) kCal/kg Heat extraction from stage 2 extraction to condenser (h7): h7 = (h3 h4) kCal/kg
UNEP 12
Thermal Energy Equipment: Cogeneration Step 2: Estimate theoretical heat extraction From the Mollier diagram (H-f Diagram) estimate the theoretical heat extraction for the conditions mentioned in Step 1. This is done as follows: Plot the turbine inlet condition point in the Mollier chart corresponding to steam pressure and temperature. Since expansion in turbine is an adiabatic process, the entropy is constant. Hence draw a vertical line from inlet point (parallel to y-axis) up to the condensing conditions. Read the enthalpy at points where the extraction and condensing pressure lines meet the vertical line drawn. Compute the theoretical heat drop for different stages of expansion. Theoretical Enthalpy after 1st Extraction Theoretical Enthalpy after 2nd Extraction Theoretical Enthalpy at Condenser Condition : : : H1 H2 H3
Theoretical Heat Extraction from Inlet to Stage 1 Extraction (h8): h8 = h1 H1 Theoretical Heat Extraction from Stage 1 to Stage 2 Extraction (h9): h9 = H1 H2 Theoretical Heat Extraction from Stage 2 Extraction Condensation (h10): h10 = H2 H3 Step 3: Compute turbine efficiency
h5 Heat Extraction Actual h1 h2 Efficiency of stage 1 = = h8 Heat Extraction Theoretica l h1 H1 h 6 Heat Extraction Actual h 2 h3 Efficiency of stage 2 = = h9 Heat Extraction Theoretica l H1 H 2 h7 Heat Extraction Actual h3 h4 Efficiency of condensing stage = = h10 Heat Extraction Theoretica l H 2 H 3
M x ( h1 h11) P
Where, M = Mass flow rate of steam (kg/hr) h1 = Enthalpy of inlet steam (kCal/kg) h11 = Enthalpy of feed water (kCal/kg) P = Average power generated (kW)
UNEP 13
UNEP 14
Thermal Energy Equipment: Cogeneration 1. Air Compressor: Please refer to the Module Compressors and Compressed Air System 2. Gas Turbine: Gas temperature and pressure: If the gas temperature and pressure conditions at the inlet to the gas turbine vary from the design optimum conditions, the turbine may not be able to operate at maximum efficiency. Variations in gas conditions can be due to errors in plant design (including sizing) or incorrect plant operation. Part load operation and starting & stopping: The efficiencies of the generating unit at part loads can be maintained close to the design values by paying due attention to all the above items. However, market decisions to operate the generating unit at certain loads for certain periods will have the major influence on its average thermal efficiency. Similarly, market decision on when the plant is to come on and off line also has a bearing on average thermal efficiency because of energy losses while starting or stopping the system. The temperature of the hot gas leaving the combustors. Increased temperature generally results in increased power output; The temperature of the exhaust gas. Reduced temperature generally results in increased power output; The mass flow through the gas turbine. In general, higher mass flows result in higher power output; The drop in pressure across the exhaust gas silencers, ducts and stack. A decrease in pressure loss increases power output; Increasing the pressure of the air entering or leaving the compressor. An increase in pressure increases power output.
3. Heat Recovery Steam Generator: Please refer to the Module Waste Heat Recovery
UNEP 15
5. OPTION CHECKLIST
This section includes the most important energy efficiency options for cogeneration Using the exhaust gas to heat the air from the compressor (mainly used in cold weather conditions); Divide the compressor into two parts and cool the air between the two parts; Divide the turbine into two parts and reheat the gas between the two parts by passing the gas through additional burners and combustors located between the two parts; Cooling the inlet air. This is mainly used in hot weather conditions; Reducing the humidity of the inlet air; Increasing the pressure of the air at the discharge of the air compressor; Inject steam or water into the combustors or turbine; Wash or otherwise clean the fouling from the blades of the air compressor and turbine at regular intervals and Combinations of the above methods.
UNEP 16
6. WORKSHEETS
This section includes the following worksheets: Steam turbine cogeneration system performance Gas turbine cogeneration system performance Worksheet 1: Steam Turbine Cogeneration System Performance
No.
Parameters Power Generation (P) Steam Generation (M) Stream Pressure Steam Temperature Steam Enthalpy (hs) Feed Water Temperature Feed Water Enthalpy (h4) Number of Extractions 1st Extraction Conditions Pressure Temperature Actual Enthalpy (h1) Theoretical Enthalpy (H1) nd 2 Extraction Conditions Pressure Temperature Actual Enthalpy (h2) Theoretical Enthalpy (H2) Condensing Condition Pressure Temperature Actual Enthalpy (h3) Theoretical Enthalpy (H3) Efficiency of 1st Stage {(h1 h2) / (h1 H1)} Efficiency of 2st Stage {(h2 h3) / (H1 H2)} Efficiency of Condensing Stage {(h3 h4) / (H2 H3)} Plant Heat Rate [ M x (hs h4) ] / (P x 1000)
Units kW TPH kg/cm2 (g) 0 C kCal/kg 0 C kCal/kg Nos kg/cm2 (g) 0 C kCal/kg kCal/kg kg/cm2 (g) 0 C kCal/kg kCal/kg kg/cm2 (g) 0 C kCal/kg kCal/kg % % % KCal/kWh
Values
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
10.
11.
UNEP 17
No.
Parameters Power Generation (P) Fuel Input for Gas Turbine (F) GCV of Fuel HRSG (Heat Recovery Steam Generator) Steam Generated (Ms) Enthalpy of Steam (hs) Enthalpy of Feed Water (hw) Mass of Flue Gas (Mf) Inlet Temperature of Flue Gas (tin) Outlet Temperature of Flue Gas (tout) Auxiliary Fuel Consumption (Maux) GCV of Fuel Gas Turbine Efficiency [P x 860 x 100] / [ F x GCV of Fuel] HRSG Efficiency [Ms x (hs hw) x 100]/{[Mf x Cp x (tin tout)] + [Maux x GCV of Fuel]}
Values
1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6.
UNEP 18
7. REFERENCES
Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Power, India. Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities. 2004 California Energy Commission. Cogeneration Handbook . 1982
Department of Energy, Queensland Government, Australia. www.energy.qld.gov.au/infosite/steam_turbines.html, www.energy.qld.gov.au/infosite/condensers_cooling_sys.html and www.energy.qld.gov.au/infosite/facts_influence_thermal.html National Productivity Council. Assessing Cogeneration potential in Indian Industries. 2002 Polimeros, George. Energy Cogeneration Handbook , Industrial Press Inc. The European Association for the Promotion of Cogeneration. www.cogen.org/ United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP), Environment and Sustainable Development Division. Part 1: Overview of Cogeneration and its Status in Asia. In: Guidebook on Cogeneration as a Means of Pollution Control and Energy Efficiency in Asia. 2000. http://www.unescap.org/esd/energy/publications/detail.asp?id=759
Copyright:
Copyright United Nations Environment Programme (year 2006) This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission from the United Nations Environment Programme.
Disclaimer:
This energy equipment module was prepared as part of the project Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction from Industry in Asia and the Pacific (GERIAP) by the National Productivity Council, India. While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the contents of this publication are factually correct and properly referenced, UNEP does not accept responsibility for the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the contents of this publication.
UNEP 19